Solid Waste Management and Utilization of Blockchain

Capstone Project/ Thesis

Student Name: XXXX

Date: XXX

Instructor: XXX
 Abstract

With the evolution of industries and globalization, the impact of solid waste has gained
momentum. Every year, several million tons of solid waste remains untreated and is being
dumped into the sea posing serious threats to marine life. In parallel to this, the dot com
bubble and every mounting demand of electronics equipment’s has pushed electronics waste
to the north as well.

As traditional and E-waste continues to expand and becomes a growing problem,

environmental regulations have seen an increase around the globe, simultaneously. We have
to tackle this issue on not only an individual scale, but a global one as well.

This literature review will present the findings of numerous articles written by scientists and
academicians on the topic of solid waste, outlining and highlighting current practices, key
challenges being faced and proposes a solution along with the roadmap on achieving
resolution to the complex issue with the use of blockchain.
Contents
1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................4

i. Background.....................................................................................................................4

ii. Problem Statement..........................................................................................................5

iii. Research Objective..........................................................................................................6

iv. Significance of Study......................................................................................................6

v. Research Limitation........................................................................................................6

vi. Thesis Structure...............................................................................................................6

2. Literature Review...............................................................................................................7

i. Solid Waste Management................................................................................................7

ii. Current Practices in Solid Waste Management...............................................................9

iii. Technologies deployed in Solid Waste Management......................................................9

iv. The 3R’s of Waste Management...................................................................................20

v. Circular Economy.........................................................................................................21

vi. Sustainable Waste Management Road Map..................................................................21

vii. Blockchain concept and applications........................................................................21

viii. Blockchain concept in solid waste domain...............................................................27

ix. Case studies and Examples...........................................................................................28

x. Development of Stable Coin in Waste Management.....................................................29

xi. Challenges and Limitations...........................................................................................30

3. Methodology.....................................................................................................................30

i. Research methodology..................................................................................................31

ii. Research Limitations.....................................................................................................31

4. Blockchain utilization in solid waste................................................................................31

i. Blockchain Architecture and Design.............................................................................31

ii. Smart Contracts for Waste Management Processes......................................................31

iii. Data Collection and Management on the Blockchain...................................................31

 iv. Traceability and Transparency in Waste Management..................................................31

5. Discussion and Evaluation................................................................................................31

6. Conclusion and Future Direction......................................................................................31

References................................................................................................................................34
 1. Introduction
i. Background
According to World Bank’s data (2012) highlights that 4.3 billion urban residents would be
contributing 1.42/kg/capital/day of municipal solid waste by 2025. The estimates further
expect waste management costs to significantly increase from $205.4 billion in 2012 to
$375.5 billion in 2025. Studies have also found strong similarities and positive correlation
between high income levels and increasing solid waste (Hoornweg & Bhada-Tata, 2012).

Plastics, in various forms, have become an essential part of our lives. But its characteristics
such as durability and resistive degradation make it difficult to dissolve. As per the estimates,
every year 300 million tons of plastic waste is produced at large out of which only 12% is
incinerated, 9% is recycled and about 79% goes to the natural environment and landfill
(Kibria, Nahid Imtiaz Masuk, Rafat Safayet, Huy Quoc Nguyen , & Monjur Mourshed, 2023)
.

According to the World Bank, global waste is expected to grow by 3.4 billion tons by 2050,
this is more than double the growth of human population during the same period. The study
further highlights a positive relationship between high income countries and waste generated
per capita. Over the same period, the per capita increase in waste generation by high-income
countries is expected to go up by 19% (Schrader-King & Andy Liu, Global Waste to Grow by
70 Percent by 2050 Unless Urgent Action is Taken: World Bank Report, 2018).
Figure 1 Projected waste generation, by region (millions of tons/year) (Schrader-King &
Andy Liu, Global Waste to Grow by 70 Percent by 2050 Unless Urgent Action is Taken:
World Bank Report, 2018)

Within the bell curve of various countries with different income levels, waste generation
initially decreases for low-income countries and then incrementally goes up at a faster rate for
high-income countries (Mishra, 2014). The East Asia and Pacific region contribute around 23
percent to global waste, the Middle East and North Africa region produce the least in absolute
terms, at 6 percent. While the middle-income countries are posing growth at the fastest rate
among all; Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East and North Africa are
expected to generate waste by more than three times during the respective period. The very
first issue with this phenomenal increase does not only poses threat to the environment but
the way this waste is dumped in open air increases the threats to climate change by multiple
folds.

Figure 2 Waste collection rates, by income level (percent) (Schrader-King, Trends in Solid
Waste Management, 2018)

The underlying research is a tale of current practices and challenges faced in solid waste
management and how the gordian knots of the same can be solved via blockchain utilization.

ii. Problem Statement

The impact of plastic pollution has also gained momentum in recent years. Post disposal is a
long debate but even during production, plastic requires intensive amounts of energy and the
transportation of this also involves green-house gas emissions. Post consumption, organic
waste decomposes in landfills and exhibits methane which is a major player out of
greenhouse gases.

iii. Research Objective

The underlying research aims to explore various types of solid waste, its underlying
characteristics, current recycling state and green and circular economy in waste management.
To undertake this research, primary and secondary research methodologies would be utilized
and within primary research, case studies, peer-reviewed articles and interviews would be
conducted to test the research questions.

The main research objectives are to;

a) To explore various blockchain techniques that can be utilized in solid waste

management.
b) To implement a roadmap regarding implementation of various blockchain techniques
for solid waste management.

iv. Significance of Study

With the evolution of digitalization and industrialization, the cons of the same have had their
due share as compared to the pros. Pollution in the form of plastic, noise, smoke etc. are some
of the examples of the dark side of industrialization. While this holds true, the importance of
tackling solid waste has also become crucial as climate change is unfolding every day. With
the ESG mantra gaining momentum, companies are now trying to move more from voluntary
reporting to complying with full standards.

v. Research Limitation
Since the entire thesis was based on the theoretical aspects, it only targets the fundamental
concepts only. Neither practical tools were discussed, nor any intensive execution of the
theory was conducted to test the problem statement.

vi. Thesis Structure

The structure of the thesis is divided into main six sections. The first chapter starts by
providing brief overview of the topic along with mentioning problem statement. The second
chapter unfolds major discussion on already published literature. The third chapter entails
research methodologies, and the fourth chapter discusses the major implementation part. The
fifth chapter encapsulates discussion and evaluation with the sixth chapter providing
conclusion of the thesis.

2. Literature Review
i. Solid Waste Management
Today, the majority of plastics are produced from fossil-based feedstock. The journey to
move towards a circular economy with climate neutral stance requires a complete revamp of
the existing infrastructure and innovation. This calls for new business ideas that can reduce
the existing use of plastic, can recycle existing plastic, and can produce less plastics from
feedstocks reliant on fossil-based oil and gas (Janssens, 2022).

Figure 3 The Circularity of Plastics (Janssens, 2022)

Solid waste refers to any discarded material that can no longer be used. The solid waste can
range from a plastic product to electronic equipment. There are multiple sources of solid
waste where the waste originated mainly from households, industries, and construction sites.
According to the World Bank, in 2018, the global average municipal solid waste generation
was approximately 1.4 kilograms per person per day, totaling around 2 billion metric tons of
household waste generated annually. However, it's important to note that these figures can
vary significantly across countries and regions. On the flip side, in 2018, the United Nations
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) estimated that industrial waste generation
worldwide was approximately 7.6 billion metric tons per year (Upadhyay, Industrial
Development Report 2018).
Figure 4 World Bank Report: What a waste global database (Hoornweg & Bhada-Tata,
2012)

There are multiple types of solid waste, mainly municipal solid waste, industrial waste,
construction, and hazardous waste. With evolving technology, another form of waste is
gaining momentum and that is electronic waste. According to research published by Plastics
Europe, after a stagnation in 2020, the global plastic production reached a historic high of
390.7 million tons in 2021 (Janssens, 2022).

Figure 5 Global Plastic Production (Janssens, 2022)

The breakdown of plastic by type shows an astonishing contribution of 90% via fossil-based
sources while only 9.8% is circular plastic. Moreover, the sources where plastic is generated
the most are packaging (44%), Building and construction (18%) followed by 8% in
automotives and 7% in households (Janssens, 2022).

Figure 6 Distribution of the global plastic by type (Janssens, 2022)

Figure 7 Distribution of the global Plastic by application (Janssens, 2022)

With the advent of digital revolution and industrialization, the usage of plastic has seen a
drastic surge – from a small coke glass to a huge sewerage line, the drawbacks of plastic
economy have been felt the most in urban areas. The used plastic does not only harm the
land, but it also releases a chemical known as chlorine which is quite dangerous to live in as
it is one of the most powerful green gases thus contributing significantly to climate change.
Chlorinated Plastic also releases harmful chemicals in the soil thus destroying the fertility of
land, causing danger for the roots and disruption in ground water posing health threats to
Human Beings. The third most serious threat of Plastics are in the land fill areas where micro
plastic organisms which undergoes biodegradation thus emitting methane gases which are
dangerous to living as it is one of the powerful green gases thus contributing significantly to
the Global Warming (Biello, 2011).

The fourth major threat of Plastic Pollution comes in play when minor pieces of plastic
pallets, often known as pallets, spill in oceans during transportation through cargo thus
polluting the water and causing threats for water creatures (Chiras, 2004).

The UNIDO report provides a comprehensive view on the economy of plastic pollution, it
provides a visual representation of how a high income is positively related to the increase in
plastic pollution creation. The process flow also highlights that how right diversification of
manufacturing processes may reduce the waste that would have otherwise been generated via
fossil fuels – the motivation of less creation of pollutants run through the consumption cycle
too with reduction in prices of environmental goods thereby allowing mass consumption of
these goods. Finally, careful manufacturing and controlled consumption may provide the
economy with large chunks of profits that can be reinvested into the system (Upadhyay,
Industrial Development Report 2018).

Figure 8 A sustainable virtuous circle of manufacturing consumption

Plastic Pollution is one of the leading types of Pollution that is not only littering the ground
but also endangering wild like, creating problems for Sea creatures, and probably affecting
Plants and Greenery of the globe. The United Nations reported 38.5 million Kg of Plastic
wastage from all over the world making US, UK and Middle East the topmost suppliers of
this waste. Surendra Borad, a resident of Belgium reports the recycling industry is worth over
500 billion US dollars per year and is increasing by 10 billion US dollars every day (Borad,
2012).

This point towards a serious need to revamp the plastic economy not only by recycling and
reusing the existing plastic but also by discouraging the new production of the same.
Recycling industry has gained popularity over the past few decades making recycled Plastic
even more expensive than the Prime Plastic and sells at a premium Price. While the critics
mention the drawbacks of using plastic – they also point towards giving it a second chance
via recycling and reusability. However, the economics of recycling often eats more costs than
the creation of new plastic. Despite that, the need of recycled Plastic can be gauged by the
fact that The US recycling industry contributed about 90 billion to the USA economy during
2010. This number is equal to the whole Coal mining industry of Coal (John, 2010).

ii. Current Practices in Solid Waste Management

After discussing various types of solid waste and the historic evolution of the different types
of wastes, it is pertinent to understand the current practices of tackling waste management.
Kumar, S., Bhattacharyya, J.K., Vaidya, A.N., et al.) in his article Current Practices and
Challenges in Municipal Solid Waste Management in India provides an overview of current
practices and challenges in municipal solid waste management in India. It discusses waste
collection, segregation, treatment, and disposal methods, along with the role of stakeholders
and policy frameworks. The study highlights the need for sustainable waste management
practices and emphasizes the importance of public participation and technological
interventions (Kumar, 2022).

Jean Lange in his report published by American Chemical Society discusses various options
to recycle plastic for retransformation (mechanical recycling), repolymerization (chemical
recycling to monomer), or recracking (chemical recycling to feedstock).
Figure 9 Options for recycling plastic waste (Lange, 2021)

The report further discusses various sorting technologies for recycling via a, air classifier; b,
sink-float sorting; c, magnetic sorting of ferrous metals; d, sensor-based sorting; e, DKR
plastic fractions (Lange, 2021).

Figure 10 Archetype sorting technologies

Subham Sharma in Critical review on the Solid-wastes issue highlights the need to reuse
plastic into building and construction materials to optimize building costs as well as to reduce
the gross generation of plastic (Sharma, Sudhakara, SK Misra, & J Singh, 2021).

iii. Technologies deployed in Solid Waste Management

The following table entails major discussion done by various authors on the various
technologies deployed in solid waste management.

Authors Year Research Solid Waste Research Publication

Subject
 Matter management Methodology Source
Manish 2017 A smart waste The article Secondary and European
Lamichhane management discusses how Primary (Smart Erasmus
system using most of the contracts-based Mundus
iot and budget tokens) program
blockchain allocation in the
technology entire waste
management
cycle is being
allocated to
waste collection.
A report by
European
Union in 2014
reveals that
2503 million
tonnes of waste
was produced in
2012. Nearly,
47% of this
waste was
incinerated,
36% was
recycled (not
including energy
recovery) 10.2%
was landfilled
and remaining
was incinerated
to
recover energy.
In parallel to
that, most of the
waste is being
 dumped in open
air in Asian
countries
causing bigger
threats to our
climate and
making it
further difficult
to sort out its
recycling.

The article
discusses to
establish proper
waste that
can pave path
for recycling.
With all data
available on
distributed
ledger, it would
be easier to
convert general
waste into
energy as well
and the reward
mechanism
would become
the center of
motivation for
users.
Naveen BP, 2018 Waste The unscientific Secondary and EMS
Malik RK Management: dumping of Primary Environmental
Issues and solid waste has Sciences
and Solutions for serious (Surveys/polls) Journal
Shubhra a Rapidly consequences
Puri Growing for the rapid
Satellite City development
in National and
Capital sustainability of
Region, India the urban areas.
The research
highlights
various
centralized and
decentralized
mechanisms to
tackle vast
amounts of solid
waste in
Gurugram, a
Millennium City
located in the
National Capital
Region (NCR),
Delhi.
Susmita 2022 A Blockchain Plastic waste, if Secondary and Indian
Mondal, Based handled Primary Institute of
Sameer G. Transparent carefully and in Research Technology
Kulkarni Framework a timely manner, (process flow Gandhinagar
for can improve the of blockchain,
Plastic Waste ratio of recycled smart contracts
Management plastic. Some of proof of work
the examples of etc.)
recycled plastic
include plastic
bricks, plastic
plant pots,
 plastic fibers, or
social plastics.
The research
proposed use of
blockchain to
enable efficient
collection of
plastic waste
and the
underlying
smart token-
omics would
allow users to
redeem rewards
based on their
timely
submission of
the plastic.
Ashish R. 2014 Solid waste Various Secondary International
Mishra management - techniques of Research Journal of
,Shweta A. case study composting, Research in
Mishra landfilling and Advent
,Anurag V. recycling have Technology
Tiwari been discussed
to address solid
waste
management
issues at hand.
Distance
between the
litter,
transportation
availability and
unavailability of
 separate bins for
various waste
contributes to
the missed
waste collection
and prompts to
inefficiencies in
the value chain
of recycling.
Austine 2021 Plastic Some of the Secondary American
Ofondu Pollution: A various ways to Research Chemical
Chinomso Perspective tackle plastic Society
Iroegbu, on Matters pollution
Suprakas Arising: include
Sinha Ray, Challenges consistent
Vuyelwa and monitoring of
Mbarane, Opportunities the plastic being
João Carlos disposed in
Bordado, landfills and sea.
and José Some school of
Paulo thoughts also
Sardinha recommend
complete ban of
the plastic
material or calls
for some
innovative
solutions to
tackle this issue
at hand.
Anil Hira, 2022 Plastic Waste The article Secondary Sage Journals
Henrique Mitigation explores various Research
Pacini, and Strategies: A opportunities to
Tze Ni Review of reduce attempts
Yeoh Lessons from of the
Developing burgeoning
Countries amounts of
plastic waste in
South Asia (SA)
and SSA
including bags,
levies etc. The
other aspect of
the research also
attempts to
understand
limited policies
to reuse and
recycle plastic.
The final area of
the paper
highlights
various
possibilities to
bring changes in
the
manufacturing
process and to
develop natural
substitutes to
plastics which
would be non-
toxic,
biodegradable,
and conducive
to local
productive
capacity
 development,
such as paper,
cloth or
materials
derived from
banana leaves.
Katrien 2021 Blockchain The article Secondary and MDPI
Steenmans, Technology discusses Primary
Phillip for various aspects Research
Taylor and Governance of blockchain (Regression
Ine of Plastic contribution to analysis, pilot
Steenmans Waste the waste projects)
Management: management
Where Are initiatives.
We? These can be
categorized into
four areas: (1)
cryptocurrency
payments,
(2)
cryptocurrency-
based reuse and
recycling
rewards, (3)
monitoring and
tracking of
waste, and (4)
smart contract
implementation.
Mohinish 2021 A Smart Solid The article Secondary and IEEE
Paturi Waste proposes to Primary (Smart
Management deploy a unique contracts-based
System Using waste tokens)
Blockchain management
 and IoT for system on
Smart Cities blockchain
platform by
using Internet of
Things (IoT).
The idea is to
use waste smart
bins and make a
separate smart
contract for each
of them to note
and record every
transaction.
The proposed
system
distributes
rewards to users
for proper
disposal of
waste into smart
bins using smart
contracts.
Ongoro, E 2022 Solid waste The article pens Case study University of
management down major Nairobi,
challenges in challenges being Kenya
developing faced to tackle
countries: waste. These
case study of include
Nairobi City, inadequate
Kenya financing, poor
infrastructure
and technology,
lack of public
awareness on
 good sanitary
practices,
inadequate legal
and regulatory
framework.
Manoj 2016 Solid Waste The issue of Secondary Journal of
Katiyar Management climate change, Research Construction
greenhouse gas and Building
and carbon Materials
footprint are Engineering
interlinked with
inadequate
waste
management.
When the waste
goes to landfills,
it creates
methane gas, a
major
contributor to
greenhouse
gases.
Shweta 2019 A Research A country’s Secondary JETIR.org
Choudhary Paper on growth rate can Research
Solid Waste be defined in
Management several forms.
In parallel to
economic
capital and the
degree of
industrialization,
the status of
recycling and
reusability of its
 industrial input
is one of the
parameters to
gauge any
country’s level
of prosperity in
today’s day and
age. To say
broadly, the
status quo has
now changed to
new economic
environment
than of the
current
economic
situation
(recession vs
prosperity)
Paula 2023 Technological Technological Secondary IADB
Guerra innovation in advancement Publisher
solid waste plays a crucial
management: role in achieving
The digital transformation
revolution is and circulatory
transforming in the value
the way we chain rather than
see and just a linear
handle our approach to a
waste more circular
and sustainable
system. These
can be
witnessed via
 waste-to-energy
conversion,
anaerobic
digestion, and
composting
techniques. It
allows reduction
of solid waste
and channelized
it for a positive
use.

iv. The 3R’s of Waste Management

According to research done by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), most of the waste
remains uncollected, Essentially, the concept of 3R revolved around the reusability of the
waste: 1) Reduce, 2) Reuse and 3) Recycle. The very first step to tackle waste via 3R
philosophy is to reduce the trash generation, this can happen via use of sustainable packaging,
the second step is reusability of the existing trach followed by the recycling of them. This
allows the existing trash a second chance before being disposed of to the landfills (Q. Z.
Yang, 2014). The way how a linear model differs with circular model incorporating the 3R
framework can be shown as:

Figure 11 Features of the linear and circular models. (Q. Z. Yang, 2014)
The 3R philosophy is in line with the overall sustainability management practices. The theory
allows to imply practical approach towards conservation of land, water and natural resources.
Together with this, it also motivates managers to think out of the box ideas in order to reduce
the generation of trash – remember this is the very first step. Attaining this goal leaves them
with only two goals, to reuse and recycle the existing trash. Conversion to energy, handicraft,
synthetic fiber is some of the innovative ideas put forward by entrepreneurs in dealing with
waste (Anees, 2022).

v. Circular Economy
Every year, 8.3 billion metric tons of plastic is generated out of which 6.3 billion tons become
a waste. The mere recycling percentage of 9% puts an alarm on the regulators, manufacturers,
and policy makers to devise a long-term sustainable solution encapsulating manufacturing
processes and standards that has a strong focus to reduce plastic waste right from the very
start. At the heart of the problem is the linear ‘take-make-dispose’ model which believes in
circularity of plastic right from the start (Wautelet, 2018).

A circular economy is restorative and regenerative by design and also creates economic
opportunities in terms of new businesses that are sustainable and can transform recyclable
plastic into some valuable by-products. The concept also contribute towards the UN
Sustainable Development Goal on Sustainable Consumption and Production (SDG 11 & 12),
specifically target 12.5 on substantially reducing waste generation through prevention,
reduction, recycling and reuse while also contributing towards SDG 14, Life on Water,
through target 14.1 on preventing and reducing marine pollution of all kinds (Kumar, 2022).

Finally, A 3R implementation framework has also been designed and discussed rigorously to
foster necessary transition towards circular consumption and alternative ways of green living.
Figure 12 A 3R implementation framework for circular consumption. (Q. Z. Yang, 2014)

vi. Sustainable Waste Management Road Map

Various research and literature have been published to discuss the need an effective waste
management infrastructure to implement the waste hierarchy, upscale the cycling of plastics
in the economy, and prevent leakage into the environment.

The road to sustainable waste management also requires political and public awareness of the
impacts of plastic pollution in the environment. Finally, past literature also showcases need to
explore opportunities for recovering the value of plastic as a resource through circular
economy tools by engaging public and private sectors (Chiras, 2004).

vii. Blockchain concept and applications

Blockchain technology accounts for storing data and information to prevent it from hacking
or cybercrime. A blockchain technology requires an internet to run and is comprised of
several pieces such as a database, software applications and few connected computers
(Surianarayanan, Kavita Saini, & Pethuru Raj Phd Chelliah, 2021).

It differs from a typical database in a way data is structured and stored. A typical database
stores information in a table format electronically in a computer system. However,
blockchain stores information in the form of blocks (Surianarayanan, Kavita Saini, & Pethuru
Raj Phd Chelliah, 2021).

Figure 13 The properties of Distributed Ledger Technology (Learning, 2020)

The way a blockchain technology works is that it collects data and information in form of
groups and stores that information in particular blocks. Due to limited capacity and storage,
each block can store a certain amount of information, hence when each block is filled, it is
chained into previously filled block. This forms a chain of data, known as “blockchain”
(Archer, 2019)

Blockchain is a digital ledger of transactions, distributed across the entire network of

computer systems. Each transaction is stored in a particular block in the chain and whenever
a new transaction is occurred, it is then recorded and stored to a particular participant’s
ledger.citation

Blockchain is a chain of blocks containing data and information. The data that resides inside
each block depends on the type of blockchain. For instance, a bitcoin block stores
information of the Sender, Receiver and number or number of bitcoins to be transferred.
However, in particular, only hash of the data is stored in blockchain making it secure and
impossible to hack.

Authors Year Research Blockchain Research Publication

Subject concept and its Methodology Source
Matter application in
 solid waste
Corporate 2020 Blockchain Blockchain Secondary Euromoney
Author concept and technology Research learning
its technology accounts for
storing data and
information to
prevent it from
hacking or
cybercrime. A
blockchain
technology
requires an
internet to run
and is
comprised of
several pieces
such as a
database,
software
applications and
few connected
computers
Mayank 2022 Cryptography Blockchain Secondary Upgrad
Sahu in technology Research
Blockchain: make use of
Types & cryptographic
Applications technique in
multiple ways.
However,
blockchain
make use of
particularly two
types of
cryptographic
 algorithms:
asymmetric-key
algorithms and
hash functions
Manish 2017 A Smart Waste Secondary ITMO
Lamichhan Waste generation data University
Management and optimal
system using vehicle
IOT and allocation are
Blockchain some of the
technology adjacent
challenges faced
in the traditional
solid waste
management
processes. The
idea of
implementation
of IOT enabled
blockchain
system to this
issue solves
both issues. The
introduction of
flexible pricing
motivates
people to
generate less
waste as the
pricing of waste
collection is
linked to that.
Secondly, the
waste collection
 trucks have
identification
and tagging
enabled thus
making sure
efficient
allocation of
trucks are being
allocated.
Sekhri, 2018 Harvesting The thesis Secondary and Massachusetts
Prerna the plastic, we points towards Primary Institute of
have sowed: the need for an Technology
costs and integrated waste
challenges in, management
and a novel system that
application of allows IOT
blockchain enabled devices,
for base-recycler-
implementing facing mobile-
extended phone
producer applications,
responsibility and producers',
in Chile retailers, and
recyclers'
inventory
systems on an
integrated public
permission
blockchain. This
platform enables
tracking of trash
and rewards
users on the
basis of optimal
 resource
allocation and
minimal waste
generation.
Phillip 2020 Blockchain The paper Secondary Frontiers
Taylor Technology discussed two
for broad spectrums
Sustainable of blockchain
Waste utilization in the
Management solid waste
domain. The
very first area of
the utilization
deals with the
plastic bank,
payment or
reward
facilitation on
waste collection,
monitoring and
tracking of
waste and
payments via
blockchain-
secure digital
token.
The second area
deals with the
data collection,
waste collection
and its
monitoring.
M.E.M. van 2017 Blockchain- empty empty
wingerde enabled self-
 sovereign
identity
Rainer Lenz 2021 Blockchain The project aims Secondary Erasmus
Applications to address the
for interoperability
Waste between waste
Management management
and blockchain
technology. The
project aims to
conduct research
on how waste is
generated and
collected in
cities, to identify
benefits of
utilization of
blockchain, to
create a study
plan that
supports
technical
training and to
develop an
interactive tool
based on
blockchain
technology.
Vaseem 2021 Blockchain The study Secondary Hindawi
Akram Enabled proposes a
Shaik, Automatic blockchain-
Sultan Reward based reward
Alshamrani System in system based on
Solid Waste real-time series
 Management data such as
quantity of
garbage and
level of waste.
Furthermore,
LoRa-range-
based
customized
sensors are
developed for
bins to obtain
real time
information.
David 2019 In this study, A Yitong Secondary Energy
Zhang a blockchain- System is being Procedia,
based reward implemented in Science Direct
system is Changzhi City,
proposed to Shanxi
generate the Province, China
rewards based whereby the
on real-time plant collects
series data and transports
such as agricultural
quantity of wastes (crop
garbage and straw and
level of animal residue),
waste. and converts
Furthermore, them to clean
LoRa-range- energy and
based agricultural by-
customized products like
sensors are briquettes,
developed for fertilizer, and
bins to obtain animal
 real time feedstock.
information.
Ayush 2019 Custom Block The purpose of Secondary Science Direct
Thada Chain Based the study is to
Cyber develop a cyber-
Physical physical system
System for that can tackle
Solid Waste local waste. The
Management system will keep
records of the
trash bin and it
will also
incorporate
verification
system that can
trace location of
each trash bin
and its nearby
vehicle.

viii. Blockchain concept in solid waste domain

According to research conducted by IEEE Access regarding Blockchain for Waste
Management in Smart Cities: A Survey, modern cities face manifold challenges related to air
pollution, deteriorating environmental hazards, inefficient water management, sanitization,
and waste management. The research quotes multiple avenues for blockchain utilization in
the waste management domain (Wingerde, 2017).

Most of the blockchain ideas are linked to Internet of Things (IoT) and centralized cloud
systems which includes data collection, waste movement monitoring and processing data.
The research quotes how IoT-based nodes sense, monitor, and transmit the capacity and type
of waste in bins, temperature, and humidity levels, and estimate the arrival time and route
data about the waste carrying trucks to the cloud servers for processing and decision making.
This data provides multiple insights such as how many vehicles are available in the nearby
vicinity of smart bins. However, the centralized storage of the data makes it harder to
collaborate and make changes to the already processed code which makes it difficult to
modify (Lamichhane, 2017).

The lack of credibility and trustworthiness of centralized system brings loopholes to the
system and makes it inefficient as the resource managers are unable to plan out their
resources properly. Also, the data created in silos does not bring any synergies in the system.
This results in misinterpretation and misleading results. Finally, the centralized cloud-based
system is vulnerable to fraud and theft attacks too. This enhances the need to bring all the
data on decentralized network and then link it with IoT, blockchain enabled solid waste
management offers an avenue to explore the management of solid waste via distributed ledger
and would enhance performance and productivity of waste management processes (Taylor,
2020).

ix. Case studies and Examples

While the literature mostly covers electronic use of waste disposal and smart cities, there is a
lot more that can be explored further with the use of blockchain. Live tracking of vehicles,
smart bins via Internet of Things, automation, and achievement of cost efficiencies in
Supplychain are some of the areas where possible collaborations can be sought after (Pham,
2021).

A similar case study has been conducted to introduce automated vehicles backed by Internet
of Things (IoT) technology and blockchain concept for the municipalities of Pakistan to
collect trash from smart bins (Zeb, Qurban Ali, Muhammad Qaiser Saleem, & Khalid
Mahmood Awan, 2019). The system is designed in a manner:

 Pickup and offloading of trash from pickup to delivery points – all recorded on smart
contracts.
 Reducing chances of waste spillover from trash bins.
 Speedy transportation with optimal route allocation
 Selective portions of bins making plastic collection and segregation easier.
Figure 14 Proposed smart waste management system. (Zeb, Qurban Ali, Muhammad Qaiser
Saleem, & Khalid Mahmood Awan, 2019)

The current literature also articulates the development of smart cities under the bigger domain
of waste management. While the development is crucial, it is even more important to
understand the existing infrastructure and how the present database can be converted to
decentralized databases. Other areas where further research can be done are mentioned below
(Javaid & Iqbal).

Feature/Benefit Description
Data loss All of the documentation stuff related to Bill of Lading to waste
prevention management ledgers are now stored digitally so that the documents
cannot be physically lost.
Credential This allows certification of all experience documents of the waste
Verification management staff to ensure all personnel are qualified and sound.
Fraud and This explores the conformation towards full compliance of regulations
Manipulation and standards to deal with the waste properly. Any disconnect can be
Prevention highlighted on the system and may ask for recourse.
Data Security This ensures that all data gathered about smart bins, waste vehicles and
any other related stuff is stored on distributed ledger.
Supplychain Any materials or services been procured are monitored and evaluated
Transparency through decentralized portal.
Automation Making sure all business activities are aligned and synced in a manner
that reaps automation.
Resource While keeping all data on decentralized platform, the usage ensures
 Efficiency optimal use of resources.

x. Development of Stable Coin in Waste Management

As per the Forbes, a stable coin can be defined as:

“A “stable coin” is a cryptocurrency that is pegged to another stable asset, like gold or the
U.S. dollar. It’s a currency that is global but is not tied to a central bank and has low
volatility. This allows for practical usage of cryptocurrency like paying for things every
single day”. Some other features that an efficient stable coin must have are (Gruenwald,
2022):

 Is backed by any asset,

 Can absorb the volatility of crypto coins and market shocks,
 Shows Audited books,
 Can verify the actual reserves,
 Should not involve in any manipulation and act as independent body.

To put things into perspective, a stable coin must have high audit, can transmit capital from
one place to another easily, can show actual reserves, be transparent and have low censorship.
While Tether carries all except the promise to defend the peg; it basically creates a big
problem for the survival of the coin. The rumors for the Tether Fud started appearing in late
2017 and till the time of writing, a number of events have escalated those rumors including
Audit Report, company’s parting ways with their existing auditor and number of research
articles showing the company does not have enough reserves to prove the existing peg of
1USD= 1USD; While any ambiguity on this front is harmful for the whole industry; an equal
need to create an alternative stable coin that follows peg, carries enough liquidity and has
storage value is evident (Gruenwald, 2022).

The utilization of waste management stable coin can provide liquidity in the space,
transparency to the already established records and may help in the establishment of smart
cities by acting as a utility token (Gruenwald, 2022).

xi. Challenges and Limitations

This also poses some challenges, the development of smart contracts and the choice of
blockchain platform are some of the technical challenges of the entire thesis.
Moreover, the cost utilized to develop a full fledge software together with time efforts
required offers some other limitations of the research. Hence, the research of the work would
be more towards development of a proof of work (PoW) or establishing guidelines and scope
of work regarding a waste management smart contract-based utility token.

3. Methodology
The research design that has been opted for this study is two-pronged based qualitative
methods under the umbrella of primary and secondary research. While the secondary research
covers most of the published literature on solid waste and blockchain, the primary research
mainly deals with a proposed system to deploy solid waste management via blockchain
utilization. The aim of both the research method is the same; to explore the need of
blockchain utilization in the solid waste management and to identify areas where blockchain
can be utilized in the solid waste management. The research would also explore IoT, RFID
and other blockchain parameters to gauge the need for the same.

Broadly, two sources of information are used to conduct any research i.e., Primary Research
and Secondary Research details of which are as follows:

i. Research methodology
There are a number of tools available to conduct primary research such as case studies,
mobile phone surveys, pilot study, interviews and web surveys but keeping in mind the time
and cost constraints this study has used porotype case study methods to propose a system of
using solid waste via blockchain. The underwriting report takes Proof-of-Work (PoW) into
account and prepares a visual print of the idea as how can blockchain with IoT enabled
sensors may work into the solid waste side. Furthermore, a number of theories and literature
would be used to create pilot projects that can enable blockchain utilization for solid waste
management.

ii. Research Limitations

This also poses some challenges, the development of smart contracts and the choice of
blockchain platform are some of the technical challenges of the entire thesis.

Moreover, the cost utilized to develop a full fledge software together with time efforts
required offers some other limitations of the research. Hence, the research of the work would
be more towards development of a proof of work (PoW) or establishing guidelines and scope
of work regarding a waste management smart contract-based utility token.
 4. Blockchain utilization in solid waste
i. Blockchain Architecture and Design
Every era is known for a revolutionary change that has forever turned the shape of globe
upside down. From the Guttenberg revolution, the world saw start of printing technology
where the existence of publishing media came into being. Similarly, the rise of goldsmith put
an end to barter system, the wheel was the start of industrial revolution while the dotcom
bubble disrupted the information technology in an unprecedented manner. Citation

The growth in the consumption of blockchain technology is complimented with the rise of
online payment mechanism and digital consumption. As focus shifted from physical space to
online space, financial institutions saw a new wave of inflows in the form of online
transactions, digital payments and integrated online solutions all based on fiat currency.
While the dominance of fiat currency has been a known reality after goldsmith era, the
loopholes existed in system together with centralized supply especially after 2008 economic
downturn paved way for a modern technology and a totally new system- the introduction of
decentralized currency supported by distributed ledger. Citation

A distributed ledger (also called a shared ledger, or Distributed Ledger Technology, DLT) is a
consensus of replicated, shared, and synchronized digital data geographically spread across
multiple sites, countries, or institutions. There is no central administrator or centralized data
storage.

Figure 15 Centralized versus distributed ledgers (Centralized versus distributed ledgers,

2021)
Before moving to discuss various cryptographic encryption, part of the due discussion should
be on how the blockchain network works? The following diagram illustrates the entire
process:

Figure 16 How a distributed ledger works? Citation

a) Cryptographic Encryption to Blockchain

Blockchain is a list of records, called blocks, linked using cryptography. Cryptography is a
method of prevention of data and information from third party access and making the
communication more secure and reliable. In general, cryptography refers to conversion of
information from a readable format (plain text) to unintelligible text (cipher text), making it
accessible for only those whom the text is intended for. (Victor, 2018)

b) Types of cryptography in blockchain

Blockchain technology make use of cryptographic technique in multiple ways. However,
blockchain make use of particularly two types of cryptographic algorithms: asymmetric-key
algorithms and hash functions. (Sahu, 2021)

1. Asymmetric-key algorithms: This cryptographic algorithm uses keys, created

in a pair – a public key and a private key. Public key is meant to be widely
distributed but the private key is only accessible by its owner. Mainly, the keys
are used for encryption and decryption of messages between two computers in
a secure way. Anyone using the public key can encrypt the message, however,
the message would only be decrypted by using its corresponding private key.
This algorithm is often known as Public-Key Cryptography. (Victor, 2018)
Figure 17 Difference between Hashing and Encryption Citation

2. Hash functions: Cryptographic Hashing technique is another important

significant piece of blockchain technology. It uses a cipher to generate a hash
value of fixed length from the plain text. The newly generated hash value is
completely unique. The cryptographic hashing creates immutability for
blockchain technology. It works in a way that every new block of data
contains hash output of all the data stored in previous block. (Victor, 2018)

Figure 18 Hashing function.

ii. Smart Contracts for Waste Management Processes

A smart contract is a computer protocol intended to digitally facilitate, verify, or enforce the
negotiation or performance of a contract. Smart contracts allow the performance of credible
transactions without third parties.

The contract
defines a
set of rules.

The program is
stored in the nodes
of blockchain. The nodes of the
The rules are blockchain will execute
coded in a the program of the smart
program. contract.
The Smart contracts are bits of code that execute distinctive business rules and conditions that
should be confirmed and settled upon by all associate nodes in the system. These contracts
are basically agreements that are enlisted in ledger’s blocks and activated by exchange calls
that require every node to refresh its state with respect to the outcomes acquired in the wake
of running the Smart contract. Since they are replicated in every node of the system, they
guarantee an extraordinary potential for control decentralization. They go about as agents that
can have a particular state and characteristics and can be activated any time after being
effectively distributed, superseding third party agents from the transactional world and
keeping it secure forever. Citation

Assume you lease a flat from me. You can do this through the blockchain by paying in
cryptocurrency. You get a receipt which is held in our virtual contract; I give you the
computerized transaction entry which comes to you by a predetermined date. In case the key
doesn't reach time, the blockchain discharges a discount. On the other hand, if I send the key
before the specified date, the capacity holds it discharging both the fee (rent) and the key to
you and me separately when the date arrives. The framework takes a shot at the If-Then
preface and is watched by several individuals (nodes in the network), so you can expect a
flawless delivery. However, if I give you the key, I'm certain to be paid. If you send a specific
sum in bitcoins, you get the key. The archive is automatically dropped after the
aforementioned time, and the code can't be meddled with by either of us without others
knowing since all members are collectively alarmed of the changes. Citation

You can utilize Smart contracts on various occasions that range from financial derivatives to
premiums on insurance, monetary services, contract breaches, credit enforcement, property
laws, crowd-funding contracts, and various other legal procedures. citation

Smart contracts have also been used extensively in the solid waste management domain.
According to the Erasmus funded report, three businesses have deployed smart contracts in
the waste management areas; these include, 1) Excess Material Exchange (EME), 2) Remedi
Chain and 3) Plastic Bank. EME is a B2B technology startup which identifies, matches and
sort waste according to categories (Lenz). citation
Remedi chain works on the excess prescription waste. The idea of the business is to collect
prescription medicines which are no longer in use by the buyer, collect them and then
redistribute them to people who cannot afford them. Catering to a complete niche, the idea
bodes well for the community and waste management via blockchain. Citation

Finally, Plastic Bank is a B2C social startup which aims at collecting waste from developing
countries. By establishing a fixed price for different waste to reward the users. Through
Plastic Bank, all transactions are performed on blockchain network to ensure transparency
and traceability. Citation

Moreover, Manoj Katiyar in his article published in Journal of Construction and Building
Materials Engineering highlights the need to reduce waste and reuse the existing products as
one of the way forwards to manage solid waste. Methods to reduce the plastic component
from the manufacturing via less plastic packaged products, motivating consumers to buy
reusable bags etc. are some of the areas to tackle solid waste. The author also highlights the
importance of integrated solid waste management (ISWM) with the help of blockchain
technology so the trash record can be managed, traced, verified and can be used for rewards.
citation

Figure 19 Mechanism of information transaction with smart contracts (Shaik, Sultan

Alshamrani, & Mamoon Rashid, 2021)

Normally, the utilization of solid waste on to the blockchain is a complex process. A typical
process of solid collection starts with the bin – the idea is to turn them into smart with local
enabled device connectivity. Moreover, each bin would be assigned a specific public key via
hash function or cryptography that would act as its identity. The next process is to create
genesis block, hash the data, creation of newer blocks and initiation of transaction.

With the transaction initiation, miners are now able to start their work, with calculating proof-
of-work and forging the new block if found – the aim is to achieve a consensus.

The next step is for node validation which can happen via checking number of confirmations
received by the minders in the pool and resolving chain by consensus. At last, with consensus
achieved, the data is now available on main data base.

Figure 20 Mechanism of blockchain interfacing with the cloud through API (Shaik, Sultan
Alshamrani, & Mamoon Rashid, 2021)

iii. Data Collection and Management on the Blockchain

Blockchain can provide secure and transparent end-to-end tracking in supply chain.
Organizations can use blockchain to create decentralized records of all transactions and can
track assets from production to delivery. With the secure methodology used in blockchain, it
would help prevent fraud and increase transparency and more visibility to both businesses
and consumers (Using blockchain to drive supply chain transparency , 2021).

The concept of blockchain and especially smart contracts fits perfectly into the domain of
solid waste management. With the ability to reduce all traditional data record keeping,
making all records on distributed ledger and scalability – the sue of smart contracts in waste
management brings synergies between public and private sector, various municipalities,
federal and provincial governments and allow countries to make the most out of the trash.
citation
Various by-products of solid have been discussed at length including energy, plastic
handicrafts, biomass etc. that can add value to other business segments of the economy.
Citation

To conduct some practical tests, the research used multichain network whereby 1000 tokens
were generated after issuance of genesis block. As the genesis block was created, the nodes
were connected to a private network. The next step was to issue 1000 tokens as a starting
point. These tokens may be referred as “1 unit of trash/garbage”. citation

After the issuance of 1,000 tokens in the entire system, a test transaction was run to transfer 1
token. The result in the blockchain network showed 999 tokens. This shows that the entire
demo can be deployed in the solid waste domain by referring each token as unit of trash. This
way the entire tokens or units of trash can be on record, be verified on time and can be

retrieved when needed. The following screenshots demonstrate the same thing. citation

Figures from software all without citation

 iv. Traceability and Transparency in Waste Management
Blockchain technology ensures security of data and information as it is based on the
principles of cryptography and transparency in transactions. Each new block in the chain of
blocks is linked through cryptographic techniques and algorithms making the data secure and
nearly impossible to hack. (What is blockchain security?, 2021)

Blockchain technology is also considered a reliable cybersecurity protocol as it provides

certainty, validation and security in the integrity of transactions. Due to its decentralized
feature, blockchain is considered as one of the prominent and efficient mitigation strategy for
cyber threats. (Legrand, 2020)

a. Security and Privacy Considerations

If any inconsistencies or invalid transactions happen, the exchange/transaction won't be sent.

In order to stay away from such occurrences in the system in the system, a node in the peer
network can choose not to forward such a transaction if it was already beforehand enlisted in
the system. Since there is no focal specialist to make new blocks and every node keeps a local
duplicate of the blockchain record, unanimously approved algorithms are required to
guarantee that everyone in the network concurs upon a worldwide truth about the valid state
of the ledger. Such consensus algorithms often depend on Proof Protocol which characterizes
computational escalated issues that are hard to fathom and generally simple to validate.
Another block containing the most current transactions distributed in the system is mined and
approved by a node which finds an answer for that issue. The block is then reported to every
single node in the system to be confirmed and approved, so any invalid information or
exchange is instantly spotted and the blocked (Velpuri, 2017).

Sounds confusing?? Let’s simplify it a bit, the discussion on why you cannot cheat at bitcoin
is an interesting one.

5. Discussion and Evaluation

6. Conclusion and Future Direction

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