91-Unit 1

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NAME : _________________________________________________________
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CLASS :_______________________SEC:_________________________
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School:_____________________________________________________
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PaPa PaPa & R.RAMAMOORTHY
M.Sc.,B.Ed., PaPa a
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iai i i UNIT i 1: ELECTROSTATICS i i i i

a
d saaslal ads
a aslaila adsaaslaila adsaslaila
a adsaaslaila adsaaslaila ads
aaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda
1. What is meant by quantization of charges?PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai i
aslailachargeadqsaaon i i ilai lailai i i i
aslailafundamental iai
adsaaslal d a
d sThe
a d slalaany object
d a
d saaslais equald to
a
d saasan integral
d a
d slala
saamultiple of
d a
d sathis d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
unit of charge e.
iai aslaila
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aslaila
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aslaila
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aslaila
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aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsa a
dsa ads
l
PP d
a
FORMULA UNIT QUANTITY
iai iai ailai
qasa=aslne ilai iai iai i ai iai
adsaaslal dadsaaslal d d d a
dsaaslaCoulomb d a
d saaslalScalardadsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
(C) quantity
i ai ai
lailis i
aslaila (0, ±1,ads±2, ai
aslail±3,±4………..).
i
aslaila This is lailai quantization
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal dadsaasn any integer
d a
d s
a d a d a
d s
a dads
a acalled
s d a
d s
a of
d electric
a
d s
a d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
charge.
iai iai i ai ilai i i iai ilai iai
a
d saaslal 2. dWrite
adsaaslal downdaCoulomb’s
dsaaslal d a
d saaslain
law vector
d a
d slala and
saaform d a
d saaslal
mention what
d a
d saaslaeach term
d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
represents.
iai According i i i
aslaila law,adsaaslaila⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = adsaaslr̂aila
aslaila to Coulombs
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
dsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
a PaPda aPda
P aPda P aPda P PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ -Force between charge q1 and q2 & r-Distance between two charges
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
r̂ Unit vector directed from charge q1 to charge q2 &
a
iai
saaslal k-saasThe
a
lailai proportionality
a saaslaila
i constant.
a saaslaila
i
a saaslaila
i
a saaslaila
i
a saaslaila
i
a saaslaila
i
adsaas
l
d d d d d d d d
PP d
a
3. What are the differences between Coulomb force and gravitational force?
iai ai i a i i a i i iai iai i i iai
adsaaslal S. dadCOULOMB
saaslal d FORCE
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal dadsaaslal GRAVITATIONAL
d a
d saaslal d a
d slala
saaFORCE d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai 1. Coulomb
iai force between
iai twoiacharges
i The gravitational forceiaibetween two
saaslal a l al a l al a l al a l ailai a l ailai aslal aslaila
i l
aa
d d
a a
d s
a s d
a a
d s
a s d
a a
d s
a s d
aads
a s d
a a
d s
a s d
aads
a d
aadsa d
a adsaas
P P can be attractive
a a
PP orPrepulsive,
a
P a
PP masses
a
PP is alwaysP P attractive
a a
PP a
PP
iai depending
iai onlatheiai natureaof icharges.
ai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saas l d a
d saslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa
2. PaPa PaPa
The value of the constant k in Coulomb PaPa PaPa PaPa
The value of the gravitational PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal
lawaslailis
ai k = 9 × a10 lail9aiN m2 C-2 aslaila
i
aslaila constantG
i
aslail=
ai 6.626 ×a10 i N m2 kgla-2ilai
laila-11 l
ad adsa adsa s adsa adsa adsa adsa s adsaas adsaas
PP d
a
3. force between two charges depends The gravitational force between two
iai iai i i of thealmedium
iai iai lailaiindependent iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslalupon the
d a
d nature
saaslala d a
d sasal d a
d saaslal Masses
d a
d saasare d a
d saaslal of the
dadsaaslal adsaas
l
medium.
iai lailai charges lailai in motion, aslaila
i i
aslaila The gravitational
aslaila
i i
aslaila between ailai
adsaaslal 4.adaadIf
saasthe adsaasare ads
a a
d s
a a
d s
a force
a
d s
a a
d s
a asltwo adsaas
l
a PP PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
Lorentz force comes into play in point masses is the same whether two
iai iai iai iai iai lailai lailai lailai
saaslal saaslal
Addition to saaslal
coulomb force.saaslal saaslal a
daadsas arePaat asaas asaas adsaas
l
PaPmasses Pdadrest or inPamotion
ad a
d a
d a
d a
d
a d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa P d
aPa Pdad PaPda
3. Write a short note on superposition principle.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai The total

lailai force acting
lailai on a given
lailacharge
i is equal
lailai to the vector
lailai sum of
lailaforces
i exerted
lailai on
saaslal sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa adsaas
l
aa
d aada
PaPdit aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada a
PP d
a
by all the other charges. Consider a system of n charges, namely q1,q2, q3 ..qn.
P P P P P P
iai iai i⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

ai iai iai ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ alailai iai ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗saslailai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsas a
d saaslal ada adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda d
PaPa PaPda PaPda
The force on q1 exerted The force on q1 The force on q1 exerted
iai i
aslaila by the
i
aslaila q2 adsaaslaila
i i i
lala by thesaaslala i i ilai lanilai
adsaaslal adsa adscharge
a exerted
adsaas daad aby
dsaaslathe chargeadsaasq adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaP da PaP PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
charge q3
iai ailai i ai iai iai iai lailai iai
saaslal saasl⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ saaslal saaslal ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ dadsaaslal saaslal sas saaslal adsaas
l
aad d
PaPa
ad d a
= PaPa r̂
d d
PaPa
a
d
PaPa= d
r̂ PaPa a
d aPdaad=a
P⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ d
r̂ PaPa a
d
PaPda
i ai aslailr̂a
i laila i
alaila
i ilai i i i
adsaaslal a
d s
a isdthe
adsaas unit vector
dadsas
r̂ dadsaais
slathe unitdadsaaslaila a
d̂
rs
a aslailais the unit
a
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPa PaPa PPa a a
PP a a
PP d
a a
PPda a
PP d
a
directed from charge vector directed vector directed from
iai iai i ai iai iai lailai iai aslaila
i
a
d saaslal dadsaaslal q1 todacharge
dsaaslal q2 dadsaaslal from
d a
d saaslalchargedq
ads1aasto d a
d saaslal
charge q 1 to
d a
dscharge
a adsaas
l
charge q3 qn
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal s s s s s s s adsaas
l
PaPda r21 is P the
aPdadistancePaPda r21
PaPdis
a the distance Pra21
Pda is the distance
ad a
d a a
d a ada ad a ad a a
d a ad a
a PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
between the charges between the between the charges
l
Padasalai
ad a
d a
d a
d a
d ad a
d a
d
a d
PaPa q1Pand
aPa q2
d d
PaPa charges qP1 aand
d
PaPa Pa q3
d PaPa q1 and qP
d Pa
na
d PaPda
ailai
Total force ailai
acting onathe ilai chargealq due to all aother
ail1ai ilai charges is given byailai
ailai i
s asl s asl s asl s s s asl s asl
adsaas
l s aslaila adsaas
l
aada a daada
P P ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ a
PP d
a ada a daada a d
a ada a d
a ada a d
a PaPda
ad a a d
a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗= + ….+ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ P P PP PP PP PP

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = r̂ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = r̂ +……. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = r̂
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
asaaslal a sa a sa a sa a s
a a sa a s
a a sa adsaas
l
ad 4.PaPdDefine
a d ‘Electric
PaPda
d field’.
PaPda
d
PaPda
d
PaPda
d
PaPda
d
PaPda
d a
PP d
a
The electric field at the point P at iai distance r ifrom the point charge q iisi the force i i
a lailai a lailai a lailai a lala a lalai a lailai saaslal
a
saaslal
a l
adsa s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d d a
d adsaas
a a
PaPexperienced PaPaby a unitPcharge.aPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai FORMULA
i i i UNIT
i i QUANTITY i i
adsaaslal adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a PaPda ⃗ PaP
da PaPda PaPda NC Pda
-1Pa PaPda PaPda
Vector quantity
a
PP d
a
⃗= = ⃗ = r̂ r̂
l
aad 5.PaPWhat
d
a a
d is mean
PaPa by ‘Electric
d a
d
PaPa field lines’?
d a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
ad
PaPda
 Electric field vectors are visualized by thei concept of electric field ilines.
a l ailai a lailai a l ailai a l ailai a l alai a l ailai aslala
i
aslaila
i l
adsa s adsa s adsa s ads
a s adsa s a
d s
a s adsa a
d s
a adsaas
a PaPdThey
a formPaaPdaset of continuous
PaPda lines da
PaPwhich aPda visual representation
are Pthe PaPda da the
of
PaP a
PP d
a
iai electric
lailai
field in some
lailai
region lof
ailaspace.
i iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda
6. The electric field lines never intersect. Justify.
d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai  Noatwo lailai electric asfield

lailai lines intersect
aslaila
i eachaslaother.
ilai If two aslalines
ilai crossaslat
ailaai point,sthen
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa s adsa adsa ads
a adsa adsa ad a adsaas
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai there will

aslaila
be
i two different
aslaila
i electric
aslaila
ifield vectors
aslaila
i at the same
aslaila
i point. lailai
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal ads
a a
d s
a adsa adsa a
d s
a ads
aas adsa adsaas
l
a ada PaPda is placed PaPdin
a PaPda PaPdathen it has PaPdto
a ada a d
a
P Pif some charge the intersection point, move inP Ptwo PP
iai
saaslal
different iai directions
saaslal
iai at the same
saaslal
iai time, which
saaslal
iai is physically
saaslal
iai Impossible.
saaslal
iai Hence,aelectric
saaslal
iai
saslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
field lines do not intersect.
iai iai ilai i i i i i
adsaaslal 8. dDefine
adsaaslal ‘Electric
adsaasladipole’ a
dsaaslaila ads
aaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance constitute an
iai iai i ai iai iai iai i ai iai
adsaaslal d dsaaslal dipole.
electric
a d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
9. What is the general definition of electric dipole moment?
i ai lailai lailai lailai lailai lailai lailai lailai
saaslal sa
asaamagnitude sasa sasa a a is equal sasa sasa of thedadsaasa adsaas
l
aad
P aThe
Pdad aPdaadaof the electric
P aPdaada dipoleaPmoment
P daadsas aPdaada to the product
P aPdaadaP aPa P P a
PP d
a
magnitude of one of the charges and the distance between them
l
aa
d d
PaPa
ad FORMULA
Pa
Pa d a
d d
PaPa
a
d UNITd
PaPa
a
d QUANTITY
P d
aPa a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d
PaPda
p i iq Cm Vector quantity
a l ailai a l ailai a l ala a l ailai a lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
adsa s adsa s a
dsa s ads
a s adsa s adsa adsa adsa adsaas
a PaPdDefine
10. a PaPda
‘electrostatic aPda
Ppotential”. PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai Electric
lailai
potential lailai
at a pointlailPai is equal to the work done
lailai lailai
by an external
lailai
forcelatoiai
saaslal s as s as s as s as sas s as saas l sasl
Padasalai
aad d
a a
d a d
aPa a
d a d
aPa a
d a d
aPa a
d a d
aPaada d
aPa a
d a d
aPa a
d aPdaada
PaPbring a unit positive charge with constant velocity from infinity to the point P in the
P P P P P P P
region
aslaila of the aexternal aslailafield ⃗ adsaaslaila
iai i i electric i i i i i
adsaaslal adsa dsaaslaila a
d s
a a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a PPa d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
FORMULA UNIT QUANTITY
iai iai i ai iai iai aslaila
i iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d∫a
d saas⃗⃗⃗lal ⃗⃗⃗⃗ d a
d saaslalVm dadsaaslal Scalar
d a
d saquantity d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal adsa a
d s
a a
d s
a ads
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
a 11.
PaPdWhat
a is an equipotential
PaPd
a PaPda surface? PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai An equipotential
iai surface
iai is a surface
iai on which
iai all the points
iai are at the
iai same potential.
iai
adsaaslal alal
daadsas
alal
daadsas
alal
daadsas
alal
daadsas
alal
daadsas
alal
daadsas adsaas
lal
adsaas
l
a 12. What are the properties of an equipotential surface?
P a
P P a
P P a
P P a
P P a
P P a
P PaPda PaPda
iai  The work

aslaila
i done to move
aslaila
i a charge
aslaila
i q between
aslaila
i any twolapoints
as ila
i A andlailB,
as a
i W = q(VlaBil–
as a
i VA).
adsaaslal d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d adsa d a
dsa d a
d s
a d a
dsa d adsaas
l
a a a
P PIf the points a a
P P A and B lie a a
P Pon the same a a
P Pequipotential a a a
P P surface,Pwork
P a a a a a
done PisPzero. PP
iai  The electric

iai field is
iai normal ato ian
ai equipotential iai surface. i ai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
13. Give the relation between electric field and electric potential.
iai Electric i
aslailafield isadthe lai
aslainegative aslaila
gradient i
aslaila
ofadpotential i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa sa ads
a s
l
a PaPda P aPda aPda
P aPda P aPda P PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
E= -
a saaslal a saaslal asaaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal adsaas
l
PE-
aPaElectric field
PaPa , dV-Electric
PaPa potential PaP,a
d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai dx -Small i distancelailai i i i i i

adsaaslal alaila
adsas a adsas adsaaslaila ads
a adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 14. Define

aslaila
i ‘electrostatic
aslaila
i potential
aslaila
i energy’.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal ads
a a
dsa adsaas
l
a ada PaPdapotential PataPda
a ada aPda PaPda PaPda by a d
a
P PThe electric point atPaPdistance rPfrom point charge q1 is given PP

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
 This potential V is the work done to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to the
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PaPdpoint.
ad ad a ad a a
d a ada ad a ad a ad a
a a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
 Now if the charge q2 is brought from infinity to that point at a distance r from q1
a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal asaaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal adsaas
l
a d PaPThe
d
a d workPdone
aPa is the P
d d product
d
aPa d of qP2 aand
Pa the Electric
d d
PaPa potential
d d
PaPaat that point.
d d d
PaPa
d
PaPda
Thus we ihave W= q2Via.i
a l ailai a l alai aslal aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
adsa s a
d s
a s a
d s
a a
d s
a adsa ads
a a
d s
a a
d s
a adsaas
a PaPdThis
a aPda is stored
workPdone PaPdaas the electrostatic
PaPda PaPda
potential PaPda U of a system.
energy PaPda a
PP d
a

a
d saaslal dadsaaslal FORMULA
adsaas
lal
adsaas
lal UNITsaaslal
ad QUANTITY
adsaas
lal
adsaas
la l
a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa PaPda
U= joule Scalar quantity
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
dsaads
l
a PaPda PaPda
15. Define ‘electric flux’ PaP
da PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai The number

aslaila
i of electric
aslaila field lines
i
aslaila crossingaslaailgiven
i ai areaaslakept
ilai normal
aslato
ilai the electric
aslaila
i
saaslal adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad
field lines is called electric flux.
iai i
aslaila FORMULA aslaila
i i i
aslailaUNIT adsaaslaila QUANTITY aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
E=EA cos Nm2C-1 Scalar quantity
iai iai ailaielectrostatic iai ilai iai iai iai
adsaaslal 16. dWhat
adsaaslal is meant
d a
d saaslby d a
d saaslal energy
dadsaasladensity?d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
Electrostatic energy density is defined as The energy stored per unit volume of space
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
a adsa a
d s
a adsa adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda FORMULA PaPda PaPda PaPda
UNIT PaPdaQUANTITY PaPda a
PP d
a
lailai Joule m
iai iai i i -3 i ai Scalar quantity
iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saauslaE l = d a
d saor
aslailauE = adsaaslaila
d d a
d s
a as d a
d s
a aslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a P aPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
17. Write a short note on ‘electrostatic shielding’.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
dsa adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda
 Whatever the charges at the surfaces and whatever the electrical disturbances PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai outside, iai the electric iai field inside iai the cavity iaisi zero. aslailai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsa a
d saaslal adsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
 A sensitive electrical instrument which is to be protected from external electrical
iai lailai
disturbance is lailai inside sthis
kept i
lailacavity. This i called electrostatic
lailais lailai lailai
shielding. lailai
adsaaslal asaas
d asaas d a aas d asaas asaas
d asaas asaas
d d d adsaas
l
PP d
a
18. . What is Polarisation?
iai iai iai i i i i ailai volume ilai iai
adsaaslal Polarisation
d a
d saaslal p is
d a
dsaaslal
defined as the
d a
d slala dipole
saatotal d a
d slala
saamoment per
d a
d saaslunit d a
d saaslaof the d a
d saaslal
dielectric. adsaas
l
⃗ ⃗
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 19. What aslaila

is
i dielectric
aslaila
i strength?
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal ads
a a
d s
a a
d s
a adsa adsa a
d s
a adsa adsaas
l
a PaPdThe
a
maximum PaPda electricPafield Pda the dielectric
PaPda PaPda
can withstand PaPda it breakdowns
before PaPda is
a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
called iadielectric
saaslal
i strength
i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
20. Define ‘capacitance’. Give its unit.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal d a
dsa d a
d s
a d a
dsa dads
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d adsaas
l
a a a
P P The capacitancea
PP a a a a a
C ofPaPcapacitor PisPdefined asPthe a
P ratio ofPthe
a a
P magnitude
a a
P P of chargeP P
a a a
iai on either
lailai of the conductor
lailai plates
lailai to the potential
lailai difference
lailai existing
lailai betweenlathe
ilai
saaslal sas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas
l
aad aada
PaPdconductors.
PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda
i ai aFORMULA
lailai aUNIT aslaQUANTITY
i lailai ilai i i i
adsaaslal a
d s
a s adsaaslaila adsa s adsa ads
a aslaila adsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
C= Farad Scalar quantity
iai iai ilai iai iai iai iai iai
a
d saaslal 21. dWhat
adsaaslal is corona
d a
d saasladischarge?
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
 The positive ions are repelled at the sharp edge and negative ions are attracted
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsa ads
l
a PaPdtowards
a the
PaPdasharper edge.PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
 This reduces the total charge iof the conductor near the sharp edge.iai
a lailai a lailai a lailai a lalai a lailai a lailai alal iai
saaslal l
s s s s s s s s s s s s daadsas adsaas
Padasalai
aad a daad a daad a daad a daad a daada d a
d
This is called action at points or corona discharge.
P a
P P a
P P a
P P a
P P a
P P a
P PaPa PaPda
iai i i UNITlai2 iCURRENT ELECTRICITY

i i i i
adsaaslal adsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila adsaas la adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a ada PaPda is a scalar? PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a d
a
1.P PWhy current PP
iai 
saaslal
Foriaai physical
saaslal
quantity
i ai
saaslal
to beiaitermedsaaslavector
saaslal
ilai quantity, iai havingamagnitude
saaslal
iai
saslal
and iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d dada d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
direction is not enough. The quantity should obey the vector addition (triangle law
iai or i i
parallelogram lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal slala adsaas law).
l
a
d adsaa adsa ads
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
PP d
a
 From Kirchhoff’s current rule, if two current meet at a junction, the resultant
iai iai i i ilai ailai ilai i i iai
adsaaslal d d saaslal willdbe
current
a ad slala algebraic
saathe d a
d saaslasum of two
d a
d saaslcurrent and
d a
d saaslanot vector
d a
d slala
saasum. d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
2. Distinguish between drift velocity and mobility
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i lailai lailai
adsaaslal adsaS. adsa DRIFT VELOCITY
adsa adsa adsa adsaas
MOBILITY adsaas adsaas
l
PP d
a
1 The drift velocity is the average The mobility is the magnitude
saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal sasl
aad d
PaPa
a
d d a
velocity
PaPa acquired
d d a
PaPaby the electrons
d d
PaPa
a
d
Pofd a
aPathe drift P
d d
aPa a
velocity
d aPa electricPaPdaada
per Punit
dad
iai inside the conductor when it is field. i i

saaslal a lailai a l ailai a l ailai aslaila
i
aslala aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad adsa s adsa s ads
a s adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
a PaPda PaPda
subjected aPda
to anPelectric PaPda
field. PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai 2 lailai = iai iai iai i ai iai iai

a saaslal saas saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
a d
P aPdaad d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
⃗PaPa a
d
PaPda
iai 3 ailai Unit : msailai -1

i i Unit:am
ilai V s
2 -1 -1
i i
adsaaslal adsaasl adsaas
l
adsaaslaila ads
a aslaila l
adsaasa adsaslaila
l
a a
PPda a
PP da PaPda PaPda a
PPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 3. State microscopic

aslaila
i
aslaila
i form of lOhm’s
asaila
i law. lailai
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal a
dsa a
d s
a adsa adsaas adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
a PaPdaThe relationPaPdabetweenPcurrent aPda aPda
andPdrift PaPdis
velocity
a
I = nA PeP
ada PaPda a
PP d
a
iai Currentlailai densitysaaslailai = iai iai iai iai iai

adsaaslal adsaas ad a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
dsaaslal a
d saaslal a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
Current density is a vector quantity
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
dsa a
d
da ne⃗⃗⃗⃗ = PaPda ⃗s
a a
dsa ads
l
a PaP= PaPda PaPda (Pda
Pa Pda
Pa) PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal = saasla⃗ ilai i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad dad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
The direction of (conventional) current density as the direction of electric field.
i ai aslaila
i
a=slaila⃗
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsa adsa adsa ads
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
PP d
a
This equation called microscopic form of ohm’s law
iai iai i ai ilai iai iai iai iai
a
d saaslal 4. dState
adsaaslal macroscopic
d a
d saaslal form d a
d saaslaOhm’s
of law.
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
From microscopic form of ohm’s law J=
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal daadsa a
dsa ads
a adsa a
d s
a adsa adsa adsaas
l
a PaPJ= PaPda ------(1) PaPda PaPda (PaPda ) PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai i
alaila densityalaila
i
alaila
i iai iai iai iai
saaslal Current
dadsas dadsas
------(2)
dadsas saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
From eq 1 and eq2, =
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a
V=I( )
iai lailai lailai iai iai lailai iai iai
saaslal a a
daadsas V=IRPaPdaadsas saaslal sa(aslal ) adsaas saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
PaPThen
ad d a
d dad a
d a
d
a PaPa PaPa PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai The law states that at constant temperature, the steady current flowing
saaslal a l ailai a l ailai a l ailai a l ailai a l ailai a l ailai aslaila
i l
a
d adsa s adsa s adsa s ads
a s adsa s a
d s
a s adsa adsaas
a PaPdthrough
a Pda
aPaconductor PaPddirectly
is a PaPda
proportional aPdathe potential
Pto PaPda difference PaPda a
PP d
a
iai between iai two ends iai of theaconductor.

iai iai V α iIai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa
5. What are ohmic and non ohmic devices? PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai aslailSa OHMIC

saslal DEVICES asNON
lailai OHMIC aslaDEVICES
i iai iai i ilai i
adsaaslal adsa ada saslal ada adsaaslaila adsa adsa a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
1 Materials for which the Materials or devices that do
iai iai lailai iai i i i i
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal current
d a
d saasagainst voltage
d a
d saaslal graphd a
dissaasalaila not
d a
d saa
i
slala Ohm’s
follow d a
d
ila
saaslalaw are dsaid
a
d
ila
saaslato be dadsaasl
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa
straight line through the origin, are non ohmic.
iai i
aslaila said to
i
aslaila Ohm’s
i
aslaila and their aslaila
i i
aslaila materials
i
aslailahave more aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsobey
a ads
alaw adsa aThese
dsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
behavior is said to be ohmic. complex relationships between
iai iai iai iai iai lailai lailai lailai
saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal a
daadsas
a
daadsas adsaas adsaas
l
PaPvoltage and
PaPcurrent.
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d
a P aPa PaPa PaPa P aPa PaPda PaPda
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 2i i i i i i i
a
d saaslal ads
l
PP d
a

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
iai aslail3a Eg: lCopper, aluminum, silver asEg:

lailaiDiode, stransistor
i ailai lailai lailai i i
adsaaslal adsa asaas
d asaas d asaas d adsa ad aslaila
l
PP d
a
6. Define electrical resistivity.
iai aslaila
i i ai i i aslaila
i ilai i i iai
adsaaslal dadsaElectrical d a
d saaslal
resistivity ofd a
a
d slala
saamaterial is
d a
d sdefined
a as dthe
a
d saaslaresistance
d a
d slala
saaoffered tod a
d saaslal
current adsaas
l
flow by a conductor of unit length having unit area of cross section.
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsa adsa adsa a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda FORMULA PaPda PaPda
S.I UNIT PaPda QUANTITY PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai iai = asaaslailai iaOhm

i m aslailai Scalar
iai iai iai
a
d saaslal dadsaaslal dad d a
d saaslal d adsa d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaP PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai 7.aDefineiai temperature

lailai lailai
coefficient i ai
ofaresistance. lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal dsaaslal asaas d asaas saaslal
d asaas d d adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
Temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the ratio of increase in
iai iai aslaila
i ilai iai iai i i iai
saaslal resistance
saaslal per sadegree rise sin
aslatemperature saaslal to its resistance
saaslal atdTadosa.aslala saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d a d a
d dad d a
d
Temperature coefficient of resistance=
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a
FORMULA S.I UNIT QUANTITY
iai iai i ai lailai 0C iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal = d a
d saaslal d a
d saasPer dadsaaslal d a
d saaslal
Scalar d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai 8. What aslaila

is
i superconductivity?
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a dads
a d adsa dads
a dadsa d adsaas
l
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
P PThe resistance P P of certain P P material Pbecome
P zeroP Pbelow certain P P temperature P P called P P
iai critical iai or transition iai temperature iai (TC) alailai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsas a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
 The materials which exhibit this property are known as super conductors.
saaslal  dThe saaslaproperty of aslconducting ascurrent with aslazero

iai ilai ailai lailai ilai resistance
aslaila is called
i
aslasuper
ilai aslaila
i l
ad ad adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa a
dsa adsaas
PP d
a
conductivity.
iai iai ilai ilai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal 9. dWhat
adsaaslal is electric
d a
d saaslapower dand
a
d saaslaelectricd a
denergy?
saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
S.NO ELECTRIC POWER ELECTRIC ENERGY
iai aslaila
i i
aslaila at which ailai aslaila
i lailai lailai lailai
saaslal 1 The rate aslthe electrical The adsaasa energy adsaasaby any device sasa adsaas
l
aPdaelectric aPdaused
sa sa s
a sa
aad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
P P aPdaada
P a
PP d
a
potential energy is delivered, Product of the power and duration of the time
l
Pduration of the Ptime
aPa when it is PON.
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d
a P aPa PaPa PaPa P aPa aPa aPa PaPda
iai
2 i P= = ori VI i i E=Pxt or
i i
VIt i i
adsaaslal adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila ads
a aslaila adsaas
lala
adsaslaila
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 3 lailai Si unitla:ilawatt

i i i Si unit l:ajoule
ilai i i
a
d saaslal ads
a as adsaas adsaslaila
a adsaaslaila adsaas ads
l
a PaPda 4 PaPda PaPda
Practical unit :horse power (HP) PaPda PaPda PaPda
Practical unit :kilowatt hour (kWh) PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal 1 Hp=746
saslal W
i ai iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal 1 kWh=3.6x10
iai
saslal
6 joule iai
saslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d ada a
d a
d ada ada a
d adsaas
a PaPa PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda PaPda d
PaPa PaPda
10. Define current density.
iai The i
aslailacurrent aslaila
density i
( J a)dsais ilai
asladefined as lailaicurrentsaaper
asthe lailaiunit area ilaicross section
aslaof
i
aslaila of adsaasl
a ad s adsa adsa
the conductor.
adsaaslal dadsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPaFORMULA PaPa aPa
S.I PUNIT PaPa QUANTITY PaPa PaPa PaPda
i ai i i Am
i -2 i Vector i i i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsaaslaila ads
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
11. Derive the expression fori power P=VI in electrical circuit. i

iai alaila
i
alaila
i
alaila alaila
i
alaila
i
alaila iai
a
d saaslal adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda
 Electric power P = PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa PaPda
iai aslaila W=V xadsQ

i i i i i i i
adsaaslal adsa aslaila
a ads
l
PP d
a
 P= =
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
a P aPa P=VI PaPa PaPa PaPa ( )PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal 12.saWrite
slala down
i i
saslthe
ailai various
saslaforms
ilai of sexpression
aslaila
i
sfor
aslailapower in
i
saslaelectrical
ilai
sacircuit.
i i
slala l
ad ada ada ada ada ada ada ada adsaas
PP d
a
 Electric power P =VI
iai by ailai ohms lailai iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslusing d a
d saaslaw d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 Electric power P =v =
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
P=
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 Electric power P =VI=(IR)I ;
iai aP=I 2i ai i i i i i i
adsaaslal dsaaslal R adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
13. State Kirchhoff ’s current rule.
iai ilai i i iai ilai i
aslaailacircuit ais i i iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslaalgebraic
The d a
d saaslala of the
sum d a
d saaslal
currents atd a
d saaslajunction
any d a
d sof
a d d slala
saazero. dadsaaslal adsaas
l
14. State Kirchhoff ’s voltage rule.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a a
dsa ads
l
a PaPda In a closed PaPda circuit PtheaPda
algebraic
da
PaPsum aPda
of thePproducts aPda
ofPthe current PandaPda a
PP d
a
iai resistanceiai of each iapart

i of the circuit
iai is equal iai to the total iai emf included iai in the acircuit
iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saslal adsaas
l
15. State the principle of potentiometer.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d sPaasalagl e | 10 dadsaasl
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai Fori uniform lcross-section

i and
i unit length i of potentiometer i wire, i when constant i
a
d saaslal a
dsaaslaila a
d s
a asaila a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila ads
aaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
current flow through a wire, then potential difference between any two points
iai
saaslal
ofsthe
aslailawire is
i directly
i ai
saaslal
proportional
iai
saaslal
to the
iai lengthaof
saaslal
iathe
saslal
i wire between
iai
saaslal
two iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d a d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
points
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa sa sa s
a sa sa sa adsaas
l
aad
PaPda
ad =Ir PaPdaad
PaPda
a
d
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad a
PP d
a

d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
The emf of the cell is directly proportional to balancing length.
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a sa a s
a a s
a a sa a s
a a s
a a s
a a saasl
P PI is the current
P P flowingP through the
P Pwire, r is the P PresistanceP perP unit length P P of the P P
a d a d
a d a d
a d a
P d
a d a da d a d
a d a d
a d a d
a d a d
a d
iai wire. iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a a What do
PaP16. PaPayou mean a internal
PaPby a
PaPresistance a a cell? PaPa
PaPof PaPa PaPda
iai A resistance
lailai is offered
lailai to current
lailai flow by lthe
ailai electrolyte
lailaiinside the
lailcell.
ai i
adsaaslal adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
iai iai iai i ai iai i i iai iai
saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal Ohm dadsaaslal slala
saascalar saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad a
d a
d a
d ad a
d a
d
a d
PaPa r=( d
PaPa )R d
PaPa PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai 17. aState

i i Joule’s
slala aslalaw
ilai of heating.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a
The heat developed in an electrical circuit due to the flow of current varies
iai
saaslal directly
saaslal as (i)
iai
sathe
aslailasquareadof
i
saaslthe
ailai current saas(ii)
lailai the resistance iai of theala
saaslal sascircuit
ilai andsaaslailai l
ad d a
d d a
d d dad d a
d d a
d ad adsaas
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda PaPda
(iii) the time of flow. H=I2RT
iai i
laila is Seebeck
alaila effect?
i
alaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal 18. aWhat
dadsas dadsas dadsas ads
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
 In a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the junctions are
iai iai aslaila
i iai ilai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal
maintained at
d a
d sadifferent d d saaslal
temperatures
a d a
d saaslaemf
an d a
d saaslal difference)
(potential d a
d saaslal is developed.
d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
(The two dissimilar metals connected to form two junctions is known as
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PaPdthermocouple.)
ad ad a ad a ad a ad a ad a ad a a
d a
PP d
a
 The current that flows due to the emf developed is called thermoelectric
a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal adsaas
l
a d
P aPcurrent.
d
a d d
PaPa
d d
PaPa
d d
PaPa
d d
PaPa
d d
PaPa
d d
PaPa
d
PaPda
iai 19. What

iai is Thomson
iai effect?iai i i i i
adsaaslal adsaaslal a
dsaaslal ads
a aslal a
d s
d s
a aslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a da PaPda in a conductor
PaPda PdadifferentPtemperatures,
aPda PaPdathe density PaPdaof d
a
PaP If two points arePaat a
PP
iai electrons iai at these iapoints

i willladiffer
iai and as iaai result the ipotential
ai difference
iai is lailai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saas l d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saas adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa
created between these points. Thomson effect is also reversible. PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal
20.saWhat
slala is Peltier
i i iai effect? alailai
saslal aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad ada ada ss ada ads
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai When an
lailai electriclacurrent
ilai is passed
lailai through
lailaa
i circuit of
laila
ai thermocouple,
lailai heat islailai
saaslal sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa adsaasa adsaas
l
aa
d aada
PaPdevolved aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada PaPda a
PP d
a
at one junction and absorbed at the other junction.
P P P P P
iai
saaslal
21.saState
slala the applications
i i i ai
saslal
of iSeebeck
saslal
ai effect.
iai
saslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad ada ada ada ada a
d a
d a
d adsaas
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
 Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric generators (Seebeck generators). These
iai lailai
thermoelectric lailai
generators are i
lailaused ailai plants
inaspower to i
lailaconvert lailai heat into
waste lailai
adsaaslal dasaas asaas d asaas d aasl asaasd asaas d asaas d d adsaas
l
PP d
a
electricity.
iai i i
aslala effectadsis
alala i i aslala i i
lalaautomotive a i i i i
a generators a i i i i
adsaaslal daadsaThis
 da asutilized din
a
dsaautomobiles
d a
d saasas d a
d saaslal thermoelectric
d a
d saaslal d adsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaP PaP a PaP a a
PaP a PaP a PaP PaP PaPda
for increasing fuel efficiency.
saaslal asa
daadsaSeebeck
aa a sasa and thermopiles
dsaasthermocouples sasa sasa aa adsaas
l
aad
P aP aPeffect
daadsas is used
P aPdaain P aPdaada aPdaada
P aPdto
aadameasureaPthe
P daadsas P P a
PP d
a
temperature difference between the two objects.
iai iai i ai iai iai lailai iai iai
a
d saaslal d dsaaslal :03 MAGNETISM
UNIT
a d a
d saaslal dAND
a
d saaslalMAGNETIC
d a
d saaslalEFFECTS
d a
d saasOF ELECTRIC
d a
d saaslal CURRENT
d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
1. What is meant by imagnetic induction?
iai ailai aslaila aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal d a
d s
a asl
d a
dsa dads
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
dsa d adsaas
l
a a a
PThe
P magnetic a a a
P a
P P inductionP(total magnetic a
P P field) inside
a a
P P the specimen
a a
PP a a
⃗ is equal
P P to the P P
a a a
iai sumlaof iai the magnetic iai field Baolaproduced

i ai in vacuum
iai duelailto
ai the magnetisingiai fieldlailand
ai
saaslal saas l saaslal sas l saaslal saas saaslal saas adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa
the magnetic field Bm due to the induced magnetisation of the substance. PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal FORMULA
adsa adsa adsa adsa S.IPUNITadsa QUANTITY
a
d s
a adsa adsaas
l
a P aPda PaPda PaPda PaPda aPda PaPd
a PaPda a
PP d
a
⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗⃗ ⃗= ⃗ ⃗⃗ Tesla Vector quantity
iai ilai ilai ilai ilai ilai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a
dad a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal al
daadsas
a P P a
2. Define magnetic flux.
a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P
iai The numberaslaila

i of magnetic
aslaila
i field lines
aslaila
i crossing lper
asaila
i unit area isi called magnetic
aslaila aslaila
i flux lΦ Bi
asaila
a
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
iai iai i i iai ilai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal B=BA
d a
d slala
saacos d a
d saaslalweberdadsaaslaScalar d a
d saaslal
quantity d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
3. Define magnetic dipole moment.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a s
a a s
a a sa a s
a a sa a sa asa adsaas
l
PaPdThe
a magnetic PaPda dipole moment is defined
PaPda as thePproduct of its
PaPdpole strength
PaPda and
d d d d d d d d
a PaPda aPda a a
PP d
a
iai magnetic i length.lailai iai iai i ai iai iai

adsaaslal aslaila
adsa as adsa a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
l
a PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai i
aslaila⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ads⃗⃗⃗ ai
aslailor
i i
aslaila 2l adsaaslaila A m2adsaaslaila
i iai iai
saaslal sa a P s
a saslal quantity
vector saslal adsaas
l
aad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
a
d
PaPda m PaPda PaPda PPadaada adaada
PP a
PP d
a
4. State Coulomb’s inverse law.
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai Thelaiforce
i of attraction i or repulsion i between i two magnetic i poleslailisi directly lailai
a
d saaslal ads
a as la adsaaslaila adsaslaila
a adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
a
l
ds
aas a adsaas
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
proportional to the product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to P P
daPaPda PaPda
the iai ⃗ =
saaslsquare of the
saasladistance sbetween them.
iai ailai ilai aslaila
i iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d d a
d d a
d a d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal r̂ d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
5. What is magnetic susceptibility?
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i ai
aslail⃗⃗⃗⃗
adsaaslal d a
ds
Magnetic
a d a
d s
susceptibility
a is d a
ds
defined
a as the
dads
aratio of thed a
d s
intensity
a ofd a
d s
magnetization
a d a
d s
a ( ) d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
| ⃗⃗ |
iai induced
alaila
i in the material
alaila
i duealto
ailathe
i magnetising
alaila
i fielda(lail⃗ai) i ai = | ⃗ | alailai
adsaaslal adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas a
d saaslal dadsas adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda P d
aPa PaPa PaPda
6. State Biot-Savart’s law
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i i
aslaila⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PaPda Magnitude PaPdaof magnetic PaPdafield ataPdaa point P PataPdaa distanceParPdafrom the small
ad a
d a a
d a a
d a a
d a ada a
d a a
d a
a P PaPda a
PP d
a
elemental length taken on a conductor carrying current varies
a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal asaaslal adsaas
l
ad (i)
PaPadirectly as
d d the
PaPda strength
d
PaPof
a the current
d d
PaPa I
d d d
PaPa
d d
PaPa
d d
PaPa
d
PaPda
⃗⃗⃗⃗ iai
a l ailai (ii) directly
a l ailai as thesamagnitude
l ailai oflathe
a ilai length aelement
lailai lal aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
s
aada
s d s
ada s d ada s d s
ada s d s
ada s d adsaas adsa adsa adsaas
PPa a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
⃗⃗⃗ P P
a PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
(iii) directly as the sine of the angle between and ̂
iai iai ilai i i lailai ailai P and ailai iai
saaslal (iv)dainversely
saaslal asdadthe
saaslasquare of saaslaladistance
the saasbetween the
saaslpoint saasllength saaslal ⃗⃗⃗ dadsaasl
element
Padasalai
aad d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa
dB =
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a
7. What is magnetic permeability?
iai i
aslailamagnetic ilai iai iai i i i
aslaila of the iai
adsaaslal d a
d saThe d a
d saaslapermeability
d a
d saaslalcan beddefined
adsaaslal as the
d a
d slala
saameasure of
d a
d saability d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
material to allow the passage of magnetic field lines through it or
iai ailai ailai ailai ailai ailai ailai ailai
saaslal sasla al a sasla sasla sasla sasla sasla l
aa
d
PPadmeasure
aada ofathe
daadsascapacityadof
PP aadathe substance
PPadaada to takeadmagnetisation
aada
PP adaadaor the degree
adaada of
PP PP PP a
PP d
a adsaas
penetration of magnetic field through the substance.
iai iai ilai aslaila
i iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal 8. dState
adsaaslal Ampere’s
d a
d saaslacircuitald a
d slaw.
a d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
The line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is μ0 times net current
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
d s
a a
d s
a a
d s
a adsa adsa a
dsa adsaas
l
a PaPdenclosed
a PaPdathe loop. PaPda ∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ P=aPda Ienclosed PaPda
by PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai 9. Compare iai dia, para iai and ferro-magnetism.

iai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
Properties Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism
iai Magnetic lai
aslaisusceptibility
aslaila
i Negative aslaila
i ilai
aslaPositive and ai
aslailsmall ilai
aslaPositive and ai
aslaillarge
adsaaslal d ads a d adsa d ads a d a
d s
a d a
d sa d a
d s
a d a
d sa d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a PPa a PPa a PPa a PPa a
Relative permeability Is slightly less Is greater than Large
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal thansaaslaunity.
ilai
saaslal unity.
iai i ai
saaslal saaslal
iai iai
saaslal al
aad a
P d
a a
d a
P d
a a
d a
P d
a a
d a
Pdaad a
P d
a a
d a
Pdaad a
P d
a a
d a
P daadsas
Susceptibility
P P Is nearly
P P Is inversely
P P Is inversely
P P
iai i temperature proportionaliato proportionaliai

saaslal aslaila a l ailai a l ailai a l ailai a lal i a lailai lal l
ad adsa s
ada s s
independent
ada s s s
ada temperature s
ada s s s adsaas
ada to temperature. adsaas
a PaPda a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PPda a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai Examplesiai i Bismuth, Copper

i Aluminium,Platinum,
i i Iron,
i Nickellaand i
a
d saaslal adsaas
lal
a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila ads
aaslaila a
dsaas ila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a d
a
P Pand WaterP P a d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
chromium. Cobalt.
iai field alailai Are repelled iai or
saaslaAre
ilai attracted
saaslal into dadsaaslAre
ailai strongly
iai The magnetic iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d sas d a
d saaslal d a
d d a
d d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPalines PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
expelled by the paramagnetic attracted into the
iai aslaila
i i
aslaila diamagnetic
aslaila
i ai
aslailmaterials lailai
aswhen ilai
aslaferromagnetic aslaila
i
dsa ads
l
PP d
a
materials when placed in a magnetic materials when
iai iai i ai lailaai iai iai ilai iai
d saaslal placedd a
dsaasin d a
d saaslalfield. dadsaaslal d a
d saaslaplaced in
d a
d saaaslal adsaas
l
magnetic field. magnetic field.
i ai iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal 10. dWhatsaaslal is meant adsaas
l
PaPda by hysteresis?
ad a
d a
d s
a adsa adsa ads
a adsa a
d s
a
a PaPa PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic induction behind the magnetizing field is
l
PaPcalled hysteresis
a a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
dsa ads
l
PP d
a
UNIT 4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
a PaPa PaPa PaPa
1. What is meant by electromagnetic induction? PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal
Whenever
aslaila
i the aslamagnetic
ilai flux
aslailalinked awith
i
aslailaa closed
i coil
aslailachanges,
i
aslan
ailaemf
i is induced
aslaila
i l
aad a d
aadsa a d
a a
d s
a a d
a a
d s
a a d
a dsa a d
a a
d s
a a d
a a
d s
a a d
a a
d s
a a d
a adsaas
PP PP PP PP PP PP PP PP
and hence an electric current flows in the circuit. This current is called an induced
iai current iai ailai is called ilai induced ilai This phenomenon
iai i
ailaknown iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal anddthe
adsaaslemf d a
d saaslaan dadsaaslaemf. d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslis d a
d
as
saaslal adsaas
l
electromagnetic induction.
i i
aslailainduction. aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal 2. dState
adsaaslal Faraday’s
adsaslalaws
a of electromagnetic
adsa ads
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
Faraday’s first law :
l
aad Whenever
d
PaPa
a
d magnetic
d
PaPa
a
d fluxPlinked
d
aPa a
d withPaaPclosed
daad circuit
PaPa changes,
d a
d an
PaPda emf is induced
a
d d
PaPa
a
d in the
PaPda
circuit.
a l ailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ads
a s adsa a
d s
a a
d sa adsa adsa adsa a
dsa adsaas
a PaPda
Faraday’s PaPda first law
second PaPda : PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
lailai
The magnitude
lailai
of induced
lailai
emf lin ailaai closedsacircuit
lailai
is equal to the timelailrate
lailai ai of change lailai
of l
s
a as s
a as saas saas a s sa
a s saas saas adsaas
aad PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
iai aslaila
i ilai i
aslaila𝒅 𝑵𝝓𝑩 adsaaslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsaasla𝒅𝝓 ads
l
PaPda Pε=
aPda PaPdε= PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda d
a 𝑩 a a
or a
PP
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

adsaaslal 3. dState
adsaaslal Lenz’sdalaw.
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current is such that it always
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas
l
PaPdopposes the
PaPda cause responsible for
PaPits
da production.
ad adsa a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a adsa adsa adsa
a a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 4. State Fleming’s

aslaila
i right
aslaila
i handlarule.
as ila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right hand are stretched out in mutually
iai iai
perpendicular i i iai i i i iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d sadirections.
aslaila
d a
d sThe
aslailaindexafinger
a d dsaaslal points
d a
dsaathe
slaladirection
d a
d
ofilathe
saasla magnetic
d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
field and the thumb finger indicates the direction of motion of the conductor,
iai i i
la middle alala i i ala i i lala i i ala i i
alala alala i i i i
saaslal saslathe
dthen daadsas finger dwill
saslindicatedathe
adsaasdirection
daadsof
aasl the induced
daadsas current
daads.as adsaas
l
aad
PaP aada PaP aadaPaP PaP PaP PaP PaP a
PP d
a
5. How is Eddy current produced? How do they flow in a conductor?
iai aslaila
i i ai iai i i iai i i iai
saaslal sEven saaslal saaslalform ofdaa slala
saasheet saaslalan emfdis slala
saainduced saaslal adsaas
l
aad d
PaPa
ad a for ad
PaPaconductor
a
d in
d
PaPa
a
dthe PaPa
d or plate,
d
PaPa
a
d
PaPa
ad when
d
PaPa
a
d
PaPda
magnetic flux linked with it changes. But the difference is that there is no definite
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsa adsa a
d s
a a
d s
a a
d s
a a
d s
a adsaas
l
a PaPdloop
a or path
PaPdafor induced PaPdacurrent to flow
PaPda away.PAs aPdaa result, P the
aPda inducedPcurrents
aPda a
PP d
a
iai flow in
iai concentriciacircular
i paths.
iai As theseiaelectric
i currents
iai resemble
iai eddies ofiai
saaslal saslal alal
daadsas
alal
daadsas
alal
daadsas
alal
daadsas
alal
daadsas
alal
daadsas
al
daadsas
aa
d aada
PaPdwater, P a
P P a
P P a
P P a
P P a
P P a
these are known as Eddy currents. They are also called Foucault currents.
P P a
P
iai 6. Mentionaslaila
i the ways
aslaila
i of producing
aslaila
i induced
aslaila
emf.
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
dsa ads
l
PP d
a
Induced emf can be produced by changing magnetic flux in any of the following ways.
iai aslaila
i lailai i ai iai iai iai iai
saaslal (i) By sachanging the saasmagnetic field
saaslal B saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
(ii) By changing the area A of the coil and
iai lailai ilai aslaila
i ilai i
aslailamagnetic lailai aslaila
i
adsaaslal (iii)dByadsaaschanging the
adsaaslarelative orientation
adsa θ
adsaaslathe
of coil with
adsa adsaasfield adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
𝒅
i
saaslal
a i i
saaslal
ai ailai BA cosɵ)
saasl𝒅𝒕
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d ad d ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
7. What for an inductor is used? Give some examples.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a dads
a d a
d s
a dads
a dadsa d adsaas
l
a Inductor
a
PP a is a device
a
PP a used toP Pstore energy
a a P P in a magnetic
a a P P field when
a a P P an electric
a a P P current P P
a a a a
iai flows through it.ailExamples

ailai ai : coils, solenoids
ailai ailai
and toroids
ailai iai iai
adsaaslal l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda
8. What do you mean by self-induction?PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal Anaslaelectric
ilai current
aslaila flowing
i
aslathrough
ilai asaacoil
lailai will setsaaup
lailaai magnetic aslailfield
ai aroundaslailait.
i l
aad a d
a a
d s
a a d
a a
d s
a a d
a a
d s
a adaad s
a daad s
a d
a a
d s
a adaa
dsa a d
a adsaas
Therefore, the magnetic flux of the magnetic field is linked with that coil itself. If
iai this ilai is changed iai iai iai ai
lailinduced ilai same acoil iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslaflux d a
d saaslal by changing
d a
d saaslal the dcurrent,
a
d saaslal an emf
d a
d saasis d a
d sin
aaslathat
dadsaslal . adsaas
l
This phenomenon is known as self-induction.
iai iai ailai lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal 9. dWhat
adsaaslal is meantadsaaslby mutualads
a ainduction?
s adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
When an electric current passing through a coil changes with time, an emf is
a saaslal a saaslal asaaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal adsaas
l
PaPinduced inPaP
the
a neighboring
PaPa coil. This PaPaphenomenon PaPa is known PaPas
a mutualPinduction
a a aPa PaPda
iai
and the
i i
emf is called
i i
mutuallyi induced
i emf.
i i i i i
adsaaslal adsaas
lala
adsaas
lala
adsaas
lala
adsaas
lala
adsaaslaila adsaslaila
l
a a
PPda a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 10. Give the

aslaila
i principle
aslaila
i of AC generator.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
The principle of AC generator is electromagnetic induction. The relative motion
iai between iai a conductor iai and aamagnetic
iai fied iai ai i iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saslal d a
d saaslalchangesd a
dsthe
aslailmagntic
a d a
d sflux
aaslailalinked awith
d dsaaslal the dadsaasl
conductor which in turn, induces an emf.
iai ailai the advantages i
aslaila of stationary
aslaila
i
aslaila
i lailai systemsaof ilai generator. aslaila
i
adsaaslal 11. dList
adsaaslout adsa a
dsa armature-rotating
ads
a adsaafield
s ad aslaAC adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
1) The current is drawn directly from fixed terminals on the stator without the use of
iai brush iacontacts.
i i ai iai iai iai i ai iai
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d adsaas
l
a 2) The insulation of stationary armature winding is easier.
P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a
iai 3) Theanumber
lailai
of sliding
aslaila
i contacts
aslaila
(slip
i rings) isi reduced.laMoreover,
aslaila as ila
i thei sliding lailai
aslaila
saaslal s
a s sa sa sa s
a sa sas adsaas
l
aad aPdaa
d aPdaad aPdaad aPdaad aPdaad aPdaad aPdaada a d
a
contacts are used for low-voltage DC Source.
P P P P P P P PP
iai 4) Armature iai windings iai can be constructed

iai more
iai rigidly to
iai preventadeformation
iai due
iai to
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
any mechanical stress.
iai iai i
aslaila and step-down
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a.slaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal 12. dWhat
adsaaslal are step-up
a
dsa ads
a transformers?
adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
S.No step-up transformer step-down transformers
iai iai iai i ai iai alaila
i
alaila
i iai
saaslal 1. saaslaNl >N or saaslal or dadsaaslal
k>1 saaslal adsasp or k<1ador
adsas saaslal adsaas
l
PN
aPdsa<N
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d
a PaPa s pa
P Pa PaPa P aPa P Pa PaPa PaPda
V <V and I >I
s p s p Vs>Vp and I <I
i s p
iai ailai ailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsaasl
a
d s
a asl
adsa a
d s
l
a 2.
PaPda voltage
PaPdis
a increased PaPdaand the PaPda Pvoltage
aPda is decreased
PaPda and the
PaPda a
PP d
a
iai corresponding current is decreased.ailai current is increased.

saaslal a lailai a lailai a lailai a l a lailai iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s dads
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d d a
d adsaas
a a
PaPDefine
13. PaPa
average valuePaofPa an alternating
PaPa PaPa
current. PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai The average

alaila
i value
alaila
iof alternating
alaila
i currentlais
a ila
idefined as the
alaila
i average ofi all values
alaila
of
alaila
i
a
dsaaslal adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas adsaas
l
PP d
a
current over a positive half-cycle or negative half-cycle.
iai Iav a=0.637I
iai m (or) Iiav
ai =-0.637I mi ai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
14. How will you define RMS value of an alternating current?
iai i
aslailaroot mean ilai i
aslailaor effective ai
aslailvalue ilai ilai aslaila
i
adsaaslal d a
dThe
s
a d a
d s
a aslasquare value
d a
d s
a d adsa of
d a
dan
saaslaalternating
d a
d s
a aslacurrent
dis
a
dsdefined
a d adsaas
l
a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
as the square root of the mean of the squares of all currents over one cycle.
saaslal saaslal saslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
aad d
PaPa
a
d 𝑰d
PaP𝒎aada d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
ad
PaPda
IRMS= (or) IRMS= 0.707Im
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a s
a a sa a s
a a sa a sa a sa a sa adsaas
l
PaPda What are PaPdphasors?
d d d d d d d d
a 15. a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai A sinusoidal
i i alternating
i i voltage (or
i i current) ican
i be represented
i i by a ivector
i which
i i
a a a a a a a
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal al
daadsas
a P P a P P a P P a P P a P P a
rotates about the origin in anti-clockwise direction at a constant angular velocity. Such
a a a a a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P
iai a rotatingaslaila vectoradsis

i
aslcalled
ailai a phasor.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a adsa ads
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 16. Defineaslaila

i electric lresonance.
asaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
When the frequency of the applied alternating source is equal to the natural
iai frequency iai of athe ilai circuit, ilai current ilaithe circuit iai ilai i i
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d dsaaslaRLC d a
d saaslathe d a
d saaslain d a
dsaaslalreachesd a
d
its
saaslamaximum d a
dsaavalue.
slala adsaas
l
Then the circuit is said to be in electrical resonance.
iai iai i
aslaila by resonant
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal 17. dWhat
adsaaslal do you admean
sa a
dsa frequency?
ads
l
PP d
a
The frequency at which resonance takes place is called resonant frequency.
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa 𝟏 PaPa PaPa PaPda
Resonant angular frequency ωr= 𝑳𝑪
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
a PaPdHow
18.
a aPda
willPyou
aPda
define PQ-factor? PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai lailai is defined

Q-factor i the ratio
lailaas i voltagelaacross
lailaof ilai Lasor ailai iai voltage.
lailai
a
d saaslal asaas
d asaasd asaas d asaas d aasl C to theaapplied
saaslal
d asaas d d adsaas
l
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑳 𝒐𝒓 𝑪
iai aslaila
i i
aslaila Q-factor= aslaila
i lailai lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa sa s
a sasa 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 sasa s s adsaas
l
aad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
a
d
PaPda
ad adaada
PP adaadaPP PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ad a a
PP d
a
19. What is meant by wattles current?
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
a PaPa In inductor,PaPa the current PaPa component PaPa (IRMSSinϕ) PaPa which has PaPaa phase anglePaPa of with PaPda
iai
saaslal
the voltage
iai
saslal
is called
iai reactive
saslal
component.
iai
saslal
The
iai power
saslal
consumed
iai
saslal
isiazero.
saslal
i Sosathat
slala it is
i i l
PP d
a
also known as ‘Wattles’ current.
iai ilai aslaila
i ailai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal 20. dGive
adsaaslaany oned a
d sdefinition
a d of
a
d saaslpower dadsaaslal
factor. d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
Power factor is define as ratio of true power to apparent power
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
power factor =
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
21. What are LC oscillations?
iai lailai i
aslaila is given
i
aslailato a circuit ilai ai
aslaailpure
i
aslaila of inductance
aslaila
i
adsaaslal d a
d s
a asWhenever
d a
d s
aenergy d a
d s
a d adsaaslacontaining
d a
dsa inductor
d a
d s
a d a
dsa L daadsaasl
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a PPa a PP a a PaP
and a capacitor of capacitance C, the energy oscillates back and forth between the
iai iai ilai iai i
aslaila field ilai iai iai
adsaaslal d d saaslal
magnetic
a field
d a
d aslathe
saof inductor
d a
d saaslal and the
d a
d selectric
a d a
d aslathe
saof d a
d saaslal Thusdthe
capacitor. adsaaslal adsaas
l
electrical oscillations of definite frequency are generated. These oscillations are
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa sa s
a sa sa sa sa adsaas
l
PaPdcalled LC oscillations.
ad ad ad ad ad ad ad ad
PP d
a

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai aslaila
i i i
aslaila 5: adsELECTROMAGNETIC
aslaila aslaila
i i
aslailaWAVES aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal ads
a adsUNIT
a a adsa adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
iai 1. What iais

i displacement i ai current? iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
Displacement current can be defined as ‘the current which comes into play in the
iai i i
a alala i i alala i i
lala i i
lala alala i i alala i i i i
saaslal saslal in which
dregion daadsasthe electric
daadsasfield anddaa
the
dsaas electricdaflux
adsaas are changing
daadsas with time’
daadsas adsaas
l
aad
PaP aada PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP a
PP d
a
𝒅𝝓
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
i ai
saaslal a lIadila=ε
i 0 𝑬 lailai
𝒅𝒕 adsaas
iai
saaslal
i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad dad d a
d adsa s a
d a
d a
d adsaas
a PaPa PaPa PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
2. What are electromagnetic waves?
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
a PaPdElectromagnetic
a PaPda wavesPaPare
da non mechanical
PaPda waves
PaPda whichPmove aPda with Pspeed
aPda a
PP d
a
equals to the speed of light (iniavacuum). It is a transverse wave. iai

aslailai aslailai aslailai aslal i aslailai aslailai saaslal
iai
saaslal al
aa
d s
a a d
aadsa a d
a a
d s
a adaa
d s
a a d
a a
d s
a a d
a a
d s
a adaa
d a d
a a
d a daadsas
 An electromagnetic wave is radiated by an accelerated charge which propagates
P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P
iai through
lailai space as
lailcoupled
ai electric
lailai and magnetic
lailai fields,
lailaoscillating
i laperpendicular
ilai lailai to
adsaaslal adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda
each other and to the direction of propagation of the wave.PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai 3. Write iadown

i the integral
iai form iai of modified iai Ampere’s iai circuital law.
iai iai
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i i
aslaila∮ ⃗𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
i ilai
aslaila I = adsaasIlac+ aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsa adsa adsa 𝒅𝒔 adsa Id) adsa adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda 𝟎 PaPda𝟎 PaPda a
PP d
a
saaslal 4. dExplain
saaslal thedconcept
iai of intensity of electromagnetic saaslal waves.
iai iai iai iai iai iai iai
ad ad adsaaslal d a
d d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
The energy crossing per unit area per unit time and perpendicular to the direction
iai iai iai iai iai iai iai aslaila
i
saaslal aslal
ofspropagation slalelectromagnetic
saof saslal wave al
saslis called the l
saslaintensity. saslal s adsaas
l
aa
d
PPadaada adaada PP adaada adaada
PP adaada
PP adaada PP PP PaPda
ad a a
PP d
a
I=
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
power
iai
saaslal aslaila
i Intensity
iai
saslal
I aslaila
i i
aslailaA aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad adsa ada adssurf
a ce re
adsa adsa adsa a
dsa adsaas
PP d
a
iai iai ailaiFraunhofer iai iai i ai iai iai

adsaaslal 5. dWhat
adsaaslal is meant
d a
d saaslby d a
d saaslal lines?
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
The spectrum obtained from the Sun is examined, it consists of large number of
iai i i
la alala i i aslala i iala dark slines
alala i i a i i
alala i i i i
saaslal saslalines
ddark (line
daadsasabsorption
daadsaspectrum).
daadsThese
aasl daadas in the saaslal spectrum
solar daadsas are adsaas
l
aad
PaP aada PaP PaP PaP daad PaP PaP PaP a
PP d
a
known as Fraunhofer lines.
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai i i iUNIT 06:lailai i i i

a
d saaslal ads
a adsaas adsaaslaila ads
l
PP d
a
1. State the laws of reflection
a
iai
saaslal aThe iai
saaslal incident a saray,
i
aslailareflected
a
ailai and normal
saaslray a
iai
saaslal to the a aaslaila
i
sreflecting surface
a
iai
saaslal all area
iai
saaslal adsaas
l
coplanar (ie. lie in the same plane).
iai i i
a ala i i a i i ala i i
ala lala i i lala i i i i
aadsaaslal aadThe
d saaslal angle dof
aadsincidence
aasl d(i)
a
slalequal
adsaais to
d
aadsthe
aasl angleaof
daadsreflection(r)
aasl d
a adsaas i= r adaadsaas d
a adsaas
l
a
PP PPa a
PP PPa PP a
PP PP a
PP
2. What is angle of deviation due to reflection?
iai ilai i ai iai iai i
aslailais called
i
aslaila of deviation iai
adsaaslal The
dadsaaslaangle d d saaslal the incident
between
a d a
dsaaslal and ddeviated
a
d saaslal light
d a
d sray
a d a
d saangle d a
d saaslal of adsaas
l
the light ray.
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal s
a s
a sa sa s
a sa s
a adsaas
l
PaPdd=180-(i+r), PaPdai=r; d=180-2i
ad a
d a
d ad ad ad ad a
d
a a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
3. Givei the characteristics of image formed by a plane mirror. i

iai ila ilai ilai ilai ilai ia iai
a
d saaslal dad a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaP(i)The
a image
PaPa formed by PaPa
a plane mirror PaPa is virtual, PaPaerect, and laterally
PaP a inverted.
PaPa PaPda
iai (ii) The

ailai
size of the image is equal
ailai ailai
to the size
ailai
of the object.
ailai i i
adsaaslal l
adsaasa ad
l
adsaasa
s
a asla a
d s
a asla a
d s
a asla a
d s
a aslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a d
a ada a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a
PP (iii) The image distance
PP P Pfar behindP the
P mirror PisPequal to theP Pobject distance PP in frontPP
iai of it. iai iai i ai iai iai iai iai

l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
(iv) If an object is placed between two plane mirrors inclined at an angle θ, then the
iai
saaslal number
saaslal of images
iai
saaslal n formed
iai
saaslis
ailaas,
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad ad ad ad adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
PP d
a
o If ( ) is EVEN n= ( )for objects placed symmetrically or unsymmetrically,
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a a If (
PaPo ) is a
PaPODD aPa(
then,Pn= aPa objects P
)for
P aPa
placed PaPa
symmetrically PaPa PaPda
iai i i i i i i i
a
dsaaslal o Ifa(laila ) is ODD
dadsas dadsas
ila
alathen, n=da(dsaaslail)for
a alailplaced
objects
dadsas
a alaila
dadsas
alaila
unsymmetrically,
dadsas adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda a
PP d
a
4. Derive the relation between f and R for a spherical mirror.
l
PaPa Let C bePthe
aPa centre of curvature of
PaPthe
a mirror.
ad d a
d d a
d d ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d
a PaP a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai  Consider
i i a light iray
i parallel itoi the principal
i i axis is incident
i i on the
i i mirror at M
i i and
saaslal lala lala lala lala la la lala lala l
aad d
a adsaas d
a adsaas d
a adsaas d
a adsaas d
a adsaas d
a adsaas daadsaas d
a adsaas
P Ppasses through
a a
PP the principal
a
PP focusPFP after reflection.
a a
PP a
PP a
PP a
PP
iai Thelageometry
ilai oflareflection
ilai oflailthe
ai incident
lailaray
i is shown
lailaiin fig. iai iai
adsaaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa a
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda
 The line CM is the normal to the mirror at M. PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal
Let asilabe
ilai the angle aslailof
ai incidence aslailaand theadssame
i
aslaila will be
i the
a lailaangle
i ofsareflection.
lailai aslaila
i l
aad a d
aadsa a d
a a
dsa a d
aads
a a d
a a a d
a a
d s
a s
a d
a a
d a s
a d
a a
d s
a a d
a adsaas
 If MP is the perpendicular from M on the principal axis, then from the geometry,
iai The ilai iai iai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslaangles ∠MCP
d a
dsaaslal = i andda∠MFP
dsaaslal = 2i dadsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
 From right angle riangles ∆MCP and ∆MFP,
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
dsa a
d s
a a
dsa ads
l
a PaPdtan
a i= And
PaPdatan 2i= PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai As athe iaiangles are ismall,

ai tanai≈i iai iai iai i ai iai
adsaaslal dadsaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
i= And 2i=
i ai lailai lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sasa sasa adsaas
l
aPdSimplifying
aPdfurther
s s s s s
aad
P aada aada P PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ada
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
a
d a a
PP d
a
= ;
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa2PF=PC PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai PF ais ifocal

slala
i length
aslailfaand PC isaslthe
i ailai radius a
of curvature
i i
slala asR.
lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a
2f=R ; f=
iai lailai lailai lailai lailai lailai lailai iai
saaslal 5. sasa sa
asaaCartesian saasa convention
sasa for adspherical
sasa aa saaslal adsaas
l
aPdaadaWhat is athe aPdaadsign mirror?
daadsas
Padasalai
aad
P Pdad P PaPdaada aPaada
P aP P P d
PaPa
a
d
PaPda
 The Incident light is taken from left to right (i.e. object on the left of lens).
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal s
a sa sa s
a s
a sa s
a adsaas
l
aad a All the distances
PaPd
a
d
PaPda
ad arePameasured
Pda
ad from
PaPda the pole
a
d of
PaPda the mirror
a
d
PaPda(pole is taken
ad
PaPda as
a
d a
PP d
a
origin).i
iai ia i ai iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a a The distances
d
PaP d
PaPa measured
PaPa to the right
d PaPa of pole Palong
d aPa the principal
d d
PaPa axis are
PaPataken as PaPda
d
iai positive.
ailai i i i i i i
a
dsaaslal l
adsaasa adsaslaila
a ads
a aslaila
adsaaslaila
a
d s
a aslaila ads
a aslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a d
a PaPda a d
a PaPda a d
a a d
a a da a d
a
PP  The distances measured to the left
P P of pole along P P the principal PP axis areP Ptaken as P P
iai negative. iai iai iai iai iai iai iai

saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal
sasl saaslal saaslal
aad d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d
P aPdaada
d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d
 Heights measured in the upward perpendicular direction to the principal axis are
iai
saaslal taken
saaslal as positive.
i ai iai
saaslal aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad ad ad adsa adsa adsa adsa a
dsa adsaas
PP d
a
 Heights measured in the downward perpendicular direction to the principal axis,
iai are ailai as negative. iai iai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saasltaken d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 6. What is ioptical path?

aslaila aslaila
i Obtainlathe
as ila
i equation
aslaila
i for optical
aslaila
ipath of alamedium
as ila
i oflailai
a
d saaslal ads
a adsaas adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda
thickness d and refractive index n.PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai iai i i iai iai iai iai iai

adsaaslal 
d a
d saaslal Optical
d a
d slala of admedium
saapath adsaaslal is d a
d saaslal as the
defined d a
dsaaslal
distance d'd adsaaslal travelsdain
light dsaaslal adsaas
l
Vacuum in the same time it travels a distance d in the medium.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
dsa ads
a a
d s
a adsa adsa adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda
Light travel in medium PaPda PaPda PaPda travel in
Light PaPdair
a
medium PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
Let usiaconsider
saaslal
i a imedium
saaslal
ai of iai
saaslal
iai In the same
saaslal
iai time, light
saaslal
iaican cover
saaslal
aiai
saaslal l
ad dad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
refractive index n and thickness d. greater distance d' in vacuum as it
i ai Light i
travels
aslaila with i
aslailaa speedadsv ailai
aslthrough
i
aslaila travels lailai greater
aswith ilai
aslaspeed c in aslaila
i
adsaaslal daa
d s
a daadsa da a daadsa daads
a daadsa daa
d s
a d adsaas
l
a PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP a
PP a
the medium in a time t. vacuum as shown in Fig
iai iai i ai iai iai i i iai iai
a
d saaslal dadsaaslal v = da;dsaastla=l d a
d saaslal d a
d slala
saaslal c = dadsaa;t= d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
iai As the time takenailaini both theacases

ailai ilai is theailai i i i
adsaaslal l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a d
a
P Psame, we P ada a d
a a da PaPda PaPda PaPda a d
a
can
P equate the
P P time t as,P P PP

l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
iai optical
lailai
path rewritten
lailai
for the optical path(d')
lailai lailai
d’= i i i
adsaaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a

adsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPThe
d
a optical
PaPpath
d
a d’=ndPaPa
d d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai As nais
ilaialways greater
ailai
than 1,ailthe
ai optical apath
ilai d' of the medium isaalways
ailai ilai i
a
dsaaslal l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a PaPda a d
a
PP greater than d PP PP PP PP PP PP

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
7. State the laws of refraction.
iai
saaslal a)The lailaincident
i ray,
lailai refracted laray
ilai and normal
lailai to thesaarefracting
lailai surface
lailai are all lailai l
ad adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas ad s adsaas adsaas adsaas
PP d
a
coplanar (ie. lie in the same plane).
iai b) i
aslaila ratio of i i iai i i ilaithe angle ilaireflection iai
adsaaslal d a
d saThe d a
d angle
saaslala of incident
d a
d saaslal i in the
d a
d saafirst
slala medium
d a
d saaslato d a
d saaslaof dadsaaslarl in adsaas
l
the second medium is equal to the ratio of refractive index of the second medium n2
iai iai iai iai iai iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal saslal saaslal alal alal lal l
adto
aadathat of the
adaadrefractiveaindex
daadsas of theafirst
daadsas medium
adaan
dsa1as adsaas
ad adsa adsa
a PP PP PP PP PP PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
=
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa aPa
8. What isPangle of deviation
P aPa
duePto refraction?
aPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai  Angle
aslaila between
i
aslailthe
ai incident
aslailaand deviated
i
aslaila light is called
i
aslaila angle aof
i deviation.
i i
slala aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai  When
lailai light travels
lailai from rarer
lailai to denser
lailamedium
i itladeviates
ilai towards
lailai normal.
lailai
saaslal sasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaas
l
aa
d aada
PaPdd PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
= i–r
iai
saaslal
sifasllight
ailai travels from
iai denser
saaslal
ito
saaslal
ai rarer medium iai
saaslal
it deviatesiai away afrom
saaslal
iai normalalailai
saslal l
ad d a
d a d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsas adsaas
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda PaPda
d=r–i
iai 9. aWhat iai lailai of reversibility?
lailai lailai i i i
adsaaslal saaslal is principle
d asaas d asaas asaas
d d adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
The principle of reversibility states that light will follow exactly the same path
iai ilai ilai iai iai iai i ai iai
adsaaslal if
dad asladirection
sits
a d a
d aslatravel
saof is
d a
dsaaslal
reversed. d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
10. What is relative refractive index?
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal dadsThe
a term d a
d s
a is called relative
d a
d s
a refractive
d a
d s
a index of
dads
asecond medium
d a
d s
a with respect
d a
d s
a to d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
iai thealfirst
iai medium. i ai = iai iai iai iai iai
a
d saaslal dadsasal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
11. Obtain the equation for apparent depth.
iai i i
aslala fromadthe la i i ala bottom i i
lalathe tanksaa i i i i i i i i
saaslal sLight saslaobject saslthe
O at sasof slala
passes from slala
sadenser saslal
medium a
adsaas
l
aad
PPadaada ada a
PP adaada PP adaada adaad
PP adaada PP adaada PP PP a
PP d
a
(water) to rarer medium (air) to reach our eyes.
iai ilai iai ailai i
aslailararer medium iai i
aslaila of incidence iai
saaslal  asladeviates
saIt saaslal fromdthe
away saaslnormal in sthe saaslal at the sapoint saaslal B. adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d ad d a
d a dad d a
d d a
d
The refractive index of the denser medium is n1 and rarer medium is n2.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa sa sa sa sa sa sa adsaas
l
PaPdHere, n1>nP2aPda
PP d
a
iai
 Thei angle
i of incidence
i i
in the
i i
denser medium
i i
is i andi ithe angle of
i i
refraction iini the
a a a a a a a
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPrarer
a medium
PaPa is r. PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai  laThe i lines NN and

i OD arelaiparallel.
i Thus i angle ∠DIB iis also r. The i angles i land i r
a
dsaaslal a
d s
a as ila a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a as la ads
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila ads
a aslaila adsaasaila adsaas
l
a a d
a
P Pare very small a d
a
P P as the diverginga d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a
PP light
P Pfrom O entering PP the eye P Pis very narrow. PP PP
iai  The iaSnell’s

i law iin
ai product form
iai for this irefraction
ai is,iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
n1 sini=n2 sinr
iai
saaslal Assaathe
slalaangles isaa
i i and
slala r are small,
i i
saaslal we can saaslal
iai iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad ad ad ad ad adsa adsa a
dsa adsaas
PP d
a
approximate, sin i≈ tan i;
iai i
aslailai=n2 tan iai iai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal nad1satan
d d a
d saraslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
In triangle
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal s s s Tan(i)= s and Ptan s s s adsaas
l
aad
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ada
PaPda
ad a aPda (r)=
a
d a
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ad a a
PP d
a
iai iai iai iain1 =n2alailai i ai iai iai

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal adsas a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
DB is cancelled on both sides, DO is the actual depth
iai i
aila aslaila
i laila i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal ddadsand
aasl DI is the
dadsaapparentddepth
adsaas d'.
l
ad ads
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai
saaslal
n1sas=n
laila2i aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
a
d ada adsa adsa adsa adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
PP d
a
=
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPad’= PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai i i i
laila is airsaand
laila ilaila index sn i
laila laila i ia i i
adsaaslal As
d slalararerdmedium
adsaathe adsaas d ad as its refractive
dadsaas d adaas2 can beataken
d adsaas as 1, (nd a2d=1).And
saaslal d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a PP a a
PP a a
PP a
the refractive index n1 of denser medium could then be taken as n, (n1=n).
adsaaslal d’=
dadsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
i ai d-d’=d-
aslaila
i or aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsa adsa adsa ads
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
PP d
a
d-d’=d( )
l
P12.
aPa Why doPastars twinkle?
a Pa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai The stars

iai actuallyiado
i not twinkle.
iai They appear
i ai twinkling
iai because of
iai the movement
iai
adsaaslal d adsaas
lal
d adsaas
lal
dadsaas
lal
d adsaas
lal
d adsaas
lal
d adsaas
lal
d adsaas
la l
d adsaas
l
a a a a
PP a
P Pof the atmospheric a a
layers
P P with varying
a a
P P refractive a
P P indices which
a a
PP a is clearly a
P P seen in P P
a a a
iai the lnight

iai sky. alailai i ai iai iai iai iai
saaslal saasal adsas saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d a
d a
d ad a
d a
d
a PaPa PaPda d
PaPa
13. What is critical angle and total internal reflection?
d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal
 sThe
aslailaangle ofsaincidence
i i i
slala insasthe
lailaidensersmedium
aslaila
i forswhich
aslaila the refracted
i iai
saslal
raysgraces
aslaila
i l
PP d
a
the boundary is called critical angle ic.
iai i
aslailaentire alight
adsaThe i ai iai lailaidensersamedium
aslaila
i ilai phenomenon iai
adsaaslal d d dsaaslal is reflected
d a
d saaslalback into
dadsaasthe d a
d itself.
d a
d saaslaThis d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
is called total internal reflection.
iai iai iai iai iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal 14. saslal saaslal saslal saslal l
adaadaObtain the
adaadequationadfor
aada criticaladangle. adsaas
s s s
aa
d
PP PP PP aada PP PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ada
PaPda
ad a a
PP d
a
Snell’s law in the product form, equation for critical
iai iai ailai iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d d saaslal incidence
angle
a d a
d saaslbecomes, d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
n1 sinic=n2 sin 90:
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a s
a a sa a sa a sa a sa a sa asa adsaas
l
PaPdn
a 1 sinic=n2PaPda
d d d d d d d d
PP d
a
iai sinica=ilai iai iai iai i ai iai iai

adsaaslal l
adsaasa a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
l
a PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
n1 > n2
iai Ifadsthe ailai lailai is air, sthen
lailai lailai indexsa i
asla1ilaand aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal aasl rarer medium
adsaas adaas its refractive
adsaas adis adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
can be taken as n itself. i.e. (n2=1) and (n1=n).
iai i i ilai lailai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d slala = or
saasini d a
dsaaiscla=sin -1 dadsaas d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa c
PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 15. Explain i the reason i for glittering i of diamond. i i i i

a
d saaslal a
dsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila ads
aaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a d
a
P P Diamond a d
a
P Pappears dazzling a
PP d
a a d
a a d
a
P P the totalPinternal
P a
PP d
a a d
a
P P happens P P a d
a
because reflection of light
iai
saaslal
inside iathe
saaslal
i diamond. iai The refractive
saaslal
iai
saaslal
index of
iaionly diamond
saaslal
iai is about
saaslal
ia2.417.
saaslal
i Itsis
aslamuch
ilai l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d a adsaas
larger than that for ordinary glass which is about only 1.5. The critical angle of
iai lailai is about
diamond i
laila24.4°. Itasis ailai lailai that ofsaglass.
lailai i i
adsaaslal asaas
d asaas d aaslmuch less
d
than
asaas d a as d adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
 A skilled diamond cutter makes use of this larger range of angle of incidence
iai iai i ai iai iai iai i
aslailadiamond
i
lailatotal
adsaaslal dadsaaslal to 90°dainside
(24.4° dsaaslal the diamond),
d a
dsaaslal tod a
d saaslal thatdlight
ensure adsaaslalentering
d a
d sathe d a
d saasis adsaas
l
internally reflected from the many cut faces before getting out as shown in Fig. This
i ai lailai lailai lailai lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sasa sasa asa sasa adsaas
l
aPdgives
aada a sparkling
aPdaada effectaPfor
daadsadiamond. s s s
aad
P P P aPdaada P PaPda
ada
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
a
d a a
PP d
a

a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
iai
saaslal
16.sWhat
aslaila are mirage
i iai and looming?
saslal
iai
saslal aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad ada ada ada adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
PP d
a
mirage looming
iai The alaila
i
refractive index i
alailaof air increases
alaila
i
with i
alailaIn the cold ilai
alaplaces the lailai
arefractive alaila
index i
saaslal dadsas dadsas dadsas dadsas dadsas dadsas dadsas adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad
its density. increases towards the ground because
iai lailai i
aslaila the ground
i
aslaila is hotter
i
aslaila the temperature
aslaila
i i
aslailaclose toadsthe
aslaila
i
adsaaslal Inadahot
adsaasplaces,aair adsnear
a adsa adsa adsa of
adsair
a a adsaas
l
a PP P Pda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
than air at a height. Hot air is less dense. ground is lesser than the temperature
iai ilai i i ilai iai iai lailai ailai
adsaaslal Hence,
d a
d saaslain still air
d a
d slalarefractive
saathe d a
d saaslaindex of
dadsaaslal aboved a
d saaslalsurfacedaof
the dsaasearth. Thus,
d a
d saaslthe adsaas
l
air increases with height. density and refractive index of air near
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
asaaslal a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a a sa adsaas
l
ad Because
a
PP d
a d of this,light
a
PP d
a d froma
PP tall
d
a d objects a
PPlike
d
a d the
PPground
a d
a d is greater
PPa d
a d than at
a
PP a
d
a dheight. a
PP d
a
iai a tree, passes

i i through
i i a mediumi whose
i iai iai iai iai
a a a
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a Prefractive
aPa index
PaPa decreases PaPatowards the PaPa In the
PaPacold regions PaPalike glaciersPaPa and PaPda
iai ground.
lailai i i i frozen lakes i and seas, thei reverselaeffecti
adsaaslal adsaasa adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila a
dsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
dsaas ila adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda
Hence, a ray of light successively deviates
a
PPda a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
of mirage will happen. PPada a
PP d
a
iai awayasfrom
lailai the normal
aslaila at different
i
aslaila layers aslailaHence, anaslinverted
i i ailai image
aslaila is formed
i
aslaillittle
ai
l
of air and undergoes total internal above the surface as shown in Fig. This
iai reflection i
aslaila whenadsthe ai
aslailangle
i
ofasincidence
aslaila
i
aslaila phenomenon
i
aslaila is called ai
aslaillooming. aslaila
i
adsaaslal dadsa d a d da d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
near the ground exceeds the critical angle.
iai i i
aslala an illusion
alala i i
alala i i
alala i i i ai iai iai
adsaaslal This
daadsagives daadsas as if the
daadsaslight comes
daadsas d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaP PaP PaP PaP PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
from somewhere below the ground. This
iai ailai ailai ailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sasla
phenomenon saasla mirage. sasla l
aPis
daadcalled adsaas
s s s s
aad
PaPdaada P aPdaada P PaPda
ada
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ad a a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 17. Write

lailai a shortlanotes
ilai on the
lailaprisms
i making
lailai use of
lailatotal
i internal
lailai reflection.
lailai
a
d saaslal d adsaasa d adsaasa d adsaasa d adsaasa d adsaasa dadsaasa d adsaasa d adsaas
l
a a a
P P Prisms P a a
P be designeda a
P P to reflecta a a a a
P Plight by 90PoPor by 180oPbya
P making usea a a
P P of total P P a
can
iai
saaslal
internal iai reflection
saaslal
iaas
saaslal
i shownlain iaiFig(a & b).
saas l
iIn
saaslal
ai the first two
iai cases,athe
saaslal
iaicritical angle
saslal
iai ic
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPao PaPa PaPa PaPda
for the material of the prism must be less than 45 .
iai asaThat i
aslaila this isastrue ailai lailai glass lailai flint glass. i ai used ato
lailai
adsaaslal d aasl for both
d
crown
asaas d
and
asaas dasaas
lailaPrisms arelailalso
asaas
d asas d d adsaas
l
PP d
a
invert images without changing their size as shown fig (c)
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
PP d
a
18. What is Snell’s window?
iai aslaila
i i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i ilai ilai lailai
a
d saaslal 
dadsaWhen light
d a
d saaslal
entering the
d a
d sawater fromd a
d soutside
a is seen
d a
d saaslafrom inside
d a
d saaslathe water,
d a
dsaasthe adsaas
l
view isi restricted toi a particulari angle equali to the critical angle ic. i
iai aila aila aila aila ailai aslaila aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a asl
a
dsaasl
ads
a asl
a
d s
a asl
a
d s
a asl
a
d s
a a
dsa adsaas
l
a P P The restricted
a d
a a
PPda illuminated
a
PP d
a circular
P P area is called
a d
a P P Snell’s window
a d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
iai 19. Write

ailai
a note on
ailai
optical fibre.
ailai iai iai iai iai
saaslal l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa saaslal saaslal
al
daadsas saaslal saaslal
Padasalai
ad a
d ad a
d a
d
a PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa
 Transmitting signals through optical fibres is possible due to the phenomenon of
P a
P d
PaPa d
PaPa
iai total internal

alaila
i reflection.
alaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsas adsas adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
 Optical fibres consists of inner part called core and outer part called cladding (or) PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal sleeving. iai
saaslal
i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
 The refractive index of the material of the core must be higher than that of the
iai cladding i
aslaila for total ai
aslailinternal aslaila
reflectioni
to aslaila
happen. i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a dads
a d a
d s
a dads
a dadsa d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
 Signal in the form of light is made to incident inside the core-cladding boundary
iai ai
aslailangle iai ailai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal at
d a
d saan d d saaslal than dthe
greater
a a
d saaslcritical d a
d saaslal
angle. d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 Hence, it undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas
l
PaPdfibre without
PaPda undergoing PaPda any refraction.
ad adsa a
d s
a a
d s
a adsa adsa adsa a
dsa
PP d
a
 The light travels inside the core with no appreciable loss in the intensity of the
l
PaPlight
iai
20. Explain
i i
the working
i i
of ani endoscope.
i i i i i i
adsaaslal a
d s
a aslala adsaaslala ads
a aslala a
d s
a aslala a
d s
a aslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a PaPd PaPda
a An endoscope aPda
is an Pinstrument aPda by doctors
used
P PaPda which has PaPdaa bundle P ofaPdoptical
a a
PP d
a
iai fibres that are used

lailai lailai
to see inside
lailai
a patient’s
lailai
body. i ai iai iai
adsaaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 Endoscopes work on the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai  The
lailaoptical
i fibres
lailai are inserted
lailai in to the
lailbody
ai through
lailai mouth, nose
lailai or a special
lailai
saaslal sasa sasa sasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaas
l
aa
d aada
PaPdhole aPdaada aPdaada PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
made in the body.
P P
iai
saaslal
sEven
aslaila operations
i iaicould bealcarried
saaslal
iai
sasal
out with
iai the endoscope
saaslal
iai
saaslal
cable which
iai
saaslal
has the
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d a d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
necessary instruments attached at their ends.
iai 21.asaWhat i lailai focus
aslaila are primary ailai secondary
land lailai focussaof ilai
laconcex lens?lailai aslaila
i
adsaaslal d asaas d asaas d asaas a as
d asaas d d adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
 The primary focus F1 is defined as a point where an object should be placed to
iai ilai i ai i
lailathe iai iai i ai iai
adsaaslal dadsaaslaparallel
give d d saaslal
emergent
a rays
d a
dsaasto d a
d saaslal axis.dadsaaslal
principal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 The secondary focus F2 is defined as a point where all the parallel rays travelling
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas
l
PaPdclose to the
PaPdprincipal axis
PaPda converge PaPto
da form anPimage on thePaPprincipal axis
ad a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a a
d s
a ads
a adsa a
d s
a
a a a aPda da PaPda a
PP d
a
22. What are the sign conventions followed for lenses?
l
Pai.
Pa The sign PaPofa focal lengthPaPa is not decided
PaPa on thePadirection ofPaP
measurement PaPaof the
a Pa a PaPda
iai focal ilength

i from ithe
i pole of the
i i lens as they
i i have twoi focal
i lengths,
i i one to thei left
i
saaslal lala lala lala lala lala lala lala l
ad d adsaas d adsaas d adsaas d adsaas d adsaas d adsaas d adsaas d adsaas
a P Pand another
a a P P to the right
a a P P (primary Pand
a a P secondary
a a P P focal lengths
a a P P on either
a a P Pside of theP P
a a a a
iai lens).
lailai iai i ai iai iai iai iai
saaslal adsaasa saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad a
d a
d a
d ad a
d a
d
a PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa
ii. The focal length of the thin lens is taken as positive for a converging lens and
d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai negative
aslaila for a diverging
i
aslaila
i lens.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a
23. Arrive at lens equation from lens maker’s formula.
iai asaLet i
aslailaus consider i ai ilai i ilai lailai n2 is splaced i
adsaaslal d d d a
d saaslal a thin dlens
a
d saaslamade upasof
d daaslaailamedium
d a
d saof
aslarefractive
d a
d saasindex d a
d aslaila in adsaasl
a
a medium of refractive index n1.
iai i i
aslalaR1 and aR lala i i alala i i
alala i i
alala surfaces
alala i i
alala i i i i
a
dsaaslal adsaLet
d 2asbe the radii
d dsa dadsasof curvature
dadsasof two spherical
dadsas dadsas 1 and 2
dadsas d adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa a
PP a
respectively and P be the pole
iai aslaila
i iai ailai iai iai lailai iai
adsaaslal 
d a
d saConsider a
d a
d saaslal object
point d a
dOsaaslon the d a
d saaslal axis.daThe
principal dsaaslalray which
d a
d saasfalls veryd a
d saaslal to P, dadsaasl
close
after refraction at the surface 1 forms image at I'.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal 
d a
d s
abefore it does
d a
d s
a so, it is d a
d s
again
a refracted
d adsa by the d a
ds
surfacea 2 . d a
d s
Therefore
a the d a
ds
finala image d adsaas
l
a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a
is formed at I.
iai i ia iai iai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
l
a a The general
d
PaP PaPa equation
d PaPfor
a the refraction
d d
PaPa at a Pspherical
d
aPa surface
PaPa is given
d from
PaPda PaPda
iai Equation
ailai i i i i i i
adsaaslal l
adsaasa adsaaslaila ads
l
a a
PP d
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai iai iai - =iai iai i ai iai iai

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
For the refracting surface 1, the light goes from n1 to n2
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai -ala=ilai ------1

alaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal adas
s adsas adsa adsa adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
For the refracting surface 2, the light goes from medium n2 to n1.
iai iai lailai iai iai iai iai iai
saaslal s-aasla=l asaasa saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
aad d
PaPa
a
d
P a-------2
Pdad d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d
PaPda
iai Adding i the above two

i equations i 1 and 2lailai i i i
adsaaslal aslaila
adsa aslaila
adsa aslaila as
adsa adsa adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a PaPda - PaPda
- PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

adsaaslal dadsa-aslal = d a
d saasla(l d )
a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
PP d
a
- = ( )
iai iai i ai alaila
i
alaila
i
alaila
i
alaila
i
alaila
i
saaslal -saasla=l ( saa(slal s
adsathe
)daIf object adsas adsas sas adsasfocus adaadsas al
PaPdais at infinity,
PaPda the image
PaPdis
aadformed Pat
aPdathe
aa
d dad d a
d)
PaPa PaPa PaP PP
iai of the
lailalens.
i Thus,laifor
lai u = ∞, vla=ilaif. Then the
lailaequation
i becomes
lailai i i
adsaaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
– =( )( )
l
Padasalai
a a a a a a a a
PaPa = (
a P)
aP(
a )------3
PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai If the
aslailarefractiveaslindex
i ailai of theasllens
ailai is n2 and
aslailabit is placed
i
aslailain air, then
i
aslailan2 = n and
i
aslan1
ilai =
l
PP d
a
1. So the equation (3) becomes,
iai ilai i ai iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saasla= (n-1)(
d a
d saaslal ) dadsaaslal dadsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
The above equation is called the lens maker’s formula,
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal a
d s
a a
d s
a a
d s
a ads
a a
d s
a ads
a adsa adsaas
l
a P24.
aPda ObtainPthe aPda equation PaPdfor
a lateral PaPmagnification
da PaPda for thin PaPlens.
da PaPda a
PP d
a
iai  Let us consider an object OO' of heightahila1i placed ailai

saaslal aslailai aslailai aslailai saasl saasl
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal al
aad d a
d s
a
a the principal
PaPon d
PaPa
a
d s
a a d
a a
d s
a a d
a a
d a d
a a
d a d
a a
d a d
a a
d a daadsas
axis with its height perpendicular
P P P P P P P P P P P P
iai to the
lailaprincipal
i axis
lailai as shown
lailain
i Figure. lailai i i i
adsaaslal adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaaslaila adsaaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda
 The ray OP passing through the pole of the lens PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
goes undeviated.
iai
saaslal
iThe
saaslal
ai inverted iareal
saaslal
i image iII’
saaslal
ai formedaslhas iai a heightalahil2a.i
sa al
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsas ad adsaas
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda d
PaPa PaPda
 The lateral or transverse magnification is defined as the ratio of the height of the
iai image lailai lailai of the object.
lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas to the aheight
l
ad dsaas adsaas adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
PP d
a
m= -----(1)
adsaaslal d a
d saaslald a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a P From the P
aPa two
aPa similar P triangles
aPa ∆ POO’and
PaPa ∆ PII’
PaPwe
a can write, PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai aslaila -----(2)

i i i i i i i
adsaaslal adsa adsaaslaila adsaaslaila ads
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai Applying
lailai sign sconvention,
lailai lailai i i i i
a
d saaslal adsaas adaas adsaas adsaaslaila adsaaslaila ads
l
PP d
a
= ------(3)
adsaaslal From
d a
d saaslal abovedequations
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
iai
m= i i = i i i i i i
adsaaslal aslala
adsa adsaaslaila a
dsaaslaila ads
aaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
After rearranging, m= =
iai iai i ai iai i i aslaila
i
aslaila
i iai
adsaaslal dadsaaslal magnification
The d a
d saaslal is negative
d a
dsaaslal for real
d a
d slala and
saaimage d a
d spositive
a for
d a
d sa
virtual image
d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
Magnification by combining the lens equation with the formula for magnification
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a s
a a sa a sa a sa a s
a a sa a s
a adsaas
l
PaPdas,
d d d d d d d d
PP d
a
iai m= lailai or m=
lailai iai iai iai iai iai
a
d saaslal dadsaas adsaas a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
25. What is power of a lens?
iai i i
aslala of aadlens a i i lala i i a i i
lala aslala i i ala i i i i
adsaaslal aadsapower
d d saaslal is a measure
dadsaas of the d dsaaslal of convergence
adegree d adsaas or
d adsadivergenced aasl light adaadsaasl
adsof
a a
PP a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a PP
falling on it.
l
Padasalai
PaPa Power of
a a a a a a a a
PaPthe
a lens isPinversely proportional to
PaPfocal length.
PaPaP= unitP:dioptre
a aPa PaPa a aPa PaPda
iai 26. Derive

lailai the equation
lailai for effective
lailai focal
lailailength for
lailalenses
i in lcontact.
ailai i
adsaaslal adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas
l
adsaaslaila
a PaPda PaPda PaPda  PaPda PaPda PaPda a
Let us consider two lenses 1 and 2 of focal lengthP P
da PaPda
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
i ai
saaslal
f andiai f2 are placed
saa1slal
iai coaxially
saaslal
iaiin contact
saaslal
iwith
saaslal
ai eachsasother
lailai l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d d a
d a adsaas
so that they have a common principal axis.
iai i i i Foraan ilai
object placed lailai lailai lailai
saaslal aslaila aslaila aslaila saasla asaas at O beyond
asaas the focus
asaasof the
l
a
d adsa adsa adsa d d d d adsaas
PP d
a
first lens 1 on the principal axis, an image is formed by it at I'.
iai i
aslaila imageadI' lailai as an object iai lailai ilai iai i i
adsaaslal 
d a
d saThis d saasacts d a
d saaslal for the
d a
d saassecond lens
d a
d saas2laand thed a
d saaslal imagedis
final ad slala
saaformed adsaas
l
at I as shown in Figure.
iai lailai lailai lailai lailai lailai lailai lailai
saaslal sasa aa saasa the measurements
sasa saasa done with sasa sasa adsaas
l
aad
P aadaAs theseaP
aPd two
daadsaslenses are
P aPdaadthin, P aPdaada aPdaadare
P aPdaada respectaPdto
P aadathe P P a
PP d
a
common optical centre P in the middle of the two lenses.
l
aad a Let, PO Pbe
PaP
d a
d aPaobject distance
d a
d
PaPa u andPPI'
d a
d aPa be the image
d a
d
PaPa distance
d a
d
PaP(v′)
da for thePa
a
d first
Pa lens
d a
d
PaPda
1and object distance for the second lens 2 and PI=v be the image distance for the
iai i
laila i laila i i i
laila i laila i laila laila laila
adsaaslal adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas
l
a P Psecond lens
a d
a P P2.
a d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
iai Writing
ailai
the lens aequation
ilai foraifirst
lai
lens 1,ailai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
- = ------(1) Writing the lens equation for second lens 2
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas
l
PaPda - = ------(2)
ad a
d s
a adsa adsa ads
a adsa adsa adsa
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai Adding
lailai the above
lailatwo
i equations
lailai i i i i
a
d saaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaaslaila adsaaslaila ads
l
PP d
a
- - =
l
PaPa - = PaPa -----(3) PaPa
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai If the combination

alaila
i
alaila
iacts as a single
alaila
i lens oflafocal
a ila
i length f so
alaila
i that forlaan
a ila
i object atlathe
a ila
i
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda
position O it forms the image at I then, PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai -saasla=ilai --------(4) i ai iai iai iai i ai iai

adsaaslal dad d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
Comparing equations 3 and 4
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
a PaPda = PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
The above
iai
saaslal
equation iai can be aextended
saaslal
iai
saslal
for iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
a
d dad d a
d d a
d d ad d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
any number of lenses in contact as,
iai i ilai
aslaila + adsaasla+……… aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a=
dsa ads
l
PP d
a
iai
27. What
i i
is angle of
i i
minimumi ideviation?i i iai iai iai
a a a a
saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal asaas
l
Padasalai
ad a
d a
d a
d a
d ad a
d a
d
a d
PaPThe
a minimum d d
PaPa value ofPaangle
Pa d
of deviation
PaPa d
is called d
PaPa angle ofPminimum
aPa d
deviation
PaPa D. PaPdad
iai 28. What

ailai
is dispersion?
ailai i i i i i
adsaaslal adsaasla adsaasla a
d s
a aslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
a PaPdDispersion
a da
PaPis aPdawhite light
splittingPof PaPdinto
a PaPda
its constituent PaPda This band
colours. PaPda of a
PP d
a
iai colours iai of lightais iacalled

i itsaspectrum.
iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saslal d a
d saslal dadsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
29. How are rainbows formed?
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal 
d a
d s
aWhen sunlight
d a
d s
a falls on d a
d s
the
a water drop
dads
a suspended d a
d s
a in air, it dads
splits
a (or dads
dispersed)
a d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
into its constituent seven colours. Thus, water drop suspended in air behaves as a
l
PaPglass prism.
iai  Primary
i ai rain bow
iai is formediawhen
i light ientering
ai
theiadrop
i undergoes
iai one total
iai
adsaaslal d adsaas
lal
d adsaas
la l
d adsaas
lal
d adsaas
lal
d adsaas
la l
d adsaas
lal
d adsaas
lal
d adsaas
l
a a a a
PP a
P Pinternal reflection inside
a a a
P a
P P the dropPbefore coming a
P P out fromPthe
a a
P drop
a a
PP a a
PP a
iai 30. What

lailai is Rayleigh’s
lailai scattering?
lailai iai i ai iai iai
saaslal adsaas adsaas adsaas saaslal saaslal sasl saaslal saaslal
aad
PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d aPdaada d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
ad
If the scattering of light is by atoms and molecules which have size a very less
P
iai
saaslal
than aslathat
ilai of the aslawave
ilai length aslaλilaof lightadsa<<λ,
i
aslaila the scattering
i
aslaila
i is called
aslailaRayleigh’s
i
aslaila
i l
aad a d
aadsa a d
a a
dsa a d
aads
a a d
a a a d
a a
d s
a a d
a a
d s
a a d
a a
d s
a a d
a adsaas
scattering.
iai 31.asaWhy i
aslaila doesasky iai iai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal d saaslalappearablue?
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
 According to equation I= violet colour which has the shortest wavelength
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a sa a sa a s
a a s
a a sa a sa a sa adsaas
l
PaPdgets muchPascattered during
PaPda day time.
d d Pda d d d d d d
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai  The
lailanext
i scattered
lailai colour la
isilablue.
i As our
lailaeyes
i are lamore
ilai sensitive
lailai to blue colour
lailai
saaslal sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaas
l
aa
d aada
PaPdthan aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
violet colour the sky appears blue during day time
P P P P
iai
saaslal
32.sWhat
aslaila is thesareason
i i i
slala forsreddish
aslaila
i appearance
iai
saslal
ofsasky
slala duringsasunset
i i i i
slala andsaslailai l
sunrise?
iai asaDuring i
aslaila sunrise ai sunset,
lailand ai light from
lailthe lailai sun travels
lailaia greater ilai
ladistance lailai
through
adsaaslal d asaas d asaas d asaas asaas
d asaas d asaas d d adsaas
l
PP d
a
the atmosphere.
iai i
aslaila theablue i ai iai iai iai i ai lailai
adsaaslal 
dadsaHence, d dsaaslal light which
d a
dsaaslalhas shorter
d a
d saaslalwavelength
d a
d saaslalis scattered
d a
d saaslalaway and
d a
d saasthe adsaas
l
less-scattered red light of longer wavelength manages to reach our eye.
saaslal sasa dsaas
a sasa aa aasa during dsaas
a saasa adsaas
l
aad
P aadaThis is the
aPd aPdaareason
P
foraPdthe
aada reddishaPappearance
P daadsas aPof
Pdaadssky aPdaasunrise
P
and
aPdaadsunset.P P a
PP d
a
33. Why do clouds appear white?
iai aslaila
i i ai lailai iai ilai iai aslaila
i
a
d saaslal dadsaIn clouds d a
d saaslal contains
which d a
d saaslarge amount
d a
d saaslalof dustdadsaaslawater
and d a
d saaslal
droplets. Thus,
d a
dsain adsaas
l
clouds iall the colours get equally scattered iirrespectivei of wavelength.
iai laila ilaila i laila laila i laila laila aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsa adsaas
l
a P PThis is thePreason
a d
a a
Pda for P
the
P whitish appearance
a d
a a
PP d
a of
P Pcloud.
a d
a a
PP d
a PaPda a
PP d
a
iai 34. What

ailai
are the asalient
ilai features
ailai
of corpuscular
ailai
theory
ailai
of light?
ailai iai
saaslal l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa al
daadsas
l
adsaasa saaslal
Padasalai
ad a
d
 According this theory, light is emitted as tiny, massless (negligibly small mass) P a
P PaPda d
PaPa
iai andalaperfectly
ilai elastic
alaila
i particles called
alaila
i corpuscles.
alaila
i As the
alaila
corpuscles
i are
alaila
i very small,
alaila
i
l
the source of light does not suffer appreciable loss of mass even if it emits light for a PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal longsaaslatime.
ilai i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
 On account of high speed, they are unaffected by the force of gravity and their
iai path ilai a straight
aslais ilai in a medium
aslaline aslaila
i i
aslaila refractive
of uniform i
aslaila index.adsThe
i
aslailaenergyadof ailai is sasl
asllight
a
a adsa a s
a ada
the kinetic energy of these corpuscles.
iai i
aslaila these aslaila
i iai ilai i
aslailaeye, theadsvision
i
aslaila is produced. iai
adsaaslal 
d a
d saWhen d a
d sacorpuscles d a
d saaslal
impinge ond a
d saaslaretina
the of
d a
d sthe
a d a d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
The different size of the corpuscles is the reason for different colours of light.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas
l
a When the PaPdacorpuscles PaPapproach a aPsurface between
PaPda two media, PaPda they are PaPdeither
s s s s s s s
PaPd
aad a
d a ad a daad a daad a a
d a a
d a aa
d a a d
a
P PP
attracted or repelled.The reflection of light is due to the repulsion of the corpuscles
aad
PaPby
d a
a the medium
d d a
PaPa and refraction
d d
PaPa
a
d of light
d a
PaPa is due toPthe
d d a
aPa attraction
d d a
PaPaof the corpuscles
d d
PaPa
ad by PaPdaada
iai
the medium.
i i i i i i i i
adsaaslal a
d s
a aslala a
dsaaslaila a
d s
l
a PaPd35.
a WhatPis aPdawave theory PaPda of light? PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai Light is a disturbance

lailai lailai
from alasource
ilai thatlatravels
ilai as longitudinal
lailai
mechanical
lailai
waves
lailai
saaslal sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasl
aad aada
PaPdthrough aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada
the ether medium that was presumed to pervade all space as mechanical
P P P P P P P
iai wave
aslailarequires a
i medium
i i
slala
for aits i propagation
slala
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 36. What

lailai is electromagnetic
lailai lawave
ilai theory
lailaof
i light? lailai i i
a
d saaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa ads
aaslaila
adsaasa adsaaslaila
adsaasa adsaas
l
aPda
 Light is an electromagnetic wave which is transverse in Pnature carrying PaPda
PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
electromagnetic
iai
saaslal
energy.
i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
 No medium is Necessary for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
iai 37.asaWrite i
aslaila a short ilai
lanote iai
onaquantum theorylailai of light. lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal d asaas d saaslal asaas
d asaas d d adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
 Plank was able to explain photoelectric effect in which light interacts with matter
iai aslaila
i i
aslaila the electrons.iai iai iai i ai iai
adsaaslal as
dadsaphotons to
d a
d seject
a d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 A photon is a discrete packet of energy. Each photon has energy E of, E = hv
saaslal sasa h is Plank’s
sasa constant sasa adsaasa saasa sasa sasa adsaas
l
aad
P aPdWhere,
aada aPdaada
P aPdaada and v is
P aPdafrequency of
aPdaadelectromagnetic
P aPdaada wave.
aPdaada
P P P a
PP d
a
 As light has both wave as well as particle nature it is said to have dual nature.
iai aslaila
i i ai iai iai iai iai iai
a
d saaslal 
dadsaLight d d saaslal as a dwave
propagates
a a
d saaslaland interacts
d a
d saaslal withdmatter
adsaaslal as a dparticle.
a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
38. What is a wavefront?
iai i
aslaila
i
aslaila aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsa ads
a a
d s
a adsa adsa a
dsa adsaas
l
a PaPda A wave PaPdfront
a is the
PaPlocus
da of points
PaPda which are PaPdain the same PaPdastate or phasePaPda of a
PP d
a
iai vibration.
ailai iai i ai iai iai iai iai
saaslal l
adsaasa saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad a
d a
d a
d ad a
d a
d
a PaPda d
PaPa
39. What is Huygens’ principle?
d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai According
alaila
i to Huygens
alaila
i principle,
alaila
i each point
alaila
iof the wavefront
alaila
i is the source
alaila
i ofalailai
l
secondary wavelets emanating from these points spreading out in all directions PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal withsaaslathe
ilai speed aof
saslalthe wave.
i ai
saasThese
lailai are scalled
aslaila as secondary
i iai wavelets.
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d dada d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
40. What is interference of light?
iai ailai phenomenon
aslThe aslaila
i i
aslaila or superposition
of addition aslaila
i
of ilai light waves
aslatwo
i
aslaila which aslaila
i
a
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
produces increase in intensity at some points and decrease in intensity at some
iai iai i i iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d d saaslal pointsdis
other
a ad slala interference
saacalled d a
d saaslal ofd a
d saaslal
light. d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
41. What is phase of a wave?
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas
l
a Phase isPathePda angularPa position of PaaPvibration.
s s s s s s s
PaPd
ad a
d a a
d a ad a ad a ad a ad a a
d a
a Pda da PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
 Phase is a particular point in time on the cycle of a waveform, measured as an
l
PaPangle in degrees
iai
42. Obtain
i i
the relation
i i
between
i i
phase difference
i i
and
i i
path difference.
i i i
adsaaslal adsaaslala a
dsaaslala ads
a aslala adsaaslala a
d s
a aslala adsaaslala adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a d
a a
PP d
P P Phase difference
a is P
the
a d
P difference
a a d
P Pin phase angle
a a d
P P between
a a d
P Ptwo waves,
a a d
P Pmeasured P P
a a d
a
iai in degree
lailai
or radian
lailai iai iai i ai iai iai
saaslal adsaasa adsaasa saaslal saaslal saaslal
sasl saaslal saaslal
aad
PaPda PaPda d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPaaPdaada
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d
 Path difference is the difference in path traversed by the two waves , measured in
P
iai terms
aslaila of Wavelength
i
aslaila
i of the lassociated
asaila
i
awave.
i i
slala aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai A lpath i difference i δ corresponds i to a phase i difference iϕ i i

a
d saaslal ads
a asaila adsaaslaila adsaslaila
l
PP d
a
δ= ϕ = δ,
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
43. What are coherent sources?
iai ailai light ssources
aslaila
i i
aslailato be coherent
i
aslaila if they ilai i
aslaila which aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsaaslTwo ad a are a
dssaid
a ads
a adsaaslaproduce waves
adsa adshave
a adsaas
l
PP d
a
same phase or constant phase difference, same frequency or wavelength
iai iai i ai iai i i i
aslaila amplitude. i ai iai
adsaaslal d dsaaslal
(monochromatic),
a d a
d saaslal samedwaveform
a
dsaaslal and
d a
d slala
saapreferablyd a
d ssame
a d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
44. What is intensity division?
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa s
a s
a s
a s
a s
a s
a adsaas
l
aad a
PP 
d
aad If we allow
a
PP d
a a
dlight to pass
a
PP d
a a
d through a
a
PP d
apartially
a
d silvered
PPa d
aad mirror
a
PP d
a (beam
a
d splitter),
PPadaa
d both a
PP d
a
reflection and refraction take place simultaneously.

iai iia i ia i ia i ia iai iai iai
aa
d ad
a As the two
d
PaP
a
d
PaPa light beams
d a
d
PaPa are obtained
d a
d
PaPa from the
d ad
PaPsame
da a
d
lightPsource,
d
aPa aPa dividedPaPdaada
the Ptwod a
d
iai lightabeams
ilai will abe
ilaicoherent abeams.
ilai Theyailwill
ai be either
ailai
in-phase aor
ilaiat constant
ailai
adsaaslal d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d adsaas
l
a a a a a
P Pphase difference
PP a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
iai 45. How

alaila
i does wavefront
alaila
i division
alaila
i provide
alaila
icoherentlasources?
a ila
i
alaila
i iai
saaslal adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad a
d
 Wavefront division is the most commonly used method for producing two PaPda PaPda d
PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal coherentiai sources.
saaslal saaslal We know
iai
saaslaalpoint source
iai
saaslal produces
i ai
saaslaspherical
ilai
swavefronts.
aasl
ailai iai
saaslal l
ad ad ad ad ad ad ad ad adsaas
PP d
a
 All the points on the wavefront are at the same phase. If two points are chosen on
iai the ailai ai
aslailusing iai ilai pointsawill iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslwavefrontd a
d saby a adouble
d dsaaslal slit,dthe
ad
two
saasla d a
d saslal act as
d a
d
coherent
saaslal sources.
d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
46. How do source and images behave as coherent sources?
saaslal aslal
sSource and aslal
simages: In this l
saslamethod aslal
assource and sits l
aslaimage will al
saslact as aaset aslal
daadsaof adsaas
l
aa
d
PPadaada adaadaPP adaada PPadaada adaada
PP adaada PP PP PP a
PP d
a
coherent source, because the source and its image will have waves in-phase or
iai iai lailai iai iai iai iai iai
constant
a phase
d a
d saasdifference.
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 The Instrument, Fresnel’s biprism uses two virtual sources as two coherent
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a s
a a s
a a s
a a sa asa a s
a asa adsaas
l
a d a
PP sources
d
a d and
a
PP d
athe
d instrument,
a
PP d
a d Lloyd’s a
PPdmirror
a d uses
a
PP a
d
a dsource and
a
PP d
a its
d virtual a
PPimage
d
a d as a
PP d
a
iai two coherent

i i sources.
i i iai iai i ai iai iai
a a
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
a P47.
aPa What isPabandwidth
Pa ofa interference
PaP PaPa pattern? PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai Thelabandwidth
ilai (β)
lailai
is defined as the distance
lailai lailai
between any two consecutive
lailai lailai
bright
lailai
saaslal sasa sasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaas
l
aad aada
PaPdor aPdaada PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
dark fringes.
P
iai 48. What

aslaila is diffraction?
i
aslaila
i iai iai i ai iai iai
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp edges into the geometrically
iai lailai
shadowed region.lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal asaas
d asaas d adsa ads
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 49. Differentiate

lailai labetween
ilai Fresnel
lailai and Fraunhofer
lailai ldiffraction.
ailai lailai i
a
d saaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
S Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction
iai i
aslaila Spherical ilai iai iai i iai
aslaila frontadundergoes iai
adsaaslal d a
d sa1. d a
d saaslaor d d saaslal wavedfront
cylindrical
a adsaaslal Planed a
dsawave d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
undergoes diffraction diffraction
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PaPda 2. Light
PaPdawave is from PaPda a source at Light
PaPda wave isPfrom aPda a source PaPdat
aad a
d a a
d a a
d a daada a
d a a
d a aad a d
a
PaP a
PP
finite distance infinity
d saaslal a
dsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa 3.
d For
PaPlaboratory
d
a Pconditions,
d
aPa Pconvex
d
aPa InPaP
laboratory
da Pconditions,
d
aPa convex
P d
aPa PaPda
i ai ailai
lenses need ailai
not be used i ailai
lenses are ailai
to be usedailai i
adsaaslal a
d s
a asl
adsaasl
adsaslaila
a adsaasl
a
d s
a asl
a
d s
a asl a
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
a PaPda 4. PaPda PaPda PaPda
difficult to observe and analyses aPda to observe
Easy
P PaPda and analyses
PaPda a
PP d
a
iai 5. iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
dsa ads
l
PP d
a
50. Discuss the special cases on first minimum in Fraunhofer diffraction.
iai lailai lailai i ai iai ilai ilai iai
saaslal saasus saasthe saaslalfor first saaslal saasla(n saaslaθ saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
aad Let
d
PaPa
a
d consider
d
PaPa
a
d condition
d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
dminimum with
d
PaPa
ad = 1) a
d
PaPa
a
dsin = λ d
PaPa
a
d
PaPda
iai Thelafirst i minimum ihas an angular i spread of,

i sin θ= lailai i i
adsaaslal adsaas ila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a as a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
special cases for above condition
a
iai
saaslal asaWhen
aslaila a < λ,
i
a sathe
aslailadiffraction
i
a saaslais
ilainot possible,because
a
iai
saaslal a saaslasinθ
ilai can never
a saaslal be greater
iai
a saaslal than dadsaasl
iai
a d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d
1.
iai i
aslaila a ≥ λ,
i
aslailadiffraction laila i laila i
aslaila = 1 i.e,adsθ
i
aila 0 i
laila i
a
dsaaslal adsaWhen
d d adsathe d adsaas is possible.
dadsaas For a = dλ,
adsasinθ d aasl= 90 . That
dadsaasmeans adaadsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a PP
the first minimum is at 90o. Hence, the central maximum spreads fully in to the
iai iai aslaila
i iai lailai ilai iai i i
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal
geometrically d a
d sshadowed
a d a
d saaslal leading
region d a
d saasto bending
d a
d slathe
saaof d a
d saaslal lightdto
diffracted ad slala
saa90: adsaas
l
 For a >> λ, sinθ << 1 i.e, the first minimum will fall within the width of the slit
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PaPditself. ThePdiffraction will
PaPda not be noticed
PaPda at all.PaPda
ad ad a aPdaad a a
d a a
d a a
d a ad a a
d a
a a PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
 When a > λ and also comparable, say a = 2λ,
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
a PaPasin PaPa
= = PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai aslaila
i These ailai practical
lare ilai
lacases where ai
laildiffraction ilai
lacould iai
beaobserved lailai
effectively.
adsaaslal adsa asaas
d asaas d asaas d asaas saaslal
d asaas d d adsaas
l
PP d
a
51. What is Fresnel’s distance? Obtain the equation for Fresnel’s distance.
iai aslaila
i iai aslaila
i ilai i i lailai in terms iai
adsaaslal 
d a
d saFresnel’s d a
dsaaslal is the
distance d a
d sadistance up
d a
d aslawhich
sato the
d a
d slala optics
saaray d a
dis
saasvalid d a
d saaslal of adsaas
l
rectilinear propagation of light.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai  Aslailthere
ai is bending
lailai of light
lailin
ai diffraction,
lailai the rectilinear
lailai propagation
lailai of light
lailais
i
l
aa
d aada
PaPdviolated. PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
sBut,
aslaila this bending
i iai is not significant
saaslal
iai
saaslal
till the
iai diffracted
saaslal
iray
saaslal
ai crosses ithe
saaslal
ai central iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d a d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
maximum at a distance z
iai asaHence, i lailaidistance
aslaila Fresnel’s lis i distance
ailathe i
lailaupto which i
lailaray aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal d asaas d asaas d asaas asaas
d d adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
optics is obeyed and beyond which ray optics is not obeyed
iai ilai ilai aslaila
i iai iai i ai iai
adsaaslal dadsaaslawave
but, optics
d a
d saaslabecomes d a
dssignificant.
a d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
i ai From the diffraction

ailai ailai
equation for first minimum,
ailai ailai i i i
adsaaslal l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa ads
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
PP d
a
sin ; -------(1)
a
d saaslal d dsaaslal the definition
From
a d a
d saaslal of Fresnel’s
d a
d saaslal distance,
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
Sin2 ; …., ….,(2)
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
dsa ads
l
a PaPdFrom
a equation
PaPda 1 and 2 PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai After irearranging,

ai iawe
i get Fresnel’s
i ai distance
iai z as iai iai iai
saaslal adsaas
lal
adsaas
lal
adsaas
lal
adsaas
lal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad ad a
d a
d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai i i
aslala lala i i lala i i
ala lala i i lala i i lala i i i i
adsaaslal 52.
dadsaMention the
d adsaasdifferences
d adsaasbetweend aasl
adsinterference
d adsaasand diffraction.
d adsaas d adsaas d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
S. INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
iai i i i ai ilai iai lailai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d slala Superposition
saa1. d a
d saaslal of dtwo
a
d saaslawaves dadsaaslal Bending
d a
d saasof waves d a
d saaslal edges
around d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a2.
lailai Superposition i of waves
iai aslaila from adsaaslailaSuperposition
aslaila wavefronts
aslaila emitted aslafrom
i i i i ilai
a
dsaaslal a
d s
a s a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a a
d s
a ads
a adsa adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
two coherent sources. various points of the same wavefront.
iai i i lailai iai iai ilai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d slala Equally
saa3. d a
d saasspaced d d saaslal
fringes
a d a
d saaslal Unequally
d a
d saaslaspaced d a
d saaslal
fringes d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
4. Intensity of all the bright fringes Intensity falls rapidly for higher orders
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa isPalmost
adsa same adsa adsa adsa adsa a
dsa adsaas
l
a PaPda aPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
5. Large number of fringesi are Less numberi of fringes are obtained i

iai iai iai ia iai ia i ia ia
adsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
l
a d
PaPa obtained
d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai 53. What

ailai
is a diffraction
ailai
grating?
ailai i i i i
adsaaslal l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
PP d
a
Grating has multiple slits with equal widths of size comparable to the wavelength of
iai
saaslal diffracting
iai
saaslal light.
saaslaGrating
ilai issaaslplane
ailai sheet saaslof
ailatransparent
i
saaslal material
i ai
saason
lailaiwhich opaque iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d a d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
rulings are made with a fine diamond pointer.
iai i
aslaila are resolution
54.adsaWhat aslaila
i
and ilai
aslaresolving lailai
aspower? aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
a PaPda aPda P aPda P aPda P aPda P PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai  Optical
lailai resolution
lailai describes
lailathe
i abilitylaof
ilai imaging lsystem
ailai to resolve
lailai detail lainilathe
i
a
d saaslal adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda
object that is being imaged. PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal  saThe
aslailainverse
i
saof
aslaresolution
ilai
saasis
lailacalled
i resolvingiai power.
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
 The ability of an optical instrument to separate or distinguish small or closely
iai i
alaila objects ila i
ila alaila
i laila i
alaila power lailthe
a i i i
adsaaslal adjacent
dadsas
alathrough
dadsas
the
alaimage
dadsas
formation
dadsas
is dsaid
adsaas to be resolving
dadsas
aof
dadsas d adsaas
l
PP a
instrument.
iai ailai ailai ailai ailai iai i ai iai
adsaaslal asla
55.adsaWhat l
adsaasa
is aRayleigh’s criterion?l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPda P Pda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
According to Rayleigh’s criterion, for two point objects to be just resolved,the
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a sa a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a a saasl
P PminimumPdistance between their Pdiffraction images must PbeP in such a Pway P that theP P
a d a d
a d a
P d
a d a d
a d a d
a d a d
a d a d
a d adad a d
a d
PP P PP
iai central
iai maximumiaof
i one coincides
iai with the
iai first minimum
iai of the other
iai and vice
iai
saaslal saslal adsaas
lal
adsaas
lal
adsaas
lal
adsaas
lal
adsaas
la l
adsaas
lal
adsaas
l
aa
d aada
PaPdversa PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda
iai 56. What

lailai is polarisation?
lailai i i i i i
adsaaslal adsaas adsaas
a
d s
l
a PaPda PaPda
ada
The phenomenon ofP PrestrictingPthe
aPda
vibrations PaPdaof light PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
tosaaslaparticular
ilai direction
iai
saaslal
perpendicular
i ai
saaslal
to ithe
saaslal
ai direction iaof
saaslal
i wave propagation
iai
saaslal
motion
iai
saaslal l
adsaas
Padasalai
ad d a
d a d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
is called polarization of light.
iai i
57.asaDifferentiate
aslaila ilai
aslabetween polarised
aslaila
i and ai
aslailunpolarised
i
aslaila light adsaaslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal da d daadsa daadsa daadsa daadsa da adsa adsaas
l
a PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP PaPda a
PP d
a
S Polarized light unpolarised light
iai ailai i ai iai iai ilai i
aslaila their i i
adsaaslal d a
d saasl1. Consists
d a
d saaslaofl wavesd a
d saaslal
having their
dadsaaslal Consists
d a
d saaslaof waves
d a
d sahaving d a
d slala
saaelectric adsaas
l
electric field vibrations in a single Field vibrations equally distributed in
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal d a
d s
a planed a
dnormal
s
a to the
d adsa direction daof
ds
a all directions
d a
d s
a normal
dads
a to the ddirection
adsa d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
ray. of ray.
l
PaPa 2. Asymmetrical Pabout
aPa the ray Symmetrical about
PaPa the ray direction.
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaP a PaPda
iai direction. i i
saaslal a lailai aslala aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad a
d s
a s adsa a
d s
a adsa adsa adsa a
dsa adsaas
a PaPda 3. It P da
isaPobtained PaPda unpolarised
from PaPda PaPda
Produced PaPda
by conventional Pda
Palight a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal a lailai light with a lailthe
ai help of a lapolarisers.
ilai a lailai sources. i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d d a
d dad adsaas
iai
saaslal
58.sDiscuss
aslaila
i polarisation
iai
saslal
by selective
iai
saslal
absorption.
iai
saslal
iai
saslal aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad ada ada ada ada ada adsa adsa adsaas
PP d
a
 Selective absorption is the property of a material which transmits waves
iai iai iai fields avibrate
iai i
aslaila parallel ilai a certain ilai aslaila
i
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal whosedaelectric
dsaaslal d a
d saslal in aadsaplane
d d a
d saaslato d a
d saasladirectiond a
d sof
a adsaas
l
orientation and absorbs all other waves.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai  The i polaroids i or polarisers i are thin commercial

i sheets
i which i make use ofi the
a
d saaslal a
dsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila ads
aaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
property of selective absorption to produce an intense beam of plane
iai iapolarised
i light.
iai Selective iaiabsorption iais
i also called iai as dichroism. iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
59. What are polariser and analyser?
iai asathe i
aslailaPolaroid lailai plane
which lailai
polarises ilai
thelaunpolarised ai
laillight passing i
lailathrough ilai
itlais
adsaaslal d asaasd asaas d asaas asaas d asaas d asaas d d adsaas
l
PP d
a
called a polarizer
iai i
aslailapolaroid lailai is used iai ilai lailai of light ilai ilai
adsaaslal 
dadsaThe d a
d saaswhich d a
dsaaslalto examine
d a
d saaslawhether d a
d saaasbeam d a
d saaslais polarised
d a
d saaslaor not daadsaasl
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaP
is called an analyser.
saaslal 60. sasa adsaasa polarised,
sasa unpolarised
sasa anddpartially
sasa sasa sasa adsaas
l
aad
PaPdaadaWhat are
aPdaplane
P aPdaada P aPdaada aPaadaP
polarised
aPdaada light?
aPdaada
P P P a
PP d
a
 Plane polarized: if the vibration of a wave are present in only one direction in a
iai iai i ai i i i i lailai lailai iai
saaslal saaslal perpendicular
saaslal to the slala
saadirection slala
saapropagation saasof saasis saaslal adsaas
l
aa
d plane
d
PaPa
ad d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPaof
a
d d
PaPa
a
d the wave
d
PaPa
a
d said tod
PaPa be
a
d
PaPda
polarized or plane polarised light
iai i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a a
dsa ads
a a
d s
a a
d s
a a
d s
a adsa adsaas
l
a P P Unpolarised
a d
a P P : a transverse
a d
a a
PP d
a wavePwhich
a
P d
a has vibrations
a
PP d
a inPall
aP directions
d
a P Pin a planeP P
a da a d
a
iai perpendicular toathe direction of propagation is said ato be unpolarised light. ailai
saaslal aslailai asl ilai aslailai aslailai asl ilai aslailai al al
s s s s s s daadsas daadsas
Padasalai
ad aad a daad a daad a daad a daada daad a
a PaPd P a P a P a
P P a
Partially polarised light: vibration is in all directions but the amplitude is more in
P P P P a
P P a
P P a
P
iai onealadirection
ilai as compared
alaila
i to the
alaila
i other. lailai
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsas adsas aadsas adsas adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda
61. State and obtain Malus’ law. PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal When
saaslal a beam
iai
saasof
lailaplane
i polarised iai light aof
saaslal saslalintensity
iai
saaIs0lais
ilaiincidentaon
saslal an analyser,
iai
saaslal the dadsaasl
iai
aad d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d d a
d
light transmitted of intensity I from the analyser varies directly as the square of the
iai cosine lailai lailaiθ between lailai lailai lailai lailai aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas of the aangle adsaas the transmission axis
adsaasof polariser
adsaasand
l
a
d dsaas adsaas adsa adsaas
PP d
a
analyser .This is known as Malus’ law.
adsaaslal d a
d saaslalI=Iocosd2adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
62. List the uses of polaroids.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas
l
PaPdPolaroid’s PaPare
da used in
ad adsa a
d s
a adsa adsa adsa adsa a
dsa
PP d
a
1. Goggles and cameras to avoid glare of light.
l
PaP2.
a Three dimensional motion pictures
PaPa i.e., in holography.
a PaPa P aPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai
3. Improve contrast in old oil ipaintings.
saaslal a lailai a l ailai aslala
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad dadsa s d a
dsa s dads
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d adsaas
a P P4. Optical Pstress
a a a
P a analysis.a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
iai 5. Window
lailai
glasses to controllathe
lailai ilai intensity of incoming
lailai
light
lailai iai iai
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
6. Polarised laser beam acts as needle to read/write in compact discs (CDs). PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai 7. aPolaroids
i i
slala
produce
aslaila polarised
i
aslaila lights toaslbe
i ailaiused in liquid
aslaila crystalasldisplay
i ailai (LCD).
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 63. State

lailai Brewster’s
lailai law. i ii i i
a
d saaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaslaila
a a
a
dds
s
aaaslaila
aslaila adsa
adsaaslaila
aslaila adsaas
l
PaPdais equal to
The tangent of the polarising angle for a transparent medium PaPda
PaPdits
a a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
refractiveiai
saaslal
index. n=tani
i ai
saaslal p iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
a aPa
P64. What is P
aPa PaPa
angle of polarisation PaPa the equation
and obtain PaPa for angle a
PaPof PaPa
polarisation. PaPda
iai The
aslailaangle of
i incidence
lailai atawhich
lailai a beam aslailof
ai unpolarised
aslaila lightadfalling
i
aslaila on a adsaaslaila
i i
adsaaslal adsa adsaas a
dsas ads
a adsa s
a adsaas
l
PP d
a
transparent surface is reflected as a beam of plane polarised light is called
iai iai
polarising angle ilaiBrewster’s iai iai iai i ai iai
d saaslaor d a
dsaaslal angle.dadsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
rp+ ip+90: =180:
i ai i i
ala p aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal draapds=90:-i
aasl adsa adsa adsa ads
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
a PaP PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
65. Discuss about pile of plates.
iai i
aslailaphenomenon i ai iai aslaila
i i
aslaila in theadsaaslaila
i iai
a
d saaslal 
dadsaThe d a
d saaslal of polarisation
d a
d saaslal by
d a
d reflection
sa dis
a
d saused d d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
construction of pile of plates.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
aad a It consists
PaPd
a
d a
PaPdaof a number
a
d a
PaPda of glass plates
a
d a
PaPda placedPaone
a
d a
Pda over the
a
d a
PaPdother
aad a in a Ptube
aPda as
a
d a a
PP d
a
showniin Fig.
iai ia iai i ai iai iai iai iai
Padasalai
aad a
d
a The plates
d
PaP
a
d
PaPaare inclined
d a
d
PaPa at an angle
d a
d ad
PaPaof 33.7: (P90:-56.3:
d d
aPa )Pto a
d
aPathe axis of
d a tube. PaPdaada
the
PaPd a
d
iai  A abeam
ilai of unpolarised
ailai
light is allowedato
ailai ilai fall on theailpile
ai of plates along theaaxis
ailai ilai of
adsaaslal d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d adsaas
l
a a a a
P Pthe tube. So, a a
P P the anglePof a a
P incidencePofa a
P light willPbea
P at 56.3: P a a
which
P a a
is thePpolarising
P a
PP a
iai angle iafor

i glass. lailai iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa
 The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence are reflected at each
d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal surface
saslal and those
iai
saslal parallel sto
iai aslaitilaare transmitted.
i iai
saslal aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
a
d ada ada ada ada adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
PP d
a
 The larger the number of surfaces, the greater is the intensity of the reflected
iai plane iai ailai iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal polarised
d a
d saasllight. d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 The pile of plates is used as a polarizer and also as an analyser.
iai i ai iai iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal 66. aslal is double
sWhat saslal refraction?
saslal s s s s adsaas
l
aad adaada
PP adaadaPP adaada PP PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
a
d a a
PP d
a
When a ray of unpolarised light is incident on a calcite crystal, two refracted rays
iai ailai i
aslaila twoadsimages
i
aslaila of aadsingleiai i
aslailaformed.
i
aslaila phenomenon iai
adsaaslal are
d a
d saaslproduced.d a
d saHence, d a d saaslal object
d a
d saare d a
d saThis dadsaaslal is adsaas
l
called double refraction
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a s
a asa a s
a a sa a s
a a sa a sa adsaas
l
P67.
aPda Mention the
a typesPof aPdaopticallyPactive crystals
PaPda with example.
d d d d d d d d
a PaPd aPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
 Crystals ilai
like calcite,ilai
quartz,i tourmaline
i and ice having
ilai ilai
only one ioptic i axis are iai
a a
adsaaslal a
called
d a
d
la
sas uniaxial d a
d a sl a
sacrystals. d a
d a
sas l a l
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d a
sas la
d a
d a
sasl a l
d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite having two optic axes are called
i biaxial i i i i i i i
ad
ia
saaslal a
d saaslaila crystals.
a
d s
a aslaila a
d saaslaila ads aslaila
a a
d saaslaila a
d saslaila
a a
d saaslaila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP da

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 68. Discuss

lailai about
lailNicol
ai prism.
lailai i i i i
a
d saaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa aa
ds
a
dsaaslaila
aslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
ada
 Nicol prism is an optical device incorporated in optical P P PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
instruments
iai
saaslal
both iafor
saaslal
i producing iai and analysing
saaslal
iai
saaslal
plane iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
polarized light.
iai asaThe i lailai of a Nicol
aslailaconstruction ai
lailprism ailai on thesaphenomenon
isasbased lailai ilai Double alailai
laof
adsaaslal d asaas d asaas d aasl d a as asaas d asas d d adsaas
l
PP d
a
refraction and was designed by William Nicol
iai i
aslailaof the amost i ai lailai of the ilai ilai lailai a calcite iai
adsaaslal 
dadsaOne d dsaaslal commond a
dsaasforms d a
d saasla
Nicol prism
d a
d saasla
is made dby
a
d saastaking d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
crystal which is a double refracting crystal with its length three times its breadth.
saaslal sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa asacut into atwo
sasa adsaas
l
aad
P aadaABCD represents
aPd aPdaada
P
theaPdprincipal
aada P
section
aPdaada of a calcite
aPdaada crystal.aPdaIt
P
adsais
P aPdada P P a
PP d
a
halves along the diagonal so that their face angles are 72: and 108:. The two halves
iai ailai i ai iai lailai iai aslaila
i iai
a
d saaslal are
dadsaasljoined d d saaslal by a dlayer
together
a a
d saaslalof canada
d a
d saasbalsam, a
d a
d saaslal
transparent d a
d scement.
a d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
69. Howi is polarisation of lighti obtained by scatteringi of light? i
iai aila ailai aila ailai aslaila aslaila aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a asl
a
dsaasl
ads
a asl
a
d s
a asl
a
d s
a a
d s
a a
dsa adsaas
l
a P P The light
a d
a P Pfrom a clear
a da P Pblue portion
a d
a P P of the sky
a d
a shows a rise
a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
iai and afall

ilai of intensity
ailai
when viewed
ailai
through a polaroid awhich
ailai ilai iai iai
saaslal l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad a
d a
d
a PaPda
is rotated. PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai  This
alaila
iis because ofi sunlight,
alaila
which
alaila
i hasalchanged
ailai itsalailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas adsa adsa adsaas
l
direction (having been scattered) on encountering the molecules of the earth’s PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal atmosphere.
iai
saaslal
i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
 As Figure shows, the incident sunlight is unpolarised. The electric field of light
iai lailai with the
interact lailai i i ilai molecules.
lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas electrons
adsaapresent
slala inadthe
saaslaair l
a
d adsaas adsaas ads
a adsa adsaas
PP d
a
 Under the influence of the electric field of the incident wave the electrons in the
molecules
a d d saaslal components
acquire
a d a
d saaslal of motion
d a
d saaslalin bothdathese
dsaaslal directions.
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 We have shown an observer looking at 90° to the direction of the sun. Clearly,
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas
l
PaPdcharges accelerating parallel do notPaPdradiate energy
PaPda towards PaPthis
da observer PaPdasince
ad adsa adsa adsa adsa a
dsa a
d s
a a
dsa
a a PaPda PaPda a a
PP d
a
their acceleration has no transverse component.
aad d a
a The radiation
PaP
d d
PaPa
a
d scattered
d a
PaPa by the molecule
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
is therefore
d d
PaPa
a
polarized
d d
PaPa
a
perpendicular
d to PaPdaada
iai
the plane
i i i i i i i i
adsaaslal a
d s
a aslala a
dsaaslaila ads
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
a aPda DiscussPaPdaabout
P70. PaPda
simple PaPda
microscope and
P a
P d
a obtain a d
P P the equations
a a
PP d
a for
a
PP d
a
iai magnification
lailai
for near pointlaifocusing
lailai lai and
lailai
normal focusing.
lailai iai iai
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 A simple microscope is a single magnifying (converging) lens of small focal PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai length.
aslaila To get an
i
aslaerect,
ilai magnified
aslaila and virtual
i
aslaila imageasof
i lailathe
i object.lailai
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsa adsa adsa as adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai  For
lailathis
i the object
lailai is placed
lailabetween
i Flaand
ilai P on one
lailaside
i of thelalens
ilai and viewed
lailai
saaslal sasa sasa sasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaas
l
aa
d aada
PaPdfrom aPdaada aPdaada PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
other side of the lens.
P P
iai
saaslal
Thereiai are two
saaslal
magnifications
i ai
saaslal
iai to be discussed
saaslal
iai
saaslal
forsastwo
lailai kinds of focusing
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d a d a
d d a
d adsaas
 magnification for near point focusing m=1+
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal asa a sa asa a s
a a sa a sa a sa adsaas
l
a d a magnification
PaPd
d
PaPda
d for normal
PaPda focusing
d
PaPdam=
d
PaPda
d
PaPda
d
PaPda
d a
PP d
a
iai 71. What

lailai are near
lailapoint
i andlanormal
ilai focusing?
lailai iai i ai iai
adsaaslal adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 Near point focusing – The image is formed at near point, i.e. 25 cm for normal
d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
i ai
saaslal
eye. This
iai distance
saslal
iais
saslal
i also callediaias least adistance
saslal
iai
s slal
D sof
asladistinct
ilai vision.
iai In this position,
saslal
iai
saslal l
PP d
a
the eye feels comfortable but there is little strain on the eye.
iai asaNormal i focusing i ai iai iai ilaithis position iai ai
a
d saaslal d d aslaila
d a
d saaslal – Thedaimage
dsaaslal is formed
d a
d saaslalat infinity.
d a
d saaslaIn d a
d saaslal the eye
d a
dsaasis
lailmost
adsaas
l
relaxed to view the image.
iai i i
aslala is oiladimmersed
alala i i lala alala i i aslala i i
alala i i i i aslaila
i
adsaaslal 72.
daadsaWhy da sas daobjective
adsaas preferred
daadsas indaaadsamicroscope?
daadsas adsa adsaas
l
a PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP PaPda a
PP d
a
 Oil immersion objectives are used only at very large magnifications that require
iai ilai aslaila
i i ai iai iai iai iai
saaslal highsaaslaresolving sapower. saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
 Objectives with high power magnification have short focal lengths, facilitating
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal s
a sa sa sa sa sa sa adsaas
l
PaPdthe
a use ofPoil.
ad a
d aPdaad ad ad ad ad ad
PP d
a
73. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a reflecting telescope?
iai i ia i iai i i ia i iai ia ia ia
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPAdvantages
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai  The main advantage

i ailai
is reflector
ailai
telescope
ailai
can escape from chromatic
ailai ailai
aberration
ailai
a
dsaaslal adsaaslaila l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa adsaas
l
a PaPda a d
a
because wavelength
PP a
does
d
a
P P not affecta da a
P Preflection.P Pda a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
iai  The iaprimary

i mirror
iai is very stable
iai because iai it is located iai at the back iaiof the telescopeiai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa
and can be support in the back.PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal  More
aslaila cost effective
i
aslaila thanadsrefractor
i
aslaila
i of similar
aslaila size.adsaaslaila
i i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad adsa adsa a adsa adsa a
dsa adsaas
PP d
a
 Easier to make a high quality mirror than lens because mirror need to only
iai concern iai iai ilai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal with d a
done
saaslal side ofdathe
dsaaslacurvature.
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
Disadvantages
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
a PaPda

PaPda PaPda
Optical misalignment can occur quite easily. PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai  Require iai frequent iaicleaningalbecause

iai the inside
iai is expose iai to the atmosphere.
iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d sasal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 Secondary mirror can cause diffraction of original incoming light rays causing the
iai "christmas
alaila
i staraeffect"
lailai where bright
alaila
i objects
alaila
i have spikes.
alaila
i
alaila
i
alaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 74. What i is the use iof an erecting i lens in ai terrestrial i telescope? i i
a
d saaslal a
dsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila ads
aaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a P P A terrestrial
a d
a P P telescope
a d
a P P has an additional
a d
a PPa d
a erecting
a
PP d
a lensPto P make the
a d
a P Pfinal image
a d
a a
PP d
a
iai erect.iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a aPa What isPathe
P75. Pa use of P aPa
collimator? PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai Thelacollimator
ilai islaian
lai arrangement
lailai to produce
lailai a parallel
lailaibeam of light.
lailai i
adsaaslal adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda
76. What are the uses of spectrometer?PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
sAaslaspectrometer
ilai iais
saaslal
i a devicelafor
iai measuring
saas l
iai a wavelengths
saaslal
iai
saaslal
of light iover
saaslal
ai a wide iai
saaslal l
ad dad a d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
i ai aslaila
i
adsaspectrometer lailai i i ailai lailai lailai indices. lailai
saaslal adsaasis used for
adsaameasuring
slala adsray
aasl deviations
adsaas and refractive
l
ad adsaas adsaas adsaas
PP d
a
77. What is myopia? What is its remedy?
iai ilai i ai aslaila
i iai iai iai ailai
a
d saaslal 
dad aslaperson
saA d d saaslal
suffering
a from
d a
d sanearsightedness
d a
d saaslal or myopia
d a
d saaslal can see
d a
d saaslal
nearby object
d a
dsaaslclearly adsaas
l
but cannot see distant objects clearly beyond certain limit
adsaaslal asa
adsaMyopia aasacorrected
canadsbe sa using daadconcave
adsaaby saasa lens sasuitable
adsaaof saasa length.
adfocal adsaasa adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPa PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
78. What
i i
is hypermetropia?
i i
What
i i
is its remedy?
i i iai iai iai
a a a a
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
a a A person
PaP PaPsuffering
a from
PaPa long sightedness
PaPa orPhypermetropia
aPa PaPa can see Pdistant
aPa PaPda
object
iai clearly
ailai
but cannot see nearbyailaobjects
ailai i clearly.
ailai i i i
adsaaslal adsaasla a
d s
a asla a
d s
a asla a
d s
a asla a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
a a d
a a d
a
P P Hypermetropia a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a
PP canPbe
P corrected by using a Pconvex
PP P lens PofPsuitable focal P P length P P
iai 79. What

alaila
i is presbyopia?
alaila
i iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal adsas adsas a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
This defect is similar to hypermetropia i.e., a person having this defect cannot see
iai nearby i
aslaila objects ailai
asldistinctly,
i
aslaila can see
but lailai
asdistant
i
aslaila without
objects ailai difficulty.
aslany
i
aslaila This adsaasl
a
dsaaslal d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a dads
a d a
d s
a dads
a dadsa d
defect occurs in elderly persons
iai lailai lailai lailai iai iai iai iai
saaslal sas asaas adsaas saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
P80.
aPdaadaWhat isPaastigmatism?
ad a a a a
a Pdad PaPda d
PaPa
d d
PaPa
d d
PaPa
d d
PaPa
d
PaPda
Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different curvatures along different
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a s
a a s
a a s
a a sa asa a s
a asa adsaas
l
a d a
PP planes
d
a d in the
a
PP d
a eye
d lens. Astigmatic
a
PP d
a d person
a
PPda d cannot a
PP see
d
a d all the
PPdirections
a d
a d equally
a
PPdad well. a
PP d
a
iai
The defect
i i
due toi astigmatism
i is more serious
i i i i
than myopia
i i
and hyperopia.
i i iai
a a a a a a
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
a CONCEPTUAL
PaPa PaPQUESTIONS
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai 1. Whyalareailai dish antennas

aslaila
i curved?
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal dadsas d a
dsa dads
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d adsaas
l
a a a
P P Dish antenna a a
P P is curved a a
P P so as it can a a
P Preceive parallel a
PP a a a
P comingP from a
P a a a
signalPrays sameP P
iai direction.iai These parallel
iai signal iairays reflect iafrom
i parabolic iai dish,aand iai gathered at
iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
main antenna part. This increases directivity of antenna, and gives sufficient
iai lailai
amplitude signal.lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal asaas
d asaas d adsa ads
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 2. What type

aslaila
i of lens isi formedlaby
aslaila as ila
i a bubblelainside
as ila
i water?
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal d a
dsa d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a dads
a d a
dsa d adsaas
l
a a a
P P BiconvexPlens a a
P is the lens a a
P P formed when a a
P P an air bubble a
PP a a a
P P water. The a a
P P air bubble a
PP a
is inside
iai
saaslal
acts as
iaia diverging
saaslal
iailens (concave
saaslal
iai lens) in
saaslal
water.
iai
saaslal
This makes
iai
saaslal
it equivalent
iai
saaslal
tosatwo i i
slala l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d a adsaas
convex interfaces meeting each other with light entering from a medium with a
iai higherlailairefractive ilai
laindex. lailai
Therefore an aair ilai ailai acts in lailai same manner
lailai
adsaaslal asaas
d asaasd asaas d saaslabubble inaswater
d aasl the
asaasd asaas d d adsaas
l
PP d
a
as a concave lens made of glass does in air.
iai i i ailai lenses i
ailaproduce ailai power? iai i ai iai
adsaaslal 3. Itdis
ad slala
saapossible dfor
a
d saasltwo d a
dsaaslto d a
d saaslzero d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
If one lens is converging lens with some focal length so that its power is P1=P and
adsaaslal a
adsaasother
the asa
lensadsadiverging adsaasawith the
lens saasa focaldlength
adsame adsaasa butawith
adsaasaa negative sa so dadsaas
adsaasign
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPa P Pda PaPda PaPa
that its power is P2=-P, then the combination of these two lenses will be zero
iai ailai i ai ilai iai iai iai iai
a
d saaslal 4. Why
dadsaasldoes skyd a
d saaslal blue dand
look a
d saaslaclouds d a
d saaslalwhite?da(B.Q)
look dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
5. Why is yellow lighti preferred to during fog?
iai i
aslaila aslaila
i i
aslaila aslaila aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a a
dsa ads
a adsa a
d s
a a
d s
a a
dsa adsaas
l
a P P Yellow light
a d
a P P supposedly
a d
a P P penetrates
a d
a P Pfurther because
a da a
PP d
a of its long
P P wavelength,
a d
a P P but it'sP P
a d
a a d
a
iai still amuch

ilai smaller than fog particles.
ailai ailai
Theascattering
ilai effects
ailai
of fog aare
ilai essentially
ailai
saaslal sasla l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa adsaas
l
Padasalai
aad aada
PaPdindependent
PaPdaof wavelength.
PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda
iai 6. Twoaindependent
lailai monochromatic
aslaila
i
aslaila
i sourcesaslaila
i cannot lact
asaila
i as coherent
aslaila
i sources,why?
aslaila
i
adsaaslal dadsas d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d adsaas
l
a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a
Two independent sources of light cannot be coherent. This is because light is
iai
saaslal emitted
saaslal by individual
iai iai atoms,
saaslal saaslawhen
ilai theysaaslreturn
ailai to ground iai state. aEven
saaslal saslal thedadsaaslal
iai iai l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d adsaas
smallest source of light contains billions of atoms which obviously cannot emit light
iai waves lailai i
lailaphase lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas in the asame
l
a
d dsaas adsaas ads
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
PP d
a
7. Does diffraction take place at the Young’s double slit?
iai iai ilai iai i
lailathe iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslaldiffraction
Both d a
d saaslaand d d saaslal
interference
a occur
d a
d saasin double
d a
d saaslalslit experiment.
d a
d saaslal Thed a
d saaslal adsaas
l
wavefront is diffracted as it passes through each of the slits. The diffraction causes
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal the
d a
d s
a wavefronts d a
d s
a to spread d a
dout
s
a as if they
d adswere
a coming
d a
dsa from light
d a
d s
asources located
d a
dsa at d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a
the slits.
aad 8.PIsd a
aPathere any
d d
a a
PaPdifference
d
PaPdaa
between
d d
PaPa
a
colored
d lightPaPdaa
obtained
d fromd a
PaPa prism P
d aPa coloursPaPdaada
anddad
iai
of soap bubble? i i
saaslal a lailai aslala aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad dadsa s d a
dsa d ads
a d a
d s
a d adsa d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d adsaas
a P P UnlikePthose
a a a
P a seen in
P Pa rainbow,Pwhich
a a a
P a arisePfrom
aP a differential
a
PP a refraction,
P P the
a a a
PP a
iai colours
lailai
seen in alasoap
ilai bubble arise fromlainterference
lailai ilai of light reflecting
lailai lailai
off the front
lailai
saaslal sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa adsaasa adsaas
l
aad aada
PaPdand aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada PaPda PaPda
back surfaces of the thin soap film. Depending on the thickness
P P P P P
iai of the
aslailafilm, different
i
aslaila colours
i
aslainterfere
ilai constructively
aslaila
i
aslaand
ilai destructively
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 9. A smallaslaila
idisc is placed
aslaila
i in thelapath
as ila
i of thelalight
as ila
i from distance
aslaila
i source.
aslaila
i Will the
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal ads
a adsa adsaas
l
a PaPdcenter
a aPda
ofPthe shadowP be
aPda
bright or PaPddark?
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
Waves diffracted
iai
saslal
from
iai the edge
saslal
iof
saslal
ai circularaslobstacle
s al
iai interfere
iai
saslal
constructive
iai
saslal
at the iai
saslal l
center of the shadow resulting in the formation of a bright spot.
iai iai i i i i ai i
adsaaslal 10. dWhen
adsaaslal a wave
d a
d s
aundergoes
aslaila
d a
dsreflection
aaslaila
da
at
ds
aasla
ailadenser
d a
d
medium,
s
a aslaila what
d a
d s
a aslailhappens
d a
d s
a ato
slailaits
d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
phase?
iai ilai i ai iai iai ilai i ai ilai
adsaaslal When dad aslawave
saa d a
d saaslal
undergoes a d a
dsaaslal
reflection at a
d a
d saaslal medium
denser d a
d saaslathen it's
d adsaaslal reflected
crest d a
d saaslaas adsaas
l
trough and vice versa. So, it's phase changes at 180 degree
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda Unit 7:PDUALaPda NATURE PaPdaOF RADIATION PaPda AND MATTER PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai ailai i i ilai ailai iai iai iai

saaslal 1. Why saasldo slala
saahave saaslanumber saaslfree saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
aa
d d
PaPa
ad metals
d
PaPa
a
d a large
d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
dof electrons?
d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d
PaPda
iai
 In metals, thei electrons in the outer most shells are loosely bound to the i i
saaslal a l ailai a l alai a l ailai a lailai a lailai a l ailai lala l
ad d s
ada s d s
ada s d s
ada s d s
ada s d s
ada s d s
ada s d adsaas d adsaas
a a
PP a nucleus.
P P Even at room
a a P P temperature,
a a a
PP a therePare
P a large number
a a a
PP a of free
PPa a a
PP a
iai electrons which

lailai lailai
are moving lailai
inside the metal in alarandom
lailai ilai manner.iai iai
saaslal s as s as s as s as sas saaslal saaslal sasl
Padasalai
aad d a
d a d a
d a d a
d a d a
d a dada d a
d d a
d aPdaada
PaPa  TheyPmove aPa aPa aPa aPa aPa
freely inside the metal, they cannot leave the surface of the metal.
P P P P P aPa P
iai aslaThey
ilai are attracted by the aslailapositive nuclei
aslaila of the ametal.
lailai It is sthis
aslailaattractive aslapull
i i i i ilai
adsaaslal adsa a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a a
d s
a a
d s
a s a
d a a
d s
a adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a PPa d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a PPa d
a a
PP d
a
which will not allow free electrons to leave the metallic surface at room
adsaaslal d a
d saaslatemperature.
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
2. Define work function of a metal. Give its unit.
iai alala i i i i
ala neededalala i i
lala to escape
alala i ialala i i
alala i i i i
a
dsaaslal The
dadsasminimum
dadsenergy
aasl dadsas for an d
electron
adsaas dadsas from the
dadsasmetal surface
dadsas is d adsaas
l
PP a
called work function of that metal.
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa FORMULA PaPa PaPa PaPa UNIT PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai =hi i i electron i voltla(eV).i i i

adsaaslal adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas ila adsaaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a aPda PaPda aPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
3.PWhat is photoelectric Peffect?
iai
saaslal The saaslaejection
ilai ofsaaelectrons
i i
slala from
saaslal a metal
iai
splate
aslaila whenadilluminated
i i ai
saaslal by
saaslalight
ilai or any
saaslaother
ilai l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d a d d a
d dad adsaas
electromagnetic radiation of suitable wavelength (or frequency) is called
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa sa s
a sa sa sa sa adsaas
l
PaPdaphotoelectricPaPda effect. PaPda
ad ad a
d ad ad ad ad ad
PP d
a
lailai
4. How ldoes ailai photocurrent
lailai
vary with the intensity
lailai lailai
of thelailai
incidentlalight?
iai iai
s
aas s
a as s
a as s
aas s
a as s
a as saas l saaslal sasl
aad d a
d
PaPa When the daad
PaPfrequency d
aPa
Pof
a
d d
aPa a
d d
aPa a
d d
aPa a
d d
aPa a
d aPdaada
the incident light and the accelerating potential V of the
P P P P P
iai
saaslal
anode
aslaila are kept
i
aslaconstant.
ilai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad adsa adsa adsa ads
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai  The photocurrent

i i (numberlaof i electronslaemittedi perlailsecond)
i is ldirectly
i i
a
d saaslal a
dsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
aas ila a
d s
a as ila a
d s
a as a adsasaila
a a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a d
a
P P proportional a d
a
P P to the intensity a
PP d
a a d
a
P P incident light.a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
of the
iai 5. Giveathe iai definition iaiof intensity iai of lightaand iai its unit. iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
Energy per unit area per unit time is called intensity of light. Unit: Candela (cd)
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal sa s
a sa s
a sa sa sa adsaas
l
a d 6.PHow
aPda will you
a
d
PaPdadefine threshold
a
d
PaPda
a
d frequency?
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad a
PP d
a
iai
For ai given
i surface,
i i
the emission
i i
of photoelectrons
i i
takes
i i
place only
i i
if the iai
a a a a a a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d adsaas
l
a Pfrequency
aPa of incident light is greater than a certain minimum frequency called the
P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a
i ai threshold
lailai
frequency.
lailai i i i i i
adsaaslal a
d s
a asa a
d s
a asa adsaslaila
a adsaaslaila a
d s
d s
a aslaila adsaas
l
a aPda PaPda cell? Mention
PaPda aPda PaPda of photocells.
PaPda PaPda a d
a
7.PWhat is a photo thePdifferent types PP
iai Photo
aslaelectric
ilai cellaslaor
ilaiphoto cell
aslailis
ai a deviceaslwhich
ailai converts
aslaila light energy
i
aslaila into electrical
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
energy. It works on the principle of photo electric effect.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal Photo s s s s s s s adsaas
l
PaPda cells arePclassified into
PaPdathree types. PaPdaThey arePaPda
ad a
d a aPdaa
d a a
d a a
d a a
d a ad a ad a
a PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal 1. Photo
saslal emissive
iai
saslacell
ilai 2.saPhoto
slala voltaic
i i
saaslacell
ilai 3.Photo
saaslal conductive
iai
saaslal cell dadsaaslal
iai iai l
adsaas
Padasalai
ad ada ada a
d a a
d ad a
d
a PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa PaPda
8. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength associated with a charged
iai particlelailai of charge lailai lailai lailai lailai through lailai lailai
saaslal adsaas q and mass
adsaas m, when
adsaasit is accelerated adsaas a potential
adsaas V.
l
ad adsaas adsaas adsaas
PP d
a
An electron of mass m is accelerated through a potential difference of V volt.
iai The i
alaila energy
kinetic ilai
alaacquired by ilai electron
alathe ai given by
alailis alaila
i
=daeV lailai iai
adsaaslal dadsas dadsas dadsas dadsas dadsas dsaas d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai
saaslal The sspeed
aasl
ailai υ of the
saaslaelectron
ilai issaasv= i
laila√ aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
a
d ad ad ad ads
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
PP d
a
iai de Broglie
lailai
wavelength
lailai
of the electron
lailai
is λ=lail=
ai iai iai iai
adsaaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
9. State de Broglie hypothesis.
iai ailai ailai ailai ailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sasla
According to la sasla sasla l
aPdade
adsaasBroglie
aPdhypothesis, adsaas
s s s
aad
P aPdaada P aada P aPdaada P PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ad a
PaPda
a
d a a
PP d
a
i. All matter has both particle and wave nature. Greatly influenced by the
iai ilai i i ailai iai ilai aslaila
i lailai
saaslal saaslasymmetry slala
saain saaslBroglie saaslal saaifslaradiation saasact al
aad d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d nature,
d
PaPa de
a
d suggested
d
PaPa
a
d that
d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d salike light can
d
PaPa
ad as PaPdaadsas
particles at times, then matter particlesi like electrons should also act as
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i i laila i laila laila aslaila
i
d s
a adsaas adsaas adsaas adsa adsaas
l
a PaPda waves PaPat
da times. PaPda a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a PaPda a
PP d
a
iai ii. Allailmatter particles like electrons, protons, neutrons in motionaare associated
saaslal asl ai aslailai aslailai aslailai aslailai asl ilai iai
saaslal al
aad d
PaPa
a
d s
a a d
a a
dsa a d
a a
d s
a adaads
a a d
a a
d s
a adaa
d s
a a d
a a
d a daadsas
with waves. These waves are called de Broglie waves or matter waves.
P P P P P P P P P P P P P P
iai 10. Why

aslaila
i we do not
aslaila
see
i the wave
aslaila
i properties
aslaila
i of a baseball?
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai Due to
i large mass i of a baseball, i the de lBroglie i wavelaillength
i (λ=h/mv) i associated i
a
d saaslal a
dsaaslaila adsaaslaila a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a asaila a
d s
a as a ads
aaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a d
a
P P baseball is a da
P Pvery small.P So a d
a
P there are a d
a
P Pno discernible a d
a a
P P wave properties
PP d
a a d
a
P PobservedP P a d
a
with to be
iai on the large iai scales. alailai iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal adsas a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
dsaaslal a
d saaslal a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
11. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa sa sa s
a sa sa sa adsaas
l
Pgreater dePBroglie wavelength. Justify.
ad aPdaad aPdaad a
d ad ad ad ad
PP d
a
By de Broglie wavelength of a particle

iai i
ia i ia i ia iai iai i ai iai
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa λ= = PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
i ai lailai aslaila
i lailai ailai aslaila
i ilai aslaila
i
adsaaslal Thedde a
d saasBroglie wavelength
adsa of
adsaa
a s particle adis
saaslinversely ads
aproportional adsaaslato its square
a
d s
a adsaas
l
PP d
a
root of mass (λ ɑ )
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a P aPa PaPa
As me<<mp, so λe>> λp PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai The electron

alaila
i has
alaila
the
i longer wavelength.
alaila
i
alaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsas adsas adsas adsas adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
a PaPda
12. PaPda PaPda PaPda
Write the relationship of de Broglie wavelength λ associated with a PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal particle
saslal of mass
iai
saslm
ailain
i terms lof
sasal its kinetic
i ai
saslal energy K.
iai iai
saslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
adsaas
Padasalai
ad ada ada ada ada ada a
d a
d
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
The kinetic energy of the particle, K = =
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda Pp=
aPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai iai i ai ilai lailai iai iai iai

adsaaslal De d a
d saaslal
Broglie d d saaslal
wavelength
a of dthe
a
d saaslaparticle dais
dsaasλ= = d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai 13. Name

aslaila
i an experiment
aslaila
i which
aslaila
i shows wave
aslaila
i naturelaof
as ila
i the electron.
aslaila
i Whichlailai
a
dsaaslal adsa a
d s
a adsa ads
a a
d s
a ads
a adsaas adsaas
l
a Pphenomenon
aPda PaPdawas observed PaPda in this PaPexperiment
da PaPdausing anPelectron
aPda beam?
PaPda a
PP d
a
i. The experiment that shows the wave nature of electron is Davisson and
iai aslaila
i iai iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d adsaGermer d d saaslal
experiment.
a d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
ii. They demonstrated that electron beams are diffracted when they fall on
iai crystalline
aslaila
i solids.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal d a
d s
a d a
d sa d adsa d a
d sa d a
ds a d adsa d a
ds a d adsaas
l
a 14.a a
P P An electron a
PP a and anP alpha
aP a particle
a a
P P have same a
P P kineticPenergy.
a aP a How a
P Pare the P P
a a a
i
de Broglie i
wavelengths i
associated i
with them i
related? i i i
ia ia ia ia ia ia ia ia
l
aad The
P aPa kinetic energy
d a
d d
PaPa
a
d of thePaparticle,
d
Pa
a
d K= d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
ad
PaPda
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a = PaP=daadsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
iai iai iai λ= iai ; λ ɑ alailai i ai iai iai

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal adsas a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i =√ saslailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad adsa adsa adsa daada adsa adsa adsa adsaas
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaP PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal s s Unit s s s s s adsaas
l
PaPda8: ATOMIC PaPdaAND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
a
d ada ad a ad a a
d a ad a ada ad a
PP d
a

adsaaslal 1. What
d a
d saaslal are cathode
d a
d saaslal rays?.d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
A cathode ray is a stream of electrons that are seen in vacuum tubes. The
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa s
a sa s
a s
a s
a s
a adsaas
l
aad a
PP d
a a
delectrons a
PPare
d
a a
d being emitted
a
PPdaa
d from the
a
PP d
aad negative a
PPcharged
d
a a
d electrode
a
PP d
a a
d in the
a
PP vacuum
d
a a
d a
PP d
a
tube are called cathode rays.

d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a 2.
PaPWrite
a thePproperties
aPa Pof
aPacathodePrays.
aPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
i ai i. Cathode
ailai
rays possess
ailai
energy
ailai
and momentum
ailai
and travel
ailai
in a straight
ailai
line with
ailai
adsaaslal d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d
l
adsaasa d adsaas
l
a a a a
P P high speed a a
P P of the ordera
P P of 107ms a a
P P-1. a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
iai ii. Italacan

iai be deflected
iai by application
iai of electric
iai and magnetic
iai fields. iaThe
i directioniai
a
d saaslal sas l
ad saaslal
ad saaslal
ad saaslal
ad saaslal
ad saaslal
daad adsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda
of deflection PaPda that they
indicates PaPdaare negatively
PaPda charged
PaPparticles. PaPda PaPda
iai
saaslal iii. saWhen
aslaila the cathode
i iai rays are
saaslal saaslalallowed to
iai
saaslafall
ilai on matter,
saaslal they produce
i ai
saaslal heat. saaslal
iai iai l
PP d
a
iv. They affect the photographic plates and also produce fluorescence when they
iai ilai on certain iai i i iai iai iai iai
saaslal saaslafall saaslal crystals saaand
slala minerals.
saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
v. When the cathode rays fall on a material of high atomic weight, x-rays are
iai ilai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsaaslaproduced. adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
vi. Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they pass.
iai ilai ilai iai i i aslaila
i iai iai
adsaaslal 3. Give
d a
d saaslathe results
d a
d saaslaof d a
d saaslal alpha
Rutherford dad slala
saascatteringd a
d sexperiment.
a d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
(a) Most of the alpha particles are undeflected through the gold foil and went straight.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
(b) Some of the alpha particles are deflected through a small angle.
l
P(c)
aPaA few alpha PaPaparticlesPareaPa deflected PaPthrough the
PaPangle more
PaPthan 90° PaPa
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d ad d a
d
a a a a PaPda
iai
saaslal (d) Very
saaslal few alpha
i ai
saaslaparticles
ilai
sreturned
aasl
ailai back
saaslathat
ilai is, deflected
iai back by
saaslal saaslal180°.
iai aslaila
i l
ad ad ad ad ad ad ad a
dsa adsaas
PP d
a
4. Write down the postulates of Bohr atom model.
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
(a) The electron in an atom moves around nucleus in circular orbits under the influence
iai i i ilai lailai Coulomb ai ilai i
adsaaslal of Coulomb
adsaaslaila electrostatic
adsaaslaila forceadsof
aaslaattraction.adsaaThis
s adsaaslailforce gives
adsaaslanecessary adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
centripetal force for the electron to undergo circular motion.
iai iai i
aslaila revolve ailai lailai ilai aslaila
i iai
adsaaslal (b) Electrons
d a
d saaslal in an
d a
dsaatom d a
d saaslaround the
d a
d saasnucleus only
d a
d saaslain certain
d a
d sadiscrete d a
d saaslal
orbits adsaas
l
called stationary orbits where it does not radiate electromagnetic energy. Only those
iai ailai i
aslaila are stable ilai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal discrete
adsaaslorbits allowed
adsa adsaaslaorbits. ads
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai (c)laEnergy
i of orbits i are notlacontinuous
i but i discrete. This
i is called ithe quantization i
a
d saaslal a
dsaas ila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
aas ila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila ads
aaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a PPa d
a PPa d
a a
PP d
a
of energy. An electron can jump from one orbit to another orbit by absorbing or
iai emitting aiaphoton whose iai energyalis iaequal tosathe
slaladifference in
i i i i iai energy a(ΔE) iai between the
iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d sasal d a
d a d a
dsaaslal d a
d saslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
two orbital levels.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa s
a sa s
a sa sa sa adsaas
l
aad 5.What
PaPda is meant
a
d
PaPda by excitation
a
d
PaPda energy.
a
d
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad a
PP d
a
saaslal Thedaenergy
saaslal required saaslalto excite saan
aslailelectron sfrom
aslaila the lowersaaslalenergydastate
saaslal to anydahigher
iai iai i ai ai i iai i ai iai
ad d d a
d d a
d d a
d a d a
d d dsaaslal adsaas
l
energy state is known as excitation energy.
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a s
a a sa a sa a sa a s
a a sa a s
a adsaas
l
a d 6.PDefine
aPdad the P
ionization
aPda d energy
PaPda
d and ionization
PaPda
d potential.
PaPda
d
PaPda
d
PaPda
d a
PP d
a
iai Theasaminimum i lailai required

energy lailai lailai lailai lailai i
saaslal aslaila asaas to remove
asaasan electron
asaasfrom an atom
asaas which isasa
in
aslaila l
a
d d asaas d d d d d d adsaas
ground state is known as ionization energy.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal daadsa a
dsa ads
a a
d s
l
a Ex: ionization
PaP aPda
energy
P PaPda
for hydrogen PaPdis
atom aPda
a EionizationP=13.6eV PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai iai i
lailadefined ilai i i i
aslaila charge. iai iai
saaslal Ionization
saaslal potential saasis sas
aslaionization slala
saaenergy per unit
sa saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d a d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
7. Write down the draw backs ofiaBohr atomiamodel.
a l ailai a l ailai a l ailai a l al i aslal
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
PP d
a
(a) Bohr atom model is valid only for hydrogen atom or hydrogen like-atoms but not for
adsaaslal complex
d a
d saaslaatoms. d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai (b) When the

aslaila
i spectral lines
aslaila
i are closely
aslaila
i examined,
aslaila
i individual
aslaila
i lines of hydrogen
aslaila
i spectrum
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a dads
a d a
d s
a dads
a dadsa d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
is accompanied by a number of faint lines. These are often called fine structure. This is
iai not explained iai by Bohr iaatom
i model. iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
(c) Bohr atom model fails to explain the intensity variations in the spectral lines.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
dsa adsaas
l
(d) The distribution of electrons in atoms is not completely explained by Bohr atom PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
saaslal model.
ad d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
8. What is distance of closest approach?
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a sa asa a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a adsaas
l
a d The
a
PP minimum
d
a d distance
a
PP d
a d between
a
PP d
a d alpha particle
a
PP d
a d and Centre
a
PP d
a d of the
PPa nucleus
d
a d just
a
PP before
d
a d it a
PP d
a
iai gets reflected i back by 180°

i is defined i as distance i of closest iapproach. i iai
adsaaslal alaila
adsas alaila adsas alaila alaila
adsas alailaadsas alaila adsas adsas a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa PaPda
9. Define impact parameter.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai The impact

lailai parameter
lailai is defined
lailaias the perpendicular
lailai ldistance
ailai between
lailai the centre
lailai of
l
aa
d aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada a
PP d
a
the gold nucleus and the direction of velocity vector of alpha particle when it is at a
P P P P P P P
iai large distance.iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
10. Write a general notation of nucleus of element X. What each term denotes?
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
dsa adsa a
dsa ads
l
a PaPda A general da
PaPnotation Pda
ofPanucleus aPda
of Pelement X isPaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal Where iai Z – Atomic
saaslal saaslal number,
i ai
saaslaAl –Mass
iai number iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad dad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
11. What is isotope? Give an example.
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a a
d s
a adsa adsa ads
a a
d s
a adsa adsaas
l
a PaPda IsotopesPareaPda atoms of da
PaPthe PaPda
same element PaPdasame atomic
having PaPda numberPZ, aPdabut a
PP d
a
iai different mass

iai number iaiA. iai iai iai iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
Ex :
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
dsa ads
l
a PaPda PaPda
12. What is isotone? Give an example. PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai iai i
aslailaatoms of i i iai ilai iai iai
saaslal saaslal
Isotones are sthe slala
saadifferent saaslal
elements havingsaaslasame saaslal of neutrons.
number saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d a d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
Ex : are examples of isotones which 7 neutrons.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a
13. What is isobar? Give an example.
l
PaPa Isobars are PaPathe atoms PaPof
a different PaPelements having
PaPa the same PaPa mass number PaPa A, but PaPda
aad d a
d d a
d d a
d daad d a
d d a
d d a
d
different atomic number Z.

iai ilaila i laila aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal d adsaas d adsaas adsa ads
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
Ex : ,
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a 14.
PaPDefine
da atomic
PaPa mass unit
d PaPa u.
d d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai One i
aslailaatomicadmass
i
aslaila unit (u) ais ilai
ladefined as ailai 1/12 th
aslthe asof
i
lailathe mass i
lailathe
asof isotope ai
aslailof
adsaaslal d a
d s
a d s
a d a
d s
a s d adsa d a
dsa d a
d s
a d a
dsa d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
carbon .
adsaaslal d adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
a 16. a
PaPShow aPa
thatPnuclear PaPa is almost
density PaPa constant a nucleiPwith
PaPfor aPa Z > 10. PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal
Nucleariaidensity (ρ)
saslal
ia=i
saslal aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad ada ada ads
PP d
a
= =
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai i ρ= i = i kgmi -3i i i i

adsaaslal adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
lala
adsaaslaila adsaslaila
l
PP d
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai Thelaabove
ilai expression
lailai showslathat
ilai the nuclear
lailai densitylais
ilai independent
lailai of the mass
lailai
l
aa
d aPdaada PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
number A.
P

adsaaslal In aother a
dsaas words, asathe nuclei
adsaall a
adsaas(Z > 10) adsaasathe same
have asa
adsadensity and asais an important
adsait adsaasa adsaas
l
characteristics of the nuclei.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
dsa ads
l
PP d
a
17. What is mass defect?
iai
saaslal The
saasmass
lailai of any
saaslnucleus
ailai is salways
aasl
ailai less sthan
aasl
ailaithe sum
saasof
lailathe
i mass of
saaslalits individual
i ai iai
saaslal l
constituents. The difference in mass Δm is called mass defect.∆m =( Zmp + Nmn) –M
i ai ai binding
aslailis ilai ilai lailai its expression.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal 18. Whata
d s
a adsaaslaenergy of
adsaa
a slanucleus?
adsaaGive
s ads
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
PP d
a
When proton and neutron combine to form a nucleus ,mass equal to mass defect
saaslal saslal
disappears and saaslal corresponding
saslal saslal saslal alal saslal l
aa
d
PPadaada adaadthe
PP adaada PP
energy
adaada is released.
adaada This is acalled
PP daadsas the binding
PP adaada PP PP PaPda
adsaas
energy of the nucleus (BE).
iai i
aslaila 2 aslaila
i
asl2aila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PB.E
aPda =∆mc =( PaPdZm
a p + NmP –M)c
ad a
d a a
d a daada ad a ad a ad a ad a
a na
P PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
19. Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 atomic mass unit.
saaslal saaslal2 saaslal saaslal 2 saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
a a a a a a a a
PaPE=
a mc = PaPa ) J PaPa
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai i
aslaila = aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsa adseV
l
PP d
a
saaslal 1 atomic saaslamass unitsa=931MeV

i iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d d a
d d a
d dadsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
20. Give the physical meaning of binding energy per nucleon.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
asaaslal a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a a s
a a sa a saasl
P P The average P P bindingPenergy per Pnucleon is the
P Penergy required to separate singleP P
ad a d
a d a d
a d a
P d
a d a
P d
a d a d
a d a d
a d a d
a d a da d
PP PP
iai nucleon
iaifrom the particular
iai nucleus.
iai iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a 21. a
PaPWhat PaPa by radioactivity?
is meant PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai Phenomenon
lailai oflaspontaneous
ilai lailaemission
i of
lailahighly
i penetrating
lailai radiations
lailai suchlaas
ilai
saaslal sas sas sas sas sas sas sas adsaas
l
aad aPdaada
Pα,β aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada a
PP d
a
and γ rays an element is called radioactivity and the substances which emit
P P P P P P
iai
saaslal
these radiations
iai
saslal
areiaicalled radioactive
saslal
iai
saslal
elements.
iai
saslal
i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad ada ada ada ada a
d a
d ad adsaas
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
22. Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay.
iai i
aslaila (α) ad:saaslaila
i i
aslaila + aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal Alpha addecay
sa →
ads
l
PP d
a
Beta decay (β-) : → +e- +ν
adsaaslal a
d saaslal a
dsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a Beta
PaPadecay (βP)aPa :
d + d d
PaPa→ +e
PaP+ν
+ d
a d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai lailai (γ) :saaslailai laila i

aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal Gamma adsaasdecay ad adsaas + γ
d→ ads
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPa PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 23. In alpha

i decay, i why thelaunstable
i nucleus i emitslailnucleus?
i Why i it doeslanot i
saaslal aslaila
s aslaila
s s as ila aslaila as a adsa aslaila as ila
adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
aa
d aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
emit four separate nucleons?
P P P
iai
saaslal
After all
iai
saslal
e consists
iai of two protons
saslal
iai
saslal
andsatwo
slala neutrons.
i i iai
saslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
d a
d adsaas
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
For example, if nucleus decays into by emitting four separate
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal sa sa sa s
a sa s
a s
a adsaas
l
a d nucleons
PaPda
ad (twoPprotons
aPdaad andPatwo
Pda neutrons),
a
d
PaPda then thePadisintegration
a
d Pda
ad
PaPda energy QPafor
a
d Pda this
a
d a
PP d
a
iai
process turns
i i
out to bei inegative. Iti implies
i thati ithe total mass
i i
of products
i i
is greater
i i
a a a a a a a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d adsaas
l
a than that of parent (
P a
P a P a
P a ) nucleus. This kind of process cannot occur in nature because
P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a
iai it wouldalaviolate
ilai conservation
aslaila
i of energy.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a s adsa adsa adsa ads
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
PP d
a
In any decay process, the conservation of energy, and conservation of linear
iai iai i ai ailai iai iai iai iai
a
d saaslal momentum
dadsaaslal and dconservation
adsaaslal d a
d saaslangular
of d a
d saaslal
momentum d a
d saaslal be obeyed.
must d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
iai 24.What isi mean life

aslaila
of
aslaila
i nucleus?
aslaila
Give
i theaexpression.
lailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
dsa ads
a adsa s adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
The mean life time of the nucleus is the ratio of sum or integration of life times of all
l
Padasalai
a nucleia a a a a a a
PaPa to the totalPaPa number Pnuclei present
PaPa initially.PaPa Mean life PaPtime (τ)=PaPa
a aPa a PaPda
iai ai
aslailis ilai lai
aslaiGive aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal 24. What
adsa half-life
adsaaslaof nucleus?
adsa the adsexpression.
l
PP d
a
Half- life of nucleus is defined as the time required for the number of atoms
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa present
initially a reduce Pto
PaPto aPaone half of a initial amount.
the
PaP PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai aslaila
i
asla=ila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
iai iai i i i i iai i i iai iai

adsaaslal 25. What
d a
d saaslalis meant
d a
d slalaactivity
saaby d a
d slaladecaydrate?
saaor adsaaslal Give its
d a
d slala
saaunit. d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 Activity or decay rate is the number of nuclei decayed per second and it is
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a saaslal a s
a a sa a sa a sa a sa a sa asa adsaas
l
PaPda denoted PaPdaas R=
d d d d d d d d
PP d
a
iai  The iaSI

i unit of lactivity
iai is Becquerel.
iai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saasal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
Activity R is a positive quantity
saaslal 26. Define aslaila curie.adsaaslaila

iai i i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
ad adsa ads
PP d
a
One curie is defined as number of nuclei decayed per second
iai ila i i
alaila is equal lail3.7 i
laila alaila
a X1010adecays/second. i i iai iai
adsaaslal in 1galaof
dadsas
radium and
dadsas
ato
dadsas dadsas dadsas d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
27. What are the constituent particles of neutron and proton?
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai Protons i and neutrons i are Baryon i which are

i made up of
i three Quarks. i According i
a
d saaslal a
dsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila ads
aaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a PPa d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
to quark model, proton is made up of two up quarks and one down quark and
iai
saaslal
neutron iaiis madeaup
saslal
iaof
s slal
i one up lquark
iai
sasal
andsatwo
slala down quarks.
i i iai
saslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
d a
d adsaas
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai
saaslal aslaila
i UNIT iai - 9 : SEMICONDUCTOR
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
ELECTRONICS
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal aslaila
i l
ad adsa ad ad ad ad ad adsa adsaas
PP d
a
1. Defineailelectron motion in a semiconductor.

sa
a slailai saasl ai s
a aslailai iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal sasl
aad dad
PaPa To movePthe d
aPa a
d
P d
aPa a
d
P d
aPa a
d
P d
aPa a
d
P d
aPa a
d
P d
aPa a
d
P aPdaada
hole in a given direction, the valence electrons move in the opposite
i ai
saaslal direction.
iai Electron
saslal saslal flow in san
iai aslaN-
ilai Type semiconductor
iai
saslal saslais
ilaisimilar to
saslaelectrons
ilai
samoving
i i
slala l
PP d
a
in a metallic wire. The N-type dopant atoms will yield electron available for
iai iai
conduction. i ai iai iai iai iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
2. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal S.No Intrinsic semiconductors adsaas
l
PaPdaExtrinsic semiconductors
ad adsa a
dsa ads
a adsa a
d s
a adsa adsa
a P aPda P aPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai 1. Ai semiconductor in its pure form These i i are semiconducting

saaslal aslalai aslailai aslailai aslailai aslala aslailai iai
saaslal al
s s s s s s daadsas
Padasalai
aad d a
d a d a
d a d a
d a d a
d a dada d a
d a d a
d
PaPa Without PaPaimpurityPisaPcalled
a
an P aPa P a
P a P a
P a
tetravalent crystals doped with P a
P a P a
P
i impuritylaatoms of group i III or V lailai

iai aslintrinsic
ailai semiconductor.
i i i
adsaaslal adsa adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas ila adsaaslaila adsaas adsaas
l
PP d
a
2. Their electrical conductivity is low. Their electrical conductivity is high.
iai ailai i ai iai i
aslaila In extrinsic iai iai iai
adsaaslal d3.
a
d saaslIn d d saaslal semiconductors,
intrinsic
a d a
d saaslal dadsathe d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal
semiconductors, d a
d saaslal the dadsaasl
number of electrons in the number of electrons in the
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal d a
d s
a conductiond a
d s
a band is
d a
d s
a equal todads
athe d a
d s
conduction
a banddads
is
a not equal
dadsa to the d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
number of holes in the valence band. i number of holes in the valence band.
iai iai alaila
i
alaila
i
alaila alaila
i
alaila
i
alaila
i
saaslal saaslal ss adsas adsas daadsas daadsas daadsas
al
daadsas
aad d
PaPa
a
d aPdaada
4. TheirPelectrical PaPda
conductivity PaPda
depends a a a
Their electrical conductivity depends
P P P P P P P a
P
iai on itemperature.
aslaila aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i on temperature
aslaila
i as well
aslaila
ias dopants
aslaila
i
dsa adsaas
l
concentration. PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai ilai iai iai iai i ai iai iai

adsaaslal 3. What
d a
d do
saasla you dmean
adsaaslal by doping?
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal 4. How adsaas
l
PaPda electron-hole pairs
PaPdaare created PaPdain a semiconductor Pmaterial?
ad a
d s
a adsa ads
a a
d s
a adsa adsa adsa
a PaPda PaPda aPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
A small increase
ilai ilai
in temperature
ilai
is sufficient
ilai
enough
ilai
to break ilai
some of the iai
adsaaslal d a
d a
sasla
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a
d ad a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasla
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d saaslal d adsaas
l
a PaPcovalent
a bonds and release the electrons free from the semiconductor lattice. As a
P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a P a
P a
iai result, some states

lailai
in the valence
lailai lailai
band become
lailai
empty and the same
lailai lailai
number lof
ailai
adsaaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaas
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai states
lailain
i the conduction
lailai band
lailwill
ai be occupied.
lailai The vacancies
lailai produced
lailai in thelailai
l
aa
d aada
PaPdvalence aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada aPdaada a
PP d
a
band are called holes. As the holes are deficiency of electrons, they are
P P P P P P
iai
saaslal
treated iai to possess
saaslal
iapositive
saaslal
i charges.
iai
saaslal
Hence, iaelectrons
saaslal
i and
iai holes pairs
saaslal
iai are created
saaslal
iai in
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
a semiconductors.
iai iai i
ailaa aslaila
i i
aslaila Explain aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal 5. A ddiode
a
dsaaslal is called
adsaaslas unidirectional
a
dsa device.
ads
l
PP d
a
o When the positive half cycle of the ac input signal passes through diode, The
iai aslaila
i i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i iai i ai iai
adsaaslal dadsdiode
a is d d saaslal biased
forward
a d a
dsand
a hence dit
a
d saconducts. d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
o When the negative half cycle of the ac input signal passes through diode, diode is
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
d s
a a
d s
a a
d s
a ads
a a
d s
a a
d s
a adsaas
l
a P P reversePbiased
a d
a a
P d
a and does
P P not conduct
a d
a P P and hence
a d
a P P no current
a d
a P P flows through
a d
a P P diode. P P
a d
a a d
a
iai  The current flows in only one direction(ailauni direction), when the diode is forward
saaslal a lailai a lailai a lailai a l i a lailai a lailai iai
saaslal l
a
d dadsa s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d adsaas
a PaPa biased. Hence,
PaPa A diode PaPais called as PaPaaunidirectional
PaPa devicePaPa PaPa PaPda
iai 6. Whatala do
ilai you mean aslaila
by
i leakage
aslaila
current
i in ai diode? alailai
aslaila aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa s a
dsa ads
a adsa adsas adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
The leakage current in a diode is the current that the diode will leak when reverse
iai voltageiai is applied iai on it. aUnderi ai Reverse iai i i aslaila
i iai
saaslal saaslal saaslal saslal saaslal bias,da very
saaslala small sacurrent inadµA,
saaslal flows dadsaasl
Padasalai
aad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d ad d a
d d
across the junction. This is due to the flow of the minority charge carriers called
iai ai
aslailleakage aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal athe
dsa acurrent.
dsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
7. Draw the output waveform of a full wave rectifier.
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
a adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai 8. Distinguish
aslaila
i between
aslaila
i avalanche
aslaila
i and zener
aslaila
ibreakdown.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
dsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
S.No Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown
iai aila i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i i i i i
adsaaslal 1.dadsaaslAvalanche
dadsabreakdown
dadsaoccurs indadsaaslailaZener dbreakdown
adsaas
laila
doccurs
laila alaila
adsaas in Heavily
dadsas adsaas
l
lightly doped junctions which have doped junctions which have narrow
iai ailai i
aslaila layers. aslaila
i ilai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsaaslwide depletion
adsa ads
a adsaasladepletion adslayers.
a adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
2. Here, in this case, the electric field Here, in this case, the electric field
saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saasla–1l saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
aad d
PaPa
a
d is not strong
d
PaPa
a
d enough d
PaPa to
a
d produce d
PaPa
a
d (3 × 10 7
d
PaPa V
a
d m ) is strong
d
PaPa
a
d enough d
PaPato
a
d
PaPda
breakdown. produce breakdown.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i i laila aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a adsaas adsa adsa adsaas
l
PPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 3. Alternatively,
i the
i thermally i Thisi electric field
i is strong i enough to i
a
d saaslal a
dsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila adsaslaila
l
a PaPda generated PaPda minority PaPdcharge
a PaPda ada
breakP P
or rupturePthe
aPda
covalentPbonds
aPda
in
a
PP d
a
iai
saaslal
carriers
iai
saaslal
accelerated
i ai
saaslal
bysasthe
lailaielectricsaaslathe
ilai lattice aandiai there byalgenerating
saslal
iai
sasal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d a d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
field gains sufficient kinetic electron-hole pairs. This effect is called
iai ailai
aslenergy, collide i
aslaila with the aslaila
i ilai
aslaZener effect.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
dsa ads
l
PP d
a
semiconductor atoms while
iai ailai i ai iai iai iai i ai iai
adsaaslal dadsaaslpassing d d saaslal theddepletion
through
a a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
region. This leads to the breaking
i ai ailai lailai ilai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a aslof covalentadsaasbonds and adsaaslaturn
in adsa ads
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
PP d
a
generates electron-hole pairs.
aa
d
Pa4.
Pa The Pnewly
d a
d d
aPa a
d generated
d
PaPa
a
d charge
d
PaPa
a
d EvenPaaPsmall
d
a a
d further
PaPa increasePin
d a
d aPareverse PaPdaada
d a
d
iai
carriers are also accelerated by the voltage produces a large inumber of i i
saaslal a l ailai a l ailai a l ailai a lailai a lailai a l alai lala l
ad d s
ada s d s
ada s d s
ada s d s
ada s d s
ada s d s
ada s d adaas
s d adsaas
a a
PP a electric
P P field resulting
a a a
PP a in Pmore
a
P a charge
P Pcarriers. Hence
a a a
PP a the junction
a
PP a has a
PP a
iai collisions and

lailai lailai
further lproduction
ailai very low resistance
lailai lailai
in the breakdown
lailai iai
saaslal s as s as s as s as sas s as saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d a d a
d a d a
d a d a
d a dada d a
d a d a
d
a PaPa of charge PaPa carriers.PaPa PaPa PaPa
region. PaPa PaPa PaPda
aslThis
ailai cumulative i process
iai aslailaleads ato
i i i i i
adsaaslal adsa adsaaslaila adsa dsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
an avalanche of charge carriers This process of emission of electrons
iai ailai i i aladue
ila to thearupture of sbands
alaila in from alathe
i i i i i
saaslal saaslacross slala
saathe alaila
junction and laila ila
adsaas
l
aad d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d dadsas
PaPa dadsas
PaPa dadsas
PaPa dadas dadsas
PaPa PaPa PaPda
consequently reduces the reverse lattice due to strong electric field is
iai ailai ilai i
aslaila current ilai
aslaknown lailai ailai ilai
a
dsaaslal d a
d s
a aslresistance.
d a
d s
aaslaThe diode
d a
d s
a dads
a as
d a
d s
a internal
as field
dads
a aslemission
daor
dsaaslafield
d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
increases sharply. ionization.
l
P9.
aPaDiscuss the PaPabiasing polarities inPaP
ana NPN and PaPPNP transistors.
a PaPa a PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai In laailaNPN
i transistor, i base and icollector lwill i be positive i with respect i to emitter i
adsaaslal adsaas adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaasaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
adsaaslaila a
dsaaslaila
indicated by the middle letter N whereas in an PNP transistor base and collector P P
da PaPda PaPda
iai
saaslal
will iabe
saaslal
i negative i[indicated
saaslal
ai by
iai the middle
saaslal
ialetter
saaslal
i P]saslailai iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d ada d a
d dad adsaas
10. Explain the current flow in a NPN transistor
iai o aThe iai lailai flow ofsacurrent
lailai iai ailai ailai ailai
adsaaslal saaslal conventional
d asaas d a as is abased
d saaslal on theasdirection
aasl
d
ofasthe
aasl motionaof
d saaslholes. d d adsaas
l
PP d
a
o In NPN transistor, current enters from the base into the emitter.
iai i i
a a i i i i
aslalato electrons a i i
aslala current i i a i i
aslala . i i
adsaaslal saaslal emitter
odaadThe saaslal
daadcurrent IE dis
adsdue
a d a
d saaslal and the
d a
d sabase d a
d saasIlaBl is duedto
adsaholes adsaas
l
a PaP PaP a PaP a PaP a PaP a PaP a PaP PaPda
o However, the current through the external circuit is due to the flow of electrons.
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 11. What isi the phase

aslaila aslaila
i relationship
aslaila
i between
aslaila
ithe AC input
aslaila
i and output
aslaila
i voltages
aslaila
iin a
a
d saaslal d a
dsa d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a dads
a d a
dsa d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a a
P P amplifier? a a
P P What isPthe a a
P reasonPfor a a
P the phase a a
P P reversal?P P a a PPa a
common emitter
iai In ailai iai amplifier, iai ilai outputalvoltages
iai ilai 0 out ofalphase
iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaaslcommon d
emitter
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal AC input
d a
d saaslaand d a
dsasal d
are
a
d saasla180 d a
dsasal adsaas
l
or in opposite phases. The reason for this can be seen from the fact that as
iai i i
lala i i
alala rises, asoalala alalai i a i i a i i
alala i i i i
saaslal dthesasinput voltage
daadsas dadsasthe current
daadsasincreases saaslal
daadthrough the saaslal circuit.
daadbase daadsas adsaas
l
aad
PaP aada PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP PaP a
PP d
a
12. Explain the need for a feedback circuit in a transistor oscillator.
iai iai i ai iai lailai ilai ilai iai
adsaaslal dadsaaslal circuitda
The dsaaslal to feedback
used d a
dsaaslal a portion
d a
d saasof the output
d a
d saaslato the input
d a
d saaslais called
d a
d saaslal
the adsaas
l
feedback network. If the portion of the output fed to the input is in phase with the
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a a
d s
a a
d s
a a
d s
a ads
a a
d s
a a
d s
a adsaas
l
a PaPda input, then PaPdathe magnitudePaPda of thePinputaPda signalPincreases.
aPda ItPis
aPdanecessary PaPfor
da a
PP d
a
sustained oscillations.
aslailai aslailai i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal al
aa
d s
a a d
aadsa a d
a a
d adaa
d a d
a a
d a d
a a
d adaa
d a d
a a
d a daadsas
13. Give circuit symbol, logical operation, truth table, and Boolean expression of
P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P
iai AND, OR, NOT,

aslaila
i NAND,
aslaila
NOR,
i andlaEX-OR
as ila
i gates
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa a
dsa ads
a adsa a
d s
a a
d s
a adsa adsaas
l
a PaPda
Logic Symbol PaPda PaPda PaPda
Logical operation PaPdaBoolean PaPdaTruth table PaPda a
PP d
a
expression
saaslal gates
saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal
saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d dadd a
d d a
d d a
d
a PaPa P aPa P aPa P PaPaaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
AND  The output of AND gate INPUTS OUTPUT
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i ia i i
aslaila all adsaaslaila
i i
aslaila B Y=A.B aslaila
i
saaslal sa sa is high
saslal (1) only swhen A
s s adsaas
l
aad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
P aPdaada aPdaada
P aPda P PaPda
ad a
PaPda
ad a a
PP d
a
the inputs are high (1). 0 0 0
iai iai i ai lailai i
aslaila the ad i i i i i i
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal  The d a
d saasrest of the
dadscases
a d Y slala
saa=A.B d a
d slala 1 d0adsaaslala
saa0 adsaas
l
output is low. 1 0 0
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
asaaslal a sa a sa a sa a s
a a sa a s
a a s
a adsaas
l
PaPda 1 1PaPd1a
d d d d d d d d
PP d
a
OR  The output of OR agate is

a lailai iai
saaslal a lailai a lailai a l ilai iai
saaslal aslaila
sINPUTS
i iai
saaslal
OUTPUT l
adsa s d a
d d a
d s
a s d adsa s d a
d s
a s d a
d d a
d a d a
d adsaas
a PaPa PaPa PaP a
high a
(logicP1aPstate) PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
A B Y=A+B
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i when either
alaila
i of the
alaila
i
aslaila
i lailai 0 lailai
adsaaslal adsa adsa adsas adsas adsa adsaa0
s a
dsaas0 adsaas
l
inputs or both are high. PaPda Y =A+B PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
0 1 1
iai iai iai iai iai i ai i i lailai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d slala 0 dadsaas1
saa1 adsaas
l
a P aPa PaPa P aPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
1 1 1
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai NOT alailai aslaila

i The output
aslaila
i is the lailai
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
d saaslal adsas adsa adsa adsaas adsa ads
a a
dsa adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda
Complement
da
PaPthe
of
ada
input. PItP
a
PP d
a INPUTS a
PP d
a OUTPUT a
PP d
a
A Y= ̅
iai iai iai is represented iai with aniai iai iai iai
adsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
dsaaslal a
d saaslal a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a P d
aPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa P d
aPa 0 PaPa 1
d PaPda
overbar. It is also called as Y =̅
iai i i i i i 1
ailai
0ailai
adsaaslal adsaaslaila adsaaslaila inverter.
a
dsaaslaila ads
aaslaila adsaaslaila s
ada asl s
ada asl
adsaas
l
PP d
a a
PP d
a
 The truth table infers
saaslal saaslal saaslal that lal outputsaY
sasthe aslaisl 1 saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
aad d
PaPa
ad d
PaPa
a
d adaada
PP adaadPP d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d
PaPda
when input A is 0 and
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal a
d s
a adsa vice
da versa.PaPda
a
d s
a a
d s
a ads
a adsa a
d s
a adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaP PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
NAND The output Y equals the INPUTS OUTPUT OUTPUT
iai iai i ai iai iai iai iai (AND) a(NAND)
iai
a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal a saaslal asaslal adsaas
l
ad
P d
aPa d d
PaPa
d complement
d
PaPa
d of
PaPAND
da d
P d
aPa d d d
PaPa A B Z=A.B d d
PaPa Y =̅̅̅̅̅ PaPda
(Or)
iai i operation.i The circuiti isi an 0 0 0 1
saaslal aslaila a l ailai a l alai aslala aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a l ailai l
ad adsa a
dsa s a
d s
a s a
d s
a a
d s
a a
d s
a s
ada s adsaas
a PaPda PaPda PaPdagate followed
AND PaPda by a PaPda PaPda 0 1 P0
a
P d
a 1PP
a d
a
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal s aslailai NOT gate.
s aslailaTherefore,
i
s aslait
ilaiis iai
saaslal
1 0 iai
saaslal
0 iai 1
saaslal sasl
Padasalai
aad d
aPa a
d d a
d a d a
d a d a
d a dad d a
d d a
d aPdaada
P PaPa PaPa
summarized as
a
PaPNAND. PaPaY =̅̅̅̅̅ PaPa 1 1 aPa
P1 0 P
iai aslaila Theadoutput

aslaila is at alogic
aslailazero adsaaslaila
i i i i i i i
adsaaslal adsaaslaila adsa s
a dsa adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
PP d
a
only when all the inputs
iai iai i ai are i i
high. iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaaslala adsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
The rest of the cases, the
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i iai iai iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal adsa adsa output lal
adsaas is high saaslal 1 dadsaaslal
ad(Logic ads
a adsa adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a a
PP d
a PaPa PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
state).
iai iai iai ilai iai iai aslaila
i lailai
adsaaslal NOR d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal Y equals
d a
d saaslathe d d saaslal
complement
a d a
d saaslal d a
d sINPUTS
a OUTPUT
d adsaasOUTPUT d adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa P a
(OR)P a (NOR) P a
P a
of OR operation(A OR B). A B Z=A+B Y =̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
iai
saaslal la(Or)
ilai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
0
ilai
asla0 1
iai
saslal 1 l
a adsaas a sa
The a sa a sa asa a sa adaada adsaas
PaPdacircuit is an PaPdaOR gate PaPda
d d d d d d
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PP a
PP d
a
followed by a NOT gate and 0 1 1 0

iai iai lailai lailai lailai i ai aslaila
i iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d s
a as d a
d s
a as d a
d s
a as d a
d saaslal d a
d s1
a 0 1 dadsaaslal 0 adsaas
l
a P aPa PaPa aPa
isPsummarized asa NOR. PaPaY =̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅PaPa
PaP PaPa PaPda
i  The output i is high lwhen

1 1 0 0
iai aslaila
i
aslaila aslaila asaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
all the inputs are low. PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
saaslal The output

saaslal is low saafor
slalaall dadsaaslala
iai iai iai iai i i i i iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
other combinations of
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
inputs.aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
d s
a ads
l
a PaPda PaPda d
PaPa PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai EX-OR iai i  The ioutput islahigh i i INPUTS i OUTPUT i

a
d saaslal adsaas
lal
adsaaslaila a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a as ila adsaaslaila ads
aaslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a PaPda PaPdawhen eitherPaPda of the two PaPda a
PP d
a a d
a
P P(EX-OR) P P a d
a
only
A ilai B Y=A+B
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal saaslal inputs
i ai
saais
slahigh.
ilai iai
saaslal
Y=A.
aslail̅
ai+ ̅ B asla
iai
saaslal al
aad d
aPa a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
d d
PaPa
a
dsa d a
d
PaPa 0
s
a a d
a a
d a daadsas
P
 In the case of an Ex- 0P P 0 P P
iai aslaila
i i
aslaila OR gate ilai
aslawith more lailai
asthan Y=A+B
aslaila
i 0 i 1
aslaila
1 i
aslaila
dsa ads
l
PP d
a
two inputs, the output will 1 0 1
iai iai i ai ilai i i iai i i lailai
d saaslal be high
d a
dsaaslawhen odd
d a
d slala
saanumber d a
d saaslal d a
d saa1
slala 1 dadsaas0 adsaas
l
of inputs are high.
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal 14. State s De Morgan’s s first s s s s s adsaas
l
PaPdand second PaPdatheorems.
ad a
d a ad a ad a ad a ada ad a a
d a
a PaPda PaPda a PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
o The first theorem states that the complement of the sum of two logical inputs is
a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
a PaPequal
d
a to the
PaPproduct
d
a ofPaits
Pa complements.
d d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅i . ̅
iai aslaila
i laila aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsaas ads
l
a PaPda a
PPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
o The second theorem states that the complement of the product of two inputs is
iai iai ilai i ai iai iai iai iai
saaslal saaslalto the dsum
equal saaslaof its saaslal
complements. saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
iai i ̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅iai ̅ i i i i i

adsaaslal adsaaslaila adsaas
la l
adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila adsaas
l
a PaPda a
PP d
PP d
a
UNIT - 10 :COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa
1. Give the factors that are responsible for transmission impairments. PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai 1.Attenuation
aslaila
i
aslaila
i 2. Distortion
aslaila
i 3. Noiselailai
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal adsa adsa adsa adsaas adsa ads
a adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
2. Distinguish between wireline and wireless communication? Specify the range
iai
saaslal ofsaelectromagnetic
aslaila
i
saaslal waves
iai
saasin
lailawhich
i itsaais
slalused.
iai iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
S.No Wireline communication Wireless communication
iai i i
lala lala i i lala i i
lala i i i i i i i i
adsaaslal 1.
d adsaasWireline dcommunication
adsaas d adsaas (point-d adsaas Wireless d slala
adsaacommunication
d
lala
adsaas usesadfree
lala
adsaas space adaadsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a PPa a a
PP a PP a PP
point communication) uses as a communication medium.
iai lailai iai iai iai i ai iai lailai
adsaaslal d a
d saasmediums d a
d saaslalwires, dcables
like a
d saaslal and dadsaaslalThe signals
d a
d saaslalare transmitted
d a
d saaslal in the
dadsaasform ofaPdaadsaasl
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa P
optical fibers. electromagnetic waves with the help of a
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
a adsa ads
transmittinga antenna.adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
2. These systems cannot be used for Hence wireless communication is used

iai i ia i ia i ia iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal a
d saaslal a
dsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa long distance
d d
PaPa transmission
d
PaPa as P
theyd
aPa for long
PaPa distancePatransmission
d d
Pa d
PaPa PaPda
iai areailai
connected physically.ailai
ailai i i i i
adsaaslal s
ada asl s
ada asl
adsaas
l
ads
l
a a
PPda a
PP d
a a
PP d
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai 3. Examples i are telephone,

i intercom
i Examples
i arei mobile, radio i or TV lailai
a
d saaslal a
dsaaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
aaslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila ads
aaslaila adsaas adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a d
a
P P TV. a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a d
a
P Psatellite P P a d
a a
PP d
a
and cable broadcasting, and
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
ia
saaslal
communication.
i iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
4. The frequencies range of electromagnetic
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
waves from i
aslaila2 kHz to
i
aslaila GHz are
400 aslaila
i
dsa ads
l
PP d
a
transmitted through wireless
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslalcommunication
d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
3. Explain centre frequency or resting frequency in frequency modulation.
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal daWhen
dsa the frequency
d a
d s
a ofdthe
adsa baseband d a
d s
asignal is zero
dads
a (no inputd a
dsignal),
s
a there
d a
d s
a is no d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a PPa a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
change in the frequency of the carrier wave. It is at its normal frequency and is called
aa
d
Pasda
aPacentre frequency
d d
PaPa
a
d d
Pa
a
orParesting
d d
PaPa
a
frequency.
d d
PaPa
a
Practically
d d a
thisPisaPathe allotted
d frequencyPaPdaada
d
PaPa
a
d
of the FM transmitter.
a l ailai a l ailai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
adsa s a
d s
a s a
dsa a
d s
a PaPd
4. What
a does da
PaPRADAR PaPda for?
stand PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai Radar
lailai
stands for Radio Detection
lailai lailai
and Ranging
lailai
System.
lailai iai iai
saaslal adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa saaslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad a
d a
d
a PaPda PaPda
5. What do you mean by Internet of Things?PaPda PaPda PaPda d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai Internet
aslaila
i of Things
aslaila (IoT)adis
i
aslmade
ailai possible aslailato control
i
aslavarious
ilai devices
aslaila fromadsa
i
assingle
lailai
adsaaslal dadsa d a
d s
a d sa d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a
d s
a d a d adsaas
l
a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a a
PP a
device. Example: Home automation using a mobile phone.
adsaaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a d
PaPa UNIT – 11: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS
d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPda
iai i i
a aslala i i
lala i i
aslala Nanotechnology.
alala i i
alala i i i i aslaila
i
a
dsaaslal saaslal
1.dadDistinguish between
dadsa dNano
adsaas science
dadsaand dadsas dadsas adsa adsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda a
PP d
a
Nanoscience Nanotechnology
iai aslaila
i lailai ilai iai iai i i iai
adsaaslal d a
d saNanoscience d a
d saasis the science
d a
d saaslaof objects
d a
d saaslal Nanotechnology
d a
d saaslal is
d a
da slala
saatechnologyd a
d saaslal adsaas
l
with typical sizes of 1-100nm. involving the design, production,
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal s
a s
a s
a sa sa s
a sa adsaas
l
PaPda One nano PaPdameter =10 PaPdameter. characterization, PaPdand
a application PaPda of
ad a
d a
d -9 a
d ad ad a
d a
d
a PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai
If matter
i i
is divided
i i
into such
i i
small iai
nano structured
i i
materials.
i i iai
a a a a a
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
a P aPa objectsPthe
aPa mechanical, PaPa electrical, PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai optical,i magnetic i and other properties

i i i i i
adsaaslal a
d s
a aslaila a
dsaaslaila ads
l
a PaPda change.PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai 2. What
alaila is theadsdifference
i
alaila
i between
alaila
i Nanoalailmaterials
ai aland
ailai Bulk smaterials?
alaila
i
alaila
i
adsaaslal dadsas d as dadsas dadsas dadsas dadas dadsas adsaas
l
S.NO Nano materials Bulk materials
iai ailai The solids i
aslaila are made ilai i
aslailaWhen athe ilai ilai aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsaasl1. adsa adsaaslaup of ads
a dsaaslaparticle adsaslaexceeds
size
a a100
dsa adsaas
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai i particles. Ifi the particles i of a nm,

i it is alabulk i solid or bulk
i material. i
a
d saaslal ads
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila adsaslaila
a a
d s
a aslaila adsaas ila ads
l
a PaPda PaPda is of sizePless
solid
aPda
than 100nmPaPda , PaPda PaPda PaPda a
PP d
a
iai iai it is said to

iai be a nano iasolid
i iai iai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal adsaas
l
 Nano and bulk solids may be of the same chemical composition.
iai i
aslaila For eg: lailai can besaboth
aZnO
i
aslaila in bulk lailainano form.
aand aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal adsa adsa s a
d ads
a s adsa adsa adsa adsaas
l
PP d
a
 Though chemical composition is the same, nano form of the material shows
iai iai lailai iai iai ilai lailai iai
adsaaslal dadsaaslalstrikingly
d a
d saasdifferent d a
dsaaslal
properties when
d a
d saaslal compared
d a
d saaslato its bulk
d a
d saascounterpart.
d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
2. Give any two examples for “Nano” in nature.
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa s
a s
a s
a s
a s
a s
a adsaas
l
aad a
PP d
aaEg:
d Singlea
PPstrand
d
a a
d of DNA,
a
PP d
a a
d Peacock a
PPfeathers,
d
a a
d Morpho
a
PP d
aad butterfly,Parrot
a
PP d
a a
d fish
PPadaa
dand Lotusa
PP d
a
iai
leaf isurface.
i i ai iai iai iai iai iai
a
aa
d dad
PaPa Single strand d a
d
PaPa of DNA: d a
d
PaPathe building d a
d
PaPablock of all d a
d
PaPaliving things, d a
d aPa nano PaPdaada
PaPa is aboutPthreed a
d
iai meters i wide. lailai i i i i i

adsaaslal adsaaslaila adsaasa
d s
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPdascales onPthe
Morpho butterfly: the aPda
wings ofPaP
da PaPda
a morpho butterfly PaPda
contain a
PP d
a
iai nanostructures
iai ithat
ai change ithe
ai way light iawaves
i interact
iai with aeach iai other,giving iai
saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saaslal saslal saaslal adsaas
l
Padasalai
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d dad d a
d d a
d
the wings brilliant metallic blue and green hues.
iai
saaslal Mimic
aslaila in laboratories-manipulation
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aof colours
laila i by aslaadjusting
ilai the
aslailasize of anano
i
aslaila
i l
ad adsa adsa adsa adsa s adsa adsa dsa adsaas
PP d
a
particles with which the materials are made.
iai ia i i
laila advantages i
alaila and adisadvantages
alaila ila i
alaila
i i iai
adsaaslal 3.dadMention
saaslal any atwo
dadsas dadsas d dsas
alaof
dadsas
Robotics.
dadsas d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
Advantages of Robotics:
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal adsaas
l
PaPda  The robots are much
PaPda cheaperPthan aPda humans.
a
d a
d s
a adsa a
d s
a a
d s
a adsa ads
a adsa
PP d
a
 Robots never get tired like human.
l
PaPa  Robots PaPaare morePprecise andPerror
aPa free inPa performing Pthe
aPa task.
a aPa Pa PaPa PaPda
iai  Stronger andiafaster thaniahuman.

saaslal a lailai a l al i aslal
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i l
aad d
a a
d s
a s d
a a
d s
a s d
a a
d s
a daadsa d
a a
dsa d
a a
d s
a d
a a
dsa d
a adsaas
P P  Robots
a P P can workPin
a P extreme environmental
a a
PP P P condition.
a That is extreme
a
PP P P hot or P P
a a
iai
saaslal a lacold,
ilai also bomb
a lailai Detectiona lailaiand bomb a laildeactivation.
ai i ai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d adsa s d a
d s
a s d a
d d a
d dad adsaas
a PaPa  In warfare,PaPa robots
a
PaPcan PaPa lives. PaPa
save human PaPa PaPa PaPda
iai aslaRobots
ilai areaslasignificantly
ilai aslaused
ilai in handling
aslaila
i materials
aslaila in chemical
i
aslaila industries
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a
specially in nuclear plants which can lead to health hazards in human.
iai ilai iai of Robotics: iai iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslaDisadvantages
d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
 Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience.
iai ilai lailai ilai ai emotionless
aslailan
i
aslaila workplace.
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
adsaaslal ad
saaslaThey lackadsaaempathy
s and
adsaaslahence create
ads
l
PP d
a

iai i ai aslaila
i
i iai iai
a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
d saaslal a
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa d
PaPa PaPa
iai laUnemployment
i i problem will
i increase. i i i i
a
d saaslal ads
a as ila adsaaslaila adsaslaila
a adsaaslaila
ads
aaslaila a
dsa adsaaslaila
aslaila adsaas
l
a PaPda PaPda PaPda PaPda a d
a
P P thing goes
 The robots are well programmed to do a job and if a small
a d
a PaPda
P P wrong itP P a d
a
iai
saaslal
ends
iai
saaslal
up in a ibig
saaslal
ai Loss to the
iai company.
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
ad d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d d a
d adsaas
 Humans cannot be replaced by robots in decision making.
iai  ilaia robot malfunctions
aslaIf aslaila
i
aslit
i
ailatakes time ilai identifyathe
aslato lailai problem ilai rectifyait.
aslaand lailai
dsa ads
a adsa s adsa adsa s adsaas
l
PP d
a
4. Why steel is preferred in making Robots?
iai iai i ai i i i i iai i i iai
adsaaslal dadsaaslalSteel isdaseveral
dsaaslal times
d a
d slala
saastronger. dIn
a
d slala case,dbecause
saaany adsaaslal of the
d a
d slala
saainherent d a
d saaslal
strength ofaPdaadsaas
l
a PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPa P
metal, robot bodies are made using sheet, bar, rod, Channel and other shapes.
i ai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
P5.
aPda What are PaPdblack holes?
ad a
d a ad a ad a ad a ada ad a a
d a
PP d
a
iai  Blackiaiholes are end stage of stars which are highly dense massiveiaobject. Its mass
saaslal a lal a lailai a lailai a lailai a lailai a la l i iai
saaslal l
a
d dadsa s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d s
a s d a
d adsaas
a PaParanges from
PaPa 20 timesPmass aPa of thePsun aPa to 1 million PaPa times mass PaPa of the Sun. PaPaIt has PaPda
iai very strong

i gravitational
i force i such thatlaino i particlelaor ieven light cani escapelafrom i
adsaaslal a
d s
a aslaila a
dsaaslaila ads
a aslaila a
d s
a as la a
d s
a as ila a
d s
a aslaila a
dsaas ila adsaas
l
a a
PP d
a a
PPda a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a a
PP d
a
it.
iai
saaslal
 The existence
iai
saaslal
of iblack
saaslal
ai holes is
iaistudied awhen
saaslal
iai the stars
saslal
iaor
saaslal
i biting the iaiblack hole
saaslal
iai
saaslal l
adsaas
Padasalai
behave differently from the other stars.
iai  aEverylailaigalaxy shas
lailai lailai lailai lailai iai aslaila
i
saaslal adaas black hole
adsaas at its center.
adsaas Sagittarius
adsaas A* is theadblack
saaslal hole at
adsathe
l
ad dsaas adsaas
PP d
a
center of the Milky Way galaxy. Black holes are the source of gravitational waves.
iai i i
a la i i a i i a i i iai iai iai
adsaaslal 6.
d a
d saaslal are dsub
What a
d saasla
atomic d d saaslal
particles?
a dadsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PPaa aa PP aa PP aa PP PaPa PaPa PaPa PaPda
 The three main subatomic particles that forms that form an atom are electron,
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
saaslal sa s
a sa s
a sa s
a sa adsaas
l
aa
d
PaPda
ad proton PaPdand
a neutron.
a
d
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad
PaPda
ad a
PP d
a
iai
 Subatomic
ilai
particles
ilai
are particles
ilai
thati are i smaller than the atom,
ilai ilai
proton and iai
a
adsaaslal d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a
d a
d a
sasl a l
d a
d a
sasl a
d ad a
sasl a
d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
a PaPa neutronPaPaare madePaup Pa of quarks PaPwhich
a interact
PaPa through gluons.
PaP a PaPa PaPda
iai  laSubatomic
i particle
i having itwo typeslaof i particlesla,ilthey
i are elementary i particle i
adsaaslal a
d s
a as ila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a aslaila a
d s
a as ila a
dsaas a a
d s
a aslaila a
dsaaslaila adsaas
l
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a a d
a ada a d
a
PP and composite particle.
PP PP PP PP PP PP PP

adsaaslal PREPARED
d a
d saaslalBY d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
l
R.RAMAMOORTHY M.Sc., B.Ed. R.RAMAKRISHNAN M.Sc.,B.Ed.,
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
a PaPda da
PaPMOBILE PaPda
: 9942602323 PaPda aPda
PMOBILE PaPda
: 9944636300 PaPda a
PP d
a
iai iai iai P.G

iai ASST. INalPHYSICS
iai i ai iai iai
adsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
dsaaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d sasal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal d a
d saaslal adsaas
l
LITERACY MISSION MATRIC. HR. SEC. SCHOOL., TIRUPUR DT
iai aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
aslaila
i
l
PP d
a

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91-Unit 1

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iai iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

iai iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

iai iai iai iai iai iai iai iai

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iai iai iai iai iai i ai iai iai

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iai i i UNIT i 1: ELECTROSTATICS i i i i

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iai The total

iai iai i⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

iai iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

iai  Noatwo lailai electric asfield

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iai there will

iai  The work

iai  The electric

iai dx -Small i distancelailai i i i i i

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iai 14. Define

iai iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

iai iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

iai The number

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iai 19. What aslaila

iai i i UNITlai2 iCURRENT ELECTRICITY

iai inside the conductor when it is field. i i

iai 2 lailai = iai iai iai i ai iai iai

iai 3 ailai Unit : msailai -1

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iai 3. State microscopic

iai Currentlailai densitysaaslailai = iai iai iai iai iai

iai between iai two ends iai of theaconductor.

iai aslailSa OHMIC

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iai iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

iai aslail3a Eg: lCopper, aluminum, silver asEg:

iai iai = asaaslailai iaOhm

iai 7.aDefineiai temperature

iai 8. What aslaila

saaslal  dThe saaslaproperty of aslconducting ascurrent with aslazero

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iai 3 lailai Si unitla:ilawatt

11. Derive the expression fori power P=VI in electrical circuit. i

iai aslaila W=V xadsQ

iai resistanceiai of each iapart

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iai Fori uniform lcross-section

iai iai i ai iai iai iai i ai iai

iai wire. iai i ai iai iai iai iai iai

iai 17. aState

iai 19. What

iai electrons iai at these iapoints

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