Optics of Femtosecond Laser Pulses - Akhmanov, V.A. Vysloukh, A.S. Chirkin

Optics of Femtosecond
Laser Pulses
Sergei A. Akhmanov
Victor A. Vysloukh
Anatoly S. Chirkin
Translated by
Yuri Atanov
AIP
© 1992 by American Institute o f Physics
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States o f America
American Institute o f Physics

335 East 45th Street
New York, NY 10017-3483
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Akhmanov, S. A. (Sergei Aleksandrovich)
[Optika femtosekundnykh lazemykh impul’sov. English]
Optics o f femtosecond laser pulses / Sergei A. Akhmanov, Victor A. Vys-
loukh, Anatoly S. Chirkin ; translated by Yun Atanov.
p. cm.
Translation of: Optika femtosekundnykh lazernykh impul’sov-
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-88318-851-1
1. Laser pulses, Ultrashort. 2. Solitons. 3. Quantum optics.
I. Vysloukh, V. A. (Viktor Andreevich) II. Chirkin, Anatolii Stepanovi-
Preface to English edition
The English translation o f Optics o f Femtosecond Laser Pulses goes to press

three years after publication o f the Russian book. Rapid progress in physical
and applied research and the constant influx o f new ideas that characterized
this discipline in the mid-1980s and urged the authors to write this book, have
not abated. The essential new results have been obtained since the original
publication practically in all areas o f linear and nonlinear optics o f ultrashort
optical pulses. Optical soliton physics is growing especially fast. In particular,
a generation o f “dark” solitons has to be pointed out, as well as successful ex
periments with “ bright” solitons transmitted via single-mode fiber waveguides
over a distance about 10,000 km and reliable registration o f nonlinear waveguide
propagation o f two-dimensional wave beams, that is, spatial solitons. O f princi
pal interest are the most recent investigations on quantum statistics o f optical
solitons.
In experimental physics o f femtosecond laser pulses the most favorable op
tions are being ofFered by ultrashort pulse generators and amplifiers using such
crystals as titanium-doped sapphire and alexandrite. Rapidly advancing is a
technique for production o f stable picosecond pulse trains emitted by self-mode-
locked solid-state lasers with electronic (J-switching. The novel m ethod o f ul
trashort pulse generation based on additive-pulse mode locking by means o f an
external nonlinear resonator, also looks very promising. Quite recently, ulti
mately short pulses have been obtained from a N d:YAG laser by this technique.
Current high-tech methods for generation and amplification o f femtosecond
pulses underlie the multi-terawatt and pentawatt (1015 W ) “table-top” laser
systems being developed now in some laboratories. The intensities produced by
19 2
present-day systems amount to about 10 W /c m and in the near future they
will certainly reach as high as 1022 or even 1024 W / c m 2.
Extremely short high-power optical pulses have been utilized to build the sim
ilar sources in the microwave range as well as to obtain pico- and subpicosecond
x-ray pulses o f 1 G W /c m intensity, emitted by femtosecond laser plasma. The
microwave sources mentioned generate picosecond pulses with power ranging
VI Preface to English edition
from 10 to 1000 M W at a frequency o f about 1 THz. A new impetus has also

been given to the studies o f generators o f ultrashort acoustic pulses.
All this opens the way for further development o f laser optics and optical
methods in the affiliated areas o f physics, chemistry and biology.
Naturally, we sought to update the book by adding the new results. The
most significant data presented at the appropriate International Conferences
held in spring and summer of 1990 (Ultrafast Phenomena, IQEC, CLEO) were
mentioned. Fortunately, the layout o f the book needed no major changes: just
as the Russian publication, it remained a monograph taking stock o f theoretical
and experimental investigations o f linear and nonlinear propagation o f ultrashort
laser pulses. Only Conclusion has been modified. The primary emphasis was put
on the new branches o f optics, x-ray and plasma physics which have emerged due
to achievements in physics and technology o f high-power femtosecond pulses.
No doubt, the number o f scientists actively engaged in femtosecond laser
technology and its many applications will be steadily growing, just as the number
o f graduate and postgraduate students majoring in this captivating subject. We
sincerely hope that this book will be useful for these groups o f readers. We shall
be regarding our task mostly fulfilled if this book could help them to experience
the stimulating atmosphere o f one o f the most interesting divisions o f modern
laser physics and recognize the exciting prospects for the new unprecedented
achievements o f femtosecond laser technology.
Finally, we wish to express our high appreciation o f the meticulous and quali
fied translation o f the book made by Dr. Yuri Atanov and our deep gratitude to
Mrs. Lyudmila Gladneva and Mrs. Irina Gorbunova for their assiduity in mas
tering the .4_A/<<S-TeX macro package they used for preparation o f the manuscript
for press.
Moscow Strgei A. Akhmanov

January 1991 Victor A. Vysloukh
Anatoly S. Chirkin
Foreword
In recent years one o f the most striking achievements o f laser physics is undoubt
edly the development o f methods for generation and shaping o f optical pulses
a few femtoseconds (10-15 s) long, i.e., pulses that contain only a few opti
cal oscillation periods under their envelopes. The significant reduction in time
scale is accompanied by impressive advances in physics and the technology of
ultrashort optical pulses. At present the spectroscopy o f ultrafast phenomena
is reaching new frontiers, the studies o f laser radiation interaction with matter
and the technique o f generation o f high-intensity light fields are making con
siderable progress, the new directions in optical processing o f information are
emerging, and the alternative approaches to the development o f generators o f
electron bunches and ultrashort x-ray and acoustic pulses are coming in view.
The consequences o f this transition to femtosecond pulses in spectroscopy are
justly com pared to the revolutionary changes in the spatial resolution o f opti
cal instruments that followed the invention o f the microscope. A very extensive
area o f research is thus involved, with many branches reaching far beyond the
traditional scope o f physical and applied optics.
A perceptible shift in emphasis has recently become evident in methods for
ultrashort laser pulse generation. While at the first stage the immediate efforts
were concentrated on reliable mode locking o f lasers with broad amplification
bandwidth, the present trend is to use passive systems for pulse compression
and shaping. This brought on much interest to various aspects o f linear and
nonlinear propagation o f short optical wave packets.
At the same time, one can say that the research in this area is about to be
completed. Now we are at the end o f the long road to succeed in the production
o f extremely short optical pulses that took almost 25 years o f intense work.
In this book we tried to give possibly a complete summary o f nonlinear wave
optics o f ultrashort light pulses. The last review dedicated to these problems was
published over 10 years ago.* The substance o f this branch o f nonlinear optics
has essentially changed since that time. On the rise are the volume and the level
V III Foreword
o f experimental research o f various self-actions and interactions o f ultrashort

laser pulses.
An important factor o f this progress has become the development o f high-
quality optical fibers, a nonlinear medium which is practically ideal for investi
gation, and the use o f transient wave phenomena. It was in an optical fiber that
the refined experiments on excitation and interaction o f optical solitons were
performed, and the modulation instabilities o f intense optical waves and various
specifics o f transient stimulated scattering explored. The optical fiber became a
key element o f the efficient compressors o f femtosecond pulses.
The new experimental possibilities also prompted a rapid development o f
mathematical simulation. W e tried to present here these new trends as fully
as possible. The emphasis was put primarily on the physics o f self-actions, para
metric interactions, and stimulated scattering o f ultrashort pulses.
The main body o f material devoted to nonlinear problems is preceded by
a special chapter containing a rather detailed description o f the theory of wave
packets propagating in a linear dispersive medium. The femtosecond laser pulses
added much new information to this, seemingly completed, division o f wave
optics. The problems o f transient laser spectroscopy, which is based on the
achievements o f picosecond and femtosecond optical technology, lie, on the whole,
outside the scope o f this book. As a consequence, we limited ourselves to one,
as we see it, auspicious phenomenon — that is, the coherent Raman scattering
which is most closely connected with nonlinear wave optics. The transition to
femtosecond pulses allows one not only to get the exhaustive information on
relaxation o f the energy and excitation phase, but to observe directly the wave
form o f molecular oscillations. The book is concluded with a special chapter on
femtosecond laser systems. An emphasis is put on the general principles and
concepts used today for the development o f the systems producing femtosecond
pulses in the extremely wide spectral range extending from the far infrared to
the vacuum ultraviolet.
To a large extent, the present book is based on the research carried out to
gether with our colleagues from the Khokhlov Laboratory o f Nonlinear Optics
o f the Moscow State University. We want to express our sincere appreciation
to all o f them. In particular, we are indebted to Dr. V. E. Gusev who wrote
Sec. 3.8 at our request and to Dr. V. A. Nekhayenko and Dr. S. Yu. Nikitin
for their assistance in writing Secs. 6.3 and 3.7. We also wish to acknowledge
Dr. S. V. Krayushkin who submitted the material for Sec. 6.5 and our science
editor Dr. S. A. Shlyonov for his arduous efforts in preparing the manuscript for
print.
Contents
Preface to English edition

Foreword
Introduction
T he femtosecond laser pulse technique as a new stage
in the studies o f ultrafast processes and in the
production o f high-intensity fields 1
Generation and shaping o f optical pulses: from intensity
modulation to fast phase control in active and
passive nonlinear systems 3
I. Short optical pulses in linear dispersive media
1.1. Linear propagation o f short optical pulses; general as
pects
Optics o f wave packets; the historical background 9
Methods o f description 11
The spatio-temporal analogy 14
Models o f optical pulses 15
A transform-limited pulse 15
A phase-modulated (P M ) pulse 16
A s uper- Gauss/an pulse 16
Pulse containing noise 17
1.2. Propagation o f a steep-front optical pulse; precursors
■*" 1.3. Propagation o f wave packets in a homogeneous disper
sive medium; dispersive spreading
The second-order approximation o f the dispersion the
ory; the analogy with beam diffraction 20
The third- and higher-order approximations o f the dis
persion theory 23
1.4. Fourier optics o f wave packets
X Contents
Compression o f PM optical pulses and focusing o f opti

cal beams 30
Compression o f super-Gaussian optical pulses 34
Deformation o f FM pulses o f arbitrary shape; a spec-
tron; pulse shape reversal 35
A spec iron; the pulse shape in the far-field zone 36
Pulse shape reversal 37
Control o f a pulse envelope by Fourier-optics meth
ods 38
1.5. Transmission o f ultrashort light pulses through optical
devices 41
Filtering o f FM optical pulses 41
Refraction o f pulses at a boundary between dispersive
media; transverse group delay 42
Total internal reflection o f ultrashort pulses 44
Reflection o f an ultrashort pulse from a mirror 46
Diffraction o f a pulse by a grating 48
Transmission o f ultrashort pulses through interferome
ters 51
1.6. Diffraction o f ultrashort pulses 53
Spatial and temporal modulation effects 54
Focusing o f ultrashort optical pulses 55
1.7. Optical wave packets in optical fibers 59
1.8. Some statistical problems; evolution o f noise pulses in
dispersive media 62
The duration and correlation time o f noise pulses 62
The temporal analog o f the van Cittert-Zernike theo
rem 64
Mutual influence o f temporal and spatial fluctuations 65
Quantum fluctuations o f pulses; duration o f a statis
tically mean pulse; statistically mean parame
ters 65
A statistically mean pulse 68
Photon statistics; quantum invariants 69
Statistically mean parameters o f a quantum pulse 70
1.9. Reflection o f ultrashort optical pulses from a surface
with random periodic profile 72
Diffraction o f a m onochrom atic optical wave by a sur
face with periodic profile 72
Propagation o f optical fields in vacuum; the W ood anom
alies 74
Diffraction o f an ultrashort optical pulse under condi
tions o f the W ood anomalies 77
Absorption o f ultrashort optical pulses by a periodically
m odulated surface 80
Contents
2. Self-action o f optical pulses: self-m odulation, self-

com pression, solitons, and instabilities
2.1. Physics o f self-actions; a nonlinear refractive index; con
version o f amplitude modulation to phase modulation
Quasi-steady-state response in a medium with cubic
nonlinearity; a nonlinear index o f refraction h.2 85
Dispersive self-action o f wave packets; conversion of am
plitude modulation to phase modulation 87
Temporal and spatial self-actions; similarities and dif
ferences 87
Dispersive self-actions and instabilities 89
2.2. Equations o f transient nonlinear optics
Quasi-steady-state and transient self-actions 90
2.3. Self-phase modulation o f regular pulses
A medium with fast nonlinearity 93
A medium with inertial nonlinearity 96
2.4. Self-steepening o f optical pulses; shock waves o f enve
lope
Envelope deformation 99
Spectral broadening 100
2.5. Self-focusing o f ultrashort pulses
Steady-state self-focusing 102
Quasi-steady-state self-focusing 104
Transient self-focusing 106
2.6. Superbroadening o f spectrum; spectral description o f
temporal self-actions
Models o f spectral continuum generation 110
On spectral description o f temporal self-actions 111
2.7. Steady-state pulses: soliton regime o f propagation
The combined effect o f nonlinearity and dispersion o f a
medium; Schrodinger solitons 113
Strong resonant self-actions; 2 tt pulses: resonant soli
tons 115
2.8. Instability o f optical waves in nonlinear media; self-
action o f randomly m odulated pulses
Temporal instability o f continuous radiation 119
Spatial instability o f plane waves and wave beams 122
M odulation instability o f pulses 123
Self-action o f random pulses 123
2.9. Quantum theory o f self-action; formation o f non-classical
optical fields
Quantum nonlinear Schrodinger equation 127
Quantum light squeezing 129
Quantum instability o f continuous radiation in a non
linear medium 133
XU Contents
3. Parametric interactions and coherent scattering o f

fem tosecond pulses 137
3.1. Physics o f nonlinear interactions o f ultrashort optical
wave packets 137
3.2. Ultrashort pulse frequency doubling 139
The first-order approximation o f the dispersion theory 139
Group-velocity matching; quasi-steady-state regimeMO
Group-delay effects; transient regime 140
Transient frequency doubling o f a P M pulse 143
Back-action effects o f SH on a phase o f the primary
radiation; the fixed intensity approximation 143
Frequency multiplication o f P M pulses; numerical re
sults 146
Strong energy conversion at large group-velocity mis
match; generation o f “giant” SH pulses 146
Dispersive spreading o f pulses; the optimum pulse du
ration for frequency multiplication 148
Dispersive effects o f nonlinear coupling 149
3.3. Parametric amplification of short pulses 150
Reshaping and compression o f pulses by parametric in
teractions; the basic equations 150
Quasi-steady-state and transient parametric amplifica
tion; pulse duration control 151
Group-velocity mismatch effects 152
Control o f the sign and velocity o f frequency modula
tion 154
3.4. Sum-frequency generation; parametric solitons 156
Summation o f frequencies o f ultrashort pulses 156
Parametric solitons 157
3.5. Difference-frequency generation and IR Cherenkov ra
diation o f femtosecond pulses 158
Difference-frequency generation as a method to obtain
coherent IR radiation; phase matching condi
tions 158
Cherenkov radiation o f a nonlinear polarization wave
excited by a doublet o f quasi-monochromatic
waves 160
Cherenkov radiation o f ultrashort optical pulses; optical
detection 162
3.6. Stimulated Raman scattering o f ultrashort pulses 165
Physics o f scattering; the basic equations 165
Group delay effects in a medium with broad Raman
lines 167
SRS under conditions o f group-velocity matching; Ra
man solitons 170
Contents X lll
3.7. Ultrashort optical pulses in coherent light scattering

spectroscopy 176
Biharmonic pumping: from spectrochronography and
measurement o f envelopes o f coherent and non
coherent signals to direct registration o f optical
oscillations 176
Steady-state spectroscopy; spectrochronography; tran
sient spectroscopy 177
Application o f C ARS spectrochronography for diagnosis
o f state and fast laser-induced phase transitions
at a semiconductor surface 180
Transient coherent spectroscopy; methods and results
183
Registration o f molecular oscillation wave forms; an op
tical sampling oscilloscope 186
Nonselective excitation o f molecular oscillations; spec
trum reconstruction from a pulsed response 189
Femtosecond C ARS spectroscopy o f polaritons with tem
poral and spatial resolution 189
Transient polarization CARS spectroscopy o f atoms 191
3.8- Ultrashort acoustic pulses; optical generation methods 191
Sub-nanosecond and picosecond pulses in physical and
applied acoustics 191
Optical excitation and detection o f acoustic pulses; ex
perimental data review 194
Electronic mechanism o f optical generation o f sound in
semiconductors; prospects for generation o f ex
tremely short acoustic pulses 197
4. Fast phase control; compression and shaping o f op

tical pulses 203
4.1. Nonlinear optical phase modulators 203
4.2. Optical compressors 205
4.3. Dispersive self-phase modulation 208
4.4. Optimization o f compression systems 210
4.5. Spectral filtering and compression o f noise pulses 213
4.6. Control o f duration and shape o f ultrashort pulses 218
4.7. Special features o f self-action and compression o f high-
power femtosecond pulses 221
4.8. Compression systems using parametric amplification 224
5. O ptical solitons; picosecond and fem tosecond pulses

in optical inform ation system s 227
5.1. Formation o f optical solitons: competition and balance
o f nonlinear compression and dispersive spreading ef
fects 227
c; o J ___ i:„
X IV Contents
5.3. Experimental demonstration o f optical solitons 234

5.4. Self-compression of high-power picosecond pulses 236
5.5. Solitons in transmission lines; the role o f perturbing fac
tors 238
Optical losses and their compensation by Raman gain 239
Higher-order dispersion effects 241
Dispersion of nonlinearity 241
Interaction o f solitons 244
5.6. Soliton lasers 246
5.7. Generation o f picosecond pulse trains with high repeti
tion rates; use o f modulation instabilities 250
5.8. Analysis o f nonlinear wave fields by the inverse scatter
ing m ethod 253
5.9. Nonlinear filtering o f noise pulses; soliton statistics 258
Am plitude fluctuation o f an initial pulse 262
Phase fluctuations 262
Transient amplitude and phase noise 263
5.10. Reconstruction o f the picosecond laser pulseshape 267
Positional method 267
M ethod o f variation o f probing soliton velocity 271
5.11. Quantum theory o f optical solitons 272
6. Femtosecond laser system s 277

6.1. Basic principles o f construction o f femtosecond laser sys
tems 277
6.2. Solid-state master oscillators 280
Picosecond solid-state lasers 280
Continuously pumped solid-state lasers with active mode
locking 282
Q-switched solid-state lasers with active mode lock
ing 283
6.3. Frequency tunable picosecond and femtosecond lasers 284
Femtosecond pulses in dye lasers with passive mode
locking 285
Synchronously pumped dye lasers 286
A minimal pulse duration in synchronously pumped
lasers 289
Statistical characteristics o f synchronously pumped
lasers 290
The hybrid active-passive mode locking 293
Transient generation conditions 294
Other types o f synchronously pumped lasers 295
Parametric generation of ultrashort pulses 296
Parametric generation of pulses o f squeezed light 297
6.4. Compression systems: experimental data review 298
P n m n fo o o in n r\ f n i f * r h e a s 'r \ n r) A\r& l a w r r m lo o c 9Q Q
Contents xv
Nonlinear filtering and compression o f pulses produced

by Q-switched solid-state lasers with active mode
locking 303
Experiments on production o f extremely short pulses in
the visible range 305
Cross-phase modulation technique applied for shaping
extremely short pulses 307
6.5. Ultrashort pulse amplification 308
Dye amplifiers 308
Neodymium-glass amplifiers 311
6.6. Generation and amplification o f high-power femtosec
ond pulses in the UV range 312
6.7. Femtosecond pulses in the far IR range 318
6.8. Advances in the femtosecond pulse measurement tech
nique 321
Correlators for femtosecond pulses 322
Measurement o f intensity and phase as a function of
time 325
Spectral methods to study the stability o f radiation pa
rameters in quasi-cw lasers 328
C o n c lu s io n 333
Ultrashort optical pulses; is there a limit to pulse com
pression? 333
Superintense radiation: from terawatt to pentawatt pow
ers 334
Interaction o f optical radiation with matter; character
istic values on the intensity scale 336
Ultimate resources o f nonresonant nonlinear optics o f
transparent media; tunable generators o f super
intense radiation 337
Femtosecond laser plasma as an active medium for pi
cosecond x -r a y sources and table-top x-ray
lasers 339
Incoherent sources o f ultrashort x-ray pulses 340
Femtosecond laser plasma as a lasing medium for x-ray
lasers; towards to a table-top x-ray lasers 341
Nonlinear x-ray optics 342
High-power short pulses: state o f the art 342
B ib lio g r a p h y 345
In d ex 363
Introduction
T h e fem tosecond laser pulse technique as a new stage in the studies

o f ultrafast processes and in the production o f high-intensity fields
A m ong the cardinal directions in which laser physics and technology grow today
are the generation o f shorter pulses, concentration o f optical energy in time,
application o f such pulses for high-energy treatment o f substances, in studies o f
ultrafast processes, and, finally, in information processing systems.
In 1962-1963, after the development o f Q-switched lasers, the high-power
sources o f pulses 10-100 ns long becam e available. The generators o f giant
nanosecond optical pulses (with the power reaching 10-100 M W at that time)
extensively renovated many branches of laser physics. They also paved the way
for considerable success o f nonlinear optics.
T h e ’next" great success, the penetration into the picosecond time scale, dates
back to 1966-1968. A t that time the longitudinal m ode locking methods were
suggested and realized in practice through constructing the first picosecond
neodymium-glass lasers with power from 1 to 10 G W . For the first time, the
nonlinear-optics methods for compression and reshaping o f picosecond pulses
were demonstrated. The picosecond frequency-tunable parametric oscillators
put into operation at the same time could span the visible and infrared regions.
Thus, the utilization o f fast electronic nonlinearity was shown to be efficient in
picosecond and sub-picosecond optical systems.
Finally, in the early eighties several groups passed the 100 fs mark and the
speedy development o f femtosecond technology started. The first success came
in 1981 when a new concept o f a self-mode-locked dye laser was put forward,
which was a system with pulses colliding in an absorbing medium. Later, the
alternative mode-locking systems, other types o f lasers, and various m ethods o f
nonlinear optics were successfully used for generation o f femtosecond pulses.
Eventually, the sustained efforts to reduce the time scales had been almost
com pleted by 1987. Indeed, pulses 6_fs long were produced in the visible range
— i /in l ------- — nr\ i --------
2 Introduction
ond time scale signifies the almost complete realization o f optical methods in
studies o f ultrafast phenomena involving energy relaxation and phase mismatch
ing in optical excitations in matter. One oscillation period is the ultimate length
o f an optical pulse and also the limiting “speed” o f an optical response from a
material medium.
Using high-intensity femtosecond pulses, one can produce sharply nonequi
librium states resulting in quickly relaxing excitations (with relaxation times
from 10 to 100 fs), in particular, electronic excitations in multiatomic molecules,
semiconductors and metals, as well as observe new types o f fast optically induced
phase transitions in matter. The femtosecond optical technique allows one to de
velop the direct experimental methods to study the molecular dynamics o f com
plex (including, e.g., biologically active) molecules and condensed substances,
and also the phenomena that were previously investigated mostly by means o f
mathematical simulation.
From a practical point o f view the principal outcom e o f the development o f
efficient sources o f short optical pulses is associated with the now possible real
ization o f ultimate rates o f optical processing and transmission o f information. In
recent years some experiments were carried out that demonstrated vividly these
new capabilities: the optical bistable devices with 1 ps switching times have been
constructed, and the elements o f optical-fiber transmission lines developed, with
information being transmitted by optical solitons o f 0.1 ps duration.
On the other hand, the transition to femtosecond pulses is accompanied with
a great jum p to higher intensities. W ith the pulse duration rp = 100 fs, a com
paratively low energy o f W = 0.1 J corresponds to a power o f V 0 = 1 T W . The
systems o f moderate size can thus produce the power levels that were previously
achieved only in multi-kilojoule installations designed for controlled thermonu
clear fusion.
Owing to that, nonlinear optics has acquired quite new experimental means.
17 IS 2
The field intensities up to 10 - 10 W /c m can now be produced in focused
femtosecond pulses. Therefore, the optical field strength can amount here to
about 10 G V /c m , exceeding the interatomic field strength (equal to approxi
mately 1 G V /c m in a hydrogen atom). In such strong fields, the new phenomena
o f nonlinear electronic physics appear. The effects predicted by nonlinear quan
tum electrodynamics (such as nonlinear light scattering by relativistic electrons,
light scattering by light in vacuum, etc.) becom e now experimentally observed.
The new areas o f physical and applied research listed above form the two new
“lands” on the laser energy versus duration map ( W , r ) (see Fig. 1.1).
In this book, devoted primarily to the optics o f femtosecond pulses and to
the physics o f their reshaping and nonlinear propagation, we shall touch upon
applications only slightly. The understanding o f this rapidly advancing area
can be acquired from the proceedings o f the latest conferences on nonlinear
optics and spectroscopy o f ultrafast phenomena, as well as from special issues o f
jou rn a ls.1 5
Introduction 3
F IG . 1.1. Pulse energy as duration chart. Laser pulse duration rp is laid off
on the horizontal axis and pulse energy W on the vertical one. T he straight
lines indicate the levels o f equal power. T he separated regions o f ultrashort pulse
param eters m ark the present frontiers in research o f ultrafast processes and non
linear optics o f high-intensity fields.
Generation and shaping o f optical pulses: from intensity m odulation

to fast phase control in active and passive nonlinear system s
The general principles underlying the diverse systems o f optical pulse generation
are fairly obvious (see Fig. 1.2). A short optical pulse can be obtained by
modulating the radiation intensity o f a continuous optical source. A n alternative
approach is based on phase synchronization o f various spectral components o f a
broadband radiation source.
The intensity modulation o f a spark source (or the solar radiation) by means
o f a mechanical shutter or a rotating mirror has already been used by Fizeau
and Michelson in their measurements o f velocity o f light. The application of
high-speed electronic shutters whose characteristic time is now reduced to a few
picoseconds allowed this technique to be essentially improved. The fast electro-
optical m odulation is also used in modern picosecond laser systems. There,
however, it plays an auxiliary role since the peak power thus obtained does not
exceed that o f the original quasicontinuous source.
The tremendous increase in radiation intensity, resulting in the generation o f
a giant optical pulse, can be achieved by means o f mechanical or electro-optical
Q-switching o f a laser resonator containing relatively long-living excited states
in its lasing medium [see Figs. 1 .2 (a ), 1.2(6)]. The width o f the giant pulse
is determined by the properties o f the lasing medium and the resonator. In
o n / » l r i “ r% w i a f l i A r ^ V s<5 fn i* r M ilc iic i
4 Introduction
E(t)
Lmuag
eJement
1}
0 -
(c)
Losing M odel
element aynchrooiter
^ /V v v V ^ ja >
FIG . 1.2. O ptical pulse generation techniques: (a) am plitude m od ulation in a

passive system ; ( b) Q -switching o f laser resonator; (c) locking of longitudinal
m odes in an active resonator; (d) tim e focusing, fast phase m odulation and
com pression.
The phase-matching o f various broadband spectral components makes it pos

sible to shorten the pulse and simultaneously sharply raise its peak power. Prac
tically all achievements o f modern picosecond and femtosecond laser technol
ogy stem from this fundamental principle. Figure 1.2 (b) depicts the methods
o f matching the phases o f spectral com ponents in a discrete spectrum consist-
Introduction 5
= 7r c / I / , A w a ^ , then the combined field
N
E (t) = Y l pn c°s {[w + (n - 1)Q]< - <pn} (1.1)
n=1
is very sensitive to the phase statistics <pn . For the independent modes, the
probability density
V)(<pl t <p7, <pN ) = JJw n(<Pn) > «'„(»’„) = V2T,

nzz 1
and the field E (t ) becomes, in fact, the intensive optical noise with the correla
tion time rc « 1/NQ, N = Au>a/Q. W hen the modes are phase-matched via
their nonlinear interaction, i.e., by the self-mode-locking, or by the external ac
tion at the intermodal frequency, i.e., the active mode-locking, the regular train
o f pulses appears with the repetition rate Q and duration rp tv \/N£l , and the
resulting field takes the form
. sin (NSlt/'l') . . /T ..
£ W = P sm(Stt/2) CQ5(“ ‘ - y»)- (I'2>
T o simplify, the amplitudes are taken here to be equal, p y = p 2 — •••= pN = p ,

and the phases (px = y>2 = ••■= <pN — <p0 .
The spectral components can also be phase-matched in passive systems. The
methods o f phase synchronization in a continuous spectrum attract particular
interest. Although, in principle, one can suggest methods o f matching the phases
o f components in a nonlaser source, such an approach is very com plicated and
inefficient. That is why the initial broadband radiation whose components are
phase-matched to produce short pulses is obtained by means o f self-actions and
interactions o f laser pulses in a nonlinear medium. In this case the regular broad
band optical packet is treated by changing its phase relations. Figure 1.2 (d) il
lustrates one o f the most efficient variants o f this technique— that is, compression
o f phase-modulated pulses.
The fast phase modulation leading to spectral broadening is brought on by
self-action o f an initial pulse in a medium with cubic (Kerr) nonlinearity. The
phase-matching o f spectral components and, therefore, pulse compression is ac
complished in a dispersive delay line, e.g., a pair o f diffraction gratings. Am ong
other versions o f the method to obtain broad spectra are those which utilize
three- and four-wave nonlinear interactions.
The operation o f the systems shown in Figs. 1.2 ( c ) , 1.2 ( d) can be made clear
in the spectral domain. On the other hand, their operation can be analyzed
without resorting to spectral resolution. It is sufficient to trace directly the
evolution o f the pulse envelope in the time domain. The compression performed
6 Introduction
Mirror Mirror
■ m
J^Mxing medium
1
Dye
<P) (expander) (amplifier, filter)
Delay 2L/c
--------- ------------------------ >
(O)
<4)
^ M
t
Saturable Saturable
absorber ibeoxber
(e)
FIG . 1.3. Tem poral evolution o f pulses in a m ultim ode laser with a nonlinear
absorber (spectrum expander): (a ) schem atic diagram of a laser; ( 6) equivalent
block diagram; (c) dye transmission as intensity function; (d) reshaping o f a
pulse due to its cycling through a saturable absorber; (e) enrichment o f a gen
eration spectrum . It is seen how the join t action o f an amplifier and nonlinear
absorber results in pulse com pression, which can be treated in the spectral dom ain
as involvement o f many phase-m atched m od es in the generation.
catching up with the low-frequency components located at the front o f the pulse
during its propagation through a dispersive delay line.
Introduction 7
function is shown in Fig. 1.3 (c) , compresses the pulse during its repeated circu
lations through the resonator. The time-domain approach allows one to trace the
transition to the mode-locked state and to analyze the phenomena that cannot
be studied in terms o f steady-state spectral description.
The general concepts underlying the methods of ultrashort optical pulse gen
eration by phase-matching the com ponents of discrete or continuous spectra
came to optics from radiophysics. The multimode laser whose modes are self
locked due to interaction in a medium with nonlinear absorption is an analog o f
a conventional radio-frequency short-pulse oscillator. The compression o f phase-
modulated signals was utilized as early as in the sixties to raise the peak power
in radar systems. The modern techniques o f linear and nonlinear optics allowed
these principles to be realized more efficiently than has been done in radio engi
neering.
It is worth mentioning that the principles discussed here have direct analogies
in classical optics o f wave beams. Indeed, the problem o f generation o f a short
pulse train by superposition o f synchronized discrete modes is similar to the clas
sical problem o f plane wave diffraction by an amplitude grating, with Eq. (1.2)
coinciding with the known formula for a diffraction grating. The compression of
a phase-modulated signal by a dispersive element (an optical compressor) is a
temporal analog o f spatial beam focusing by a lens.
T h e phase control o f an optical wave constitutes a com m on main feature in
all o f these cases. The spatial phase control technique was, in fact, mastered by
optical engineers already in the last century. The fast phase control applied for
generation o f ultrashort pulses has been perfected in recent years. Obviously,
it has to be based on systems with rapidly changing parameters. Since in the
ultimate case the rates o f these changes are compared with periods o f optical
oscillations, the most promising way to solve the problem is to control the optical
wave itself using fast optical nonlinearity. This explains the interest in nonlinear
interactions and self-actions o f short optical pulses propagating in media with
fast nonlinear response.
T h e generation o f ultrashort pulses is not the only stimulus for this kind
o f research. Nonlinear optics contributed significantly to the physics o f solitons.
The transient nonlinear interactions are utilized in efficient methods o f nonlinear
laser spectroscopy.
In this book the main emphasis is put on the results obtained in nonlinear
optics o f wave packets during the last decade.
T h e early stage o f research devoted to generators and optics o f short pulses is
surveyed by Hellworth and De Maria et al. 7 The state o f the art achieved by
1975 is reviewed in the collective monograph written by the leading experts in
the area o f picosecond physics and technology.
The twenty-fifth anniversary o f the first laser was celebrated in 1985. The
history o f development o f the fundamental ideas in quantum electronics and laser
physics is reviewed in the papers by Prokhorov 9 and B a so v .10 Some aspects
o f picosecond and femtosecond laser physics and technology are discussed in the
review s,11 13 Finally, the latest monographs 14 ’ 15 have to be also mentioned.
1. Short optical pulses
in linear dispersive media
M o d e m laser system s can produce light pulses so short as to consist o f only a few optical
oscillation periods. Even in the case o f a weakly dispersive m edium — that is, far from
the resonances and over very short distances — the linear propagation o f such pulses dif
fers dram atically from the conventional group-velocity propagation o f wave packets with
invariable envelope. A dispersive m edium can change the wave form o f short pulses to a
large extent. C hoosing the proper initial phase m odulation o f a pulse and the dispersion
sign, one can intentionally control the pulse shape, e.g., compress it effectively ( “time focus
ing” ). T h e effects arising due to propagation o f short optical pulses in a dispersive m edium
are similar in m any respects to the diffraction phenom ena accom panying propagation and
transform ation o f narrow light beam s. In som e cases the precise spatio-tem poral analogy
can be traced betw een these seemingly contrasting phenom ena. Many im portant problem s
are related to transmission o f short light pulses through optical devices and to the joint
action o f diffraction and dispersion effects. M ost of these problem s are treated by Fourier
optics o f wave packets.
T he present-day progress of experimental optics o f wave packets propagating in dispersive
m edia is w holly due to such achievements o f laser physics as the m od e locking technique,
fast phase m odulation o f light, dynam ic interferometry, and intensity interferometry. O n the
other hand, the dispersion effects accom panying propagation o f short wave packets can in
principle b e studied using traditional noncoherent light sources which are in fact the optical
noise generators w ith correlation times in the picosecond or fem tosecond range.
1.1. Linear propagation of short

optical pulses; general aspects
Optics o f wave packets; the historical background
The various problems relating to propagation o f wave packets in a linear disper

sive medium can be solved in terms o f classical linear optics. (The dispersion
may arise either due to the resonances in a homogeneous medium or because
o f artificial heterogeneity.) The earliest studies related to the propagation o f
1 2 3
optical pulses were carried out by Rayleigh, Sommerfeld and Brillouin. In
the thirties it was Mandelshtam 4 who clearly described the pattern formed by
an ontira.l nnlse rliffrarterl hv a pra.l,inp\ Later milch attention was r>aicl to the
10 1. Short optical pulses in linear dispersive media
dispersive spreading o f the packet (see the detailed discussion in the monograph
by Ginzburg ) as well as to the precursors emerging when a short pulse interacts
with a dispersive medium. The modern status o f this classical problem can be
80
found elsewhere. However, until the late sixties the experimental optics failed
to contribute significantly to the studies o f the problems mentioned above. The
pulsed optical sources (including the first pulsed lasers) remained, in essence, the
generators o f relatively long bursts o f optical noise whose durations rp ~ 10 —
1000 ns were much longer than the correlation time rc o f radiation ( r rc ).
Therefore, the spectral radiation bandwidth Aw ;§> 1 /t p-
Naturally, under such conditions there could not be any possibility o f investi
gating the envelope and phase transformations o f a propagating pulse and, even
less, o f any control over these parameters in time. That is why the experimental
evidence o f precursors, for example, has been obtained first in the microwave
21
range. In contrast, the experimental technique for shaping and transforming
optical beams had been making progress before the advent o f lasers.
Physicists had learned how to control the phase o f optical radiation in space
with a high degree o f precision already in the last century. This accomplishment
provided a basis for making diverse diffraction instruments, developing the beam
focusing technique and methods o f image transformation and filtering. The
theoretical support o f these methods was furnished by advanced Fourier optics
o f wave beams.
In recent years the optical pulse shaping technique has been rapidly improving.
It has been augmented by the addition o f effective methods of control over the
envelope and phase o f optical oscillations in the picosecond and femtosecond
time scales. Today so-called transform-limited pulses as short as 10 fs became
a reality. Such pulses whose spectral width is determined only by the envelope
shape and for which rpAui ~ 1 , are quite analogous to diffraction-limited light
beams. A t the same time, the methods o f fast regular phase modulation of short
optical pulses have been developed. The principle o f these methods is based
8 9
on using a low-inertia nonresonant, nonlinear response o f condensed media. ’
The sophisticated technique has been also developed to measure the envelope
and phase o f short laser pulses (see Sec. 6.8).
The dispersion effects, just as the diffraction o f wave beams, can be used
for construction o f various systems for compressing and reshaping short pulses.
For this reason, the Fourier optics o f wave packets propagating in a dispersive
medium has recently undergone rapid development. In essence, the problems
to be solved are similar to the problems of formation and diffraction o f light
beams. In the quasioptical approximation they are described by the parabolic
18
equation introduced into the wave theory by Leontovich. The general problems
o f the Fourier optics o f wave packets are discussed in the review 10 and the
monograph 11 by Wainshtein.
This chapter describes the linear optics o f light pulses in dispersive media
with an emphasis on the current applied problems associated primarily with
compression and reshaping o f optical pulses o f specified profile.
1.1. Linear propagation o f short optical pulses 11
M ethods o f description
The propagation o f a plane wave packet in a linear isotropic dispersive medium

is described by the wave equation
02 c ot
= 111
( . . )
where E {i , z ) is an electric field strength and
oo
D(t, z) = J e0( t ') E ( t -t ', z)dt' (1.1.2)
o
is a linear electric induction in a homogeneous nonmagnetic medium without spa

tial dispersion.The com position o f the integrand in (1.1.2)reflects the causality
principle,that is, the electric induction at a given moment o f time is determined
in agiven crosssection o f the medium only by the preceding moments o f time.
As a rule, in theproblems we discuss here the wave polarization does not play
an important part. The wave is therefore assumed to be linearly polarized and
for the sake o f simplicity described by scalar equation (1.1.1).
Expanding a field strength E (t z)
, into a Fourier series
+oo
E (t . z) = j E{w)ei(wt~ks)dw (1.1.3)
— 00
(the direction o f the z-axis coincides with that o f the vector k ), we obtain from
Eqs. (1.1.1) and (1.1.2) the dispersion relation
= 7 \ A oH = 7 no(w)> ( LL4)
where
OO
Jo(w) = j e 0(t)e~ lwt dt (1,1,5)
is the relative dielectric permittivity o f a medium at a frequency w . According

to Eqs. (1.1.3) and (1.1.4) the Fourier component o f the field strength in a
medium is
E ( u , z) = E(uj)e~ik{uj)\ (1.1.6)
The dispersion o f a medium is seen to affect only the phase o f the Fourier com
ponents o f a pulse provided £0(w) is real, i.e., the absorption is inessential. The
spectral density s(w , z) — 2ir|E(w , z )|2 does not contain any phase at all and
therefore the spectral shape o f a pulse does not vary in a linear nonabsorbing
medium :
s(u , z) = s0(w). (1.1.7)
12 1. Short optical pulses m linear dispersive media
Knowing the k(uj) dependence o f Eq. (1.1.4) and making use o f Eq. (1.1.3)
one can in principle calculate the field strength at any distance z in a dispersive
medium. The exact analytical solutions, however, can be obtained, as a rule, only
in comparatively simple cases. Accordingly, the approximation methods based
on simplifying assumptions o f the initial Eq. (1.1.1) find extensive application
even in the analysis o f linear propagation o f wave packets.
The equations describing the propagation o f a short optical wave packet can
be efficiently estimated using the slowly varying amplitude (SVA) approxima
tion. 6 ’ 18 This m ethod is based on a natural assumption about slow change o f the
com plex amplitude o f a pulse during the average oscillation period T0 = 27r/u>0 ,
u>0 being the average frequency o f the pulse, and over the average wavelength
A0 = cT0/n(u>0). Such an approach is valid up to pulse lengths Tp/ T 0 w 10 . The
SVA approximation is thus applicable to the most problems o f linear (as well as
nonlinear, as we shall see later) optics o f femtosecond pulses. On the other hand,
the m odern laser physics has produced such an unusual object as a laser pulse
consisting o f a single oscillation period. 84 Naturally, in this limiting case the
assumption o f a slowly varying com plex amplitude does not hold in principle.
The solution o f the integro-differential equations (1.1.1) and (1.1.2) can be
12 IT
found on the basis o f the SVA approximation in the form
E (t, z ) = -l A ( t , *)e’'(< v - V ) + e x ., (1,1.8)
where k0 = u Q/ v , and v = c/n(u>0) is the phase velocity. Substituting

Eq. (1.1.8) into Eq. (1-1.2) and taking into account the slow change of the
com plex amplitude A ( t —t , z) with time, we shall expand it in a Taylor series
in t' . As a result we obtain
D ( t , z)
Neglecting the derivatives d™e0(u>)/dum in Eq. (1.1.9) is equivalent to ignoring

the dispersion o f a medium (zero-order) approximation. In the first-order ap
proximation o f the dispersion theory we retain only the derivative d e0(ui)/dw ,
neglecting the derivatives o f higher orders. The derivatives cf2e0(u>)/i9u>2 are
taken into account in the second-order approximation, etc. In other words, in
this classification the order o f derivatives o f the relative dielectric perm ittivity
£0(u>) determines the order o f approximation.
Substituting Eqs. (1.1.8) and (1.1.9) into Eq. (1.1.1), we get the following
equation for the amplitude A ( t , z ) :
1.1. Linear propagation o f short optical pulses 13
where
-i p
\(d k \ 1 —c (1.1.11)
is the group velocity. The parameter k2 characterizes the dispersion o f the group
velocity in the first-order approximation:
1 du \ = _ W 0 n\ (1112)
* = (? * - du> J Wn
2 \du2 2irc \dX ) \
the parameter d3k2jdu>3 in the second-order approximation for which
d3k 2 d3k
u — __ + 3 (1.1.13)
3 2 jfcn I h J ukn
etc.
In the continuous radiation field, the dispersion is usually referred to as normal
at dvjdui < 0 (or dn/dui > 0 ) and anomalous at dv/du> > 0 (or dn/dui < 0 ).
In the studies o f propagation o f short wave packets it is not the dispersion o f
phase velocity (which is known to define the behavior o f a m onochromatic wave)
that is o f greatest interest, but the dispersion o f group velocity. Thus, referring
to a normal or anomalous dispersion, we shall mean the sign o f group velocity
dispersion. The dispersion is called normal if du/dui < 0 and anomalous if
du/dui > 0. The definitions o f dispersion in terms o f phase velocity and group
velocity do not generally coincide. The frequency dependences o f phase velocity
and group velocity in the vicinity o f the resonance are shown in Fig. 1.1. The
behavior o f group velocity dispersion far from the resonance is characterized by
the graphs in Fig. 1.4 where the length Ld ~ |fc2|_1 [see Eq. (1.3.2)].
FIG . 1 . 1 . Dispersion o f phase and group velocities near a single uniform ly broad
ened resonance Q e .
Equation (1.1.10) is exact in the sense that it takes into account the dispersive
properties o f a linear medium. At the same time, for many cases o f propagation
o f ultrashort picosecond and femtosecond pulses the second-order approximation
o f the dispersion theory is adequate. In this approximation the equation that is
derived from Eq. (1.1.10) by neglecting the terms under the sum can be simplified
still further. By using a moving coordinate system (z = z , rj = t — z/u) , it is

easy to show 14 16that the operator in brackets gives values o f a higher order
o f smallness than other derivatives. As a result we obtain the equation
( £ - £ £ > * < ’ ■ *>= » <“ •“ >

whose solution takes the form
+ 00
A {t], z) = J A 0{ t ) G { r ] - t , z)d t, (1.1.15)
— OO
where
z) = (i27rfc2z )~ 1 /2 exp ~ ■
The solution (1.1.15) satisfies the boundary condition A = A 0(t) at z = 0.
T h e spatio-tem poral analogy
Equation (1.1.14) is similar to the parabolic equation
( ^ +^ ) ' 4(’'' z) = a '
(where A ± = d 2/dx2 + d 2/dy2 is the transverse Laplacian) which is extensively

used to describe the propagation o f optical beams o f the form
E ( t , r , z) = ± A ( r , z )e i(Wot~k° z) + c. c. (1.1.17)
Equation (1.1.16) corresponds to the so-called quasioptic approximation which is

valid when the com plex amplitude varies across the propagation direction faster
than along it. Fast variations of the field E ( t , r , z) along the propagation
direction are accounted for by the exponential factor.
From the standpoint o f the approximations made to obtain Eqs. (1,1.14) and
(1.1.16), one can trace a very useful spatio-tem poral analogy between propagat
ing wave packets and wave beam s.14 16 It can be easily seen from the formal
comparison o f Eqs. (1.1.14) and (1.1.16) that a transverse coordinate r in wave
beams can be set in correspondence to a time moment r) in wave packets, just
as a parameter kQ 1 to group velocity dispersion k2. Indeed, from the phys
ical point o f view the dispersive spreading o f a wave packet, associated with
k2 7^ 0 , is in many respects similar to the diffraction divergence o f a wave
beam. Accordingly, the wave packets are frequently treated in terms o f quasiop-
tical approximation.
1.1.Linear propagation o f short optical pulses 15
M o d e ls o f o p t ic a l p u lses
Apart from the com plex amplitude A 0(t) , the pulses are also described by a
real envelope p 0(t) and a phase <p0(t) :
A Q(t) = p0(t)ei'p°ii\ (1.1.18)
Let us consider first the deterministic pulses. In thegeneral case, the pulse
duration is convenient to define as a root-mean-square value :
* ™ = [f~2 - ( f ) 2]1 /2 , (1.1.19)
where
+oo
yyo' 1
W J tn \A0(t)\2 dt, n =l, 2,3,.. ., (1.1.20a)
and
+ co
W
vyo = J |^0(t)|2 rft (1.1.20b)
is the energy o f the pulse. The spectral width o f a pulse is similarly described
in the general form as
A^ = [ ^ - ( “ )2]1 /2 . (1.1.21)
where
+ co
^ = W~1 J u ns0(w )d w , n= 1,2,3,..., (1.1.22a)
+ °°
s0(w) = 2ir\A0(u))\2 = (27I-)-1 J A 0(t) e

-IWt j,
at (1.1.22b)
is the spectral density o f the pulse. The rms duration o f the pulse and its spectral
width are related as
T
rm s
Aw rm s = K —
> 1/2.
/
(1.1.23)' /
Now let us pass to consideration o f specific optical pulses.

A transform-limited pulse. This is a pulse whose duration rrms is completely
determined by the inverse value of its spectral width Awrms . In this case there
is no phaseor frequency modulation, i.e., (p0(t) = 0 , and j40(£) = p0(t) . For
transform-limited pulses the constant K ~ 1. Its valuedepends on the pulse
profile.
Tw o types o f pulses with the following envelopes are considered most often:
PoM ~ Pos e c h (.t /TQ) > (1.1.24)
Pott) = Po exP H 2/ 2ro)- (1.1.25)

For a Gaussian puke (1.1.25), K = 1 /2 . In all other cases, K > 1 /2 ; e.g.,

for a pulse (1.1.24), K = tt/6. For smooth pulses, there is no need to resort to
integral determinations o f duration. In the case o f a Gaussian pulse, the half
width o f the pulse length at the e 1 level from the maximum intensity is equal
to t q — V^Trms ■ The value o f rQ is related to the pulse length at the half-width
t i /2 ky the relationship TXj 2 = 2\/ln 2rQ . Having in mind these relations, we
will henceforth call the quantity rQ simply a pulse duration (length). For a
Gaussian pulse (1.1.25),
T,0A w 0 —2, — 4 In 2 , (1.1.26)
where A u 0 and A a r e the spectral widths at the levels corresponding to

the different definitions o f pulse duration.
A phase-modulated (P M ) pulse. The phase ip0(t) can be either com plicated
deterministic or a random function. The spectral width AuJq™ o f a PM pulse
can be much greater than that o f a transform-limited pulse: rQAwJ™ 1.
In the following description a special role will be played by pulses whose phase
varies as a square o f time :
¥>„(*) = - V 2/2 . (1-1.27)
Then the change o f the instantaneous frequency varies linearly with time t as
6w(t) = w(t) — = d<p0(t)/dt ~ —a Qt , (1.1.28)
where a Q is the rate o f frequency variation.

In the case o f frequency modulation (F M ) characterized by Eq. (1.1.28), the
spectral width of a pulse with a Gaussian profile (1.1.25), is equal to
= A u j l + K r 02) f 2 , r0A W0pm = 2[1 + . (1.1.29)
In the last relation, Eq. (1.1.26) is taken into account. Frequency modulation
o f optical pulses is often called “ chirp” . The form (1.1.28) o f FM corresponds to
a linear chirp.
A super-Gaussian pulse. Concurrent with Eqs. (1.1.24) and (1.1.25), some
other models are used for the analysis o f propagation and transformation o f
ultrashort pulses. In particular, a super-Gaussian pulse should be mentioned
whose shape is close to a rectangular form:
ô(f) = Po exP - - ( 1 + ia )
^ \T,
(1.1.30)
where m = I , 2 , 3 , . . . ; d = ar^’” . Such a pulse is typical for a semicon-

52
ductor laser radiation. As the parameter m grows, its shape approaches the
rectangular form, but its width at the e-1 level is independent o f m . The
frequency change
6w(t) = —m a t 2™ 1 , (1.1.31)
1.2. Propagation o f a sieep-froni optical pulse 17
o f a super-Gaussian pulse is the greatest at its front and tail. Its rms duration
is equal to
rrmsO = ? (ra) ro . «*("*) = (1.1.32)
For a Gaussian pulse <?(!) = l /\ /2 , whereas for a super-Gaussian pulse the

parameter q approaches unity (q —^ 1) and rrms0 —i►rQ as m - » c o ; T (a:) is
a gamma function.
Pulse containing' noise. Nonlaser sources o f light and, in some cases, multi-
m ode lasers generate, in fact, the flashes o f optical noise whose com plex ampli
tude can be written in the form
(1.1.33)
The function F ( t ) corresponds to a regular pulse that can be either transform-

limited or phase-modulated, £ denotes a random process with £(t) being, in
the general case, a com plex function. In some cases, the random process £(t)
can be treated as steady-state and characterized by a correlation function
(t + t )) = cr R ( t ) , (1.1.34)
where a is the variance o f the process.

W hen a flash from a free-running multimode laser is considered, the process
£(t) is written in the following fo rm :13' 16
-(2n + 1 - N )Q + <pn
where n is the number and pn the amplitude o f a mode, and 0 is the inter-
}■ (1.1.35)
m odal beat frequency. The phases <pn o f modes are independent random values
uniformly distributed in the interval [—n , tt]. For a sufficiently large number
N o f modes the process statistics (1.1.35) with discrete spectrum is close to
G aussian.16
1.2. Propagation of a steep-front

optical pulse; precursors
Let us take up the classical problem o f wave packets that was first consid
ered by Sommerfeld and Brillouin when they discussed the signal propagation
* 2 3
velocity. ’ In particular, we shall deal with propagation o f a steep-front op
tical pulse in a dispersive medium. At the present time, this problem attracts
much interest since it is directly associated with the generation o f optical pulses
consisting o f only a few oscillation periods.
The qualitative pattern o f emerging effects is simple. The steeper the front of
a pulse, the higher the fraction o f energy transferred by the spectral components
propagating at a velocity practically equal to c , the velocity o f light in vacuum.
2 2
Indeed, at frequencies u > for which e « 1 — wp/w , where Qe is the
(«
(b
->■
t
FIG . 1.2. Principles o f precursor form ation in a linear dispersive medium:

(a) input pulse; (!>) profile shape at a distance z in the m edium .
natural frequency of elastically bonded electrons and wp the plasma frequency,

the velocity v = c/^/e —►c as oj —►oo . An optical signal will therefore reach
the observer located at point z ^ 0 of a dispersive medium not at the moment
t = z/u (where u is the group velocity), but at the moment t s = z j c , which
marks the appearance o f the so-called Sommerfeld precursor (see Fig. 1.2). This
qualitative pattern becomes clearly evident from the solution o f the exact wave
equation (1.1.1).
Suppose that on a dispersive medium falls an optical pulse o f the form
( 1.2.1)
The field strength in a medium is described by Eq. (1.1.3) which can be rewritten
in a more convenient form as
OO
E (t z) d t , ( 1 .2 .2)
0
where [cf. Eq. (1.1.15)]
—oo
is the Green function. In a non-dispersive medium, Git — r , z ) = 6(t — t — z/c)

and E ( t , z) = E 0(t —z/c) if the wave number f c = w / c . In a dispersive medium
1.2. Propagation o f a steep-front optical pulse 19
k = lo/c only if w —*■ oo and therefore G(t — r , z) ^ 0 at high frequencies

for t — r > z jc . The response o f the medium at the plane z ^ 0 originates
at the moment £s — z j c and the velocity o f the wave front is always equal
to c irrespective o f the properties o f the medium. ’ ’ The main, or energy-
transferring, part of the signal arrives at a moment £gr — z/u. Indeed, in the
first-order approximation o f the dispersion theory [k(ui) = k(u>0) + (w — wQ) / i i ] ,
we can obtain from Eqs. (1.2.1) and (1.2.2)
E (t , z) — E0l(t — z/u) sin[w0^ — fc(u>0)z]. (1.2.3)
For a detailed calculation o f the field structure in the time interval [ts , i ]
it is necessary to specify the definite form o f the dispersion k(cv) = um(oj)/c.
Restricting ourselves as before by the case o f the normal dispersion, we shall
express the refraction index o f a medium in the form
n(u>) = l + w j / ( £ l ’ - w 2). (1.2.4)
Let us rewrite the solution (1.2.2) in terms o f the initial pulse (1.2.1):
+ 00
E(,, ,) = £ „ /
J U)n — U)
(L2.5)
—co u
where E = u QE Q/2it. W hen the time intervals 8 = t — t s = t — z j c are short,

the essential contribution to the integral (1.2.5) is due to high frequencies u> :
ljB < 1, u> > w0. In this case k(u>) Ri ( w /c ) ( l — q jlui ) and
+ 00
E{6 , C) ~ ~E QJ ^ 2 exp[i(w0 + C/w)] dui, (1.2.6)
— CO
where £ = q z j l c . The integration o f (1.2.6) yields
E(6, O ^ - ^ E ^ / C 112) ] ^ ^ , (1.2.7)
where Jx{x ) is the Bessel function o f real argument. At 0 < 0.5 the value
E{9 , Q & ■ Consequently, reaching a point z in the medium at the
moment t s , the Sommerfeld precursor starts growing from the zero amplitude.
W hen the intervals are short (w0# <C 1) , the amplitude o f the precursor is small
compared to the initial amplitude EQ . As the interval 9 becomes longer, the
~ 2 ~
oscillation amplitude and period T grow. At £6 > 1 the period Tosc m tt /C
and is independent o f the carrier frequency oj0 (see Fig. 1.2).
At longer intervals, a new perturbation phase appears, which is referred to
as a Brillouin precursor. In this case the principal contribution to (1.2.5) is
provided by low frequencies in the vicinity o f poles u> — =fcu>0 ,
E ( t , z ) « E 0l ( t - z j v ) sin [wQi - fc(wQ)«]. ( 1.2 .8)

This precursor propagates with a phase velocity v = , and emerges at

the moment tB = z j v . Then at the moment <g r , as it was pointed out above,
the energy-transferring part o f the signal described by Eq. (1.2.3) arrives. Thus,
the total structure o f a steep-front optical pulse in a dispersive medium takes
the form shown in Fig. 1.2.
The group velocity u , at which the pulse envelope propagates, is equal to
the velocity at which the energy o f the pulse is carried in the considered nondis-
sipative medium with normal dispersion (u < v ) . In media with anomalous
dispersion, i.e., in the absorption region, the group velocity u may however ex
ceed the phase velocity v , or sometimes be even a negative value (see Fig. 1.1).
But the velocity o f energy propagation cannot exceed c in both cases. In
2 3
consequence, ’ the concept o f the signal velocity u has been proposed, defin
ing a moment at which arrives the part o f a pulse registered by an instrument.
Obviously, such a definition o f ug depends on the instrument sensitivity. It
should be noted that when the carrier frequency wQ coincides with the reso
nance frequency o f the medium, the behavior o f the pulse front depends on the
relation between the initial width o f the front, the (longitudinal and transverse)
82
relaxation times, and the period o f the Rabi precession oscillations. Since the
precursors are difficult to observe in the optical range, the first experimental
21
studies were performed in a waveguide at microwave frequencies 1-10 GHz.
The authors observed both Sommerfeld and Brillouin precursors. Comprehen-
gg_g*f
sive numerical investigations have been recently carried out on formation o f
precursors during propagation o f steep-front optical pulse in dispersive medium.
The above analysis pertains to the media without spatial dispersion. In the
media with spatial dispersion, the relative dielectric permittivity e , apart from
the frequency w , depends on the wave number k , e — e{w , k). The analysis
o f propagation o f optical pulses in such media predicts the existence o f a new
exiton precursor in addition to the Sommerfeld and Brillouin precursors.
1.3. Propagation of wave packets in a homogeneous

dispersive medium; dispersive spreading
Let us consider how transform-limited optical pulses propagate in a dispersive
medium. As we noted before, the pulse parameters tend to vary during propa
gation provided the group velocity dispersion in the medium is essential. Natu
rally, the basic transformation characteristics o f the optical pulse in a dispersive
medium can be described by low-order approximations o f the dispersion theory.
The second- or third-order approximations are usually found adequate, and their
detailed discussion will be given here. On the other hand, a rms duration o f the
pulse can be examined analytically irrespective o f the dispersion order and the
shape o f the initial pulse.
T h e second-order approxim ation o f the dispersion theory;

the analogy with beam diffraction
In this approximation the propagation o f an optical pulse is described by a par

abolic equation (1.1.14) having solution (1.1.15). It should be reminded that to
1.3. Wave packets in a homogeneous dispersive medium 21
Eq. (1.1.14) corresponds the following approximation o f the dispersive properties

o f a medium:
*(w ) = *(w0) + i ( w - w0) + | t 2(w - w0) 2. (1.3.1)
W hen k2 > 0 , we have the normal dispersion o f group velocity and when k2 < 0 ,
the dispersion is anomalous.
Let us discuss the propagation o f transform-limited pulses. The explicit
analytical results can be obtained for Gaussian pulses (1.1.25). According to
Eq. (1.1.15) the com plex amplitude o f the puke in the medium is equal to
1 t2
A { t , z) = V0 1/2{z)p Qexp + i<p(t, z) (1.3.2)
2 V f r ) r t2
where
Va2(z) = 1 + (z/Ld) 2 ,L d = L f = r 2
J \ k 2\,
^ , z) = _ J arctan
2 Vo ( z ) k 2z 2 ro
Hereafter the time rj in a moving coordinate system will be denoted by t . The

length Ld is referred to as a length o f dispersive spreading o f a wave packet, or,
briefly, a dispersion length.
The duration o f a Gaussian pulse in a dispersive medium grows with distance:
Tp(z ) = Vo(z ) To = iT0 + ( M / r0 ) 2]1/2- (1.3.3)
A t the same time, as it was noted before, the spectral width o f a wave packet
remains constant in a linear medium. That decrease in the contribution to the
envelope modulation spectrum is offset by the appearance o f phase (frequency)
modulation. Besides, according to Eq. (1.3.2) the rate o f frequency variation
a ( z ) = du>/dt = d 2>
p /dt2 is equal to
«0) = zkl l{z2 + Ll)~1- (i.3.4)

Thus, in a dispersive medium, a transform-limited pulse turns into a pulse with
linear frequency modulation; the sign o f FM is determined by the sign o f k2 .
The graphs o f functions (1.3.3) and (1.3.4) are shown in Fig. 1.3 by curves 1.
From Eqs. (1.3.3) and (1.3.4) it is seen that the change in the parameters o f a
Gaussian pulse in the medium depends both on the group velocity dispersion k2
and theinitial duration t() , which jointly determine the dispersion length Ld
[see Eq. (1.3.2)]. The L A versus wavelength dependences for water and some
crystals are plotted in Fig. 1.4. The value o f k2 is easy to find by means o f the
well-known Selmeier formula when the propagation o f a short pulse is studied in
the vicinity o f the resonance (for example, in gases).
The expression (1.3.2) coincides with the formula describing the plane wave
diffracted by a slit. Therefore, the behavior o f a transform-limited pulse in
FIG . 1.3. Relative duration r = t ^(z )/t q (a ) and relative rate o f frequency
variation or = at(z)/aQ ( 6) o f an optical pulse as a function o f the distance
traversed £ = z/L>£ in a linear dispersive m edium : ( 1) pulse w ithout P M ,
c*0 = 0 , a = cx( z ) tq ; { 2 ) P M pulse, ^ a oTo = 2 .0 ; ( 3 ) P M pulse,
2
c*o^2 ^ ^ ’ “ o To — 2.0 .
Ldycm Ld,c/n
FIG . 1,4. Dispersive spreading for water (a) and crystals ( 6) as a function
o f the mean wavelength o f an ultrashort pulse o f duration r 0 = 0.1 p s . 19 Also
shown is the dependence o f the refractive index o f water.
a dispersive medium is analogous to diffraction o f a two-dimensional optical

beam. The dispersion length Ld is totally analogous to the diffraction length
2 . . .
L ,f = kQaQ o f an optical beam, with aQ being the beam radius. There are,
however, certain differences in behavior o f wave beams and wave packets. The
real optical beams are definitely three-dimensional, and the dispersion param
eter k2 , analogous to kQ 1 , may be negative. Accordingly, in contrast to
the diffracted beams characterized by the positive curvature o f the wave front,
the optical pulses may acquire during their propagation either positive or neg
ative rate o f frequency variation, up-chirp and down-chirp, respectively [see
E q- ( L 3 -4)!-
Just as in the case o f light beam diffraction, one can identify the near-field
zone ( z < Ld) and the far-field (Fraunhofer) zone (z L d) while analyzing
the dispersive spreading o f an optical pulse. In the near-field zone the pulse
1.3. Wave packets in a homogeneous dispersive medium 23
duration rp » r0 , and in the far-field zone it is proportional to the distance z :
\k2\z
From Eq. (1.3.3) it is easy to find the initial duration r0 for which the pulse
1/O
has the shortest duration rmin(L) = V 2 r t , where ropt = (|fc2|i) = tq ,
after traveling a distance I in a dispersive medium. The shorter initial pulses
undergo wider dispersive spreading.
The second-order approximation o f the dispersion theory predicts the invari
able envelope o f a propagating Gaussian pulse. Envelope distortion o f non-
Gaussian pulses is treated in Sec. 1.4. Since in this case the pulse envelope
transformation cannot be obtained in an explicit form, one usually calculates
only the rms duration rrms (1.1.19). For example, in the absence o f PM , a
super-Gaussian pulse (1.1.30) has the duration
where f rms0 is given by Eq. (1.1.32). For m = 1 Eq. (1.3.6) coincides with
Eq. (1.3.3). For m 1 , we have
1/2
2 TO / k ~ Z
(z ) (1.3.7)
It follows from this expression that a super-Gaussian pulse can spread in a dis
persive medium much wider than a Gaussian pulse. The dispersive spreading of
a pulse becomes more pronounced in the pulses whose initial shape is closer to
rectangular.
T h e third- and higher-order approxim ations o f the dispersion theory
W hen the dispersion parameter k2 = 0 or is very small, the dispersive spreading

has to be treated in terms o f the higher-order approximation o f the dispersion
theory— that is, the parameter k3 (1.1.13) has to be taken into account. In
the third-order approximation o f the dispersion theory the pulse propagation is
described in a moving coordinate system according to Eq. (1.1.10) as
<d z + 2 dt2 6 d i3 ) ’ } ~ (L 3 8)
The solution o f this equation is
+00
A ( t , z) = j A 0( t l ) G 3( t - t 1 , z ) d t 1 , (1.3.9)
where
+00
G, z) = (2 x )_1 J exp —i
k„z
6
k„z
w H— — w — ( i —i ,) w
2 v 11
duj
is the Green function. Even for an initially Gaussian pulse, the amplitude
A ( t , z) can be found only approximately at |i| —►00 by the steepest descent
method. Accordingly, let us turn to the results o f numerical calculations o f
the envelope p (t) , shown in Fig. 1.5, where the curves are drawn for different
values o f dispersion parameters
C — C2 —■ ^ 2 Z / r 0 > *>3 — ^ 3 2 / ^ T0 •
(1.3.10)
FIG . 1.5. Transform ation o f a Gaussian pulse profile (a ) in a dispersive lin

ear m edium at various values o f param eters ( and :(fc) ( = 6 , £3 = 0;
(c) C = 0 , c3 = 3 ; (d) C = 6 , C3 = 3 ; (e) ( = 0 , <3 = 1 5 ; ( / ) ( = 15,
Co = 15.20 Pulse envelopes p(t) are norm alized to a m axim um value.
From Fig. 1.5 it follows that the cubic dispersion o f a medium at £3 > 0
brings about the modulation o f the falling edge o f the pulse, with the leading
edge remaining smooth. When <^3 < 0 , the situation is reversed. The pulse
1.3. Wave packets m a homogeneous dispersive medium 25
propagating in a medium grows asymmetric, and its “center o f gravity” shifts

[t ^ 0 , see Eq. (1.1.20a)].
The intensity o f an optical pulse in a dispersive medium can be expressed
through the function H ( x ) signifying the Fourier spectrum o f the intensity
+ 00
I(t, z) = \A(t, z)|2 = I H { x ) e iix' T° dx. (1.3.11)
It is demonstrated in Ref. 20 that for the initial Gaussian pulse
2
» , 3 1 2 1 «x )
H ( x ) = T T /T t 1 + < 3 X) _1/2 exP (1.3.12)
2x “ i* 4 1 + i(„x
The root-mean-square duration (1.1.19) is presented in terms o f the function

H ( x ) a s 20
1/2
1 dH (x) \ 2 _ f 1 d2H (x )
(z) =
sV /
(1.3.13)
H {x) dx J x=0 \ H (x) dx2
Substituting Eq. (1.3.12) into Eq. (1.3.13) we get
t™ sw = (1.3.14a)
where rrms0 = TQfy/2. This expression can be rewritten as
= >Vm, 0 [l + ( . / I , ) ’ + W i f ) ’ ] (1.3.14b)
The dispersion length
Lf = ^ o /iy (1.3.15)
A t i f f '1 —►o o , Eq. (1.3.14) coincides with Eq. (1.3.3).

As far as the integral characteristics o f the pulse are concerned, the generalized
dispersion length L^ (=' can be introduced and Eq. (1.3.14) is written in the
d
following form:
(1.3.16)
where
L' d{? =
~ [1
L-1- +' (fc3/2fc2r0)
V " '3 / '“ ' " 2 ' 0 / T
J 1/2L
^ d, "
(1.3.17)
From Eq. (1.3.17) it is easy to evaluate the relative contributions of quadratic

and cubic dispersions to the spreading o f the pulse. As t q decreases, a higher-
order dispersion grows in importance. The condition for smallness o f the effect
caused by the quadratic dispersion is 2 |&2 |t0 <C |&3 |•
(3)
In this case the pulse duration in the far-field zone (z L d ) is inversely
proportional to the square o f its initial duration:
It should be also noted that in the third-order approximation o f the dispersion

theory the variation o f rrms with distance [see Eq. (1.3.14)] is similar to that
in the second-order approximation. Provided k2 = 0 , the shortest rms duration
o f the rpulse at a distance L is equal
i
to rrm s m in
. = V(vr /3•/2 >) rrm s o p tt ’, where the
optimum initial duration = 2 1^6(\k2\L)1^3.
On the basis o f Eq. (1.1.10) one can analyze how the dispersion o f a medium
affects a propagating pulse for any high-order approximation o f the dispersion
theory. Naturally, the higher-order approximations make the quantitative pic
ture o f dispersive spreading more precise although its b ask features obtained for
the second- and third-order approximations remain unchanged. The most gen
eral case which does not specify an approximation order o f the dispersion theory
or a pulse shape is considered in Refs. 31 and 54. The authors proceed from the
equation differing from Eq. (1.1.10) by the absence o f the last term in braces.
The invariants o f a propagating pulse are established in Ref. 31. Such invariants
are the “area” of a pulse, its energy, spectral density, and spectral width, as well
as the quantities o f the form
+ o o +C O
J A^m\ o , z ) A ^ * ( 8 + t , z)dd — im ” J wm+"s(w )e tWT dm = c o n s t,

— CO — OO
A M (6, ,) = „ = 0, 1,2, ...

In Ref. 54 it is shown that the rms duration of a pulse propagating in a dispersive
medium varies according to a parabolic equation irrespective o f the dispersion
order or the pulse shape.
1.4. Fourier optics of wave packets

Advanced Fourier optics o f diffracted light beams stems from simple and obvious
ideas most o f which were already formulated in the last century. In particular,
the Fraunhofer diffraction theory is based on the integral relation indicating that
the angular spectrum registered in the far-field zone or in the focal plane of a lens
is determined by the Fourier transform o f the com plex amplitude distribution
across the entrance aperture. Many practical achievements o f Fourier optics
are built on the possibility, demonstrated by A bbe, to control the image by
modifying the amplitudes and phases o f spectral components in the focal plane.
The classical examples o f this technique are provided by the methods of dark-field
illumination and phase contrast.
Fourier optics o f wave packets deals with analogous transformations o f optical
pulses propagating in dispersive media. The new methods o f reshaping short
pulses in artificial dispersive media attract particular interest. The strongly
dispersive systems consisting o f a combination of diffraction gratings and prisms
make it possible to spread the Fourier frequency spectrum in space and control
the amplitudes and phases o f spectral components, which is very similar to what
A bbe accomplished with the Fourier components o f the angular spectrum.
l.J. Fourier optics o f wave packets 27
We shall begin with assessing the propagation o f PM pulses in a dispersive

medium, which is important both from the standpoint o f m ethodology and di
verse applications.
Propagation o f phase-m odulated Gaussian pulses; aberrations
Suppose that a pulse has the following form before entering a dispersive medium:
1 , -
o ( ro + ia o)r (1.4.1)
A > ( 0 = Po e x P
Let us trace the evolution o f the pulse in terms o f the second-order approximation
o f the dispersion theory. In accordance with Eq. (1.1.15) the com plex amplitude
o f the pulse in the medium
1 To + ia o
A ( t , z) = f 1/2(z) pQexp (1.4.2)
2 /(* )
where
f ( z ) = l - a 0k2z + ik2z/r0 .
The envelope and phase o f the pulse take the form
1 tl
p (t , z) = V 1/2 (z) p Qexp (1.4.3)
2 V 2( z ) t?
_ l k2z { a 0 + T0 4) - a 0 2 1 k2z
- t — —arctan — (1.4.4)
¥>(< - * ) = 2
V 2(z) 2 To ( l ~ a Ok 2 Z)
where the function

V 2(z) = ( l - a 0k2z ) 2 + (z/Lijf (1.4.5)
is introduced. The presence o f the initial phase modulation o f the pulse ( a Q ^ 0)

may lead to a qualitative change in its behavior in a dispersive medium as com
pared to a nonmodulated pulse.
The pulse duration in a medium
TPi z ) :=t'r^ { z ) ^ T Q[ ( \ - a Qk2z ) 2 + {z/L 6) 2f 12. (1.4.6)
If a 0fc2 < 0 , a PM pulse spreads faster than a non-modulated one. If a ak2 > 0 ,
the PM pulse first gets compressed and then starts spreading [cf. curves 2, 3 in
Fig. 1.3 (a )]. The shortest pulse duration
2.2, —1/2
r m in = + 1
(1.4.7)
is realized at a distance z = L :
i 2\2
W o ) a o To
L = (1.4.8)
11 i / 2\2 '
*0*21!+ 0 V o ) ] 1 + ( a oro)
The rate o f frequency variation
„w = + f ) - (1 4 9)
(1 - < * 0k 2z) + ( z / L d)
is illustrated by the graphs in Fig. 1.3 (b) , In the region o f maximum compres
sion o f the pulse the rate o f frequency modulation a ( L c) = 0 and the duration
Tmin defined by the total spectral width. In other words, in the case o f the opti
mum compression the pulse turns transform-limited. The transition o f the pulse
through the region o f maximum compression is accompanied with the reversal
o f the sign o f a ( z ) [see curve 3 in Fig. 1.3 (6)].
Compression, or time focusing, o f pulses is undoubtedly the most interesting
effect arising during their propagation in dispersive media. The most efficient
compression takes place when a pulse with PM varying quadratically with time
travels in a medium with quadratic dispersion. This phenomenon is quite similar
to the aberration-free focusing o f light beams by a lens. It is known, however,
that such ideal performance is very difficult to realize due to various aberrations.
The situation is exactly the same as in the case o f time focusing o f optical pulses.
The cubic- and higher-order dispersion o f a medium, as well as nonquadratic PM
o f the initial pulse lead to temporal aberrations.
Let us begin with the analysis o f effects arising in the third-order approxi
mation o f the dispersion theory. According to Eqs. (1.3.8) and (1.4.1) the rms
duration o f the pulse [see also Ref. 20]
rnn.(*) = Trms0{ ( 1 ~ “ o M " + ( Zl Ld f + t1 + (a oTo ) \ Z/ ■ (1-4.10)

It is seen from Eq. (1.4.10) that in the media with cubic dispersion (Ar2 = 0 ,
Ld —►oo) PM pulses spread regardless o f the sign o f a Q . Such a behavior differs
from the behavior o f PM pulses propagating in media with quadratic dispersion
( h2 £ 0) . In the presence o f both quadratic and cubic dispersions the length L q
at which the PM pulse gets compressed with a Qk2 > 0 , is determined by the
following expression:
2
Lc = L d-------------- T^ a °-T°----------------- 5-- (1.4.11)

[1 + K ' o ) HI + ( 2 V V o ) ]
The compression ratio equals
7"
, 2 x2 1/2
C — rms 0 __ 1 + ________ K ro) (1.4.12)
rms
rms min 1 + (2W o ) [ ^ ( “o^) ]
From Eqs. (1.4.11) and (1.4.12) it follows that the cubic dispersion o f the medium
leads to the decrease in the length Lc and compression ratio 5 rms . The effi
ciency o f compression o f PM pulses diminishes with growth o f k3 .
Now let us examine the effects that appear when the initial phase modulation
is nonquadratic:
1-4- Fourier optics o f wave packets 29
The rms spectral width o f such a pulse
= i [i + (<*07-02)2 + (/ y 03)2]1/2
rm s o V /
Z rm s 0
is independent o f the sign o f a Q and /?0 .

A ccording to the second-order approximation o f the dispersion theory the
pulse duration (1.4.13) varies as
*■„».(*) = w { ( l - “ o V ) 2 + [1 + (/V o 3) 2] ( ^ d) Y /2 - (1-4-15)
It is seen from here that the quadratic term in phase modulation leads to reduc
tion in the effective dispersion length. The minimal pulse duration is therefore
attained over the length that is shorter than (1.4.8) by the amount
Lc = Li ^
14- ({aoTa) + (/Vo)
v (L 4 -16)
The maximum compression ratio is equal to

2v 2 1/ 2
K ô) (1.4.17)
rm s = i +
i + 0 V b ) 2J
Thus, the addition o f a cubic term to the phase (bQ ^ 0) impairs the conditions
o f compression. It should be also noted that in the absence o f linear FM ( a Q = 0)
the pulse spreads [see Eq. (1.4.15)].
The compression ratio S is not a monotone function o f the pulse duration.
Srm s reaches its maximum value
c _ n _L o4/ 3"?- 2 ^1/ 3^ 2o~ 4/ 3\1/ 2

5 rm sm ax = (! + 2 3 5 a 0P0 ) •
at theduration ropt = ( 4 /5 ) 1^6/?0 1^3 . From Eqs. (1.4.14) and (1.4.17) we get
= i [i + ( / y 03) 2]1/2
rm s m in 2 Aw ' ( • ' )
rm s
This duration is longer than in the case of a transform-limited pulse (/?0 = 0 ).

Hence, phase modulation remains in the region o f maximum compression o f the
pulse.
The oscillograms in Fig. 1.6 illustrate the envelope distortion o f short pulses
propagating near narrow resonances in atomic vapors. 22 The well-formed short
pulses generated by tunable lasers were used in the experiment [see Fig. 1.6 (a) ].
The dispersive effects (not only of the second order, but also o f higher orders)
become clearly noticeable already for pulse durations o f about 10 ns, provided
the pulsefrequency approaches the resonance frequency. InFigs. 1.6 (b) and
1.6(c) the amplitudes o f the largest peaks of the output pulses are, respectively,
1.3 and 1.5 larger than the amplitude o f the input pulse.22
30 1, Short optical pulses in linear dispersive media
FIG . 1.6. Profile m odification o f short optical pulses propagating in a strongly

dispersive m edium . 22 T he scale is 10 n s p e r division for input pulses (the left-
hand side o f the figure) and 5 ns per division for output pulses (the right-hand
side). T h e pulses generated by a tunable laser had the carrier frequency o >0
close to the resonance frequency for the 2 ^>1 y2 ^*111‘ in Fib vapor. The
pulse phase was m odulated in accordance with a harm onic law at frequency
F = 150 MHz and with m agnitude . The m axim um frequency varia
tion Vma_x F m = 230 MHz: (a) A / = A w / 2 ir = 18.9 GH z (Aa> = — a>0) ,
pulse without FM ; ( 6) A / = 7.8 GHz; (c ) A / = 6.3 GHz; (d) A / = 5.1 GHz.
Com pression o f P M optical pulses and focusing o f optical beam s
The preceding analysis proves that PM pulses can be compressed in a dispersive

medium. Some important practical applications follow from that fact. The
compression o f PM pulses has becom e now one o f the most versatile methods
o f obtaining femtosecond pulses in the visible, UV, and IR ranges. That is why
we are going to discuss the physics o f compression in more detail, paying special
attention to the analogy and differences between this process and the spatial
focusing o f optical beams.
Basic ideas o f the compression o f light pulses in optics were borrowed from the
2 3 24 25
radar field. ’ In the first experiments with compression, the relatively long
He Ne laser pulses (r0 ~ 0.5 ns) were phase modulated by means o f an electro-
optical modulator. The PM pulses were compressed by a dispersive device, the
Gires-Tournois interferometer [see also Sec. 1.5], which permitted a pulse
to be shortened almost by half. Since the possibilities o f obtaining ultrashort
optical pulses are determined mostly by the specific features o f the compression
1-4- Fourier optics o f wave packets 31
system, we shall discuss now the basic compression stages using both the time
and the spectral terminology.
Let us consider once again a Gaussian pulse (1.4.1) with quadratic PM . Its
total phase is Q(t) = u>Qt — a Qt 2/2 and instantaneous frequency
uj(t) — d$(t)/ dt = wQ a Qt. (1.4.19)
The physics o f compression o f such an optical pulse can be qualitatively described

27
in the time domain. Earlier we have obtained the required results in analytical
form [see Eqs. (1.4.2), (1.4.7), and (1.4.8)]. In order to give their physical
interpretation, a real FM pulse must be represented in the form of a train o f
pulses o f constant frequency which m onotonically varies from pulse to pulse.
This is equivalent to a substitution o f a step function for the linear dependence
ui(t) in Eq. (1.4.19). It is easy to see that if, for example, a Q > 0 , then the
condition o f compression is Ar2 > 0 ; in a medium with normal dispersion o f
group velocity the lower frequencies Wj located on the falling edge o f a pulse
catch up with the high frequencies at the leading edge o f a pulse.
It is easy to find also the length o f time focusing, or the compression length
Lc . Over this distance the group delay time for the highest and lowest pulse
frequencies is A t . « 2 tq , i.e.,
d k\ dk\
Lc = k2LcA w P
0m. (1.4.20)
27-0 « A *d - ( Wh u] ) L - du)c du).
Since in the considered case oc0tq 1, ^ 2a QrQ and, consequently,

Lc = ( a Qk2) 1. The minimal duration o f the compressed pulse is Trmsmin ps
2 }A w 0
Pm = ( a ^ y 1 [see Eq. (1.4.18)].
The graphs shown in Fig. 1.7 indicate what relation between the character
istics o f frequency modulation and dispersion o f a medium is required to ensure
pulse compression.
Henceforth for the definitive calculations o f compression we shall be exten
sively using the spectral description. The analysis in this case is based on the
successive expansion o f pulses into a Fourier spectrum and on the complex trans
mission coefficients o f dispersive devices. Note that the consideration presented
before is based on the spectrum that is “not completely expanded” .
A Fourier transform o f the complex amplitude (1.4.1) takes the form
1 ( W
A 0(Q = u> - u>Q) = ' pQexp .2x2 (1.4.21)
2 i + O Vb)
where the phase

4n 2
a o To
* o (°) = (1.4.22)
+ K ô)
In a dispersive medium the Fourier spectrum o f the pulse
A (Q , z) = K ( Q , z ) \ { 0 ) , (1.4.23)
(a.)
FIG . 1.7. Variation u<(t) o f instantaneous frequency o f a pulse and time de
lay in a m edium with normal (a ) and anom alous ( b) dispersion during
com pression o f optical pulses.
where K ( Q , z) is the frequency transfer function, or simply, the transmis

sion coefficient. A n example o f the transmission coefficient for a nonabsorbing
medium, described in terms o f the second-order approximation o f the dispersion
theory, follows from Eq. (1.1.15):
I<(Q, z) = e‘V ‘ ( n ) , <pc(S}) = - k 2Q2z/2. (1.4.24)
Here K ( f i , z) is written in the form corresponding to the moving coordinate

system.
W hat are the spectral conditions under which the dispersive medium acts as a
compressor? Or, in other words, how should the requirements similar to (1.4.20)
be formulated in the spectral domain?
The answer is obvious for our model o f a Gaussian PM pulse (1.4.1). A PM
pulse emerging from a dispersive medium will have the maximum amplitude
and, therefore, the minimal duration under the conditions that all its spectral
components are precisely phase matched:*
*>0(n ) + p c(n ) = o. (1.4.25)
*In the general case the phase m atching con dition (1.4.25) guarantees only that the resulting
am plitude will be m axim um , since the con cep t of a pulse duration is ambiguous for pulses of
com plex shape.
1.4■ Fourier optics o f wave packets 33
It can be easily shown that from this relationship follows Eq. (1.4.8) for the
compression length Lc . Performing the inverse Fourier transformation, we can
obtain from Eqs. (1.4.23) and (1.4.25) the expression (1.4.7) for the minimal
pulse
r duration rnun
. .
Under optim um compression conditions the compression ratio
S = ’■o/’-mi. = = [1 + (< V i)Y /J . (1-4.28)

i.e., a pulse can be compressed by the same factor, by which its spectrum is
broadened by frequency modulation. Naturally, the maximum power o f com
pressed pulses grows S-fold.
FIG . 1.8. Phase control o f light waves in space and in time, (a ) and ( 6) (for r )
Beam focusing b y a lens; beam shape: ( I ) in front o f the lens, (2) im m ediately
after the lens, (5) in the area o f beam waist, and ( 4 ) in the focal plane / o f the
lens (dashed lines, wave front o f a b ea m ). ( 6) (for t) and (c) Com pression o f FM
pulse in a m edium with normal dispersion; pulse profile shape: ( i ) at the input of
the frequency m odulator, ( 2 ) at the com pressor input, (5) in the area o f optim al
com pression, and (4) in the “foca l” plane. (<£) Phase ip(t) (dashed lines) and
the frequency w(<) (solid lines) in the same cross sections o f the m edium .
Compression o f FM pulses has many com mon features with focusing o f optical
beams. In Figs. 1.8 (a) , 1.8 (6) the shape o f a beam and a wavefront are shown
for different locations within a medium. The envelope profiles and frequency
modulation at certain stages o f pulse compression are depicted in Figs. 1.8(fe)-
1.8(d) . From the comparison o f both processes it follows that pulse compression
can be treated as time focusing, with the frequency modulator acting as a “time
lens.” The region o f optimum pulse compression is equivalent to the region o f the
beam waist. On passing through the region o f optimum compression the sign o f
FM reverses [see Fig. 1.3 (6) , curve 3\ similarly to the reversal in the phase front
curvature o f the beam crossing the region of the beam waist. Note that in the
case o f beam focusing the intensity in the waist grows proportional to the square
o f the ratio o f beam radii, while in the case o f pulse compression the power grows
proportional to the ratio o f their durations. Here lies the fundamental difference
caused by the different dimensions of the beams and pulses.
The focal length o f a “time lens” is the parameter
F = ( a 0k2) ~ 1 (1.4.27)
This value is obtained from Eq. (1.4.8) using the ray optics approximation under
2
the condition a QT0 1 , that is valid for pulses with strong frequency deviation.
Such pulses are analogous to strongly diverging optical beams. The FM pulses
can be directly produced by lasers, or obtained by means o f external modulation.
In the latter case, nanosecond pulses are usually modulated by electro-optical
means, whereas FM picosecond and femtosecond pulses are often generated using
self-phase modulation (see Sec. 2.2).
tp,"*.
1.5-
1.0
0.5
50 100 z.km
FIG. 1.9. Com pression o f P M pulses in a linear optical fiber. Experim ental
pulse durations are shown as a function o f distance. 28
In Ref. 28 the authors reported an almost fivefold compression in a single

mode optical fiber o f the FM pulse produced by the diode laser with distributed
feedback and modulated pumping current. The pulse with a wavelength of
1.54 fim and initial duration o f 1.7 ns has been compressed down to 0.35 ns
after traversing a distance o f 104 km (see Fig. 1.9). The pulses 8 ps long
( A = 514.5 nm) have been recently ob tain ed 81 by electro-optical modulation of
cw argon laser radiation in a microwave resonator, excited by a pulsed radiation
with frequency 9.4 GHz, and by subsequent compression of the PM radiation by
means o f a diffraction grating.
Com pression o f super-Gaussian optical pulses
Let us consider how the pulses whose shapes differ from Gaussian are compressed.
For clarity, we shall examine a PM super-Gaussian pulse (1.1.30). In the second-
order approximation o f the dispersion theory the rms duration o f such a pulse is
l.Jf. Fourier optics of wave packets 35
53
equal to
(1 .4 .2 8 )
Tr m s ( Z ) = t1 - f l ( Zf L d) + A W A l) 1 ' Trm s 0 >
where
2 T ( 2 - l/2 m )
A a
r(3/2m) ’ A = (1+ “ )m r(3/2m)
For definiteness, in Eq. ( 1 .4 .2 8 ) it is assumed that k2 > 0 . If a > 0 , then at a
distance
r ( l + l / 2 m)
L (m ) = ( 1 .4 .2 9 )
m r (2 - 1 /2 m) 1 + a 2 d
the rms duration reaches the minimal value and
1/2
1 3r ( 1 -f l/2 m )
1+ ( 1 .4 .3 0 )
1 -f a 2 2 m r (l + 3 /2 m )T (2 — l /2 m )
rm s 0
It follows from Eq. (1.4.30) that the minimal duration rrms min becomes longer
as the initial pulse approaches the rectangular shape, that is, with m growing.
In other words, the compression ratio o f a super-Gaussian pulse turns out to
be lower in comparison with a Gaussian pulse. The compression length also
decreases as m grows.
D eform ation o f F M pulses o f arbitrary shape;

a spectron; pulse shape reversal
Let us analyze the propagation o f PM pulses in dispersive media for the arbitrary
initial envelope shape. Such analysis will make it possible to establish some
interesting and useful properties o f the optical pulse deformation that may be
utilized in laser physics and optical communication.
In the second-order approximation o f the dispersion theory one can obtain
the rigorous solution for the Gaussian pulse profile, and therefore the envelope
o f an arbitrary pulse in a dispersive medium can be calculated easily enough. By
analogy with the method used in the theory o f wave beams, the optical pulse is,
55
in this case, expanded in terms o f Gaussian wave packets.
A ccording to the second-order approximation o f the dispersion theory, the
evolution of thispulse in the medium is described by Eq.( 1 . 1 . 1 5 ) . Supposing
that theconsidered pulse o f an arbitrary profile p 0 ( t ) has thelinear chirp
= P o i * ) e x v ( - i a 0t 2/ 2 ) . ( 1 .4 .3 1 )
We can expand the pulse profile in a series o f the Hermitian polynomials H m (x)
forming a complete set o f orthogonal functions:

OO
P o W = £ Pm H m ( t / r 0) e x p ( - t 2/ 2 r 2) , (1 .4 .3 2 )
m= 0
where
+00
pm = x-1 /2 2-m (m!)_1 J p 0 (T0x ) H m ( x ) e x v ( - x 2/ 2 ) d x .
— OO
Substituting Eq. (1.4.32) in Eq. (1.1.15) we obtain
X l ~ o ^ + i ^ l?l z ) - m i p ( z ) ] \ , (1.4.33)
I 2 rp (z) J
where <p(t], z ) , V ( z ) , and t (z) are defined in Eqs. (1.4.4), (1.4.5), and
(1.4.6), respectively, and
k 2z
ip = arctan—j------- ------------.
r0 — a 0 ^ 2Z )
From Eq. (1.4.33) it is seen that all “modes” o f the pulse behave identically:
the same parameters characterize the duration and the phase o f the “modes.”
Naturally, this result obtained for pulses should have been expected by analogy
with the result obtained for beams. 56
Equation (1.4.33) has certain advantages in calculations o f the profile evolu
tion o f the pulse and its phase variation since the shape o f laser pulses is usually
close to Gaussian. From 20 to 30 terms in Eq. (1.4.33) are sufficient for accurate
approximation o f experimental data. 55 According to Eq. (1.4.33) the pulses
propagating in a dispersive medium possess the following inherent features. The
pulses whose envelopes are described by an even or odd function p 0(t) retain
their symmetry. The pulse with arbitrary pQ(t) becomes symmetrical at the
initial stage o f propagation and then starts broadening. One can make sure that
a pulse o f arbitrary shape becomes indeed symmetrical in the far-field zone with
out resorting to the expansion into the “modes.” In so doing, some additional
qualities o f the pulse transformed in a dispersive medium can be disclosed.
A spectron; the pulse shape in the far-field zone. Substituting Eq. (1.4.31)
into Eq. (1.1.15) we obtain
+ oo
‘( t - t j f a Qt I''
A(t, z ) = (i2irk2z ) ~ 1/2 j P oitjexp dt. (1.4.34)
2k2z
W e shall treat the presence o f FM in a pulse as a result o f its passage through a

FM device (a “time lens” ). At a distance equal to the focal length o f the “time
lens,” i.e., for z = F — ( a 0&2) 1 an(^ a o ^2 > ®
A ( t , F ) = (i2irk2F ) 1/2pQ( a Qt ) exp ( i a Qt2/2) , (1.4.35)
J )
+ oo
Po(<V ) = Po(e e x p ( - m o*0) d9.

1.4■ Fourier optics o f wave packets 37
1 -
FIG . 1.10, Profile m odification o f an optica l pulse in a dispersive linear medium :

(a) initial pulse; ( b) spectron (pulse at the foca l plane o f the “ time lens” );
(c) pulse reversed in tim e (pulse at the optically conjugated plane of the “time
lens” ). Pulse envelope p is norm alized to the m axim um input value.
From the obtained result it is possible to draw the following conclusion about
the pulse in the “focal” plane o f the “ time lens” . The pulse shape is exactly
. . . 23 29
identical with the shape o f the Fourier spectrum o f the initial pulse. ’ Such
pulses are called spectrons. 30 ’ 31
The pulse envelope p i t , F ) turns out to be symmetric independently o f
the initial envelope p0(t) [see Fig. 1.10] with the exception o f an asymmetric
envelope described by an odd function pQ(t) . The transformed symmetric (or
asymmetric) pulse has the linear chirp, whose rate coincides with that o f input
FM but has the opposite sign.
Using Eqs. (1.1.19) and (1.1.21), one can demonstrate that the rms duration
o f the transformed pulse rrms = A u m s / a 0 , where Awrms is the rms spectral
width. Therefore, if « Qr > 1 , the pulse is narrower than the initial one, and
for a;0Trms < 1 it is wider. The described pulse properties are analogous to those
o f a light beam in the focal plane o f a lens. In the absence o f FM ( a Q = 0) , the
pulses have the described properties in a dispersive medium in the far-field zone
(z > - Ld) . In this case, it is possible to neglect the exponential term t^/2k2z in
Eq. (1.4.34) and reduce it to the form similar to Eq. (1,4.35). This property is
also completely analogous to the properties o f wave beams.
Pulse shape reversal. The “ time lenses” (frequency modulators) can be used
as basic elements in schemes for optical pulse modification that are analogous to
7 32
the schemes for the formation o f light beams and images. ’
As an example, we shall consider m odification o f an optical pulse by the
• 31
system “dispersive medium — frequency modulator — dispersive medium” .
Having passed the modulator, the pulse acquires the complex amplitude
-f-oo
A { t , z2) — (i2x&2) 1( z 1z 3) 1/2J J p 0(t2)
dt1 dt2 , (1.4.36)
where z j and z2 are the distances traversed by the pulse before and after the
modulator. If the condition
l/ z1 + l/ z 2 = l / F , (1.4.37)
which is equivalent to the lens formula in the ray optics approximation, holds,
then from Eq. (1.4.36) we obtain
A ( t , z 2) = - i ( z 1/z2) 1/2p0[ - ( z 1/z2) t ] e x p [ i a 0(z 1/z2) t 2]. (1.4.38)
It follows from here that the pulse shape is reversed in time relative to the initial
33
pulse (see the sign in the argument p Q). The amplitude o f the pulse changes
1/ 2
by the factor {z x/z2) and its duration by the factor z2j z r , Depending on
the value z2/zx , the pulse will be either compressed (z 2/z1 < 1) or broadened
(z 2/z \ > 1) • The pulse has frequency modulation with the sign opposite to
that o f FM provided by the modulator. An example o f the optical pulse profile
reversed in time is shown in Fig. 1.10 ( c ) .
Although in this section we deal only with deformation o f pulses with real am
plitude, the conclusions drawn remain in most cases valid for com plex amplitudes
as well, i.e., after the substitution in Eq. (1.4.38)
Pq[~(z i I * 2) 1} P o [ - ( zi/z 2 )t'\ey^ { iiP o [ - ( z J z2 ) t'\)-(1.4.39
Needless to say that in this case some additional effects associated with the
phase <p0(t) appear. If <p0(t) is an od d function, the phase o f the pulse turns
out to be also reversed in time just as the pulse envelope. It is evident that if
the initial pulse, before its passage through the frequency modulator, was phase
modulated [y?0(<) = —a t 2/2 ], then the transformed pulse has no FM provided
a / a 0 = z2/z1. '
Transformation o f optical pulses into pulses reversed in time provides the pos
sibility to realize the time convolution in optics. The measurement o f convolution
33
can be used, for example, for the reconstruction o f an envelope shape. The
stretching o f pulses without changes in their shape can be obviously used for
conversion o f ultrashort pulses from one range o f durations to another one in
which the envelope shape can be easily measured.
Control o f a pulse envelope by Fourier-optics m ethods
Exploration and development o f optical systems that perform in the optimum

way the dispersive compression o f FM pulses, or, in spectral terminology, the
1.^. Fourier optics of wave packets 39
phase matching o f their spectral components, resulted in the construction o f ef

ficient systems enabling one to control amplitudes and phases o f various spectral
components o f the pulse, i.e., to control the com plex envelope o f the pulse (see
Refs. 88-90).
The optical systems suitable for this purpose can be divided in two types. In
some systems, the spectral components o f the pulse are affected without their
spatial splitting. Examples o f such devices based, in fact, on the analogy between
dispersive spreading o f wave packets and diffraction o f wave beams, are to be
considered in this and the next sections. In the other type o f the systems,
drastically differing from the first, the spectral components o f the pulse are
preliminarily split in space, thus allowing their amplitudes and phases to be
varied independently (see also Sec. 4.6). Then the signal thus modified undergoes
the reversal transformation. In other words, the devices o f the second type
comprise two coupled spectral instruments, one o f which carries out the Fourier
analysis o f the pulse and the other the Fourier synthesis (see Fig. 1.11).
L, Xi
L* if
F IG . 1 . 1 1 . Schematic diagram o f profile shape control o f an ultrashort pulse:

1 and 2, dispersive elements; L 1 and L 2 , lenses w ith focal length / , 38
We shall describe analytically the performance o f the optical system illustrated

in Fig. 1.11, belonging to the devices o f the second type and consisting o f
dispersive elements 1 and 2 (e.g., prisms, diffraction gratings, etc.) which are
placed at the focal planes o f lenses L l and L 2 with focal length / . Suppose that
a plane wave packet* with com plex amplitude vl0(tf), whose Fourier spectrum is
yl0( Q ) , falls on dispersive element 1 performing angular splitting o f the frequency
spectrum. The transfer function o f element 1 for a plane wave with frequency
= u — wQ is equal to
A '( f i, x ) = e x p (—ik0qxQ) , (1.4.40)
where x is the transverse coordinate in the plane o f element 1, kQ is the wave

number corresponding to the carrier frequency wQ, q is the dispersion param
eter [in the case o f diffraction grating the value q is given by Eq. (1.5.17b)].
At the output o f dispersive element 1 the Fourier spectrum o f the pulse takes
the form
J41(Q , x ) — p t (x )e x p ( - i k 0qxil) t4q(Q) , (1.4.41)
where p 1(x ) allows for the finite dimensions o f the aperture o f element 1 (for sim
plicity, a two-dimensional case is considered). In the rear focal plane (the Fourier
*D iffraction o f a spatially lim ited wave packet by a grating is considered in Sec. 1.5.
plane) o f lens L x the Fourier transformation is performed so that Eq. (1.4.41)

yields
J41( f i , a ) = - k0qQ) A 0( Q ) , (1.4.42)
where p ^ x ) is the Fourier transform o f p x( x ) . The wave number x and
coordinate x in the Fourier plane are related a& n = kQx / f . The function
p ^ k ^ Q ) has the meaning o f the apparatus function. Its width Aw sw ( kQqa) 1 ,
where a is the diameter o f the aperture p 1( x ) .
For initial pulses o f duration rQ -C T = A w -1 the temporal dependence o f
field amplitude in the Fourier plane takes the form
A i(t < * ) « e x p ( i x t / k Qq). (1.4.43)

It follows from here that the radiation at the points in the focal plane is charac
terized with equal duration T , but different frequency, depending on the coor
dinate as w = + x / k 0q . The duration T may exceed rQ by several orders
o f magnitude. This pulse broadening resulting from spectral expansion can be
used to obtain the interference o f short pulses that do not overlap in the time
domain. Thus, we can register the relative phase distribution over the radiation
spectrum, that is, save a hologram (see, e.g., Ref. 38).
If in the Fourier plane there is a phase screen with transfer coefficient K t ( x ) ,
the filtered radiation at the output o f element 2 with the aperture p2(a0 ' s
described as
-{-C O
A 2( n , x) = A 0(SI)p2(x ) j K ^ x j p ^ x , - k0q n ) e i x d x r (1.4.44)

— OO
We shall find the Fourier spectrum o f the field at the output o f element 2 taking
into account its transfer coefficient: t 4 ( Q , x ) = K ( Q , x) A 2(£ l, x) . Passing
in this expression from frequency Q to time and integrating over x , we obtain
the temporal dependence o f the radiation amplitude at the output o f the system
+ co
A (t)= J A 0( T ) G ( t - r ) d t , (1.4.45)
— CO
where
-f co
G(t) = (k0q )~l K t (t/k0q) J p 2( x ) p 1( - x + t/kQq )d x (1.4.46)

— OO
is the Green function o f the whole system. Here K A x ) is the Fourier transform
of K t( x ) .
It follows from Eq. (1.4.45) that the temporal response o f an optical system
can be controlled by changing its spatial response K t (x ) . As to the aperture
functions pt (x) and p2(x ) , their basic contribution consists in restricting the
response time T o f the system. For / <C T the function
G(t) ~ K t (t/k0q). (1.4.47)
In Chaps. 4 and 6 we shall provide some specific examples illustrating how one
can use these ideas o f profile reshaping o f ultrashort optical pulses.
1.5. Transmission o f ultrashort light pulses through optical devices 41
1.5. Transmission of ultrashort light pulses

through optical devices
Now we shall consider the wave pattern o f ultrashort light pulses passing through
typical optical elements, such as mirrors, diffraction gratings, interferometers,
etc., extensively used for generation and reshaping o f picosecond and femtosecond
laser pulses. The transmission o f short pulses through dispersive optical devices
is convenient to treat in the spectral domain (1.4.23).
Filtering o f F M optical pulses
The Fourier components o f a pulse at the input and output o f a dispersive optical
device are related in the spectral domain as
i(J 2 = w - w 0) = f f ( J 2 ) i 0(J2). (1.5.1)
In the general case, the transmission coefficient K (fi) o f the device is expressed
by a com plex function
K(Sl) = |A"(0)| eM n ) , <p(Q) = arg K(Si). (1.5.2)
The two contrasting situations may happen here. A more significant part may
be played either by the change o f the phase y?(0 ) or by the modulus o f the
transmission coefficient |/l(Q)|.
In the former case, K ( Q ) = K ( u 0)el<p^ and, assuming y?(0) to be a slowly
varying function, the dispersive properties are conveniently described as
<p(Q = U - W0) = <P0 + ip fP + i y / y + . . . (1.5.3)
The values o f (pQ and derivatives ip and ip" are taken at u> = u>g . There is
no need in individual calculations o f a pulse transformed by an optical device
with the given dispersion. The required expressions can be obtained from the
results o f Secs, 1.3 and 1.4, taking into account A'(wQ) and substituting —<p'Q
for the group velocity delay z j u and —tp"Q for the dispersion parameter k2z .
This is quite clear, since the phase grows in a medium as <p(ui) = —k (u ) z .
Besides, utilizing the expansion k (u ) into a power series o f Q = u — uig (1.3.1)
and comparing with Eq. (1.5.3), we can see that the substitutions are indeed
equivalent. This means that we can make use of, e.g., Eq. (1.4.2). Such an
approximation allows one to adequately describe, for example, the reflection o f
ultrashort optical pulses from the multiple-layer dielectric mirrors, or the total
internal reflection.
W hen the dependence |/f (Q)| is essential, the spectrum o f an ultrashort pulse
varies. Such systems act as optical filters. Let us consider how a short FM pulse
(1.4.1) is modified by a filter with the Gaussian transmission coefficient: 57
K ( Q = u — wn) = exp (—fi2 /2 A w ? ) , (1.5.4)

where A u f is the bandwidth o f the filter. W ith no FM, the pulse amplitude at
the output o f the filter is
e x p (— t2/2r2)
A {i) = Po~rT , P2 1 / 2 >(!-5-5a
[1 + (r0A Uf) ]
with a pulse duration being
rp = (r02 + A Wf- 2) 1/2- (1.5.5b)
Hence, it becomes evident that broadband filters with A u f rQ do not alter

the pulse duration. If A u f -C t q 1 , the pulse broadens.
For a FM pulse (1-4.1) we have
a c p [- (T p 2 + i a ) t 2/2]
' [1 + (r0Awf)~ 2 + io Â o ;"2]1
where
2 , / ~ 2\ 2 , a
r2 _ % + ( t0 ) + A ^ f A - 2
Au, , (1.5.6b)
P — 2 i ~ 4 . - 2 . 2
a 0 + T0 + T0 Awf
Au)j
(1.5.6c)
“ o + ^ o + A w f )
57
The other extreme cases are possible
2 —2 —1
(i) a Q ;§> Awf , Tq , then t « , Awf , awO;
2 — 2
(ii) A w ( » a > t q , then r « Auf/a 0 , a » a 0;
2 —2 —1
(iii) a 0 < Awf , rQ , then r w rQ at A u f » t-q
and r w Awf 1 at Awf < r c
Cases (i) and (ii) pertain to the strong FM whereas case (iii) to the weak
FM. The pulse duration in the latter case coincides with (1.5.5b). Thus, the
filtering o f an ultrashort FM pulse may bring about the conspicuous modification
o f its parameters. In case (i) the practically total suppression o f FM can be
observed. In the considered example the central transmission frequencies o f the
filter coincide with the central frequencies o f the pulse. Some other examples o f
optical filtering used as an ultrashort pulse shaping technique are discussed in
Chap. 4.
Refraction o f pulses at a boundary

between dispersive media; transverse group delay
Since the phase and group velocities o f a pulse differ from one dispersive medium
to another, the planes o f equal phases and equal amplitudes do not coincide, when
the pulse refracts at a boundary between the media. As a result, the transverse
group delay appears58 , and the refracted wave becomes in homogeneous. This
effect becomes appreciable for short pulses, since the delay time o f the amplitude
front relative to the wave (phase) front may be comparable to the pulse duration.
To examine this effect in more details, we shall consider a pulse with the
plane wave front coming from a nondispersive medium into a dispersive one
[see Fig. 1 .1 2 (a )]. The wave front o f the refracted pulse remains plane and
the phase delay times over the lengths A C — /j and B D = l2 are equal:
I J c = l2/vo — n o ^ / c >wêre n o ~ n (OJo) ' s refractive index o f the dispersive
medium at a carrier frequency. However, the peaks of the pulses do not arrive
simultaneously at the points C and D located at the wave front and the group
delay between them
= ru ~ Tc = f\ ur - i VrQ k . ( 2-5-7)
is thus a function o f a transverse coordinate (see Fig. 1.12).
(a) (b )
FIG . 1.12. Refraction o f a short pulse on the dispersive m edium boundary:

(а) falling from a nondispersive; m edium on a m edium with norm al dispersion;
( б) falling from a dispersive m edium to a nondispersive one; dashed lines, wave
fronts; solid lines, lines o f equal am plitudes.
The propagation o f the refracted pulse in the x z coordinate system (see

Fig. 1.12) is described in the first-order approximation o f the dispersion theory
by the expression
m t) = A t ----- cos + — sin 9

u vo
x exp {i[w Qt — kQ(z cos 9 — x sin 0 )]} , (1.5.8a)
where 9 is the pulse refraction angle and kQ = u’g/vo ■ This expression can
be easily obtained, for example, from the continuity condition for the tangent
com ponent o f the vector jE7 at a boundary between the media. When rewritten
in the x 1z 1 coordinate system in which the wave front o f the pulse propagates
along the 0 z x axis, Eq. (1.5.8a) takes a more explicit form:
Z, ( 1 1
E (t , , 2^) t ----- - + X. I ---------- exp-0'[wo* - kazi\)- (l-5.8b)
u 1\u vn
The last term in the argument o f the amplitude determines the group delay [cf.
Eq. (1.5.7)] which is a function o f the transverse coordinate Xj .
According to Eq. (1.5.8b) the angle between the wave front and the amplitude
front is equal to
tp — arctan -------1 sin (1.5.9a)
and the transverse group delay for a beam of diameter aQ to
A t o = ao ( - ~ — sin (1.5.9b)
For aQ = 1 mm and the detuning (1/m — l/vQ) 10 12 s/cm , the delay

* j ,„ -1 3 , ^ -1 4
A t Q fa 10 - 10 s.
In the case o f a pulse coming into a nondispersive medium from a dispersive
one [see Fig. 1.12 ( 6)] the refracted pulse has the form
E (t; 2’ 2) = ^ t --------- — X „ sin exp {i[u Qt — kQz2] } , (1.5.10)
where the O z 2 axis coincides with the direction o f the pulse propagation. As
compared with Eq. (1.5.8b), the group delay has the opposite sign here.
A significant (although obvious) conclusion follows from the results presented
before. If an ultrashort pulse passes through a dispersive medium with parallel
input and output surfaces (e.g., a parallel-sided plate, lasing medium with Brew
ster’s angles), then there is no transverse group delay in the outgoing pulse. A
similar situation may arise when the pulse treated as a light beam passes through
a certain optical device, for example, a system o f prisms, and the paths covered
by different rays o f the beam in the dispersive media turn out to be equal. In
the opposite case, the transverse group delay is characteristic for a short optical
pulse.
Total internal reflection o f ultrashort pulses
The reflection o f a wave from the medium with lower optical density is known to
be characterized with a critical incidence angle ycr = arcsin(n2/ n 1) at the angles
exceeding 7 cr the incident wave totally reflects back into the medium with higher
optical density (n t > n2). In this case the reflected wave is accompanied by a
phase shift defined by the refractive indices and n2 and the incidence angle.
W hen an ultrashort pulse o f the visible range experiences total internal reflection
(T IR ), its phase shift proves to be strongly frequency-dependent, which results
in the pulse distortion. The reflection coefficient is calculated in the ordinary
59
way.
We use the com plex description o f the field in the form o f Eq. (1.1.3), so that
the, T IR coefficient
where the phase
2 2 2 1/ 2
ip — 2 arctan [tan 7 — (rc2/ n i) sec T] • (1.5.12)
Equation (1.5.11) pertains to the case when the wave polarization is perpendic
ular to its incidence plane. W hen dealing with T IR o f relatively long pulses with
spectral width Aw < wQ , the com plex amplitude o f the reflected pulse can be
-> . . 2
found from the ordinary expansion o f the. dielectric perm ittivity ( n 2/n1) = e
in Eq.(1.5.12):
e ( u ) = e(w0) + e (w0) (w - wQ) + - e (w0) (w - w0) + . . . .
This expansion leads to a frequency dependence o f the phase <p in the form
(1.5.3). Thus, in accordance with the results obtained in Secs. 1.3 and 1.4, it
becomes immediately clear that in the general case o f T IR an ultrashort pulse
may experience both the group delay and envelope distortion. Specifically, the
envelope distortion will be the strongest near the T IR angle.
A novel effect emerges when an optical pulse whose duration equals that o f
a single period o f the carrier frequency, i.e., when Aw0 « w0 , undergoes TIR.
In this case, the noticeable pulse distortion takes place even in the absence o f
dispersion. Such a situation has been practically realized for the reflection o f an
47
IR pulse with a single-period duration.
As an example, we shall consider T I R o f a pulse with the spectrum
E(w) = C w 2 ex p (—7-qU;2/ 2) , (1.5.13)
where C is a constant. The pulses with such a spectrum are usually generated
in the Cherenkov radiation (see Sec. 3.5). Taking into account Eq. (1.5.11), we
obtain for the reflected pulse
i - -
6XP ' 2 7-02
t
cos ip — I erf sin ip 2C — sinv>, (1.5.14)
\/2 t
where
X
erft x — 2 If e ay.
0
When the incidence angle j is equal to the critical angle y cr exactly, the phases
o f the incident and reflected pulses in Eq. (1.5.14) should be assumed equal to
zero, 7 cr) , increasing thereby the phase jum p o f
reflectivity near the zero frequency, and, consequently, amplifying the distortion
o f the reflected pulse.
The distortion o f the ultrashort pulse associated with the considered effect
was experimentally observed 47 in a pulse whose duration was close to one
period o f carrier frequency lying in the far IR. The pulse was excited in a lithium
tantalate crystal by the Cherenkov radiation from a visible ultrashort pulse. The
Cherenkov radiation fell on the boundary between the media at an angle o f 21 .
The critical angle j cr for LiTaO 3 crystal is equal to 8.7° , with the air being
the second medium. The authors o f Ref. 47 have observed the different pulse
profiles for the different conditions o f reflection (see Fig. 1.13). T o prove that
the pulse distortions are not associated with dispersion and absorption in the
LiTaO 3 crystal, the experiments have been performed for the reflection from
the boundary with silicon ( 7 = 31°) , with the incident and reflected pulses
having identical profile shapes. The Cherenkov generation o f the pulse and the
methods o f measurement of its duration are briefly described in Sec. 3.5.
The authors o f Ref. 91 measured the phase shift and reshaping o f terahertz
pulses due to T IR from quartz prism, using time-domain spectroscopic tech
niques. They obtained that measured value o f the phase shift is in excellent
agreement with the theoretical estimate calculated from Eq. (1.5.12).
E(t)
FIG . 1.13. Pulse shape in the case of tota l (solid line) and partial (dashed line)
internal reflection. 47 Field strength is given in arbitrary units.
Reflection o f an ultrashort pulse from a mirror
The reflection of ultrashort laser pulses from multiple-layer dielectric mirrors is

another example o f the new phenomena that have acquired high priority since
the construction o f picosecond and femtosecond lasers. The various aspects
42~~46 60 63
o f this problem have been explored. ’ Specifically, in Refs. 46 and
63 the calculation methods have been developed, which allow one to trace the
temporal evolution o f the reflection and transmission coefficients o f a multiple-
layer interferometric mirror. In the other references the reflective properties are
analyzed in the spectral domain; we shall summarize these publications now.
The transfer coefficient o f the mirror is its amplitude reflection coefficient, or

reflectivity
K(u>) = r (u ) = |r(w)| e ‘pû>\ (1.5.15)
Generally, both the amplitude reflection coefficient |r(w)| o f the mirror and
its phase <p{ui) can vary with frequency. In the reflection o f short pulses from
multiple-layer mirrors the frequency dependence (p(ui) is, in fact, predominant.
T o clarify some peculiar reflection properties o f such mirrors, the results obtained
in Secs. 1.3 and 1.4 may be used. Recall that from the expansion o f phase <p(ui)
[see Eq. (1.5.3)] and the subsequent analysis, the analogy between the patterns
o f the ultrashort pulse reflection and the propagation o f the pulse in a dispersive
medium can be observed. In other words, the multiple-layer dielectric mirror
reflecting a short pulse may bring about its linear transformation similar to the
transformation experienced by the pulse during its propagation in a dispersive
medium, e.g., the group delay, appearance o f phase modulation, profile distor
tion, etc. In particular, in the case o f reflection o f a PM Gaussian pulse from a
multiple-layer mirror, Eq. (1-4.2) is valid in the second-order approximation o f
the dispersion theory (see also Ref. 44).
The detailed theoretical study o f dispersive properties o f multiple-layer mir
rors in the second-order approximation o f the dispersion theory is reported in
Refs. 42-45, 60, and 61, where the values o f |r(w)|, <p(u) , and <p (w) are cal
culated for different numbers o f layers and different ratios o f the low (rij) and
high (n h) indices o f refraction. Also determined are tp{w) and <p"(w) as func
tions o f the deviation o f the layer thickness from Am/ 4 , and o f the detuning
o f frequency w from wm = 27rc/Am . Note that the dispersive properties o f the
medium were not taken into account, so that the variations o f phase (p(ui) and
ip (ui) are due to frequency dependence o f the result o f interference o f multiple
reflections inside the mirror structure (the so-called “dispersion” o f interference).
FIG . 1.14. Frequency dependence o f reflectivity R (w ) (J) and dispersive param

eter tp"(w ) (£) for a multiple-layer interferom etric m irror. T h e mirror consists
o f 19 layers o f high n h = 2.27 (T iO 2 ) and low n [ = 1.45 (SiO 2 ) indices of
refraction; all layers have a thickness Am / 4 , Am = '2~r/■—:m = 600 nm.
In Ref. 43 the group delay o f reflected pulses has been calculated and their
rms durations obtained as functions o f the ratio w /w m . Figure 1.14 illustrates
the frequency dependences R(u>) = |r(w) | 2 and ip"(ui) for a multiple-layer mir
ror (HL) 9 H. Here H(L) designates a layer with high (low) index o f refraction.
The authors of Ref. 44 observed a fast growth o f ip" with increasing number
o f layers and the ratio nh/n j . Figure 1.15 shows how the experimentally mea
sured duration o f a dye laser pulse varies with the total dispersion o f the cavity
mirrors. These data demonstrate how important are the dispersive properties
o f the mirrors in the ultrashort pulse production. Besides, it is also clearly seen
that the values o f ip" exceeding 2 x 10 28 s 2 inhibit the generation o f laser
pulses shorter than 50 fs.
F IG . 1.15. G enerated pulse duration as a function o f cavity-m irror dispersion. 61
The temporal evolution o f the amplitude o f the Gaussian pulses reflected from
multiple-layer mirrors has been calculated in Refs. 43 and 62 using the higher-
than-second-order approximation o f the dispersion theory. In Ref. 62, a cubic
term has been retained in the expansion o f phase <p(u>) . In the presence o f
resonance frequencies the function <p(ui) was specified analytically. It should be
noted that the results published in Ref. 62 agree with the theoretical results
derived for the ultrashort pulses propagating in a medium with cubic dispersion
(see Sec. 1.3). In Ref. 42 the change in the structure o f ultrashort pulses on
reflection from multiple-layer mirrors is suggested to be used in reflectometry
studies o f the mirror coatings.
Diffraction o f a pulse by a grating
As it was mentioned before, the clear picture of an optical pulse diffracted by a

grating was given by Mandelshtam. 4 A t present, the diffraction grating serves
as an indispensable element in many optical devices used for compression o f light
pulses. In the optics o f ultrashort pulses the structure o f a diffracted pulse is
o f considerable interest. We shall examine the spatio-temporal structure o f an
ultrashort laser pulse reflected from a diffraction grating.
The angle 7 at which an optical wave falls on a grating and the diffraction
angle 9 o f the wave are related as
sin 7 -I- sin 9 = m\/d, (1.5.16)
where A is the wavelength, d is the grating period, m isthe order o f diffraction

(m = 0 , 1, 2 , . . . ) . Suppose that an optical pulsewith the mean wavelength
65
F IG . 1.16. Reflection o f a pulse by a diffraction grating.
A0 and com plex amplitude A(x^ , t) (for the time being we consider a two-
dimensional case) falls on and reflects from a diffraction grating at the angles
7 0 and 60 , respectively (see Fig. 1.16). Let us expand the pulse into the plane
monochromatic waves:
-f o o
A 0( x 1 , Q = u> - w0) = ( 2 * ) ~ 2j I ^ ( a j j , t) exp [i(x 1a;1 - Sit)] di d x 1 ,

and examine their transformation. In the paraxial approximation, the Fourier
components o f the initial beam are Xj = kQA y , where A 7 = j — j 0 , and o f the
reflected beam —x 2 = k0A 9 . Consequently, the angular spectral components
o f the beam are transformed so that x 2 = p x ^, p = A 9 / A y . According to
Eq. (1.5.16)
p = — cos 7 0/ c o s 90. (1.5.17a)
The Fourier components o f frequency f2 = w — w0 go through an additional

angular deviation
m\2
A 6 = qQ, ? = - « — j -------------------------------------------- 7T- (1.5.1
2ircd cos 90
As a result, the amplitude o f the component o f frequency Q o f the reflected

beam is determined by the expression
A ( x 2 > n ) = bmA ( P x 2 ’ S l ) e x p ( - i k 0qx2Q ) , (1.5.18)
where the coefficient bm defines the grating efficiency in reflecting to the m-th
order o f diffraction (b < 1). The second cofactor in Eq. (1.5.18) represents, in
fact, the transfer function o f a dispersive device for a plane wave with frequency
ft = u - u 0 [cf. Eq. (1.4.40)].
In the time domain, the structure o f the reflected pulse takes the form
^ ( * 2 - t ) = bmA o(PX2' * - * 0^ 2)- (1.5.19)
The pulse profile is seen to coincide with its initial profile, but the reflected pulse
has the transverse group delay A t = k0qx2 , and the angle between the ampli
tude front and the wave front equals ip = arc tan (k0cq) (see Fig. 1.16). This
angle depends on the carrier frequency w0 , the diffraction angle 0Q , and the
lattice parameter d . The transverse spatial size o f the pulse is changed by a
factor l/|f>|. Such a structure o f the reflected pulse is observed in the immediate
vicinity o f the diffraction grating. As the distance from the grating increases,
the diffractive spreading effects cause further pulse distortion. In Ref. 65 the
calculations o f the diffracted pulse have been published. The authors took into
account the fact that the diffraction lengths differ for different spectral com po
nents. Alternatively, disregarding this fact, one can assess the pulse structure at
a certain distance from the grating on the basis o f Eq. (1.1.16) by using a mov
ing coordinate system (z = z , rj = t — z f u ) and neglecting the group velocity
dispersion in the medium.
W hen an initial collimated pulse has the Gaussian spatial and temporal pro
files,
ô(r • l)~ P o exP

2 at 2 t„
the diffracted wave packet is described as
x, y, z) = f 0 l/2( z ) f eqll2 ( z ) b mp0
f d(z ) x f(z)t0 iqzxtQ

x exp , (1.5.20)
2/ eq( z ) a 2f 0(z )a Q 2f eq( z ) r 0 f eq(z)a r0 J
where the following designations are used:
t0 - >f j (z ) = iz/koaj >

-2 -2 -2
(1.5.21)
a = %/\p\, « d = Tb / fc0 k l , CLeq — CL -|
1
- fliH
d *
Here a is the transverse size of the reflected pulse along the x axis, ad is the
characteristic transverse group delay, and j is the generalized designation o f
subindices o f / and a .
The diffraction does not affect the pulse parameters at ip = 0 (q — 0)
since the pulse diffracts as a whole, and its different spectral components have
identical diffraction lengths. In the presence o f the transverse group delay and
in the case when q ^ 0 , the carrier frequency shift, proportional to the distance
z and to the transverse coordinate x , appears already in the near-field zone of
the reflected pulse [ /( z ) « f j ( z ) ss 1]. In the considered case the diffraction
brings about the change not only in the parameters o f the beam but also in the
parameters o f the pulse: it spreads and a linear chirp appears. At the same time,
the transverse group delay also changes the diffraction pattern o f the beam along
the x axis, that is, in the incidence plane o f the pulse.
According to Eq. (1.5.20) the duration o f the diffracted pulse is equal to
1/2
(1 + S2 + Szd) 2 + z 2
(1.5.22)
(1 + Z2)( 1 + z 2 + z z d'
d)
2 2
Here the dimensionless lengths z = z/kQa and zd = z/kQad are used. The
inequality ad <C a corresponds to the most typical experimental conditions.
Furthermore, for wide beams (5 -C 1)
rp ^ To t1 + ( fco«22/ ro ) 2]1/2 > (1.5.23)
that is, the dependence of the pulse duration on the distance is the same as
in the presence o f group velocity dispersion [cf. Eq. (1.3.3)]. Thus, the angu-
lar dispersion o f the diffraction grating with dispersion parameter k0q proves
to be equivalent to the dispersion o f the group velocity. In the considered ap
proximation the value o f the angle ip remains constant during the propagation.
In Ref. 65 the variation o f ip is shown to be associated with the parameter
2pqz/aQT0 . In Ref. 64 the calculations are given for distortion o f a Gaussian
pulse diffracted by a finite grating.
To sum up, the above discussion indicates that an ultrashort pulse reflected by
a diffraction grating changes its parameters while propagating in a nondispersive
medium. There are two reasons for this phenomenon. One is the inclination o f
the amplitude front relative to the propagation direction. The other consists in
the difference in the diffraction lengths o f different spectral components o f the
pulse 65 . As a matter o f fact, we deal with so-called transient beam diffraction 15
that will be examined in more detail in the next section.
Transmission o f ultrashort pulses through interferometers
An interferometer response to the ultrashort pulse is determined by the relation

ship between the pulse duration rf| , the round-trip time TQ , and the transmis
sion bandwidth o f the interferometer Aw(r :
T0 = 2nh/c, A u tr = K u 0 , (1.5.24)
where h is the distance between the mirrors, n is the refractive index o f the
medium filling the inteferometer, and I t is the resolving power. In the time
domain, the value o f I t is determined by the time interval M T Q between arrivals
o f the first and the last interfering wave fronts, 48
f t = H / 2 w )M T0 , (1.5.25)
where M is the effective number o f reflections defined by the finess.

The fringe pattern formed on the exposure of the interferometer to a pulse o f
duration rQ > M T 0 is practically identical to the pattern observed in the case
o f continuous radiation. On the other hand, the sharpness o f the fringe pattern
deteriorates when TQ < rQ < M T Q ; the relevant calculations for the Fabry-Perot
interferometer can be found in Refs. 48-50 and 69. Basically, the pulse duration
can be assessed in this case from the spectral measurements. W hen r0 < T0 ,
one gets at the output o f the interferometer a train o f pulses with successively
diminishing amplitudes, which indicates the absence o f pulse interference.
The spectroscopy o f ultrashort pulses is thus possible when the condition
rQ > T0 is satisfied. For example, the spectral analysis of a pulse 100 fs long
requires that the distance between the interferometer mirrors h = crQ/2n would
be less than 15 fJ,m . The construction o f such an interferometer presents consid
erable technological problems, which, however, are being successfully overcome
at present.
In the experiments 66 6S on generation and compression o f femtosecond pulses
the authors used the Gires-Tournois interferometer 26 representing a modifica
tion of the parallel-plate Fabry-Perot interferometer. Unlike in a Fabry-Perot
interferometer, the broadband front mirror has the reflectivity r(w ) = r < 1 ,
while the other one is totally reflecting (r = 1 ) . The striking feature o f this in
terferometer is that its modulus o f transmission coefficient is equal to unity and
its dispersive properties can be easily changed by varying the incidence angle y
o f incoming radiation. In this case the round-trip time
r = (^ >
F IG . 1.17. D ependence o f dispersive param eter o f Gires—T ou m ois interferometer

on frequency (a) for th e norm al incidence angle and on incidence angle (b) f o r a
wavelength A = 620 m n in the case of: (£ ) nh = 1.59 /zm , (S) nh = 3.18 /zm . 66
When the pulse duration rQ T f the interferometer response can be calculated

in the spectral domain. The reflectivity o f a plane wave o f frequency uj is equal
to
—zu/T /\
K(yi) — (1.5.27)
1 — r(w) e
This expression can be easily transformed to the form K ( w) = ; where
= a rcta n ------ ~ *1 “ T -----------------. ( L 5 28)

2 r(w ) - [1 + r2(w)] cos wT V '
Consequently, the wave reflected from the interferometer acquires only the phase
shift with respect to the incident wave. A similar situation happened before
many times. Neglecting the frequency dependence o f the reflectivity r and the
1.6. Diffraction of ultrashort pulses 53
time T , we obtain the following expressions for the group delay t d and the
interferometer dispersion dtA/du :
t = - < p = ------- ^ ~ r )T ------- , (1.5.29)

1 + r — 2r cos w T
^ = - i p ” = - 2 ------- ~ r ------------- Sin ut . (1.5.30)

(1 + r — 2r cos wT)
It is seen from Eq. (1.5.30) that the interferometer dispersion at a frequency w

can be negative, positive, or equal to zero, depending on the value o f wT . The
frequency dependences of the phase <p(u>) and group delay td(w) are given in
Ref. 68 for different reflection conditions. The calculations o f group delay tA
and dtA/dui as functions o f frequency w and the incidence angle y are reported
in Ref. 66 for nh = |AQ and nh = 5AQ at AQ = 635 nm (see also Fig. 1.17).
From Fig. 1.17 it follows that by changing w and j one can vary the dispersion
o f the effective group velocity over the whole range from normal to anomalous
values.
The results o f compression o f FM ultrashort laser pulses in the Gires-Tournois
interferometer are given in Ref. 66 for different numbers o f reflections and dif
ferent incidence angles. The angular dependence o f the pulse duration shows an
agreement with curve 2 in Fig. 1.17 (6) (for the range o f deviations from 120 to
300 fs).
The maximum value o f dispersion (1.5.30) is reached at 67
w T = 2 m 7r ± < 9 , m = 0, 1, 2 , . . . ,
_1r 2\ t 4 2 1 \ i/2i (1.5.31)
cos $ = (4r) [—(1 + r ) -(- (r + 34r + 1 ) ].
It is possible to find the conditions under which the interferometer is practically

free from the temporal aberrations and the second-order dispersion has the max
imum value. The central frequency o f the pulse has to obey Eq. (1.5.31), with
the spectral bandwidth Aw < d/T. 68 Recall that under these conditions the
interferometer modifies the ultrashort pulse in the way described in Secs. 1.3 and
1.4. If the indicated conditions are not met, the higher-order dispersion becomes
important. In such m ode o f operation, the Gires-Tournois interferometer can be
used for compensation o f temporal aberrations. 68 The optical devices used to
provide a sm ooth variation o f group velocity in the range o f both positive and
negative values and consisting o f two or four Gires-Tournois interferometers, are
described in Refs. 66 and 6 8 , respectively.
1.6. Diffraction of ultrashort pulses

Finite transverse and longitudinal dimensions o f real optical pulses evoke some
new phenomena accompanying their propagation and m odification by optical
systems. One example o f such phenomena, the reflection o f spatially limited
laser pulse from a diffraction grating, was examined in the previous section.
The results obtained there are valid for relatively long pulses which diffract as
a whole. For laser pulses whose duration equals a few oscillation periods, the
inequality o f diffraction lengths for different spectral components o f the pulse
34 —36 65
may becom e significant. ’ Indeed, the high-frequency components o f the
pulse diffract slower than the low-frequency ones. Therefore, as it is noticed in
Ref. 15, distortion o f an optical pulse is to be expected even in a non-dispersive
medium and not too low values o f A u / u n . The same effect may show in the
37 70
focusing o f an optical pulse. ’ Both o f the abovementioned problems will be
analyzed in this section.
Spatial and tem poral m odulation effects
The generalized equation (1.1.14) describing the propagation of a short opti

cal pulse, with allowance made for its finite transverse size and for the diffrac
tion phenomena, takes the following form (in the moving coordinate system
z — z , t —►t — z / u ):
d i ik„ d2 i d2 \
ih + w Q r ’ ^ = 0, (L 6 ' 1)
where the last term describes the mutual influence o f spatial and temporal pa
rameters o f radiation. 15
Let us consider the propagation o f optical radiation with initial Gaussian pulse
envelope p0(t) (1.1.25) and with Gaussian shape o f the beam:
U (r ) = e x p (—r2/2al), A 0{ t , r) = p 0{i) U (r).

The solution (1.6.1) for the Fourier spectrum
i ( f i , r , z ) = ^ - p 0( Q ) e x p
-foo
x J U i rj e x p { - ^ ( ^ > (1-6-2)
where /?0(fJ) is the Fourier transform o f p0(t) , k = kQ + 0,/u, k2 =
It follows from Eq. (1.6.2) that the dispersion lengths are not equal due to
the difference o f wave numbers k for different spectral components.
Generally speaking, the pattern o f the mutual influence o f spatial and tem po
ral radiation characteristics in dispersive media is quite com plicated. T o analyze
the pulse distortion caused only by spatial finiteness o f the optical beam, we
shall assume that k2 — 0 . This situation is exactly identical to that discussed
in Refs. 34-36. In this case the Fourier transformation o f Eq. (1.6.2) is
-foo
tfcr f
A {t’ T ’ z ) = 2 fz j U {r^
— OO
whence it is seen that the change in the structure o f the pulse is caused by its
delayed arrival at a given point due to the wave front curvature. In Ref. 36 the
time-domain profile (1.6.3) has been calculated for the lengths 2 « L di{ = kQag .
The obtained data are indicative o f an appreciable increase in the duration o f the
femtosecond pulse at the periphery o f the beam (the initial pulse was 4 fs long).
The same trend persists also in the far-field zone o f the beam ( z = z/Ldif >• 1) ,
in which
,,,4 ,
where
Tl = t* + (a0r / u z f . (1.6.5)
According to Eq. (1.6.4) the beam in the far-field zone becomes phase-modulated
in space and in time and its form differs from Gaussian. The envelope o f the
pulse is however Gaussian with duration (1.6.5) growing to the beam periphery.
The spatial shift o f the pulse maximum intensity within the cross section o f the
beam obeys a quadratic law.
Focusing o f short optical pulses
The shape o f short optical pulses can be distorted in the process o f their focusing.
In Refs. 70 and 37 the authors consider pulse focusing by a lens and by a phase
screen respectively. Formation o f the amplitude front o f short pulses focused by
different types o f lenses is discussed in Ref. 92 in terms o f ray optics. In typical
experiments, short optical pulses are focused by a lens and we shall therefore
examine this particular case here.
It is a com mon practice to treat a spherical lens as an optical system with
transfer coefficient M ( r ) = exp (ikQr2/ 2 f ) , 7 where / is the focal length o f the
lens. However, this m odel is not adequate to describe the focusing o f ultrashort
pulses because in this case the longitudinal spatial dimensions o f the pulse may
be much shorter than the lens thickness and the lens cannot be thus treated as
thin. In the case o f short pulses one has to take into account first o f all the
difference in group delay times for different rays passing through the lens. As a
consequence, the delay between the phase and amplitude (group) fronts depends
on the distance traversed within the lens, which is determined by the transverse
coordinate. The effect o f dispersive spreading o f a wave packet proves to be
also dependent on the transverse coordinate. In this subsection we shall analyze
the characteristic properties o f focusing o f ultrashort pulses in the quasioptic
approximation.
Suppose that a light beam has the form
A)(* > r) = PaV) exP(-r2/2al) (L6-6)

directly in front o f a lens. The focal length o f the lens / , its thickness dQ
and the distance /(r ) traversed by a ray with the transverse coordinate r are
described by the following expressions
S '1 + R ' 1) , (1.6.7a)
rfo = ^ o K 1 + ^ “ 2)> (1.6.7b)
l(r ) = \ ( rl - r 2) ( ^ 1_ 1 + R 2 1) , (1.6.7c)
where n isthe refractive index o f the lens material, R 1 and R 2 are the radii
o f curvature o f the lens surfaces, and r 0 is the lensradius.The lens center is
assumed to coincide with the axis o f the incident beam (r = 0 ). When the
beam passes the distance between the planes tangent to the lens surfaces at its
center, the group delay time at the arbitrary point r of the cross section equals
dn —Hr) Hr)
‘d = + V T • t1-6-8)
where n = c/u is the “ refractive index” for the group velocity in the lens and
u is the group velocity. Taking into account Eq. (1.6.7), we obtain
* d = * d ( 0) - ^ 2 . ( ! - 6-9)
where td(0) = n r^/2(n — 1 ) c f is the group delay time at the lens center and
P = (ngr - l ) / 2 (n - 1 ) c f .
At the exit plane o f the lens the com plex amplitude o f the beam takes the
form
2 •; 2
r iKnr
exp (1 .6 .10 )
' K + ^ r
where, as usual, the constant phase equal to —ndQ/c is omitted. It is seen

from Eq. (1.6.10) that the spatial and temporal characteristics o f the light beam
are interrelated. Naturally, this interrelation varies as the beam propagates. We
shall pay special attention to examination o f spatial and temporal characteristics
in the region o f the beam waist and focal plane o f the lens.
It should be noted that according to Eq. (1.6.10) the amplitude front o f the
beam is described by a rotational paraboloid, ^max = —fir . The amplitude
front distortion has been studied theoretically and experimentally in Refs. 93,
94 for the case when the pulse propagated through a lens system.
The process o f beam propagation after the lens will be described by the qua
sioptic equation
s - 44 ! + i A 0 A ( < ' r ' * ) = 0 , ( L 6 1 1 )
in which, in distinction to the problem o f the previous subsection, only the

diffraction effect is taken into account, kQ = wQ/ c . The solution o f Eq. (1.6.11)
with the boundary condition ( 1 .6.10) yields
ih f *>
A ( v , r , z ) = 2 ^ J P oiv + P r J
1 **n \ 2 ikn
X exp d rx , (1.6.12)
a2 2/
where t) = t — £d(0) — z/c .

In the case o f a Gaussian pulse o f the form (1.1.25) and under the condition
2 2
/3a0 <C rQ Eq. (1.6.12) provides the following instructive relation:
. B ( r ) ) z 12
A (V, r , z) = pQ H (y, z)
B (v) r 2 ik0r 2 <9 ^

x exp 2 „ s /_ 9 fl„ * “ z) } ’(1-6-13
I 2 rn2 2 a^ ( t ? , *) 2 dz
where
B (v) z
z)= 1 - + B{rj) = 1 + 2/3a2
0TQ %
Jdif
and Ldif = kQa2 is the diffraction length o f the beam. At B(r/) = 1 (/? = 0)
Eq. (1.6.13) turns into the known expression describing the focusing o f m onochro
matic optical pulses (rQ —+ o o ) . It can be easily seen that the general case
(J3 ^ 0) corresponds to the focusing o f the beam whose initial radius varies
2 2 _l/2
with time as aQ(r)) = aQ( l + 2/?aQrQ 77) . When short pulses are focused
( B ( 77) ^ 1) , the beam parameters vary with time and the pulse duration de
pends on the transverse coordinate o f the beam. Let us consider this problems
in more detail.
In accordance with Eq. (1.6.13) the radius o f the beam outgoing from the
lens varies as
a(rf, z) = a0 B ~ l/2(rf) H - 1 ^ , z). (1.6.14)
A t the focal plane o f the lens (z = f )
a(v , z) = a0 B 1/2(v ) ( f / L M ). (1.6.15)
W hence the beam radius at the focal plane is seen to grow with time (I77I < rQ)
initially. Such a dependence is due to a large group delay o f the central part o f
the beam in comparison with the peripheral one. The same effect leads to the
temporal dependence o f the beam waist position:
Thus, the beam waist region recedes from the focal plane o f the lens with time.
+r^vi_1/2
The beam radius at the waist is equal to
a( K ) - % B U2(v) i (1.6.17)
This relation differs from the temporal dependence (1.6.15) of the beam radius
at the focal plane. At the moment o f time r]0 found from the expression r/Q =
(L di{ — / ) t q / 2/?/a g the radius reaches its minimum value
% in( i w ) = « o ( / / 2y 1/2 = ( P o ) 1/2
It is interesting to note that it does not depend on the initial radius aQ . This
situation differs substantially from the focusing o f a monochromatic beam when
there is a strong dependence on aQ :
(m o n )
( iw ) = “ o [ l + ( W / ) V 1.
W hen / <C L di[ (strong focusing), a^mon\ L w) < amin(L w) and therefore the
conditions for short pulse focusing deteriorate.
The phase of the com plex amplitude (1.6.13) is defined by the expression
ipfo, t , .)= ( l - i ) *), ( 1 .6 .1 8 )
which is identical to that for a m onochromatic beam with Ldit/B(r]) substituted

for L d if. According to Eq. (1.6.18) the phase front varies with time and is plane
at the beam waist.
Now let us analyze the durations o f the pulse and amplitude front. For the
focal region o f the lens, where |1 — z f f | <C ( / / £ dif) 2 , one can derive simple
analytical expressions. The maximum value of the pulse amplitude is reached at
the moment
7?max ^ 1 0^2 2 - 2/ j- • (1.6.19)
The amplitude front is seen to obey a parabolic law and its curvature pattern
remains the same in the immediate vicinity before the focal point and behind
it. Under the approximations made, the pulse duration grows according to the
expression [cf. Eq. (1.6.5)]
TP(*) = ro t1 + ( ^ “ O ^ d i f /V ) 2]' ( 1 .6 .20)
The broadening o f the pulse is inversely proportional to its initial duration and
increases toward the periphery o f the beam. The pulse broadening K at the
point r — f a j L dif corresponding to the radius o f the monochrom atic beam
can be evaluated:
K = {2pa0r'LdJ r Qf f * ( ^ / / c r j 2
For the pulse duration rQ = 1 ps, beam radius aQ = 0.3 cm and / = 10 cm,
K = 0.09, i.e., the pulse broadens at the beam periphery by about one tenth of
its original duration.
Thus, the analysis of focusing o f short optical pulses in the first-order approx
imation o f the dispersion theory shows that its spatio-temporal picture is rather
com plicated; a decline in focusing efficiency is accompanied with pulse broad
ening. W hen the dispersion o f the material o f the lens is taken into account
in the second-order approximation, the picture o f focusing becomes still more
com plicated. In particular, the structure o f the exit beam turns to be much
more intricate. It can be obtained from Eq. (1.3.2) by substituting dQ — /3cr
for z and t — £d(0) 4- /3r2 for t . Naturally, the second-order approximation
o f the dispersion theory is to be used if the lens thickness is comparable with
the dispersion length L d [see Eq. (1.3.2)]. Remarks about the second-order
approximation o f the dispersion theory will be limited to this statement.
1.7. Optical wave packets in optical fibers

Conditions when the transverse structure o f a wave packet remains practically
invariable over distances about 10 km both in the linear and nonlinear propa
gation regimes are realized in single-mode optical waveguides. A typical optical
fiber waveguide is a cylinder made from fused quartz, approximately 100 //m in
diameter enclosed into a protecting cladding. The innermost part o f the cylin
der, i.e., the core, is made o f material whose index o f refraction is increased by
addition o f dopants. The typical core diameter o f the single-mode optical fiber
is 5-10 f i m . In the process o f propagation o f a wave beam along a waveguide,
the core acts as a distributed lens that compensates the diffractive spreading o f
the beam.
The progress achieved in the manufacturing o f optical fibers as well as their
numerous applications are described in details in the review paper o f Ref. 51. For
this reason we present here only a few results that are required for the following
presentation.
Simultaneous effects o f diffraction, linear refraction, and dispersion are de
scribed by the equation
d i ik d n
cl lf (r ) A (t, z) = 0 , (1.7.1)
dz 2 fc
where the last term, responsible for refraction, includes the refractive index of the
cladding ncl , the maximum value o f the refractive index o f the core nc , and the
dimensionless function f ( r ) specifying the distribution o f the refractive index
over the cross section of the waveguide; kcl is the wave number in the cladding
material. A few o f the possible profiles of the refractive index are shown in
Fig. 1.18(a) . It should be pointed out that Eq. (1.7.1) is adequate for weakly
39
directing optical waveguides [(nc — n cl) *C 1] with smooth, on the scale of
A , variations o f the index o f refraction. A more general case has been studied,
for example, in Ref. 1. In practice, the value o f (n_ — nd ) is o f the order of
0 .01- 0 .0 0 1 .
Ulr)
(a) <b)
FIG . 1.18. (a ) Norm alized profiles o f the refractive index o f the m edium ;
(b) respective distributions o f field intensity for the lowest m od e o f a waveguide.
Diffractive spreading of an optical beam is offset by its linear refraction on

the longitudinal spatial scale o f the order of the diffraction length Ldi{ = k0a^ m
0 .1 - 1 mm, whereas the dispersive phenomena in the case o f picosecond pulses
• 2
becom e apparent at distances Ld = 7"0 /|fc2| = 100-1000 m. This circumstance
allows one to separate the spatial and temporal effects and seek a solution of
Eq. (1.7.1) in the form
A (t, r , z) = U (r ) ip(t, z ) e ~ %l* , (1.7.2)
where the function U (r ) specifies the field distribution over the cross section
o f an optical waveguide, ip(t, z) is the com plex temporal amplitude, and k
is the correction to the wave number fcc] [0 < k < (kc — &cl)]- Substitution o f
Eq. (1.7.2) into Eq. (1.7.1) leads to two independent equations
(1.7.3)
l u { r ) = 2i rcl A ^ (r) + cl /( r ) u {r) -
.dip _ k2 O'2ip
(1.7.4)
%dz ~ 2 dt1
with the boundary conditions
U(r) - * 0 , r -* o o ; ip(t, 0) = iPQ(t).

Equation (1.7.3), together with the boundary conditions, leads to the problem
o f finding the eigenvalues k-m and eigenfunctions U}m (r) , i.e., modes of an
optical waveguide. The eigenfunctions o f weakly directing optical waveguides,
39
usually denoted in the literature by LPjm constitute modes polarized in the
direction perpendicular to the axis. Figure 1.18 (b) shows the field distributions
for the lowest mode L P Q1 calculated for various profiles o f refractive index and
for the dimensionless wave number V = &cla [(nc —nci ) / nci] = 2.5 (a is the core
radius). For a number o f practically important cases these distributions can be
approximated by a Gaussian curve.
Note that Eq. (1.7.1) is written without allowance made for optical losses
which in the visible range are o f the order o f 20 dB /km , and in the near IR ( A »
1.55 f i m ) can be reduced down to 0.2 d B /k m . W hen necessary, the optical losses
can be taken into account by supplementing the right-hand side o f Eq. (1.7.1)
with the term —i8QA , where 8Q is the amplitude attenuation constant.
Dispersive characteristics of optical waveguides are determined mainly by
properties o f the materials used (material dispersion). One o f the experimental
methods o f investigating the dispersive characteristics is based on the measure
ment of delay time o f an optical pulse f d in the fiber as a function o f frequency.
Indeed, after having passed the distance L in the fiber, the two pulses with
carrier frequencies and u>2 (Aw = — w2| <C Wj , u 2 ) acquire a group
delay A^d (1.4.20) between them. Hence, it follows that k2 = A t d/LAu>.
F IG . 1.19. T ypica l dependences o f the tem poral delay o f an optical pulse (dashed
line, experim ent) and o f a dispersive param eter (solid line, calculations) in the
vicinity o f the wavelength corresponding to the zero dispersion o f the group ve
locity in an optical waveguide.
As a rule, in experimental studies a dispersive parameter
= = <L 7 -5>
is used. It is usually expressed in p s /(n m -k m ). Figure 1.19 illustrates the

experimental dependence <d(A) (see Ref. 40) and calculated values D { A) . In
the case of quartz fibers, the parameter -D(A ) and, therefore, k2 are seen to
turn to zero at Acr « 1.3 / /m . In the spectral legion A > Acr the anomalous
group velocity dispersion ( k2 < 0) is realized and for A < Acr the normal
dispersion (k2 > 0) .
Note that in the vicinity of the point Acr the contribution o f the waveguide
dispersion can becom e significant. This contribution appears because the cor
rection to the wave number k depends on A . Besides, when A « Acr , the
higher-than-second-order terms are to be retained in the expansion o f k into a
power series o f (u> — wQ) .
Thus, the ultrashort pulses propagate in the single-mode optical waveguides
similarly to the plane waves propagating in a dispersive continuum. The char
acter o f the dispersion changes drastically on passing the wavelength Acr .
1.8. Some statistical problems;

evolution of noise pulses in dispersive media
The whole round o f problems discussed in the previous sections are just as sig
nificant for noise pulses. In the case o f regular pulses, however, the behavior
o f the envelope and the phase is o f predominant interest, whereas in the noise
pulses it is statistical characteristics, primarily the average intensity and dura
tion, the correlation function, and correlation time that need to be assessed. The
research that has been conducted so far clarifies to a large extent the picture o f
noise pulses propagating in dispersive media. The propagation o f noise pulses
31 71
has been studied in detail using both the second-order ’ and third-order
20
approximation o f the dispersion theory. The spreading o f multimode laser
72 . . , 73
pulses and reflection o f noise pulses from a diffraction grating have been
investigated and the mutual influence o f partial spatial and temporal coherence
during the pulse propagation in a dispersive medium has been analyzed. 74 It
should be also emphasized that on the basis o f the spatio-temporal analogy the
results obtained from the theory o f propagation o f partially coherent beams in
linear media can be applied to the noise pulses.
A special class o f statistical problems in the optics o f short pulses is associ
ated with their propagation and scattering in random ly inhomogeneous media
(see Refs. 75-78, 95-103). The multiple scattering o f picosecond pulses in inho
mogeneous media evokes considerable interest in the case o f strong localization
o f photons ( kQl < 1, where 1* is the mean free path). In Ref. 79 the authors
reported a production o f the pulses o f triangular shape by reflecting an ultrashort
Gaussian laser pulse from a rough-surfaced cone.
Below we discuss some problems arising during propagation o f noise pulses in
dispersive media.
T h e duration and correlation tim e o f noise pulses
We shall consider the propagation o f noise pulses (1.1.33) with a Gaussian en-
2 2 .
velope F ( t ) = pQexp( —t /2 r Q) and random modulation £(<) characterized by
the correlation function R (r) = e x p (—t 2/t 2q) . The correlation function o f the
input noise pulse has the form
2 2 2
B 0( h , t 2) = ( ^ y v - M o ^ z ) ) = pI ex p ( - ~ - ^-2 2~ ^ ..}• c1-8 -1)

1 T0 Tc 0 >
1.8. Some statistical problems 63
For the initial condition (1.8.1) the correlation function in the medium can
be obtained analytically. Using Eq. (1.1.15), we can get in the second-order
approximation o f the dispersion theory
B ( t 1 , t 2 ’ 2) = Vi X{ z ) p I
tt + tl *^2 y 2'
x exp + ( 1.8 .2)
4 1
c0
V12(z) = l + (z/L“cf , Ln.c = ----- . (1.8.3)

1(> d d 1 + ( 2ro /rco)
The quantity L^' is the dispersion length o f the noise pulse, which can be
written down as
= 2t o / N A " o > ( L 8 -4)
where is the spectral width o f the noise pulse, and the superscript nc stands
for non-correlated.
According to Eq. (1.8.2) the pulse duration and the correlation time in the
medium are equal to 31,71
rp(z) = r0 [1 + (z / L lc) 2f 2 , r (*) = r Q[1 + ( z / L ^ f f 2 (1-8-5)
Equations (1.8.5) coincide precisely with the formulas for the beam radius a (z )
and the correlation radius rc( z ) o f random optical beams provided <z0 , rc0 , and
k0 1 are substituted for r0 , rc0 , and k2 . 16 A pulse with random modulation
spreads faster than a transform-limited pulse o f the same duration. The noise
pulse, just as a random beam, possesses a fundamental statistical property: the
so-called coherence coefficient o f the pulse C = rc( z ) / r (z) is a constant quan
tity. As has been established in Ref. 31, this statistical invariant is valid when
the envelope F ( t ) and the correlation R ( ) are described by identical functions.
t
The pulse duration rQ and the correlation time rc0 featured in Eq. (1.8.3)
are not equivalent in the sense that when rc0 —►oo , the dispersion length
—►L d , whereas at rQ —►o o , it grows infinitely, —►o o . The latter
fact signifies that the correlation time o f steady-state noise does not vary in a
dispersive medium. W ith a fixed spectral width o f the noise pulse, the dispersion
length increases as the duration rQ gets longer [see Eq. (1.8.4)]. In accordance
with Eq. (1.8.5)
t c (z ) « \k2\z/r0 , t v (z ) « |k2\z/rc0 ( 1 .8 .6)
in the far-field zone (z L^c) and in the extreme case rQ r 0 . Here the
correlation time rc is determined by the initial duration rQ and, conversely, the
pulse duration rp in the medium is determined by the initial correlation time
In the case o f compression o f the noise pulse or the propagation o f the noise
pulse with linear chirp Sui(t) = —a Qt (1.1.28) in a dispersive medium we have
for the duration and correlation time:
Tp ( Z ) = V 2 ( Z ) r 0 > Tc ( Z ) = V 2 ( Z ) TC 0 -
(1.8.7)
V2\ z ) = ( l - a 0k 2z f + (z/Ln
c cf .
The compression length and the maximum compression ratio S nc are equal
to
LT = { ( ^ + { - 0r : f + ( 2 r 0/rc0f ] } \ a Qr02) , ( 1 .8 .8)
= T0/rp min = {1 + K r 2) 2/[1 + (2r0/ r 0) 2] } 1/2. (1.8.9)
Simultaneous effects o f quadratic and cubic dispersions o f the medium on

propagation and compression o f a noise pulse were analyzed in Refs. 20 and 21
where the expressions for the rms pulse duration were derived.
T he tem poral analog o f the van C ittert—Zernike theorem
The correlation time (1.8.6) can be regarded as a consequence o f the tem po
ral analog o f the well-known van Cittert-Zernike theorem for spatially incoher
ent beams. Indeed, assuming the random process £(t) to be ^-correlated, i.e.,
R (t) = R q S( t ) , where <5(r) is the Dirac function, and using Eq. (1.1.15), we
obtain for the correlation function in the medium:
B ( r , T ; z) — (27t) 1R QexTp(iTT/k2z ) j \F(k2z x ) f exp (—i r x ) dx , (1.8.11)
where t = t 1 — t 2 and 2T = t 1 + t 2 . Equation (1.8.11) represents the van

Cittert-Zernike theorem for the noise pulse: the correlation function o f the pulse
in a dispersive medium is associated with the initial intensity distribution o f the
^-correlated pulse. For the pulse duration rQ , the value of |F(fc22i;) |2 decreases
essentially at x Q Ri TQ/k2z , and according to Eq. (1.8.11) the correlation time
r, rj a:0 1 , which coincides with Eq. (1.8.6). Note that transformation (1.8.11)
allows the initial pulse profile
— OO
to be reconstructed; to do this, it is sufficient to measure the correlation function

between the values o f the field obtained at the symmetric points (^ = —12) .
1.8 Some statistical problems 65
M u tu a l in flu e n c e o f t e m p o r a l a n d s p a tia l flu ctu a tio n s
This problem has been thoroughly examined in Ref. 74. The results have been
obtained in terms o f transient diffraction equation ( 1 .6 .1) for the factorized cor
relation function o f the initial pulse
> ^2 i r i ’ ^*2) = (-^0(^1 ’ r i ) -^0(^2 ’ **2)) — ^t(î > ^2) ■®s(r*i > ^*2) ’
where the temporal correlation function is determined by Eq. (1.8.1). The spatial
correlation function B j r j , r 2) o f the beam with radius aQ and correlation
radius rc0 has the analogous form. We shall discuss some o f the calculation
results given in Ref. 74.
First, note that in the dispersive medium the correlation function o f the noise
pulse in the far-field zone cannot be factorized. In particular, the spatio-temporal
distribution o f the mean intensity is given by the expression
/o \2 2 i
r/ 2z) r
( I ( t , r , z ) ) ~ exp (1.8.13)
2uz J 1 + P ( r/uz)
Here
-2 -2 -2
r e ff
( 2aQ) - 2 + r - 2 r e ff cO '
(1.8.14)
The pulse duration r (z) is defined by Eq. (1.6.5). The correlation time
rc( z ) = { [ ! + P {r h z ? ] 1tJ [2 r J ^ )]2} - 1/2. (1.8.15)
At the axis o f the beam (r = 0) the correlation time is independent o f the

distance z , i.e., t (z) — r 0 . The situation is quite different with tc( z ) , for
example, at r = ii 0 . If rc0 <C % and r , 0 > t0 then for 2 <C aQ/u r 0 the
2 - -
correlation time rc(z) ss (2 t^/a^)uz , and therefore at Tc0a^/uT^ it is less
than the original value o f r 0 .
Thus, the partial spatial coherence o f radiation leads to reduction in the tem
poral coherence o f the pulse in the medium. As for the case when rcQ <C aQ and
t , 0 <C r0 , the correlation time t (z) « r , Q for 2 aQrcQjuTcQ , i.e., the spatial
coherence does not affect the temporal coherence. It goes without saying that
the partial temporal coherence o f the pulse does affect its spatial coherence. The
reader interested in this aspect o f the problem is advised to read the original
article. 74
Q u a n tu m flu c tu a tio n s o f p u lse s; d u r a t io n

o f a s ta t is tic a lly m e a n p u lse; s ta t is tic a lly m e a n p a r a m e te r s
In this subsection we shall discuss the propagation o f quantum pulses in dis

persive media. Quantum fields are known to be intrinsically random because
o f their quantum indeterminacy. The theory o f quantum pulse propagation is
therefore a statistical theory.
In quantum optics 104 the intensity and induction o f an electric field are de
scribed by the operators E and D in the space o f states satisfying the Maxwell
equation. In the case o f quantum wave packets the field intensity operator as
sumes the form
E ( t , z) = i C { A i+ \ t , z) exp [-» '(< V - kQz)}
+ A ^ ~ \ t , z) exp [i(w0* - fc0z )]} , (1.8.16)
where J^+\ t , z) and A ^ ~ \ t , z ) are the slowly varying operators o f positive-

1/2
and negative-frequency parts o f the field, C = (2 hu>0/V) , h is the Planck
constant, and V is the quantization volume. Proceeding as in Sec. 1.1, one
can derive for the opeiator A*' \ t , 2) in a dispersive medium the equation
analogous to Eq. (1.1.10) by replacing the com plex amplitude A ( t , z) by
j4^ \ t , z) . For the operator A ^ { t > z ) there is an equation that is a Hermit-
ian conjugate o f the one for A *• \ t , z) .
To clarify the specifics o f quantum pulse propagation in dispersive media, it
is sufficient to make use o f the second-ordei approximation o f the dispersion
theory. Then in the moving coordinate system we get the following equation for
the operator z) [cf. Eq. (1.1.14)]:
+ ‘ >= °- <1IU7>
Its solution is
-j-00
i (+ )(t , z) = J G*(rj - t , z ) A (q+ \ tI) dr), (1.8.18)
—OO
where i4g+ \ t/) = ^4 ^ ( 77, 0) is the value o f the operator at the entrance to the
medium and the function G (rj — t , z) is a com plex conjugate o f the function
G(r) — t , z) entering in Eq. (1.1.18).
From the comparison o f Eqs. (1.8.17) and (1.8.18) with Eqs. (1.1.14) and
(1.1.15) it follows that the forms o f the quantum and classical equations, as
well as their solutions, coincide. Differences may arise, however, due to non
com mutativity o f the operators A^+ \ t , z ) and A^ \ t , z) when calculating
the characteristics o f the pulses. In the further analysis it is convenient to use
the dimensionless time r — t / t q , where rQ is the duration of the mean pulse.
The Fourier components o f the operators A^+ \ t , 2) and A ^ \ t , 2) :
+ OO
a(Q , z) = ( 2tt) 1 j A^+ \ r ) exp (z fir) dr ,

-0 0
(1.8.19)
+00
a+ ( f 2 , z ) = (2?r) j A^ \ t , z) exp ( —j f 2r ) dr
— OO
are the operators o f annihilation and creation o f photons o f frequency

wo To"1^ being a dimensionless quantity) respectively, which obey the
following commutation relations:
[ a ^ , z ) , a+ ( ^ 2 , z)]
= , z ) a + ( fi 2 , z) — a+ ( f i 2 , z )a (f21 , z) = — f i 2) , ( 1 .8.20)
[a(0 1 , z ) , a (ft2 , z)] = [a+ ( 0 1 , z ) , a+ ( ^ 2 , z)\ = 0 .
According to Eq. (1.8.20) the commutation relations for the operators

i(+)(r, z ) take the form
U (+V i . z ) , A (~ \ t2 , z)] = S(Tl - T2) , ( 1 8 2 1)
[ i ( + ) (T i , z), A ( + ) ( t2 , z)] = [ i ( - ) ( r 1 , z ) , i <_)( r 2 , z)] = 0.
It should be noted that Eq. (1.8.17) can be derived from the evolution quan
tum equation
r\
ih — A^+ \ r , z) = [A^+ ^(r , z ) , H ] ( 1 .8 .22a)
with the Hamiltonian

-j-OO
H ~ - r 12 J J( r , z )d r . ( 1 .8 .22b)
2 z ) - ^ - A ('+ \ t ,
The operators A^+ \ t , z) and A^ \ t , z) can be treated as the operators

o f annihilation and creation o f photons in the section z o f the medium at the
moment r . The photon density operator takes the form
n(r, z) = A^ \ t , z )A^+ \ t , z) (1.8.23)
while the operator o f the total number o f photons is
- f CO
N (z) = J n (r , z )d r (1.8.24)
— 00
and the operator o f the mean number o f photons averaged over a certain finite
time T o f observation is
f
t + T /2
n ( r , T) = T 1 h ( r , z) dr. (1.8.25)
- T /2
Obviously, the observation time has to exceed substantially an optical oscillation

period because otherwise the concept o f a photon loses its meaning.
We shall be considering the propagation o f a quantum pulse whose modes

(Fourier components) are coherent at the entrance to a dispersive medium. By
definition, the eigenstate |yl0(f 2)) and eigenvalue / ^ ( f i ) o f the photon destruc
tion operator a0( f 2) = a(Q. , 0) o f such modes satisfy the relation
a0(n)|A0(n )) = 4 J(n) |A0( n » . (1.8.26a)
Note that the eigenvalue is denoted by A*(f2) in Eq. (1.8.26a) in order to unify
with the notation used in this book for description of Fourier transformation o f
classical functions. For the photon creation operator (f2) we obtain
<A0(n )| a J (n ) = (A 0(n)| A 0(Q ). (1.8.26b)
The eigenstates |A0(fi)) satisfy the normalization condition {A 0(fi)|.A0(fi)) = 1.

The coherent state o f the pulse is determined by the expression
|A0) = |{A0(n )}> = I J |A0( « ) ) . (1.8.27)

n
The operator A^+^(r) acting on this state yields
4 + V ) I ^ o) = ^ oW K ) . (1.8.28)
where
-j-OO
4 (1 -) = J 4 > ( n ) e x p ( - z 'f i r ) dSl, (1.8.29)

— CO
i.e., j4q(t) is the eigenvalue o f the operator A ^ ^ r ) . In this subsection the

function A q ( t ) is treated as dimensionless.
Using Eq. (1.8.28) and its Hermitian conjugate relation, we obtain for the
mean value o f the photon density operator (1.8.23) at the input to the medium
( h ( r , 0)) = ( A , | 4 " V ) 4 + V ) | A 0> = \A0( r ) f . (1.8.30)
The parameters o f random, including quantum, pulses can be described in

two ways. One way is to average the pulse realizations and find the character
istics o f the statistically mean pulse. The other way is to determine the pulse
characteristics for each realization and average them over the realizations. The
first method produces the parameters o f the statistically mean pulse whereas the
second one produces the statistically mean values o f the parameters. We shall
discuss both methods o f calculation o f pulse parameters.
A statistically mean pulse. A ccording to Eq. (1.8.18) the mean value o f the
operator A ^ ( r , z) is equal to
<A(+ )( r , z)) = <A0|A(+ )( r , z)\A0) = A * ( t , z) (1.8.31)

-j-00
A * (t, z ) = J z)A*o(0)d0. (1.8.32)
Thus, for the mean value the classical result proves to be valid [cf. Eq. (1.8.32)
with Eq. (1.1.15)]. One can easily see that the expressions for the mean val
ues o f the normally ordered operators A*- ^(r, z) and z) (all positive-
frequency operators are placed to the right o f the negative-frequency operators)
coincide with the classical expressions. For example, according to Eq.(1.8.23)
(n (r , z)) = |A(r , z ) | , i.e., the expression for the mean number o f photons in
a medium is analogous to the expression for the intensity. This means that the
spreading o f a quantum wave packet in terms o f the mean values o f the normally
ordered operators is analogous to the spreading o f a classical wave packet con
sidered in Secs. 1.3 and 1.4. In terms o f coherent quantum pulses, the results
obtained in those sections pertain to the dynamics o f statistically mean pulses.
Indeed, Eq. (1.3.2) describes the com plex amplitude o f a mean Gaussian pulse
while Eq. (1.3.3) describes the evolution o f its duration during the propagation.
Photon statistics; quantum invariants. For characterization o f quantum field
statistics it is convenient to use the so-called Fano factor F defining the ratio
o f the variance o f the number o f photons to their mean number. In the case o f
a single-mode field
_ ( [ a + ^ ) a 0( ^ ) ] 2) - ( a + ( ^ ) a 0( ^
< a + ( f i) a0(fi)>
and for a coherent state F = 1 , which corresponds to the Poisson statistics of

photons.
In the coherent multi-mode field the variances o f the number o f photons as
sociated with the operators (1.8.24) and (1.8.25) are equal to
-j-OO
4 = { ( A N ) 2) = ( ( N - ( N ) ) 2) = ( N ) , (N ) = J \A{r , z ) f dr (1.8.34)
in the first case and
an
2 ( r , T ) = < [A n (r , T )]2) = (n (r , T ) ) , (1.8.35)
r + T /2
(h (r, T ) ) = T 1 J |A ( r , z)fd r
r —T/2
in the second case. In the both cases the Fano factor turns out to be equal to
unity. Therefore, the statistics o f initially coherent pulses remains Poisson in
spite o f their spreading in dispersive media.
As was mentioned, one can make use o f Eq. (1.3.2) when treating a mean
pulse. If the observation time is substantially less than the pulse duration
tq (T <C 1) , then according to Eq. (1.8.35) (n (r , T )) = |A(r, z ) |2 = p 2( r , z).
This means that in this situation the mean number o f photons and the variance
follow adiabatically the pulse intensity variations.
Let us introduce the total momentum operator
H z) = ~Y J [A(“ V , z ) ^ - ^ A (+ \ r , z)\dr (1.8.36)

— CO
and the mean position ( “ center o f gravity” ) operator
-j-OO
B ^ z) = N 1 J rn(r, z )d r , (1.8.37)
— OO
Using Eq. (1.8.17) and the Hermitian-conjugated equation, one can easily check
105
that the operators P ( z ) and N ( z ) do not vary in the medium:
N ( z ) = N ( 0) = N , P ( z ) = P ( 0) = P. (1.8.38)
For the operators P and 6I1 ( 2) the commutation relation
&(*), P] = ih
is valid. From this the following uncertainty relation follows
{ ( A P f j d A ^ , ) ] 2) ^ ^ (1.8.39)
Statistically mean parameters o f a quantum pulse. First we shall calculate

the characteristics o f the operator (1.8.37). For intense coherent pulses one can
assume that
+ OO
^ ( z ) = (N ) 1 J tu (t , z )d r . (1.8.40)
—OO
The mean value o f the operator O^z) is equal to
& (* )) = ( N ) - 1 J t \A{t , z t f d r . (1.8.41)

— CO
Assuming that at the input to the medium the pulse envelope |A0(r)| has a
symmetrical shape, e.g., Gaussian, and using Eq. (1.3.2) or (1.4.2), we obtain
(< ? > )) = 0 .
Taking into account the commutation relation (1.8.21), we obtain for the mean
square o f the operator
-J-OO
( § l( z )) = <[A0» ] 2) = ( N ) - 2 J r 2|A(r , * ) |2 dr. (1.8.42)
From the classical point o f view the right-hand side o f the last expression is
associated with the rms duration o f the pulse [see Eqs. (1.1.19), ( 1 .1 .20a), and
(1.1.20b)]. W ith allowance made for Eq. (1.4.2), the expression (1.8.42) reduces
to
( § l(z )) = V \ z ) / { 2 ^ p l ) , (1.8.43)
where V ( z ) is described by Eq. (1.4.5) in the case o f PM pulses. It should

be recalled here that p0 is the dimensionless quantity specifying the number of
1/2 2
photons. The total pulse energy W = n huQP0 ■ Passing in Eq. (1.8.43) to
dimensional quantities for rms fluctuations o f the mean position operator, we
get
( V / 2= ! ^ Y ' V w r. = f e Y ' V
<‘ > - { w ) = <1-8'44>
In the last equality the pulse duration in a dispersive medium is assumed to be
defined by Eq. (1.4.6). The presence o f the Planck constant in Eq. (1.8.44)
corroborates the purely quantum character o f the fluctuations discussed here.
To evaluate numerically Eq. (1.8.44), we shall take the radiation wavelength
Aq = 1.5 fim (w0 Ri 1.2 x 1015 Hz) and the pulse energy W « 10 11 J. In
this case the ratio ( ( t 2) ) 1^2/Tp{z) ^ 10- 4 , i.e., the effect o f random shift o f the
“center o f gravity” o f the pulse is insignificant. This effect becomes comparable
with the pulse duration when the pulse contains about ten photons.
The similar calculations performed with the rms duration operator
+oo
§2(z) = (N ) 1 J t2h (r , z)d r (1.8.45)
— OO
yield the following expression for the variance:
< [ A 0 > ) ] 2) = (1.8.46)
From this it follows that the quantum fluctuations o f the rms duration o f the
pulse turn to be so small as to be insignificant provided the number o f photons
in the pulse exceeds 100.
The calculations carried out in this subsection indicate that the quantum
fluctuation effects accompanying pulse propagation in linear dispersive media
can be as a rule neglected; they becom e appreciable only when the number o f
photons is about ten or less. As a consequence, the pulses in the coherent state
can be treated in terms o f the theory o f propagation o f a deterministic classical
pulse in dispersive media, developed in Secs. 1.3 and 1.4.
Finally, it should be pointed out that the spatial analog o f the considered
effect is a random walk o f a laser beam center. This can be evaluated either
from the measurements o f the ultimate spatial coherence o f a laser beam or
from direct measurements. 107
1.9. Reflection of ultrashort optical pulses

from a surface w ith random periodic profile
In Sec. 1.5 we considered primarily the reflection o f short optical pulses from
a plane interface between two media. A special case o f a pulse reflected from
a diffraction grating was also examined. Here we shall analyze the specifics of
reflection o f a short pulse from the surface with arbitrary periodic profile with
period d ~ A and depth h <î A under the conditions o f the W ood anomalies.
Considerable practical interest to this problem is first o f all due to emerging
possibilities o f an increase in the energy influx into a ta rg e t108 ’ 109 and in the
intensity o f radiation from a femtosecond laser plasma. 109 The optical field
strength at the target surface is also o f great interest since it determines the
efficiency o f nonlinear-optics phenomena at the surface. 110 The diffraction o f
ultrashort optical pulses by a periodically modulated surface has been recently
investigated in Refs. I l l and 112; some results o f these references will be cited
in this section. As in Sec. 1.5, we shall take the spectral domain approach.
The diffraction o f a m onochromatic wave by a rough surface113, 114 will be
considered first.
Diffraction o f a m onochrom atic optical wave

by a surface w ith periodic profile
Suppose that a plane monochromatic wave
E i(t, r , z) — A { exp [i(ut — ky y — kez ) ] , (1.9.1)

ky = k sin 7 , kz = k cos j , k — u/c ,
falls on the surface o f the medium possessing dielectric permittivity e , unitary

magnetic permeability, and occupying the half-space z > f ( x , y) . Here the
function f ( x , y ) characterizes the surface profile (see Fig. 1.20), ky and kz
are the projections o f the wave vector k o f the incident wave on the axes y
and 2 , and j is the incidence angle with respect to the normal o f the surface
2 = 0 . The com plex dielectric permittivity o f the medium
£ ~ (n — im )2. (1.9.2)
The diffracted electric fields E, E 1 and magnetic fields H, H l in vacuum

and medium (subscript 1) respectively ob ey the Maxwell equations
rot E = —i k H , rot E 1 — —i k H 1 ,
rot H = i k E , rot H 1 = i k e E l , (1.9.3)
div E — 0 , div e E x = 0 , div H = 0, div H 1 = 0.
The conditions o f equality o f tangential components o f electric and magnetic

fields at the interface z = f ( x , y ) can be written in the form
E - n { n E ) = E 1 - n { n E 1) , —n ( n H ) = — n(nijr1), (1.9.4)
H
n = (1+ f l + /s2)_1/2(/rer+ f y e y - ej (1.9.5)
1.9. Reflection o f ultrashort pulses from a random surface 73
F IG . 1.20. D iffraction of an optical pulse by a surface with periodically m odu

lated profile ( 7 is the incident a n gle).
is the unit vector o f the normal to the surface 2 = f ( x , y ) , directed to the

vacuum, e^. is the unit vector along the j axis, f x = d f ( x , y ) j d x , / =
d f ( x , y)/ d y.
Let us expand the surface profile into a Fourier spectrum
/(*. V) = X X , exP (*9ir ) + c - c -> £0 = °> (1.9.6)

9i
where is the com plex amplitude and r = { 2:, y } . In other words, we rep
resent the profile as a superposition o f harmonic gratings randomly oriented
relative to one another. For the unique definition we assume gi7. > 0 ; if
gix = 0 , then giy < 0. Now let us consider the vector set ^ Pi0i , where
i
pi = 0 , ± 1 , ± 2 , . . . , from which we can extract the subset {<jr} o f different
(non-coinciding) vectors q. The fields in vacuum and in the medium will be
- sought in the form
E (t, r , z) = A { exp [i(ujt — kyy — kz z)]
+ ^ A 9 e x p [ i( w * - f c 9r ) + r 92] , (1.9.7)
9.
z) = 5D exP [*'M “ i k qT) - r i « z] . ( L 9 ‘8)

<1
where k q = k y - q , k y = { 0 , ky , 0} , q = {qx , qy , 0} . The expressions

for the magnetic fields in vacuum H and in the medium H 1 are obtained from
Eqs. (1.9.7) and (1.9.8) by the substitution E i , E , E 1 —»• H i , H , H 1 .
The magnetic quantities can be expressed in terms o f electric quantities using
the Maxwell equations (1.9.3).
Substituting Eqs. (1.9.7) and (1.9.8) into Eq. (1.9.3), we find
ra= (k 2a - fc2) 1 /2 , r lfl = (k 2n - £fe2) 1/2. ( 1 .9 .9)

74 1. Short opiical pulses in linear dispersive media
If kq = |fey —q\ < k — w /c , the diffracted waves are radiative in nature, whereas
at kq > k , they are not (surface waves). For simplicity, we shall hereinafter write
the scalar subscript q instead o f the vector one q , for example, r = T .
P r o p a g a t io n o f o p t ic a l fie ld s in v a c u u m ; th e W o o d a n o m a lie s
Let us examine the media with |f:| 1 and profile derivatives f 2 , f y ,

\fx — f y I 'C 1. In this case almost all the energy o f the electromagnetic field
is contained in the diffracted waves E q , H q for which k <C %/iij k.113 ’ 114
Therefore it can be assumed that Ri T = = k (m + in) , and Eq.
(1.9.8) takes the form
JE1 ss e x p (—r 2) ^ 2 A i q exp[i(w f - k f r)]. (1.9.10)
The analogous expression is valid for the magnetic field in the medium.
From the exact boundary conditions (1.9.4) we find that in the medium con
sidered
E is * E x + f xEt , E l y ^ E y + f yE z , H 1= H. (1.9.11)
On the other hand, taking into account Eq. (1.9.10) we obtain from the Maxwell
equations (1.9.3)
E ls « ikT ~l H Xy , E ly « - i k T ^ H ^ . (1.9.12)
From Eqs. (1.9.11) and (1.9.12) the following boundary conditions can be derived
for the fields in vacuum:
K + f x E , = ikT ~XHy , E y + f yE z = - i k Y ~ XH x . (1.9.13)
Let us express the field H in Eq. (1.9.13) in terms o f E using the equation
—i k H = rot E ; taking into account Eq. (1.9.7) we get the following relations:
[(r - ikz) 1 + exp [ - i k z f ( x , y)]
= ~ f(r + T q)A q* + (r 4 + eX P N r + r /(O S , 2/)] ,

9 (1.9.14a)
[(rfc, - ik2) ^ 1 - T f y}A iz exp [ - i k j ( x , y)}
= + r 9) ^ M + ( r /y + ik qy)A qz]exv [ i g r + r qf ( x , 2/)].

q (1.9.14b)
The distribution o f the fields in vacuum can be derived provided the conditions
k 2f { x , y ) < 1, |r / ( * , y)f < 1 (1.9.15)

are satisfied. In this case the factors exp [—ikzf ( x , ?/)] and e x p [ r ?/( a ;, ?/)] in
Eq. (1.9.14b) can be expanded into Taylor series and only the first two terms re
tained. Then equating the terms with identical powers, we obtain a set of related
equations for the amplitudes of the diffracted fields. After transformations (see
Ref. 113), we obtain the amplitudes o f the field of the zeroth order o f diffraction
A 0x ~ ~ ^ q A qx ^ q x A qz\€-q ' ^ 0 y ~ ~k~^0z ’

z q y
A °z ek z - i T Aiz ek z - iT ^ q + ^qy
and the amplitudes A q of the fields with q 7^ 0
A qx = ~ lk qxT A qx + *[ ^ ( A * “ A oJ + k q A A ix +
- V [ r ,A g , r + t(fe
/ j »■ g
1 ~ fcq x )‘ A q ,x *] {^ q ~ q , ,’
V q x
?Vo
= - v 1-4 . . - fc2) ( A , + a , , k ,
~ X L [ 'V - V * + ' ( V » -
9
A<* = - AJ + ^\kqyk3- h/t){Aiz +
q z 3^ q —q
— / ./L
[iT ,k
q
A 1q + *k ?(k
q ' 5— fc i)A
q '
. ]£ ) ’
(1.9.17)
where = ^ t, - k q = ^ if = k q, - k q = g. , and £q_ q, = £*. if q - q =
—gr(. , and finally £,q_ q‘ — 0 if q — q — ±srt- . Thus, the system of equations

(1.9.16) and (1.9.17) allowsfor re-scattering between the fields E , , E q, for
which k q - k q, = ± g t .
Being o f general nature, the relations (1.9.16) and (1.9.17) define the ampli
tudes o f diffracted fields in vacuum when radiation with arbitrary polarization
falls at an arbitrary angle on a surface with arbitrary periodic profile. Unfortu
nately, the set o f Eqs. (1.9.16), (1.9.17) of infinite dimension cannot be solved
in the general case. The authors o f Ref. 113 have obtained the solution o f these
equations in the case when resonance surface electromagnetic waves (SEW ) are
excited, i.e., the waves with the Wciv<5 number fc — fc & fc exist. In this case
. . . 1 qr
the amplitudes o f the diffracted fields increase sharply.
The analysis shows that in Eqs. (1.9.16) and (1.9.17) the terms associated
with diffraction of the fields by resonance gratings play an important part. In
Ref. 91 the expressions for both resonant and non-resonant fields were obtained
for a finite number o f resonance gratings.
Bearing in mind the problem o f reflection o f an ultrashort optical pulse to
be considered here, we present the results for the field amplitudes in vacuum
for the p polarization o f the incident radiation. (The vector E i lies in the
incidence plane, the amplitudes are A jx = 0 , A iz ^ 0 , A iy ^ 0 ). For one
resonant and several non-resonant fields, the amplitudes o f the components o f a
specular-reflected wave (0 = 7 ) are equal to
A 0x = 0 1
A n = A n cot 7 ,
y (1.9.18)
where
H v{y) = Iffr^rl2 COS_1 7-
The amplitudes o f the components o f the resonant field take the form
4 qx
r ) = 0 ,’
A(r)
qy -- iT(r)k ~ 1A
11 q Kqy A (r)
qz ’ (1.9.19)
A Vz = (±fl'r) A o >
where
^ 0 = V A iZ . rr = (* - ~ k ) . K = k y T STr , e(-flfr) = e*(flfr) ,

y
and the resonant denominator is defined by the expression
A = A (w ) = fc- 1r^r) — Pm + ifin , (1.9.20)
= - 2 ^ 2 + E ( f c r ? ) _ 1 ( fc r ( K ~ kq)f I ~ fe9 ) I ' ,

m + U l~^k
Pn = - 2 ^ - T + E ( W q y ' i K i K ~ k q ) ) 2 \Z(K ~ \ ) t
m + n k' <k
In Eq. (1.9.19) the upper signs refer to k r = k y — g v and the lower signs to
k T = ky + g r . The sums in j3m and j3n are associated with re-scattering o f
the plane wave from the resonant to respectively non-radiation (fc? > k) and
radiation (fc? < k , including kq = ky) non-resonant waves (k ^ k) diffracted
by the gratings. Note that j3 , /? 1.
On reflection o f an optical wave from a periodically modulated surface sepa
rating media, the amplitudes o f diffracted waves turn to be strongly dependent
on the incidence angle 7 and the wavelength A . These phenomena are referred
to as the W ood anomalies. Let us consider how the W ood anomalies manifest
2 2
themselves in the case o f a specular reflection coefficient R 0 = |AQ| / 1Aj;| .
According to Eq. (1.9.18) we have
ek z + *T
R0 =
ek Z - iT
—1 fr)
The minimal value o f R 0 is obviously reached at fim — k 1^ . Total suppres
sion o f specular reflection (TSSR , R 0 = 0 ) takes place when
Pn = 4 H r( 7) = 4\gr Zgf cos- 1 7 ) ^ ^
Pm = [(9v/ k ± s i n 7 f - 1]1/2.
In this case the wave with amplitude A ?r corresponds to a surface wave be
cause it turns out that k qr > k . For given g . , £ , g tr, and k the expression
(1.9.22) determines the amplitude f and the angle o f incidence necessary for
the TSSR effect to set in. W ithout taking into account the re-scattering between
the resonant and nonresonant fields, i.e., neglecting the sum in the second re
lation o f Eq. (1.9.20), Eq. (1.9.22) yields the following result for a sinusoidal
profile (see Ref. 110)
1/2
2d
4|ej = — H r — - 3 cos 7 , (1.9.23)
n + m
2
*2 , m
arcsm n = 1 + / 2 , 2\2 1
(m + n )
where 4|f | is the full amplitude o f the grating and d its period. Now we
can evaluate the TSSR angle 7 and the optimal depth 4|£ | for aluminium
[e = (0.47 — *4.84) ] at the wave length A = 436 nm and the grating parameter
d = 370 nm. W hen q\\ky , Eq. (1.9.23) yields the value 7 = 9.07 and 4|f |=
33 nm. These estimates are in excellent agreement with the numerical results o f
Ref. 115. The presence o f the additional terms in Eq. (1.9.22) associated with
field redistribution brings about the change in the value o f the optimum angle
7 at which is minimal.
Diffraction o f an ultrashort optical pulse

under conditions o f the W o o d anomalies
Let us examine the reflection o f a short p-polarized optical pulse from a surface
with arbitrary periodic profile. The components o f the initial pulse are equal to
(see Fig. 1.20)
r > z) = °>
E iy( t , r > z ) = ~ E i ( t , r , z ) cos 7 1 (1.9.24)
Eiz(t > r ’ *) = - & $ ’ r > z ) sin 7 i

where E f ( t , r , z) = A ^ t —z j c ) exp [i(w0/ —fcQz - ) ] , w0 is thecarrier frequency
o f the pulse, kQ = u>0/ c , and zi = z cos 7 + y sin 7 . One canevaluate the
behavior o f the Fourier components o f the initial pulse
+ OO
Ai = A f(w) = (2ir) 1 j A { (/) exp [i(w0 — w)t] dt (1.9.25)
after the reflection from the periodic surface on the basis o f the results given in
the previous subsections. The integration o f the corresponding expressions over
the Fourier spectrum yields the formulas for the diffracted pulses.
We shall analyze the specular-reflected pulse. A ccording to Eq. (1.9.18) we
get
+ oo
E(«, , , * > = / ec° s 7 + ,: ^ f

J e cos 7 —
— oo
1Z I 2
X <1 ^ t f r(7 )} exP M * ~ V c)ldoj> (1-9-26)
where zQ = —z cos 7 + y sin 7 . In fact, zQ and zi represent the longitudinal

coordinates fixed to the reflected and incident pulses. In Eq. (1.9.26) one could
allow for the dispersion o f the medium, s = f f(w). However, we are interested
only in the pulse deformations caused by the narrow W ood resonance and shall
therefore ignore the dispersion e(w) , that is, assume that e(w) = £(w0) •
The exact shape of the reflected pulse (1.9.26) can be found only by nu
merical calculations. To obtain approximate analytical results, we shall expand
A o f Eq. (1.9.20) in the vicinity o f the resonance frequency ui = u deter-
fr)
mined from the relation = /^mwT / c in which ui_ corresponds to the case
k T = k y — g r and ui+ to = k y + gr . Making use o f the inequalities
|(w - wT ) /w T I < ( ^ ) 2/ 2c Igry I , |w - I<
we obtain
A = - ^ t (u - u + . V 1) , (1.9.27)
where
~ cgry . n —cff [i + (^f+) rFA2!] 1/ 2

w = ---------- _ ------------- > 0 , t = -------2------ — —---------> 0 .
T [ l + ( ^ ) 2]1/ 2 T s i n T *
Here 0 ^ and 0 ^ are calculated from Eq. (1.9.20) at w = ui^. , and can be
regarded as the lifetime o f the resonant diffracted wave, (surface electromagnetic
wave, SE W ). Note that the frequency ui depends on the angle 7 and for the
optim um angle
T = 70 a r c s i n { ^ rycwQ 1 ± [1 + ( / ^ ) 2]1/2}
we get w = a>0 . The representation o f A in the form (1.9.27) is valid at

for the relatively long pulses for which rQ > 2( - f f ryc ) /( /? ^ ) 2w 2 > .
For a short pulse (rQ < ) the analysis is to be carried out in terms o f the
exact expression (1.9.20). W hen 0 ^ 0 ^ , the approximation (1.9.27) is valid
for both long and short pulses. Hereinafter we assume that the latter inequality
{ f i l » PZ ) holds.
In the case o f an initial Gaussian pulse with the shape (1.1.25), the specular-
reflected pulse is described as
jp, s Po£ cos 7 +

E {V , r > z ) = -7T----------------7- 7= exp [ - —^ - i u ! 0r]
( n
2 £ cos 7 — l^f—£ \ 2Tg
| l - V * H r( l ) { P * ) 1 exp $ (j? )e r fc $ (? 7)| , (1.9. 28)
where $(??) = \/2 r0 [r^ +i(u i0 -u i ^ ) ] + (r]/y/i) tq , t] = t - z^/c and erfc $ =

1 — erf $ . At £sr = 0 this expression describes the conventional Fresnel reflec
tion from a plane surface. The contribution proportional to H r(y) \Zgf is
due to scattering o f the incident pulse by the grating, producing a SEW which
is subsequently re-scattered by the same grating to generate a reflected pulse
with the phase shift w relative to the Fresnel component on the condition that
U! = .
At the optimal incidence angle j = j 0 , when = a>0 , the expression
(1.9.28) is simplified. In this case one can obtain explicit results for the envelope
p(r]) o f the reflected pulse. If T) > T0( 1 - t0/2tt ) , then
£ COS 7 0 + y / ^ £
P(V) = \E(v, r , z) |= pQ exp

£ COS
To i\/—£ 2rt
rjr
i - ^ r( 7 o ) ( ^ r 1 ( i + (1.9.29)
When r) < - r 0( 1 + 2tJ t^ ) .
£
f r.os 7
cos <Y_0 4-
+ iy/—£
i
pin) = Po
£ COS 70 - iy/—£
1 - 2 t/ tt Hr(y Q) (/?J) 1 exp + — (1.9.30)

\V2r= 72
From Eqs. (1.9.29), (1.9.30) it follows that for rj —* oo p(r]) ~ exp ( —r]2/2r^ ) ,
whereas for i] —►—oo p(rj) ~ exp(rj/T ) . In the specular-reflected pulse, at a
certain moment o f time i) determined by the equation
e rfc Q 0 = 2 ^ H T(y0) ( ^ J ) - 1 ^ exp ( ~ Q q) , (1.9.31)
where
o
q — __ro _ l
y° V 2r^ + V 2 r 0 '
8U 1. Short optical pulses in linear dispersive media
ii
<c> I
V° V
FIG . 1.21. T h e shapes o f m irror-reflected initially Gaussian pulses for different
values o f the param eter N = H T("fQ)/2/3^ : (a) short (t q t ^ ) or long ( r Q
) pulse at JV < 1 ; (4) Tg W at N SS 1 ; ( c) long pulse at N > 1 .
the envelope is p(j7°) = 0. Thus, the reflected pulse proves to have two maxima,
i.e., the Gaussian pulse breaks into two pulses. The profiles o f the reflected pulses
calculated from Eq. (1.9.28) are shown in Fig. 1.21. It is seen that the proper
choice o f the profile parameters ensures the separation o f the reflected pulse into
two pulses with equal amplitudes comparable with the amplitude o f the incident
pulse. More information on distortion of-a rectangular ultrashort pulse reflected
from a non-plane boundary between media can be found in Ref. 112.
Thus, the shape o f the ultrashort optical pulse reflected from a periodically
modulated surface can drastically differ from that o f the incident pulse due to
its spectrum transformation resulting from the energy conversion to a SEW and
back, i.e., from the strong interaction o f the diffracted waves.
A bsorption o f ultrashort optical pulses

by a periodically m odulated surface
Let us analyze the behavior of energy reflectivity o f a short pulse and surface
absorptivity as a function o f profile depth and shape. For specular reflection the
energy reflectivity is equal to
J
+ co 4-co
Re = <5 rZ>t dyj \ dy ’ (1.9.32)

— OO — CO
where 5 rz , .S’iz are the Poynting vector components for the reflected and inci
dent pulses, and the subscript t means time-averaged. Using the results of the
1.9. Reflection o f ulirashort pulses from, a random surface 81
previous section, we obtain
Re(y) = I 1- 2^ Hr(y) 7 - [ eXP [r 0 _ Wo))2]
x erfc [ r ^ r ” 1 + i ( « T - w0))] + c. c.j [l - HT(y ) ( / ? J ) _ 1] | ^ F(7 ) , (1-9.33)
where R f { j ) is the Fresnel reflection coefficient
£ C O S J + i y f^ l '2
R p (y ) =
£ COS 7 —
F IG . 1 . 22 . Energy coefficient o f specular reflection as a fun ction o f the incident

angle for an ultrashort Gaussian pulse o f du ration r Q and wavelength \ — 0.6
in the case o f a triangular grating with the depth h = 0.06 /^m : ( 1 ) rQ = 1 ps,
(2 ) T q = 0.1 ps, (5 ) T q = 20 fs.
The dependence R c ( 7 ) for pulses o f different duration, reflected from a triangu

lar grating, is shown in Fig. 1.22. At the angle j — y0 , the reflection coefficient
has a minimal value
R.
x exp er^c ~ j ^ f ( T o ) - (1-9-34)
The value R em-m depends on the optical constants m and n o f the medium,
the profile depth and shape, and the pulse duration. It should be also pointed
out that for very short pulses (r Q r ^ ) the value o f the coefficient R emin is
close to the Fresnel value for any profile depth and shape. In the case o f pulses
j . snort optical pulses in linear dispersive media
with finite duration rQ , however, the difference between iZemin and the Fresnel
value can be significant.
Hence, the absorptivity j4abs o f a rough surface can vary strongly in the
process o f resonant excitation o f SEWs in the field o f ultrashort pulses and under
the condition o f W ood anomalies. In the absence o f re-scattering o f the resonant
SE W to form resonant waves with kq £ , the absorptivity A abs « 1 — R e{ j ) ■
This means that the radiation energy influx into a rough-surfaced target can be
much higher for ultrashort optical pulses as compared with the case o f a plane
surface for which, typically, A abs « 0.02 .
2. Self-action of optical pulses: self-modulation,
self-compression, solitons, and instabilities
Self-action effects arising due to nonlinearity o f refractive index are fairly com m on : they
show u p in the propagation o f high-intensity laser radiation in gases, liquids, and solids.
Vigorous studies o f various aspects o f self-action o f light beam s and pulses started in the
m id-sixties, having been inspired by the discovery o f self-focusing o f light. No dou bt, the
physics o f self-action remains u p to now one o f the m ost rapidly progressing branches o f
nonlinear optics. In the research o f self-actions the strong nonlinear effects were observed,
such as tem poral and spatial bistability, generation o f structures, optical turbulence, and
generation o f optical fields, all having no analogs, even distant ones, in linear optics.
Transition to the fem tosecond time scale has evoked a new surge o f interest in physics o f
self-actions and its diverse applications. T h e new effects have appeared in such traditional
areas as self-focusing o f beam s and self-m odulation o f wave packets. T h e utilization o f
self-actions has open ed new prospects in the developm ent o f ultrafast optical systems for
inform ation processing and in the con stru ction o f optical com puter elements, as well as
played a decisive role in production o f extrem ely short pulses.
2.1. Physics of self-actions; a nonlinear refractive index;

conversion of amplitude modulation to phase modulation
In the intensive optical field the com plex refractive index n o f gases, liquids,
and solids proves to depend on the intensity 1 = (cn Q/ 87r)|A[2 o f the wave, that
is, the nonlinear relation
n = n (I ) ( 2 .1 .1)
appears. The high-power optical wave propagating in a medium with nonlinear

index o f refraction establishes the specific relations for phase velocity dispersion
v ( w , I ) = c/R e n(w , I) and absorption coefficient ^(w , I ) = ( lj/ c) Im n{i±> , I)
in the medium. This phenomenon is referred to as a self-action o f light.
Physical causes giving rise to a nonlinear index o f refraction can be quite
diverse (see, e.g., Ref. 1). Am ong the m ost significant can be the anharmonicity
o f electronic and vibrational responses in atoms and molecules, the changes in
polarizability due to orientation o f anisotropic molecules in the field o f the light
wave, as well as the changes o f density due to electrostriction and heating o f
the medium.
84 2. Self-action o f optical pulses
The listed mechanisms differ by the characteristic times of nonlinear response

r j which are o f vital importance in terms of the problems tackled in this book.
Provided the nonlinear response is small compared with the linear one and the
optical nonlinearity is adequately described by expanding the polarization P
into a power series in terms o f the electric field,
P = P 1+ P nl, P n] « P 1, (2.1,2)
all the factors leading to a nonlinear index o f refraction can be phenomenologi-

cally regarded as the manifestation o f the nonlinear response o f a medium, which
includes only odd-power terms o f the electric field. If the nonlinear response can
be treated as quasi-steady-state and therefore the duration o f the optical pulse
r0 rn, , the nonlinear index of refraction is due to the following part o f the
nonlinear polarization
P nl = P (3) + P (5) + ... = x (3)E EE + x (5)E E E E E + ... , (2.1.3)
where x ^ are the nonlinear susceptibility tensors.

W hen rQ ~ rn] , and especially when rQ < r^ , the nonlinear response should
be described by the integral relations in which the nonlinear frequency-dependent
susceptibilities are replaced by multiple-time response functions, for example,
OO
P(3)(t’ r) = / /0 / * (3)(tl’ <2’ *s)

x E ( t — t XJ r ) E ( t - t i — t2 , r ) E ( t — t l — t 2 — i 37 r ) dty dt2 dt3. (2.1.4)
/q ’V
Here x J(t , t , , , t3) is the triple-time function o f nonlinear response. Ex
pressions similar to Eq. (2.1.4) are also valid for the higher-order terms in the
expansion o f the nonlinear transient polarizations in terms o f the field. These
expressions contain the higher-order response functions, for example,
X^5\ t 1 , f 2 , f3 , <4 , f 5) , etc. In order to establish the relationship, between
Eqs. (2.1.2)-(2.1.4) and the nonlinear index o f refraction (2.1.1), we shall con
sider the cubic nonlinear response in the quasimonochromatic light field
E( t , r ) - ^ e A ( t ) e i(wt~kr) + c.c. (2.1.5)
where e is the unit polarization vector.

The spectral component o f nonlinear polarization corresponding to the fre
quency w of the driving field leads to a nonlinear index of refraction
n (3 )/ . \ ^ (3 )/ \ i .| 2 , iU jjt — A k r )
P (oj; t, r) = -x '(w )|A|Aev + c. c . , (2.1.6)
(^){ \ ^(3)/ \
X (w) = ex (w ; w , w , -w ) eee.
2.1. Physics o f self-actions 85
Equation (2.1.6) is applicable to quasimonochromatic fields if the characteristic

(3)
time of their variation rQ rnl . The spectral component o f susceptibility x
is related to the response function by the Fourier transformation
00
U, " , -w ) = , * 2 - * ! ’ <3 — *2 — *l)

0
x exp [» w(<3 — <2 — ^l)] ^ 2 ^ 3* (2-1-7)
The fourth-rank tensor x)jki has nonzero components not only in anisotropic,
but also in isotropic media, including the media possessing a center o f inversion.
This explains why the self-action effects are so widespread.
Substituting Eq. (2.1.6) into the expression for the induction
D = E + A ir P ,
we obtain the relation for the nonlinear correction to the dielectric permittivity
nl » 2 o (3) / \ I * I2
etj = A n y = 37r x ijH( w ; w , w , - w ) e t e,|A| .
Similarly, one can obtain the nonlinear corrections to e and n determined by

X(5) , etc.
Thus, the realand imaginary components o f the com plex index o f refraction
for a weakly nonlinear isotropic m edium can be written as a seriesexpansion in
the even-power terms o f the field
Re n = n0 + A n ( I ) , (2.1.8a)
6 = (w /c) Im n = <§Q + A 6 ( I ) . (2.1.8b)
Investigation o f the nonlinear absorption (2.1.8b) (or absorption self-action) is

the subject o f one o f the most advanced branches of nonlinear spectroscopy. In
nonlinear optics o f short light pulses much interest is aroused by “dispersive”
self-actions, the effects caused by the nonlinear real component o f the refractive
index.
Q uasi-steady-state response in a m edium

with cubic nonlinearity; a nonlinear index o f refraction f i 2
First o f all, we shall examine the dispersive self-actions in an isotropic medium.

The quasi-steady-state response in such a medium with cubic nonlinearity is
convenient to characterize, apart from the spectral com ponent x (w) > also by
a coefficient n2 defining the value o f the nonlinear correction to the index o f
refraction.
For the real index o f refraction
n = nQ + - n 2|^4|2 = nQ + h2I , (2.1.9)

nz ,cm2/kW Electronic nonlinctrity

in semiconductors •
10 ✓ SbCV
*/ •InSb'S77K) Liquid
10 / , •GaAs(WK) / crystals
s' i»Gds"«InAs(77K)
t»GdS ‘ ■ ' -
✓' V; •£ •& oAy,i / / \
Iff
-3
/ /
V
"'-.•InSbûn
^•InSb^x'^Q b-*Si
^'* Si r •,(.KTh(,l
GMs'l TiermaJ
/ /
Semiconductor . D yes'\ * Z n sL ' nonlioearity
10's s ' doped gl&3s ^rtU
^/tdH nTo
gTe / 'L Ruby
„
✓•
to-7 /
' CuCl /
10~9 — -7 ^ X
✓ N itrobenzene
// • •s\
10-" / C52/ > 7
' • I /
Chlorobenzene
to~’3- Qu&rtz glass s']
hC _____J__ s ’ I I I
W'M 10 12 f0~w IO'1 i0~s 10~* W~* 10° 10z r nl,s
FIG . 2 .1 . Nonlinear coefficient h2 , specifying the correction to the real com p o

nent o f refractive index (n = n 0 + ii2/ ) , a s a function of r t , (nonlinear response
tim e). 2
one can easily find the relationship between x ^ and n2 or ^2 ■ Since
e = n 2 « n\ + n Qn 2|A|2 = 1 + 4irx<'1'1 + 3irx(3:i|.A|2 ,
then in the Gaussian (CG S) system o f units
n2 = (2* / % ) x (3} [CGSE], ( 2 .1. 10)
The dimension o f the coefficient h2 in SI is m / W ; for practical purposes it

is more suitable to measure n2 in c m 2/ k W . A ccording to Eqs. (2.1.9) and
2 1 10
( . . )
n2 = n 2|A|2/ 2 / = ( 3 7 r / 2 n Q) X(3) |A|2/ / .
A t the same time the relation
I [k W /cm 2] = (3n 0/8-?r) \A\2 ,
is valid, in which |A| is determined in the CGSE units. Hence,
n2 [cm2/k W ] = (27r/n0) Y 3) [CGSE]. ( 2 . 1.11)
The values o f n2 for different media and different mechanisms o f nonlinear

response scatter through a wide range. Under conditions when the linear index
o f refraction 11() varies only within one order o f magnitude, the value o f h2
varies by almost fourteen (!) orders o f magnitude.
2.1, Physics o f self-actions 87
It is interesting to note that despite the immense variety o f nonlinearity mech

anisms and nonlinear media, the general relationship h2 ~ rnl can be traced
quite clearly. In other words, the longer the nonlinearity response time, the
higher the value o f the nonlinear coefficient n2 . All this is shown in Fig. 2.1
where the data on dispersive nonlinearity are indicated in the plane (n 2 , rnl) for
various isotropic and crystalline substances; together with homogeneous media,
also given are the data on the cluster systems that have recently been intensively
explored, in particular, sem iconductor-doped glasses. Sub-picosecond response
times are intrinsic for a weakly non-resonant nonlinearity; here we deal with the
values n2 « 10- 1 3 cm 2/k W ( * (3) » 10- 1 3 CGSE).
Dispersive self-action o f wave packets;

conversion o f am plitude m odulation to phase m odulation
In a medium with a nonlinear index o f refraction the shape and spectrum o f the
wave packet undergo strong m odifications manifesting under certain conditions
in instabilities. The first in the succession o f various nonlinear wave phenomena
emerging here is the self-phase m odulation (SPM ) effect. It is quite obvious when
the nonlinear response can be treated as quasi-steady-state [see Eq. (2.1.3)]. We
shall consider the wave packet in the form (2.1.5), propagating along the 2 axis.
In the medium with the index o f refraction (2.1.9) the total phase o f the wave
kz = (w0/c ) [nQ+ n2I(t)] z = kQz + kQz h 2I ( t ) ,
i.e., there arises a nonlinear time-dependent correction to the phase
<p(t, z) = —k0z h 2I(t). ( 2 .1 .12)
The temporal SPM leads, obviously, to broadening o f the frequency spectrum.

It is natural that this must cause a change in the intensity profile. The relevant
simple considerations can be given by using the results o f Sec. 1.4. According to
Eq. (2.1.12), the rate o f frequency variation caused by self-action is equal to
^2 ^2 j
a (* . Z^ = ~ ^ = ~ kozii2-^2 - (2.1.13)
The behavior o f a wave packet is determined, as shown in Sec. 1.4, by the sign
o f the dispersion o f the medium. The case o f a k 2 < 0 is o f special interest
since it demonstrates the stages o f optical pulse self-compression. SPM causes
compression which, in turn, increases the rate o f self-modulation.
It should be noted that these processes were already studied in 1965-1967.
A t that time the primary efforts in exploration o f dispersive self-actions were
concentrated on investigations o f spatial self-focusing o f wave beams.
Tem poral and spatial self-actions; similarities and differences
The physics o f self-action o f a wave packet is illustrated in Fig. 2.2 which shows
qualitatively the modifications o f the phase and shape o f the pulse and its fre
quency spectrum ( ) as it propagates in a nonlinear dispersive medium with
s c j
n2 > 0 and k2 < 0 . There is much in common between the considered process
and the self-action o f a wave beam. The initial stage of beam self-action is as
sociated, as in the case o f a wave packet, with SPM. This time, however, it is
a spatial SPM that brings along a nonuniform intensity distribution due to the
nonlinear index o f refraction, and distorts the wave front. In the medium with
n2 > 0 , when the beam power exceeds the so-called critical power V cr , the in
duced spatial self-modulation leads to compression of the beam with bell-shape
intensity distribution. As a result, the effect o f self-focusing occurs. 1
FIG . 2.2. Self-action o f a transform -lim ited wave packet and a collim ated op
tical b ea m in a m edium with cubic nonlinearity (n 2 > 0) . For self-action o f a
wave packet (fc2 < 0 ) : (a ) lines o f equal intensity in the plane r ;, z (solid
lines) and self-m odulation phase (dashed lines) for different values o f ( = z j L d ;
(b) pulse profile; (c) spectrum o f a pulse after SP M . Same pictures are valid
for the b ea m self-focusing: (a) side view, beam s (solid lines) and wave fronts
for different z / L Aif ; (b) profile o f the beam ; and (c) angular spectrum o f the
beam .
The basic stages o f beam self-focusing are analogous to self-compression o f a

wave packet. Therefore, after the corresponding substitution o f the parameters,
Fig. 2.2 can also describe the self-action o f a wave beam, showing graphically
the modifications o f its wave front, cross-sectional intensity distribution, and
angular spectrum s(kx ) . Still, there are some significant differences between
the considered self-action processes. As it was pointed out before, the nonlinear
response o f the medium to the wave packet depends on the relationship between
the pulse duration and the nonlinearity response time t j . W hen a wave
t q
beam propagates in a conventional medium without spatial dispersion, its non

linear response is local. A nonlinear polarization is defined by Eq. (2.1.6) and
is independent o f the beam size. The most cardinal distinction o f dispersive
self-actions o f wave packets and beams lies in their different dimensions.
2.2. Equations o f transient nonlinear optics 89
Dispersive self-actions and instabilities
The distinction manifests itself in the following. Under certain conditions o f

self-action of the pulses and the beams, the regime o f nonlinear propagation
becomes possible, in which their parameters remain constant: for the pulses it is
a soliton regime and for the beams a self-channeling (self-trapping) regime. The
soliton is, however, a steady-state stable wave in respect to small perturbations
(see Sec. 2.6), whereas the self-trapping o f the beam is an unstable regime (see
Sec. 2.8).
It should be also noted that the separate description o f spatial and temporal
self-actions had initially very little in com mon with a real experiment. In most
experiments performed in the late sixties or early seventies with high-power
pulsed lasers, the effects associated with spatial and temporal self-actions were
closely intermingled. It is natural that their strong interaction considerably
com plicates the self-action picture.
Quite new possibilities appeared in nonlinear optics after the development
o f high-quality single-mode fiber waveguides. Since the transverse structure o f
fairly high-power laser radiation holds in such waveguides over the distances
about 1 km, the purely temporal self-actions can be observed.
2.2. Equations of transient nonlinear optics

The propagation o f a plane wave packet in an isotropic medium with cubic
nonlinearity is described by a scalar equation
d2E 1 d2E 4 tt d2P (l) _ 4tt d2P (3)

~ d 7 ~ 7 ~ d tr ~ 7 r ~ & T ~ 7 ~ d t ^ ' ( }
where P ^ is defined by Eq. (2.1.4) and whose left-hand side has the form
(1.1.1). In general, when deriving the approximate nonlinear equations for com
plex amplitudes o f short optical pulses, one should take into account not only
the dispersion o f the linear response, but also o f the nonlinear response.
In this section we shall derive the truncated equations for dispersive self-
actions. The detailed procedure o f obtaining the linear truncated equations for
com plex amplitudes through simplification o f the left-hand side o f Eq. (1.1.1)
is given in Sec. 1.1. Here we shall tackle the right-hand side o f Eq. (2.2.1).
According to Eqs. (2.1.4) and (2.1.5) the cubic component o f polarization at a
frequency w is equal to
P (3) (w; t , z ) = J jP ^ O ) exp [i(ut - kz)] + c. c . , (2.2.2)
where the slowly varying com plex amplitude o f polarization
P(3 )W = 5 JJJ X (3 )(*i ’ *2 ~ ii h ~t2~

> *i)
x A (t — t x) A (t — <2) A* (t — 13) exp [iw(t3 — t 7 —t 1)\dt1 dt7 dt3. (2.2.3)

Q uasi-steady-state and transient self-actions
Assuming a nonlinear response to be inertialess, i.e.,
= TJ Tz < 1 » (2 '2-4)
the response function in Eq. (2.2.3) can be written as
X(3)(ix t 2 , t3) = x (3)(w) 6 ( ^ ) 6 ^ ) S(t3). (2.2.5)
Substituting Eq. (2.2.5) into Eq. (2.2.3), we obtain
p (3\ t) = l x (3)H \ A (t)\ '2A (t). (2.2.6)
According to Eq. (2.2.6) the nonlinear source in Eq. (2.2.1) takes the form
c dr
x exp [i(vt — kz)} c. c. (2.2.7)
The summands in the last relation differ by the order o f smallness with respect
to the parameter
A* = T / tvtq , (2.2.8)
where T is the optical oscillation period; the first summand has the zero order o f
smallness, while the second summand is equal to O(fi) and the third to .
The parameter m will be referred to as a wave transience parameter.
W hen nn , f i < l and
= _ WV 3)
(the overdots denote a derivative with respect to time), we deal with quasi-steady-
state self-action. There are many significant examples indicating that such an
approximation holds down to pulse durations about 100 fs. This approximation
proves quite adequate for description o f self-phase modulation (see Sec. 2.3) and
propagation o f solitons in fiber waveguides (see Sec. 2.6).
Wave transience becomes evident in a nonlinear correction to the group ve
locity since the derivative
£<wvi)=1^+414’.
The augend in this formula is responsible for profile shock waves* (see Sec. 2.4).
A t the same time, as the pulse becomes shorter, one often comes across strong
effects o f inertia o f nonlinear response (see Fig. 2.1); in the field o f ultrashort
*T h e effects caused by wave transience in nonlinear interactions o f waves are discussed in

Sec. 3.2
2.2. Equations o f transient nonlinear optics 91
pulses 5-10 fs long even the fastest electronic nonlinearity becomes, generally
speaking, inertial.
The theoretical description o f nonlinear wave phenomena under these condi
tions is usually based on the simultaneous solution o f the wave equations and
dynamic equations for a nonlinear response. In the case o f a nonperiodic response
the dynamic equations take a relatively simple form. If the nonlinear correction
to the index o f refraction is associated with inertial effects (for example, with
the high-frequency Kerr effect in molecules with anisotropic polarizability), then
the dynamic equation for the nonlinear correction A n takes the form
(2.2.9)
A similar equation can also describe a non-resonance nonlinear correction to the

index o f refraction in the medium whose nonlinear response is represented by
the Duffing-type equation
P (3) + 2 I\ P (3) + f i j p (3) - 7 P (3) = q E ( t , z). (2.2.10)
Here f20 is the natural frequency o f the oscillator, T , 7 , and q are the coeffi
cients characterizing attenuation, nonlinearity, and field influence, respectively.
In the case o f electronic nonlinearity q = Ne/m , where e and m are the charge
and mass o f an electron; N is the number o f electrons in a volume unit. For
the pulsed field that is of interest to us, Eq. (2.2.10) can be simplified using the
perturbation method.
In the linear approximation ( 7 = 0) we can represent the solution o f
Eq. (2.2.10) in the form
> z) — exP - ^z )\ + c - c- 1 ( 2 .2 .11)
and obtain for the slowly varying amplitude
— CO
According to Eq. (2.2.10) the nonlinear part o f polarization P ^ at a frequency

w is determined by the equation
p (3) + 2 r P (3) + f i j p (3) = 1} exp [i(wt - kz)} + c. c. (2.2.13)

O
Then P can be written as
P ^ ( t , z) = —A s(t)A (< ) exp [i(urt — fez)] + c. c. (2.2.14)

92 2. Self-aciion o f optical pulses
Assuming that the correction A e to the dielectric permittivity is a real quantity,

we find a truncated equation for it:
It follows from here that in the general case the temporal behavior o f the nonlin
ear correction to the pulsed field differs, due to Eq. (2.2.12), from the behavior
2 2
specified by Eq. (2.2.9). However, far from the resonance ( fi0 — w > 2wT) ,
when the envelope variation time tq l/T , the quasi-steady-state relation
— q A (t) is valid. Then, expressing A e via A n as A n = we
obtain an equation for A n identical to Eq. (2.2.9).
Note that the calculation presented here provides the frequency dependence o f
2 2 » •
time rn] : rnI = 2F j ( i l a —u> ). The classical model o f an anharmonic oscillator is
o f course inapplicable in the vicinity o f the resonance, and the nonlinear response
is described by the Bloch-type equations. Besides, the self-actions becom e very
com plicated under these conditions (see Sec. 2.7).
If one calculates the nonlinear response function x (î > ^2 ’ ^3) on the basis
o f the m icroscopic model, the transient self-actions can be studied by expanding
the integrand in Eq. (2.2.3) into a Taylor series o f the delay time, similarly
to what was done in the case o f a linear dispersive medium in Sec. 1.1. In
the first-order approximation o f the nonlinear dispersion theory we obtain from
Eq. (2.2.3)
3 r o a ,,> Ft - 1
A ‘ >= j (2.2.16)
This relation is analogous to Eq. (1.1.9) in the first-order approximation o f the

linear dispersion theory. In the considered case for the zero order o f smallness
o f parameter p n , the nonlinear source in Eq. (2.2.1) takes the form:
2
47r d (3) _ 37r2
c at
~2 a42 ~~
c 2W
exp [i(vt — kz)] + c. c. (2.2.17)
From the comparison o f Eqs. (2.2.17) and (2.2.7) it is seen that the dispersion o f
nonlinearity (or, inertia o f nonlinearity) may lead, just as the wave transience,
to the appearance o f profile shock waves. The correction to the group velocity
(3^ (3^
depends in this case on the sign o f the derivative d\ / du . If dx /dw > 0 ,
it has the opposite sign to the correction caused by the wave transience [see
Eq. (2.2.7)].
The expressions for the nonlinear polarization (2.2.17) and (2.2.7) derived in
this section together with the expression for the electric induction (1.1.9) make
it possible to pass from the rigorous integro-differential description (2.2.1) o f a
self-action process to the description based on only the differential equations that
take into account the dispersion o f linear and nonlinear susceptibilities as well
as the wave transience effects. The specific form o f the approximate equations
describing the self-action o f short pulses is given in the following sections.
2.3. Self-phase modulation o f regular pulses 93
2.3. Self-phase modulation of regular pulses
A m edium with fast nonlinearity
We shall start by considering the simplest problem o f quasi-steady-state self-

action o f a plane wave packet. In the first-order approximation o f the linear
dispersion theory this process, in accordance with Eqs. (2.2.1), (2.2.7), and
(1.1.9), is described by the equation
^'4+;Jr4+i'J>|-4|!-4=0' (2-31>
where
P, = Z ^ h j 2 n l = k0n J 2 n 0 (2.3.2)
is the nonlinearcoefficient. Equation (2.3.1) is approximate from the point o f

view o f taking into consideration the nonlinearity o f the medium,since in its
derivation only the first term was retained in Eq. (2.2.7) (the zero approximation
in terms o f wave transience). The solution (2.3.1) in the moving coordinate
system ( tj — t — z/u) is
A(r), z) = J4Q(Tj)exp(-t7?1 z|.AQ|2) , (2.3.3)
or, for the real amplitude p(r) , z) and phase tp(r] , z)
P(V, z ) = P 0( v) , <P(V, z ) = - P J o i v ) 2 , (2.3.4)
where weassume that <p0(r]) — 0 and @1= kQn 7 .

From the last equation it is seen that the pulseprofile propagates with the
group velocity u and does not change. Conversely, the pulse phase varies in
proportion to the distance traversed and the intensity / Q(?j) , thus leading to
SPM. The pulse frequency change due to self-action is equal to
= (2-3.5)
Let us consider the change in a Gaussian pulse caused by SPM. We introduce

the maximum phase shift
V’max = “ f * M = P lI o ( ° ) Z ( 2-3-6)
and the nonlinear SPM length, the distance at which tpmax = 1
^spm = W o ) " 1 (2.3.7)

2. Self-action o f optical pulses
FIG . 2,3. Shape o f a Gaussian pulse (a ) , the reduced phase $ = (p/(PmgLX (&) >
reduced frequency deviation <5u/(<) = Sw(t)/Su>0 (c) , and reduced frequency vari
ation rate a ( t , z ) — a ( t , z)/ct( 0 , z ) (d ) as a function o f time r = v /tq » =
2Vmax /T0 ' " I 0 - Z) = 2Vmax/ T0 •
The magnitude o f the frequency change 6w(t) (2.3.5) grows with the increase o f
p raax . Graphs in Fig. 2.3 show the tem poral behavior o f Sw(t) and the rate o f
its variation.
The spectral density o f the pulse after SPM is specified by the relation
' s(Q = w — w0) = 27r|J4 (Q )[2

+ CO
2
= (271-) 1 y p0(*) e x p { - i [ft* - <£>(*, z )]} dt (2.3.8)
Although Eq. (2.3.8) appears to be simple, the accurate analytical solution is

usually very hard to obtain. Figure 2.4 (a) illustrates the calculated profiles
o f the broadened spectrum of a Gaussian pulse for different values o f the phase
p max . As grows, a modulation appears in the pulse spectrum. The curves
in Fig. 2.4 (a) are plotted for moderate values o f ^>max •
At ^>max >> 1 , i.e., at distances z £ spm , the spectral width o f the pulse
is determined primarily by SPM ; the amplitudes in this case can be treated as
slowly varying. This circumstance allows the steady-state phase m ethod to be
applied for the solution o f Eq. (2.3.8). A t the point o f a steady-state phase t . ,
Switj) = Cl. (2.3.9)
From Fig. 2.3 (c) one can see that at Cl > 0 the condition (2.3.9) can be satisfied
at the time moments t 1 and t2 (tj = t . t () ) , and at Q < 0 at the moments —
and —12 . Consequently, the spectrum will be symmetric with respect to the
frequency uiQ .
The maximum shift in the frequency Su>(t) for a Gaussian pulse (1.1.25) is
equal to
max = (V2 //e /) 1/V" m a x // r 0n = 0.43 <p' ma Awn

x , ’
O (2.3.10)
V /
where AwQ is determined from Eq. (1.1.26). The major part of the pulse energy
is concentrated within the frequency band
A J = 0.86 ipmaxAw0. (2.3.11)

Pm«=0 o.sn it 1.5tt
Z S fe , , 3.5tt
(a )
1.5JT
2 .5 rt 3 . 5 TO
J ____I____L
L 5 0 6Hz x l
4 . 5 ft
(b)
FIG . 2.4. Spectrvim o f a Gaussian p u k e for different m axim um values o f phase
Vmax : ( “ ) theory; ( 6) experiment. 4
The result o f integration o f Eq. (2.3.8) at a steady-state point (2.3.9) can be

written as
A ( t j ) exp { i [<p(tj , z) - , (2.3.12)
where
A (tj ) = [ - i 2 ^ ( t j , z ) ] - 1' 7Po( t.). (2.3.13)
For the spectral density (2.3.8) we obtain
s ( w = w 0 + Q , z) = |A(^)|2 + |A(jt2)|2
+ 2|i(^)| \A(t7)\ c o s [ ip (t 2 , z ) - < p ( t 1 , z ) - Q ( t 2 - t 1)}. (2.3.14)

z. self-action of optical pulses
F IG . 2.5. Spectrum o f a Gaussian pulse after SP M for v miX 1.
The interference term corresponds to the spectral modulation whose magni

tude and period increase towards the edge of the spectrum. Figure 2.5 shows the
broadened spectrum o f a Gaussian pulse calculated for a large value o f <pm .
The total number o f maxima in the spectrum is equal to the integer part o f
V
r max'l i t .
For the first time, the considered characteristics o f nonlinear broadening o f
the spectrum were brought to light by Shimizu. 6
Neglecting the fine structure o f the broadened spectrum, we obtain the fol
lowing expression 9 for its rms width (1.1.21):
A “ rms = [l + (0 .8 8 ^ max) 2] 1/2A W (2.3.15)

rm s 0 ’
At ^>max 1 Eq. (2.3.15) yields the value that practically coincides with the
width Au>' (2.3.11) estimated from the maximum frequency shift. In Ref. 20 the
spectral broadening is calculated for ultrashort noise pulses and the rms width
o f the spectrum,
A -L = [1 + ( 2 ^ ( / 0) , ) 2]A Wr2ms0 , (2.3.16)
is found, which resembles Eq. (2.3.15).

The publications devoted to early investigations o f spectral broadening due
to self-action o f picosecond optical pulses were reviewed in Ref. 7. It should be
noted that the correct interpretation o f experimental data was greatly impeded
by the com peting nonlinear effects, primarily, the self-focusing.
The SPM o f ultrashort pulses in the absence o f self-focusing was first realized 8
in a fiber capillary waveguide filled with CS 2 . The most accurate experimental
data on self-action o f pulses in terms o f their comparison with the SPM theory
were obtained in Ref. 4. The authors investigated the spectral shape at the out
put o f a fiber waveguide as a function o f the input pulse energy [see Fig. 2.4 (6)]
and obtained good agreement with the theoretical expression (2.3.11).
The results presented here pertain to the SPM o f symmetrical pulses. One can
easily make sure that an asymmetric envelope o f the pulse leads to an asymmetric
spectrum.
A m edium with inertial nonlinearity
The quasi-steady-state self-action considered here takes place when the pulse du
ration rQ is much longer then the nonlinear response time rnl . Such a condition
is satisfied in fiber waveguides down to rQ Kt 100 fs (r nl < 10 fs). Conversely,
700 A,r>m
FIG . 2.6. B roadened spectrum o f a Gaussian pulse w ith tq — 2.7 ps and the
nonlinear response time rn( = 9 ps for ¥>max = 265,10
if the high-frequency Kerr effect in liquids (rnl m 1 ps) is employed, then it is

essential to take into account the finite speed o f the nonlinear response already
in the picosecond region of pulse durations. In this case, A n is to be calculated
from Eq. (2.2.9). Limiting ourselves, as before, by the zero-order approximation
in terms o f the wave transience, we obtain the equation
' » + I » + , A a „ ( W ’ ) A ( t , z) = 0 (2.3.17)
Oz u dt n0
describing the self-action process [cf. Eq. (2.3.1)]. According to Eqs. (2.3.17)
and (2.2.9), the phase correction caused by self-action is equal to
z) = -
2 CTnl J pIU)e x p t-------
— T)
dt.
Tn l
(2.3.18)
In the limiting case, when rQ <C r

11
u 0n 2z
z) = J pli*) dt
2 CT.nl
and the frequency variation is defined by the expression
(2.3.19)
2CT.nl
The frequency shift is negative over the entire pulse (n 2 > 0) . Therefore,
the points o f steady-state phase (2.3.9) exist only for negative frequencies Cl.
And this implies that in the limiting case o f “very slow nonlinearity” the pulse
spectrum broadens towards the low-frequency Stoke region.
For a Gaussian pulse the maximum variations o f the phase and frequency are
equal to
, , 1/2 2 wQn 2
= max \<p\ — 7r / V o - ^ 7 m ax ~ P o ~ ^ Z IT 1 (2 -3 .2 0 )
'n l ZCTnl
Both parameters are inversely proportional to the time r L. The broadened

spectrum o f a Gaussian pulse with a finite value o f rn, is shown in Fig. 2.6. It
can be seen that the spectral distribution is essentially asymmetric relative to
the central frequency o f the initial pulse.
2.4. Self-steepening of optical pulses;

shock waves of envelope
The temporal SPM picture o f a constant shape pulse, on which the concepts
presented above, are based, corresponds to the real situations only at the initial
stages o f the self-action process. The shape o f the PM pulse can be assumed
unchanged only until the first-order approximation o f the dispersion theory is
valid. How do the broadened spectrum, envelope, and phase behave in the case o f
the simultaneous presence o f SPM and group-velocity dispersion? This problem
is discussed in Sec. 2.6 and Chaps. 4 and 5.
Right now we want, however, to point out that under special conditions a
significant nonlinear distortion o f the envelope is possible even in the absence
o f dispersion. We are dealing with the so-called shock waves of envelope (self-
steepening) arising during propagation o f sufficiently powerful short pulses in a
nonlinear medium. T h e correct description of these shock waves requires the
wave transience to be taken into account in the first-order approximation in
terms o f the parameter n (2.2.8). The analysis o f this effect is better to begin
with the initial equation
+ i(3x\A\2 A + H2^ { \ A \ 2 A ) = 0 , (2.4.1)
written in the moving coordinate system, where /?2 = n2/ c . As it was noted
in Sec. 2.2, the presence o f the additional term in Eq. (2.4.1) leads to the
dependence o f the group velocity on the intensity o f a propagating pulse. This
fact was noticed for the first time by O strovsky.11
The nonlinear correction to the group velocity for a medium with n2 > 0
leads to the steepening o f the trailing edge o f the pulse in the course o f its
propagation. On the contrary, when n 2 < 0 , the leading edge o f the pulse
becomes steeper. This reminds the well-known phenomenon, the generation of
shock waves in acoustics. Pulse profile distortions growing with distance can
become so intense as to form the shock wave o f the envelope (the profile shock
wave).
Let us turn to the specific analysis. B y going over to the profile and phase,
from Eq. (2.4.1) we obtain the set o f equations
| + 3V 2| = 0, (2-4.2)
<2'« >
Equation (2.4.2) is the equation for the simple wave. In the theory o f waves
in weakly dispersive nonlinear media (nonlinear transmission lines, nonlinear
acoustics), which is based on the m ethod o f slowly varying profile, developed
12
by Khokhlov, an equation o f type (2.4.2) is obtained for the field itself. This
analogy allows one to transfer a number o f results obtained for simple waves, for
example, in the area o f nonlinear acoustics,13 to simple waves o f envelope.
2.4- Self-steepening o f optical pulses 99
E n v e lo p e d e fo r m a t io n
The solution o f Eq. (2.4.2) has the implicit form
z ) = P a { tl - 3 P 2zp2(ri, «)]■ (2.4.4)
Let us analyze Eq. (2.4.4) for a Gaussian pulse for which
p*(ri, z) = pi exp [ ~ ( t] - Zp2zp2) 2/r2]. (2.4.5)
F IG . 2.7. Shape o f a Gaussian pulse ( / ) in a nonlinear m edium , (2) for 3/3^zp^k0 = l .14
To see how the pulse envelope evolves in a nonlinear medium, the last relation
should be rewritten as
n /To = ^ 2 zP2/ To T P ln (P/P0)}1/2 > (2-4.6)
where the minus corresponds to the leading edge o f the pulse and the plus to
its trailing edge. The pulse envelope change in the course o f propagation is
illustrated in Fig. 2.7. The pulse is seen to deform so that the leading edge
becomes flatter, and the trailing edge, on the contrary, steeper. Thus, self-
steepening phenomenon takes place,*
According to Eq. (2.4.5) the pulse peak propagates with the velocity Uj =
u / ( l + 3(32uPa) > which is lower than the group velocity u in the medium. The
steepening o f the trailing edge o f a pulse eventually results in the formation o f a
discontinuity, for which dp/dij = o o , and a profile shock wave. This occurs at
the distance
2 = ^disc = ( e /2 ) 1/2r0/3 /? 2^ « 7W o / A n max , (2.4.7)
which is called the distance o f discontinuity formation (vQ = c / n Q, A n max =

n2p^j2). The length i disc equals approximately the distance at which the pulse
maximum is shifted through its half-width.
*In a tw o-level m edium the steepening o f th e pulse leading edge is shown 21 to be viable
due to its preferential am plification.
Let us evaluate £ disc • In CS 2 , Ldisc » 1 m for a pulse with rQ = 1 ps

2 '
and maximum intensity IQ = 10 G W /c m . In a medium with nonlinearity
n 2 & 10 13 CGSE and for a pulse with I Q = 100 G W /c m 2 and rQ = 10 fs,
the length £ disc ~ 20 cm. These evaluations show that the effect in question is
indeed observable in the experiment.
In the presence of attenuation (50 ^ 0) , one obtains
4 s c = ( - l / 2 * o ) In [1 - (2e)1/2r0V 3 / ? 2p2]. (2-4.8)
Thus, attenuation delays the formation of a shock wave. Obviously, a shock

wave is not formed when L 6 = 1 /2 50 < £ disc . The corresponding critical value
o f attenuation
6cr = ZP2P0 ( 2e) _1 /2ro = 1l 2Ldisc- (2.4.9)
Note that profile shock waves in the absence o f group velocity dispersion have
been theoretically studied in Refs. 14-17, and in the presence o f dispersion and
nonlinearity relaxation in Refs. 11, 14, 18, and 19. The first attempts to observe
experimentally the profile shock waves in optics were made in the late sixties.
Unfortunately, an unambiguous interpretation o f the experimental results was
complicated by a significant contribution o f spatial self-focusing.
22
Grischkowsky et al. observed directly the shape distortion of a 10-ns dye
laser pulse in R b vapor, caused by the formation o f profile shock waves, self-phase
modulation, dispersion o f linear and nonlinear components o f the refractive index
(see Fig. 2.8). For picosecond and sub-picosecond pulses, direct observations o f
the shape are not always possible; information about self-action can be obtained
from spectral chaxacteristics. The form o f spectral broadening under the condi
tions o f manifestation o f the nonlinear correction to the group velocity, described
by Eqs. (2.4.2) and (2.4.3), differs from the broadening under the conditions o f
fast SPM described by Eq. (2.3.1). We shall illustrate this by the approximate
calculations carried out for a pulse of a constant shape ( z <C £ disc i see also
Ref. 23).
Rothenberg and Grischkowsky 84' 85 studied a formation o f profile shock waves
during nonlinear propagation o f ultrashort optical pulses in fiber waveguides in
the region o f normal dispersion. They measured the pulse shape distortions at
the output o f a 2.5-m single-mode fiber waveguide as a function o f power o f an
input pulse 1 ps long. The output pulse had sharp self-steeped edges for a wide
range o f input powers. As the maximum powers reached 250 W , the oscillations
0.3 ps long were found to develop in the vicinity o f sharp edges.
Spectral broadening
We write an envelope in the form p2(>;, z) = p2

Qsech ('i]/rQ) ; then the solution
o f Eq. (2.4.3) takes the form
2
2<p(ii, z) = - w 0»7 + w0T-0 arsinh[sinh(77/r0) - « 2p0z/cT-0]. (2.4.10)
2-4- Self-sieepenmg o f optical pulses 101
(a) | M
■ ■ M
M
H W
W
H M I
a a |H | | il j2 !H |H ||
■ ■ S S l i a S H !
a
m m m m i r m
i — — w— xm ^■
i i i i n a i
I 1 M W M M W
i S l R i n m j w n
FIG . 2 .8 . Self-steepening o f an optical pulse (experim ental data 22 ): left-hand

side, input pulses; right-hand side, ou tpu t pulses. Scale along the x axis is 5 ns
per division. T h e oscillogram s correspond to different detunings o f a tunable laser
from the resonance frequency u>T in the spectrum o f a R b atom (Ar = 794.8 n m ).
T he values o f (wr —cj 0 ) / 2 t v c are: (a) 0.24 c m - 1 ; ( 6) 0.20; (c) 0.23; (d) 0.78.
A ccording to Eq. (2.4.10) the relative change in frequency* is equal to
6u 1 t , Q 2 - 2<2 sin li7-^ 1/2 1

,2 I 1 (2.4.11)
cosh r
where Q = n2p'^z/crQ, r — 77/ 7^ . The maximum frequency shifts towards

the Stokes <5wâx and anti-Stokes regions are determined by the relation
{Q > 0)
= i [(Q 2 + 4 )1/2 T Q] - (2.4.12)
w 0 4 I
For Q < 1 from Eq. (2.4.12) follows the result coinciding

with the result from the SPM theory (see Sec. 2.3), i.e., the spectrum broadening
is symmetrical relative to the frequency .
*Expressions (2.4.10) and (2.4.11) differ from the corresponding formulas of R ef. 23 by a
factor o f 2. This difference (see also Ref. 24), in our opinion, is due to the fact that the m ethod
developed in R ef. 23 takes into account only the dependence o f group velocity on intensity.
In the case when Q 1 , the maximum broadening towards the Stokes re
gion is pa —o)0/2 , and towards the anti-Stokes region 6uiâx tm Q lo0/2.
Consequently, for <3 1 , the spectral pulse distribution becomes strongly asym-
metrical; this asymmetry is associated with the presence o f the term 87p dip/dr}
in Eq. (2.4.3). The authors o f Ref. 23, using the theory presented here, inter
preted the experimental data obtained by Fork ei at. 25 In experiments 25 an
80-fs pulse with a wavelength 627 nm generated, due to self-action, the spectral
continuum extending from 190 to 1600 nm. The laser radiation was focused on
a film containing ethylene glycol, and, at the intensity IQ rs 100 T W /c m , the
spectrum was observed to broaden towards the Stokes (^w„ ax/ w0 = —0.6) and
anti-Stokes (^w^,ax/ w0 = 2.3) regions.
The authors o f Ref. 26 interpreted broadening o f the pulse spectrum in cap
illary fiber waveguides using the picture o f formation of profile shock waves. In
Ref. 27 the spectrum o f ultrashort pulses in a nonlinear medium was calculated
with the account taken for the finite response time o f a nonlinear correction to
the group velocity.
The theory o f spectral broadening presented in this section, as well as the
approach undertaken in Ref. 23, is based on the slowly varying envelope ap
proximation. Clearly, the results o f this theory are not applicable when a pulse
duration equals only a few periods of the carrier frequency. In this case one has
to solve the general equation (2.2.1). In Ref. 24 that equation was solved by
the m ethod o f multiple scales to obtain both the pulse envelope variation and
asymmetric broadening o f the spectrum.
2.5. Self-focusing of ultrashort pulses

The foregoing discussion covered nonlinear propagation o f plane wave packets.
At the same time, the analysis o f spatially modulated ultrashort pulses in linear
media (see Sec. 1.6) demonstrated the com plicated picture o f their propagation
as compared with a plane wave. W hat are the new features that the spatial
modulation o f short pulses add to the phenomenon o f temporal self-action? The
answer to this question will be presented in this section.
The com plex amplitude o f a wave packet in the first-order approximation o f
the linear dispersion theory and in the zero-order approximation in terms o f wave
transience satisfies the equation
A ir ,, r , J) = 0 , (2.5.1)
which is written in the moving coordinate system. In the case o f inertial nonlin-
2
earity An|j4| is the functional given by Eq. (2.2.9).
S te a d y -s ta te s e lf-fo c u s in g
In this case Eq. (2.5.1) is replaced by
§-z + W0A± + i^ Al2\A {r’ z) = 0- (2-5'2)

2.5. Self-focusmg o f ulirashori pulse 103
For illustration, let us examine the solution obtained for collimated Gaussian
beams
A>(r ) = A (r > z = ° ) = A o exP (~ r2/ 2ao) > (2.5.3)
in the so-called aberration-free approximation. Assuming that in a nonlinear
medium the beam retains its shape, we seek the solution o f Eq. (2.5.2) in the
form
A ( r , z) - exp -l g { z ) k2
0 r 2 -i(0) = 0 (2.5.4)
Now we substitute Eq. (2.5.4) into Eq. (2.5.2). In the paraxial approximation
[r <C f ( z ) a 0] , substituting the nonlinear term as
1 el/ ■> I
f ( z )ao
33
and equating the coefficients o f different powers o f r to zero, we obtain
= ( £d
“ ? - C ) / '% ) , (2.5.5)
dz
- ^ i f r/- 2 _ -2 ,
(2.5.6)
dz 2f nl M>'
Here L dii and / t are the characteristic lengths:
2,1/2
■^dif — 0“ 0 > *nl = a o (2 n o / n 2N ) (2.5.7)
The function f ( z ) specifies the width o f the beam, while g(z) and tp(z) the
spatial SPM.
The solution o f Eq. (2.5.5) is
f \ z ) = 1 + ( L ~ 2 - C j ) z 2 = 1 + (z/Ldi{) 2( 1 - V J V J , (2.5.8)
1 2 2
where V Q = g c n 0a0A Q is the total power o f the beam,
V CT = cX /16ir (2.5.9)
is the critical power, A being the wavelength in vacuum. At V 0 = V the

diffraction and nonlinear refraction are seen to be mutually balanced, so that the
radius o f the beam remains constant. W hen V Q > V cv, the nonlinear refraction
predominates, resulting in the self-focusing o f the beam. 29 The focal length of
the distributed nonlinear lens, the length o f self-focusing, L s( can be calculated
from the condition f ( L s() = 0 :
-1 / 2
L^ = LdM r a -i) (2.5.10)
1U4 2. Self-action o f optical pulses
It should be emphasized here that this result is valid only in the paraxial approx
imation, since the expression (2.5.4) does not satisfy the rigorous Eq. (2.5.2).
A more accurate solution can be obtained by numerical methods. In this case,
according to Ref. 28 the Gaussian beam (2.5.3) at V 0 > V'cr is focused at the
distance
L s‘ t = C 0[ v l ' 2 - 0.852(7>'r) 1/2] _ 1 , (2.5.11)
where
CQ = 0.36Ldif(7>'r) 1/2 , V'a = (1.22A)2c/1 2 8 n 2.
The exacting analysis o f the Gaussian beam self-focusing reveals the qualitative
difference from the picture o f the paraxial approximation; in fact, the beam is
not focused at a point as a whole and the peripheral rays cross the beam axis
at longer distances than the paraxial rays. In the cross section o f the beam,
aberration reveals itself in the form o f a ring structure o f intensity distribution.
It follows from Eqs. (2.5.10) and (2.5.11) that the rate o f self-focusing is a
nonm onotonic function o f the initial beam radius. Consequently, there exists
the optimum radius aopt at which the length Ls{ is the shortest. From the
condition dLs{/da0 = 0 we find
“ opt = 2* o
_ 1K / M ! ) 1 /2 = *o * (2 W 0 ) 1 /2 - ( 2 .5 .1 2 )
The value o f aQpt given by Eq. (2.5.12) coincides up to a factor with the charac
teristicdimension o f inhomogeneities having the maximum increment along the
z axisand calculated by the perturbation method (see Ref. 30 and Sec. 2.8). The
presence of inhomogeneities of this size is crucial for self-focusing o f the beams
with com plicated amplitude distribution, since the inhomogeneities whose size
ao fts aopt self-focus more efficiently. As a result, the self-focusing beams prove
unstable with respect to transverse perturbations. In the media with n , ~
10 2
10 cm / k W (e.g., in CS 2 ) aopt Rs 50 pm for laser radiation at A = 1.06 pm
and with intensity I 0 = 100 M W /c m 2 . The growth in laser radiation intensity
leads to the reduction in the size o f inhomogeneities aopt . In this subsection we
considered three-dimensional self-focusing o f light beams. In an optical wave
guide it is possible to realize two-dimensional self-focusing similar to the temporal
self-focusing o f pulses resulting in an optical soliton generation (see Sec. 2.7).
Recently the authors o f Ref. 86 reported the observation o f nondiffracting spatial
soliton beams in a glass planar waveguide.
Q uasi-steady-state self-focusing
Such a process takes place when the pulse duration is much longer than the
nonlinear response time (r Q >• rn]) and described by Eq. (2.5.2) in which the
time i) = t — z f u in the moving coordinate system appears as a parameter;
besides, ^40(r) is replaced by A 0(rj, r) and A { r , z) by A (r j, r , z) . As a
consequence, the length o f self-focusing becomes time-dependent, that is, the
focal point moves. In the aberration-free approximation
(2.5.13)
2.5. Self-focusing o f ultrashort pulses 105
FIG . 2.9. Quasi-steady-state picture o f the m otion o f the foca l spot of a self-
32
focusing beam w ith relatively slow am plitude m odulation as a function of time:
(a) time dependence o f a pulse power; ( 6) foca l spot position.
A moving focus concept was developed for the first time by Lugovoi and
31
Prokhorov. Only the portion o f the pulse whose power V 0(t) > V cr experi
ences self-focusing. The temporal diagram showing the m otion o f focal points is
seen in Fig. 2.9. The moving-focus m odel is applicable down to sub-nanosecond
pulses provided the nonlinear response time r ( ss 1-10 ps.
According to Eqs. (2.5.4) and (2.5.8) the pulse intensity in the aberration-free
approximation is equal to
I(rj, r, z)~ f (r), z) exp (2.5.14)

/ (»», z )a 0J
where
,, = i (2.5.15)
d if
It can be readily found from Eq. (2.5.14) that in the prefocal region (or in the
case o f weak focusing) the pulse duration
2
(2.5.16)
. 2 U tJ V aV - *
The last equation shows that the pulse compression becomes more efficient with
the increase in z and the beam power ^ ( O ) . The pulse duration, as in the
case o f focusing by a lens, is observed to be the shortest in the beam center
and grow towards the periphery. Obviously, rp can diminish considerably in
the moving-focus region. Typically, the pulses compressed in this way are 10 to
100 ps lo n g .10 ’ 42
The picture o f SPM observed for quasi-steady-state self-focusing is more com
plicated than that discussed in Sec. 2.3. In a compressed pulse, the total phase
proves to vary over the cross section o f the beam. As a result, the spectral
bandwidth exceeds to a great extent the value calculated from Eq. (2.3.11) for
a pulse in the absence o f self-focusing.
Some interesting results o f the numerical calculations of quasi-steady-state
self-focusing o f super-Gaussian beams are reported in Ref. 41. The moving-
focus region is determined by the spatial distribution and is the greatest for the
Gaussian shape. It is also shown that the beam self-focusing combined with
the spatial filtering in an optical system makes it possible to enhance the pulse
contrast and control the overall profile o f the pulse train.
In conclusion, note that the moving-focus model helps overcome many dif
ficulties in interpretation o f pulse self-focusing. For more detailed information
concerning this approach we recommend Refs. 5, 7, and 31-34.
Transient self-focusing
A t pulse durations t 0 comparable to rnJ , the self-focusing should be examined

using Eqs. (2.5.1) and (2.2.9). Here the self-actions o f the leading and the
trailing parts o f the pulse differ substantially. During the time i <C t t , the
nonlinear response does not manifest itself, and the leading edge o f the pulse
propagates as in a linear medium. Conversely, the trailing edge of the pulse can
self-focus very efficiently. The theory o f transient self-focusing was developed by
35
Akhmanov, Sukhorukov, and Khokhlov.
In the aberration-free approximation the solution of E q.(2.5.1) can be sought
as before in the form (2.5.4), taking into account Eq. (2.2.9) and the dependence
^40(tf) = A Qp ( t ) , where p{t) is the pulse envelope. Then, e.g., for f (r j, z ) , we
obtain [cf. Eq. (2.5.5)]
2 n
® f i -- 2 , - 3 ,-2 -1 . f j. —4 , . 2 /jN t — f],,
7TT
dz = diff ~ ln\rnl f J f (*> ------- dt-
rnl (2.5.17)
— OO
The solution (2.5.17) determines the temporal and spatial evolution o f the
beam radius. The qualitative picture o f transient self-focusing is illustrated in
Fig. 2.10 showing how various parts o f the pulse propagate. Parts (a) and ( b)
diffract in a linear medium; for the moments o f time ij <C rnl , corresponding
to these parts, the value o f A n is extremely small and self-focusing is absent
2 2 2
( / = 1 + z / £ dif) ■ For parts ( c ) - ( f ) , the value o f A n is sufficient to induce
self-focusing. As a consequence, the pulse distorts into a horn shape with the
optical waveguide forming at the trailing edge o f the p u lse.1
The steady-state regime o f nonlinear propagation in the case /n| = L dif can
be realized for large times. Indeed, from Eq. (2.5.17) we have
v
z) = rn\1 f J
f ~ 4( t , * ) A 0 exP -— ~ dt■
r nl
(2.5.18)
2.5. Self-focusing o f ultrashorl pulses 107
FIG . 2 .1 0 . Transient self-focusing o f a short optical pulse. 33 A t the leading

edge the nonlinear response has n ot yet been established, the pulse propagates
linearly. T he trailing edge o f the pulse compresses due to nonlinear refraction:
(a) time dependence o f pulse power; ( 6) beam shape.
Assuming, for simplicity, p(t) to be a rectangular-shaped function with duration

7"q , the solution o f Eq. (2.5.18) for rj > rn) is / = 1 . T o study the evolution
o f the optical waveguide, the weak temporal dependence o f / should be taken
into account. Then we get the expression
/ 2(r j, z) = 1 + (z /Ldl{f exp ( - r ? /r nl) , (2.5.19)
describing the behavior o f both the leading edge ( t] <C rnl) and the trailing edge
(n > rni) o f the pulse. Defining the bandwidth o f the optical waveguide at the
2
level / = 2 , we obtain the expression
t - z ju = 2rnl In (z/Ldit) , (2.5.20)
relating the length 2 o f the waveguide with the moment o f its origin. According
to Eq. (2.5.20) the waveguide propagates with the velocity
« w = (1 /u + 2rn i/2) _1 (2.5.21)
which is less than the group velocity u o f the pulse. Therefore, the length o f
the optical waveguide will be less than the distance traversed by the wave. The
brightest waveguide portion o f the beam is observed as a filament. However, at
distances exceeding appreciably the spatial scale utq , diffraction leads to the
disruption o f the waveguide regime o f propagation.
The qualitative picture o f transient self-focusing considered above is confirmed
by the results o f numerical analysis. The temporal variations o f the beam
37 3S 3 6 _3 g
radius ' and o f the pulse envelope and spectrum were also investigated.
It is established that an initially symmetric pulse, in the process o f its propaga
tion in a nonlinear medium, grows asymmetric due to steepening o f the trailing
edge. At relatively large distances the envelope modulation may appear. Far
more conspicuous changes are experienced by the pulse spectrum which broad
ens towards the Stokes side. All these changes are illustrated by the graphs in
0 1.0 ZO 3.0 4.0 5.0 -300 -200-WO 0 fOO ZOO 300

(a ) t,ps (b ) a ,cm 1
F IG . 2.11. N orm alized shapes o f pulse (a) and o f spectrum ( 6) at the axis o f
the beam for transient self-focusing at different distances z .37 Curves are plotted
fo r CS 2 for m axim um intensity 280 M W /c m 2 f b ea m radius 125 ^.m , pulse
duration 3.8 ps, and nonlinear response tim e 2 ps.
Fig. 2.11, plotted for CS 2 (rnJ 2 ps) and the input beam radius 125 fim and
maximum intensity 280 M W /c m ; the total pulse duration at the half-height is
equal to 3.8 ps.
Experimental studies o f transient self-focusing are reported in Refs. 39 and
40, in which the ruby laser pulses 10 ns long were used. The liquid crystals
of MBBA and E BBA were used as a nonlinear medium, which enabled
the authors to change rnl by varying the crystal temperature. Since the ratio
To/Tn\ could be changed from 0.21 to 11.3, both the transient and the quasi
steady-state regimes o f self-focusing were realized. The results obtained agree
with theoretical concepts discussed here.
2.6. Superbroadening of spectrum;

spectral description of temporal self-actions
In the spectral domain the self-phase modulation manifests as a spectral broad
ening. The spectral width, as was shown in Secs. 2.3-2.5, depends on nonlinear
properties of a medium and a distance traversed. In a number of experiments
with pico- and femtosecond pulses, however, the strong spectral broadening was
observed, which exceeds the value predicted by Eq. (2.3.11) and extends, as
a rule, from the UV to IR range. This effect is usually referred to as super
broadening, or supercontinuum generation. The superbroadening o f spectra
2.6. Superbroadening o f spectrum 109
o f picosecond pulses was studied in the seventies (see, e.g., Refs. 43-48, 53);
o f the most recent studies we would like to note Refs. 87-90. The experi
ments on spectral superbroadening o f femtosecond pulses are reported in recent
publications. 49 52 ’ 91 93 Such experiments draw special interest caused by high
intensities and strengths o f electric fields that can be obtained in these pulses.
Here we shall present a brief review o f some experimental results involving fem
tosecond pulses.
FIG . 2 .1 2 . Spectral continuum in various gases. X enon: pressure, 30 atm,

pulse duration, 70 fs (crosses); 15 atm, 2 ps (circles). Nitrogen: 40 atm , 2 ps
(squares). 50
Figure 2.12 shows typical examples o f the spectral continuum generated by the
pulses with energy W ~ 0.5 mJ, wavelength A = 0.6 um , and duration 2 ns and
50
70 fs , in gases. In the blue region the spectra are identical for different gases,
pressures, and maximum intensities. In contrast, the spectral density in the red
region depends on the gas com position, the pressure, and pulse intensity. In all
the cases the continuum generation had a clearcut threshold. For femtosecond
pulses the product o f the gas pressure and the threshold power o f the pulse
remained practically constant for 30-fold change in power.
The spectral broadening o f the 0.3-mJ pulses (o f 85-fs duration and wavelength
628 nm) during their propagation in the air was investigated in Ref. 51. Tw o
types o f experiments were carried out, in which the spectral broadening was
studied as a function o f the distance traversed by the pulse and o f the energy
o f the focused pulse. In Ref. 52 the strong spectral broadening was observed in
the 350-fs U V pulses ( A = 308 nm) propagating in the atmosphere.
The authors o f Ref. 92 observed the superbroadening o f kilohertz-rate, sub-
100-fs laser pulses tunable from 785 to 825 nm. The white-light continuum was
produced by focusing the pulses up to maximum intensities about 10 T W /c m
into a spot with diameter 15 on a jet 1.2 mm thick. The liquid jet con
sisted o f a mixture o f 80% ethylene glycol and 20% glycerine. The continuum
generation threshold was equal to approximately 5 T W /c m 2 . The light contin
11U 2. Self-action o f optical pulses
uum spanned the spectral band from 0.4 to 1.0 p m . The continuum generation
threshold in ethylene glycol was found to be three to four times higher at 800 nm
than at 600 nm.
M odels o f spectral continuum generation
Generally speaking, the picture o f spectral superbroadening o f pico- and fem

tosecond pulses is quite complicated. In particular, the joint manifestation o f
several nonlinear-optics effects frequently plays a significant role. Indeed, the
spectral broadening showed in Fig. 2.12 cannot be explained by the self-phase
modulation because the spectral density associated with SPM would grow to
wards the edge of the spectrum (see Fig. 2.5). The authors o f Ref. 50 link
the superbroadening o f the spectrum (Fig. 2.12) with the self-focusing since
the threshold o f self-focusing coincides with the threshold o f spectral continuum
generation within 20%. Earlier, in Ref. 43 it was suggested that the spectral su
perbroadening o f picosecond pulses is caused, by the interaction o f temporal and
spatial modulation during self-focusing. In some cases the spectral superbroad
ening o f short pulses is apparently associated with the m otion o f focal points
in the process o f self-focusing. ’ 32 In Ref. 46 the emergence o f spectral su
perbroadening is noted to be caused by the cumulative ionization o f a medium.
The generation o f picosecond optical continuum in liquids is linked in Refs. 47
and 48 with four-photon parametric processes. In Ref. 5 the spectral broad
ening o f ultrashort pulses is interpreted as a result o f a joint action o f SPM,
self-compression, stimulated Raman and Rayleigh scatterings.
In the references cited above the spectral continuum was observed in centrally
symmetrical nonlinear media. Recently, the authors o f Ref. 54 investigated the
generation o f picosecond continuum in a media with quadratic nonlinearity. The
continuum generation was established to be due to the combined action o f the
parametric process and the stimulated Raman scattering.
Let us discuss still another possible mechanism of spectral broadening, a cross
phase modulation. For the first time this effect was examined in terms o f non
linear optics in Ref. 55. The essence o f the effect is as follows. In the process of
simultaneous propagation o f two short pulses, one o f which is weak and the other
intense, through a medium with cubic nonlinearity, the stronger pulse induces
a phase change in a weaker one. The cross-phase modulation, just as the self
modulation, leads to the broadening o f the spectrum of the weaker pulse. 94-96
The authors o f Ref. 56 calculated the superbroadening o f the spectrum o f the
weak second harmonic induced by a high-power pulse o f the primary radiation in
a medium with cubic nonlinearity. The experiments on induced spectral broad
ening were reported in Ref. 57. The pulse o f the main radiation ( A = 1060 nm)
had a duration o f 8 ps and maximum energy 2 m j, while the energy o f the second-
harmonic (A2 = 530 nm) weak pulse was equal to 80 pJ . The propagation o f
the second-harmonic pulse in the glass was accompanied with insignificant spec
tral broadening. In the presence o f the intensive main pulse the second-harmonic
spectrum exhibited a superbroadening.
The authors o f Ref. 94 studied a new kind of cross-phase modulation result
ing from the coupling o f the second-order and third-order susceptibilities in a
2.6. Superbroadening o f spectrum 111
nonlinear medium. A laser pulse ot the wavelength 1054 nm with duration 8 ps

was focused into a ZnSe crystal. W hen the energy o f the incident pulse was equal
to 2 mJ, the significant spectral broadening o f a second harmonic was observed
from 500 to 570 nm. The second-harmonic energy was equal to about 10 nJ. For
the incident-pulse energies below 1 m.J, the spectrum broadened monotonically
with energy.
The generation o f the superbroadened spectrum o f ultrashort pulses is primar
ily determined by the relation between the theory o f self-action o f wave packets
presented here in the time domain and the theory o f four-photon processes usu
ally treated in the spectral domain. T h e following study is supposed to make
this relationship clear.
On spectral description o f tem poral self-actions
Let us derive the equation describing an interaction o f spectral components o f

a pulse. In so doing, we shall use the general relation (2.1.4) for a nonlinear
polarization. Writing the optical field as
+ 00
E (t, z) = I e E ( o j , z) exp ( —iuit) dt (2.6.1)
— OO
we can single out in E(w , z) an amplitude A slowly varying in space:
E ( u , z) = —A(u>, z) exp [—ik(w)z], (2.6.2)
According to Eq. (2.2.1) we obtain the following equation for A { lj , z)

+ oo
9 At \ i7 r w i f f f \
z) = - 2 ^ ) J J j X "J
— CO
x A ( u>2 , z) A (wz , z) A ( w 4 , z) eiAkz S(u>1 — w2 — w3 — w4) dw4 dui3 <kj2 , (2.6.3)
where
A k = &(wj) — k(uf2) — k(w3) — k(w4). (2.6.4)
Th e integro-differential equation (2.6.3) can be simplified in the two cases.

If in the nonlinear susceptibility x there exist some clearly discernible res
onances, then in Eq. (2.6.3) the significant role is played by the frequencies lying
(3)
near the resonances. Hence, the spectral component x can be approximated
as
4
X(3)H , w 2 , w3 , w4) = X(3)(wl r , w2r, w3r, w4r) f j ^ ( w . r - w j).
3 = 2
Equation (2.6.3) thus reduces to the equation

where A - = A ( wjt ) , u>1 = u>2 + u>3 -f u>4. The expression for A k r is derived
from Eq. (2.6.4) by replacing the frequencies u . with Wjt .
At the same time, one can establish the relation between the spectral-domain
equations (2.6.3) and the time-domain equations, which is easily traced for the
nonresonant non linearity. Indeed, suppose that the interacting pulses have the
spectral widths Aui. with mean frequencies w . Q and the dispersion x can
be neglected within the frequency bands Au>j . We shall describe the dispersion
o f the linear susceptibility o f the medium using the second-order approximation
(1.3.1). Then, the time-domain equations for the com plex amplitudes o f the
pulses can be found from Eq. (2.6.3).
We shall illustrate what was said by the example o f a parametric interaction
o f the type w10 + w4Q = w20 + w3Q , with the phase detuning A kQ = &(w10) +
^(w4o) — ^(w2o) — K w3o) ■ Taking into account Eq. (1.3.1) and the relationship
A ( —lj , z) = A * (w , z ) , and using Eqs. (2.6.1) and (2.6.2), one can rewrite Eq.
(2.6.3) as
dA(Q.1 , z)
= —ip exp {i[A fc + /i(ft)]z } J J j A(£l2 , z ) A ( f l 3 , z ) A * { & a , z)
dz
x e x p {—*[/i(ft4) — h (tt2) — /i(ft3)]2 } i5(Q1 + ft4 — Q2 — ft3) dtt2 dtt3

h ft4
^4 ,’
( 2.6.6)
where
TTUJ-, (3)
f3 — P(^x) — 2cn (w (W10 ’ W20 ’ W30 ’ ~ CJ4o) ’
h ((i.) = ^ - - - k j u . n) n 2 , Q . = u . - u . n.
y 3} u 2 3 1 1 3 3°
i
If we convert now Eq. (2.6.6) to the time-domain form by means o f the relation
+ OO
A ( t , 2) = J A (Q , z) exp { i [fti + h(Cl) z ]} dCl,

then for the complex amplitude A ^ t , z) we get
9 J L d _ *t ^ 1A ^ t , z) = - i p A 2A 3A l e iAk°z . (2.6.7)
dz + U l dt 2 2 10 fit2
The equations for the amplitudes A 2 3 4 have a similar form.

In the case o f a degenerated four-frequency interaction (wQ = . j =
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ; A kQ = 0) we obtain from Eq. (2.6.6) the expression
d_ lS__i
A {t , z) = -i/31\A\2A , (2.6.8)
dz udt 2 2 Qt2
2. 7. Steady-state pulses: soliton regime o f propagation 113
which is the self-action equation using the second-order approximation to allow

for the dispersion o f the medium [see also Eq.(2.7.1)].
In conclusion, it should be emphasized that Eqs. (2.6.7) and (2.6.8) are de
rived under the assumption that the dispersion of nonlinear susceptibility can be
ignored within the bandwidths o f the wave packets. As to the dispersion o f the
linear refractive index o f the medium, it is represented in the left-hand side o f
Eqs. (2.6.7) and (2.6.8), and its properties do not affect the conversion from the
spectral to time domain. Thus, both the spectral- and time-domain descriptions
o f self-actions o f wide-band wave packets turn to be equivalent. However, the
self-actions o f the wide-band wave packets can be adequately described directly
via Eq. (2.6.3).
2.7. Steady-state pulses: soliton regime of propagation

One o f the most interesting phenomena in physics o f nonlinear waves is the for
mation o f stable wave packets (solitons) propagating over considerable distances
with a constant shape. In recent years, nonlinear optics has become more and
more significant for soliton physics. At least three types o f solitons can be identi
fied in the nonlinear-optics processes. First o f all, there are so-called Schrodinger
solitons whose emergence is associated with the balance o f dispersive and non
linear effects in a transparent medium. T h e soliton generation is also possible in
the conditions when the optical pulses produce the change in the population o f
levels in the medium (the “ resonance” solitons). In this case the soliton is formed
if the pulse area (the time integral o f the envelope) exceeds a threshold value,
and the pulse duration is shorter than the inherent relaxation times. Finally,
the optical solitons may arise in a medium with quadratic nonlinearity due to
the interaction o f the waves with substantially different frequencies. In this case
the solitons appear as a result o f a balance between the effects o f a wave group
delay and a nonlinear interaction. This kind o f solitons is discussed in Sec. 3.4.
In the present section the Schrodinger and resonance solitons are considered.
T h e com bined effect o f nonlinearity

and dispersion o f a m edium ; Schrodinger solitons
Self-action o f optical pulses in a nonlinear medium, accompanied by a broadening

o f a spectrum, can lead to the necessity to take into account the dispersion o f the
medium in the second- and higher-order approximations o f the dispersion theory.
A t present, this is the situation, which is most real and most often encountered
in practice in connection with generation o f optical pulses 10-100 fs long. As
distinct from Eq. (2.3.1), self-action o f pulses will be described in the moving
coordinate system by the equation
^ - ^ 0 + ^ 1 ^ = °, (2.7.1)
which is frequently referred to as a nonlinear Schrodinger equation. The pa

rameter fc2 is defined by Eq. (1.1.12) and takes into account the linear disper
sion o f the medium using the second-order approximation. In a medium with
n2 > 0 (/?j > 0) , the pulse frequency shift determined by Eq. (2.3.5) varies as
shown in Fig. 2.3 (c) . On the other hand, a relative delay o f various spectral
components o f a PM pulse is related to the dispersion parameter k2 ^ 0 (see
Sec. 2.4). In a medium with normal dispersion (fc2 > 0 , du/dw < 0) the initial
transform-limited pulse spreads faster than in a linear medium. In a nonlinear
medium with anomalous dispersion ( k2 < 0 , du/dui > 0 ), self-compression
o f a pulse takes place* [see Fig. 2 .2 (6 )]. These processes are analogous to
self-defocusing and self-focusing o f a two-dimensional beam. The nonlinearity
length
£ ni = ^ o ( N W o f 1/2 ( 2-7 -2)

is a temporal analog o f the beam self-focusing length (2.5.7).
The regime o f self-compression is o f special interest. Under the condition
Ld = Lnj , the dispersive spreading o f a pulse is exactly compensated by com
pression. As a result, the pulse retains its shape and a soliton is thus form ed .59
The steady-state shape o f a pulse can be found by setting A in Eq. (2.7.1) in
the form A = Ps(*?)e *rj! . Then for the amplitude we obtain
l k2Ps + TP s ~ P l p l = Q-
This equation is rewritten as
M A / + 2I>s2 - i V s = ° - (2.7.3)
W hen > 0 and k2 < 0 , Eq. (2.7.3) has the solution
/>.(»») = Pso s e c h (il/Ts) , (2.7.4)
where the duration ts of the soliton and its amplitude ps0satisfy therelation
2F = \k2\lT1 — P i P^q- (2.7.5)
The soliton energy density
^ cr = 2|fc2| /^ r s = 2|fc2|A0n27-s (2.7.6)
is inversely proportional to its duration.

Thus, the solitons o f hyperbolic secant shape (2.7.4) can arise in a focusing
medium (f3l > 0) with anomalous dispersion. A t the first stage, the puls
with the energy density W > W cr compresses, and with W < W cr spreads
(see Fig. 2.13). At the same time it is necessary to emphasize that the soliton
(2.7.4) is a stable formation with respect to small perturbations (see Sec. 2.8).
The considered one-soliton regime o f propagation o f pulses (2.7.4) is a partial
solution o f Eq. (2.7.1); the other soliton regimes are discussed in Chap. 5.
*N ote that the self-com pression o f short optical pulses is shown in R ef, 58 to b e possible
in allcali m etal vapors.
2.1. Steady-state pulses: solilon regime o f propagation 115
FIG . 2.13. E volution o f pulse shape w ith distance at different energy density:
(a) W < W cr ; ( 6) W — W CI , soliton regime; (c) W > W Qr .
In a focusing medium with the normal dispersion (fc2 > 0 ) the short pulses
spread; for the details see Chap. 4. Here we shall explore the possible formation
o f the so-called “ dark” solitons. 60 T h ey have the form
—i T z
A S( V ’ z ) = P.o tanh (>?Ak) e (2.7.7)
and satisfy Eq. (2.7.1). Besides [cf. Eq. (2.7.5)],
r = V s “ 2 = /V s o -
According to Eq. (2.7.7) the intensity
- *) = [ ! - sech ( ij/ tb)]Ib0 ,
i.e., the dark solitons represent the drop in the radiation intensity. Another
interpretation o f the solution (2.7.7) is a profile shock wave with the rise time r8 .
Strong resonant self-actions; 2 tv pulses: resonant solitons
Up to now, considering the nonlinear propagation o f short optical pulses, we

assumed the carrier frequency uiQ to be far from the resonance frequencies o f
the medium and the absorption to be negligible. If the carrier frequency o f the
pulse coincides with one o f the resonance frequencies uiQ , then the polarization o f
the medium has to be determined using the equations allowing for the variation
in the populations o f the levels. In so doing, one cannot separate the polarization
in the field o f a high-power pulse into a linear and nonlinear components.
The wave equation describing the pulse propagation takes the form
8 2E 1 d E And P
(2.7.8)
c 2 d t2 c2 dt2
[cf. Eq. (2.2.1)]. We shall limit our analysis with the case o f the exact resonance
( cjq = u>r) . Then the polarization o f the medium
P ( t , z) = N d Q[a ( t , z) cos (wQf — kQz) — b ( t , z) sin (wQt — fc0z ) ] , (2.7.9)

nu z. self-action of optical pulses
where N is the density o f atoms (molecules) and dQ is the dipole moment. The
functions a ( t , z) and b ( t , z) are the envelopes o f the quadrature components
d (t, z) = dQ[ a ( t , z) cos u>Qf — b ( t , 2) sinu>Qf]. (2.7.10)
The evolution o f these functions is described by the nonlinear Bloch equations: 61
a ; b . to -tc
a = - — , b = —— + qpw , w = —q pb--------^ - 2 - . (2.7.11)
where p ( t , z) is, as before, the envelope o f the electric field,
E ( t , z) = p ( t , z) cos (cjQt — kQz ) , (2.7.12)
q = d0/n, h is the Planck constant, w is the difference in the populations

for a single atom, is its equilibrium value, 'J\ and T2 are the times o f
longitudinal and transverse relaxations. According to Eq. (2.7.11) the optical
field changes not only the polarization but also the population difference. As a
consequence, the response o f the medium to the field turns to be nonlinear.
Suppose that the pulse duration rQ <C , T2 . Then, assuming that the
atoms were initially in the ground state (a = 6 = 0 , w — —1 ), it follows that
a(t) = 0 for all moments o f time. Accordingly, the set (2.7.11) reduces to
6 = qpw, w = —qpb. (2.7.13)
The solutions o f these equations are
b ( t , z) = —s i n 6 ( t , z) , w ( t , z) = — cos 0 ( t , z ) , (2.7.14)
where
t
z) = -jr J p { t ' , z)d t'. (2.7.15)

— OO
Hence, the polarization (2.7.9) takes the form
P ( t , z) = N d0 sin 8 { t , z) sin (wQt — kQz). (2.7.16)
Substituting Eqs. (2.7.16) and (2.7.12) into Eq. (2.7.8), and assuming p ( t , z)
a slowly varying function, we obtain the dispersion relation
+ - 1TN—^ 0 cos B {t, z) = 0 (2.7.17)

c he
and the truncated equation
Y z ’ z) = - ^ ~ N d o s i n e (t ’ ZY (2.7.18)
2.7. Steady-state pulses: soliton regime o f propagation 117
The last term in Eq. (2.7.17) can be neglected since it does not exceed the value
8ttN d l u n JVfcwn / 0 , \ 2 , 2
Tt ) feo- (2-7.19)
he p /8 w Vwo
where 0 R = dQp/h is the Rabi precession frequency. The first cofactor, being
the ratio o f the energy stored by the particles to the energy o f the field, is less
than unity; the ratio 0 R/w Q <C 1 . Thus, neglecting the term mentioned before,
we obtain the simplified equation (2.7.17) which becomes the same as in the case
o f vacuum: fcQ = wQ/ c .
The most interesting results are obtained from Eq. (2.7.18). Expressing
p ( t , z) in terms o f 0 ( t , z ) by using Eq. (2.7.15), we substitute it into
Eq. (2.7.18) and eventually obtain the Gordon sine equation:
We shall seek the steady-state solution o f Eq. (2.7.20) in the form 0 ( t , z ) =

9(t — z/ur) . Introducing rj = t — z/ur , we have
d26/dr)2 = rs 2 sin 6 , (2.7.21)
(2.7.22)
Eq. (2.7.21) is an analog o f the physical pendulum equation in which 8 denotes

the angle o f deviation from the equilibrium position. One can easily make sure
that the solution o f Eq. (2.7.21) is the function
6(r)) = 4arctan e x p (^ /r s). (2.7.23)
From Eqs. (2.7.15) and (2.7.23) we find the steady-state field
Ps(v) = (2ft/ dors) sech ( 7? /rs)- (2.7.24)
It is seen that rs corresponds to the duration o f a steady-state pulse.

The pulse (2.7.24) has a corresponding value o f its “area” 0 (+ o o ) = 2w . A c
cordingly, in the theory o f resonance interaction o f radiation with matter, the
solitons (2.7.24) are called 2 it pulses. The 2ir pulses in the process o f their
propagation through a resonant medium take the form (2.7.24). The phenom
enon o f propagation o f resonant optical pulses without attenuation is called a
self-induced transparency.
A medium turns transparent in the field o f short pulses due to the following
reasons. A sufficiently powerful pulse creates, by its leading edge, the population
inversion, thus making the medium accumulate energy. Therefore, the rest o f
the pulse radiation propagates in the excited medium. At the trailing edge o f
the pulse the particles o f the medium release the energy back. The reemission
process proceeds without any energy loss since the duration rs is less than the
relaxation times 7^ and T2 . 61 ’ 62
According to Eq. (2.7.22) the resonant solitons propagate at the velocity
« r = c( ! + 25r^ wodors2) _1 - (2.7.25)
It diminishes with the growth o f the density N o f the particles, carrier frequency
u Q , and duration rs . The last dependence seems quite obvious as the reemission
o f energy o f the optical field results in the delay in the pulse propagation. The
longer the pulse duration, the greater the delay.
(a ) (b)
FIG . 2.14. Input (d otted lines) and ou tpu t (solid lines) pulses in a resonance
m edium at self-induced transparency: (a ) experiment; (b) theory. T he curves
correspond to the pulses whose area is less than 7r ( i ) , 2ir (£), betw een 2-x and
37: (<?), less than 5tt (4)^ and equal to approxim ately 6-tt (5).
The solution o f Eq. (2.7.20) for the arbitrary area # (+ o o ) is fairly compli
cated, being represented as a set o f interacting pulses. Figure 2.14 shows the
behavior o f the pulses with different initial durations in a resonant medium.
The initial pulses with 0 (+ o o ) < 2?r are seen to subside while the pulses with
2?r < 0 (+ o o ) < 3 tt take the steady-state form (2.7.24) and with 0 (+ o o ) > 3ir
break down into separate pulses. A m ore detailed analysis o f the interaction o f
short optical pulses with a resonance medium can be found in Ref. 61.
2.8. Instability o f optical waves m nonlinear media 119
2.8. Instability of optical waves in nonlinear media;

self-action of randomly modulated pulses
In the previous section it was shown that the joint action o f dispersion and
nonlinearity leads, at a certain value o f energy W (2.7.6), to the emergence of
a steady-state pulse, called a soliton. O f great practical interest is the analysis of
the behavior o f the pulse when its energy substantially exceeds the critical value
(a “supercritical” pulse) and its propagation begins with self-compression (see
Fig. 2.13). In this case the problem o f stability o f the self-compression process
comes to the forefront for reasons o f regular or noise perturbations o f the original
pulse.
Note that similar problems appear in the theory o f focusing o f optical beams.
The engineers engaged in developing high-power laser systems have come across
so-called small-scale self-focusing effects in the active elements o f optical ampli
fiers. In this section we shall deal with stability o f optical pulses whose energy
reaches far beyond the critical value, and only briefly discuss the relationship
between spatial and temporal self-actions.
Tem poral instability o f continuous radiation
Let us begin with an examination o f small temporal perturbations at the back

ground of high-power continuous radiation. The com plex field amplitude at the
entrance to a nonlinear medium can be represented as
A 0(t) = p0 + 6A 0( t ) , (2.8.1)
where £j40(i) is the com plex perturbation amplitude, |<5vl0|-C p0 ■ The solution
o f the self-action equation (2.7.1) for the considered wave superposition is sought
in the form
z ) = [p0 + ^ M rl> z)] e x p ( - i r z ) , (2.8.2)
where T = 0 1po is the correction to the wave number, caused by the intense
monochromatic wave. Substituting Eq. (2.8.2) into Eq. (2.7.1) we obtain in the
first-order approximation o f the perturbation theory
- 2
l k2 ^ ) SA = A + 6A*). (2.8.3)
In fact, Eq. (2.8.3) describes the behavior o f the perturbations in the parametric
approximation, with the intense m onochromatic wave performing the pumping.
Separating the real and imaginary components o f the perturbation,
6A(rj, z) = 6AR (r] , z) + i6AI (rj, z ) , (2.8.4)
we get the set o f equations

I/*o
4
A A A.
2
F IG . 2.15. Advanced stage o f m odulation instability o f continuous radiation.

Tem poral intensity profiles are shown for the distances where the contrast o f
pulses is the highest, w ith different ^ rn/S2max : (1) 0.37, (2) 1.36, (3) 1.22.
In the particular case o f harmonic perturbations
6 A b ( j) , z ) = 6A rq cos (Qtj — hz)

( 2 .8.6)
6 A j ( j] , z) = & A I0 sin ( Q t j — h z ) ,
where 6A Rq and 6A/0 are the initial amplitudes, O is the frequency, h is

the wave number. The consistency condition for the set (2.8.5) leads to the
dispersion relation
1/2
h = ± l k nn 2 ( i + 4r (2.8.7)
In a medium with normal dispersion ( k2 > 0) the parameter h is real and the
modulated wave is therefore stable in a nonlinear medium. The situation changes
in a medium with anomalous dispersion (k2 < 0 ). The parameter h becomes
. 1J1
imaginary within the frequency bandwidth 0 < Q < Qcr = (4r/|fc2|) , and
the perturbations grow along the 2 axis with an increment
ff(Q) = ±|fc2|Q(Qc2r - Q 2) 1/2. ( 2 .8 .8)
The maximum value o f the increment
S'max = T = kQn2I0 — Lspm (2.8.9)
is reached at a perturbation frequency

1/2
a (2.8.10a)
or when the modulation period is equal to

1/2
T (2.8.10b)
The experimentally observed values o f g and Tm are listed in Sec. 5.7.

2.8. Instability o f optical waves in nonlinear media 121
Continuous radiation instability in the presence o f temporal modulation was

studied for the first time in the mid-sixties. ' 64 The effects o f optical losses on
139
the modulation instability in a monochromatic wave was recently discussed
in Ref. 65. The authors o f Ref. 66 considered the modulation instability with
allowance made for wave transience. Equation (2.7.1) was supplemented with a
term containing the coefficient 0 2 [see Eq. (2.4.1)]. Note that the modulation
instability o f the wave in the process of self-action occurs in a medium with
anomalous dispersion. In a medium with normal dispersion, only the modulation
instability caused by the cross-modulation can take place (see Sec. 2.6). In
Ref. 67 it is shown that in this case the group delay o f the interacting pulses
produces the greatest effect.
The conclusions drawn in Refs. 11(b), 64-67 and the results obtained here
are valid only at the initial stage o f the modulation instability. At a later stage,
when the perturbations bA become comparable with pQ, the analysis can be
69
performed only by numerical methods. From the practical point o f view, the
harmonic modulation 6.A0(t) = pm cos Qmt raises great interest (see Sec. 5.7).
The amplitude o f harmonic perturbations grows exponentially with distance until
the saturation sets in. At that moment the continuous radiation breaks into a
train o f well-defined pulses. Figure 2.15 illustrates the intensity profiles at the
well-developed stage o f instability, corresponding to different frequencies o f the
initiating modulation. The continuous radiation is seen to transform into a
pulse sequence. As it has been shown in Ref. 69, the maximum contrast o f
radiation, that is, the ratio o f the peak intensity to the background intensity,
is observed at a frequency Qm = 1.22 Qmax . The contrast diminishes as the
radiation propagates further.
0 0.S i
FIG . 2.16. Distance £p = L p / L d , at which the pulses generated due to m od

ulation instability attain the highest contrast, as a function o f relative frequency
o f initiating m odulation ^ m/ ^ max ( fche m odulation m agnitude pm = 0.015 ).
Figure 2.16 shows how the distance Z<p at which the continuous radiation
transforms into a pulse train, depends on the modulation frequency Qm . It is
seen that L .p is at its minimum at in in ax
and weakly
*
depends
r
on Q m at
the center o f the amplification bandwidth. The value o f L grows appreciably
as the frequency Qm approaches the high-frequency boundary Qcr .
Spatial instability o f plane waves and wave beams
For the first time, the stability of a plane wave with respect to spatial transverse
perturbations was investigated in detail by Bespalov and Talan ov.30
Similarly to the problem o f temporal instability, the field in a nonlinear
medium is to be written in the form
A ( r , z) = [pQ + 6 A (r , z)\ exp ( - i T z ) ,
where 8 A {r , z) allows for the weak transverse perturbations (|M| -C p0) . In
accordance with Eq, (2.5.2), their evolution in the medium is described as
( ^ + ^ Aj-) * A = _ ,T (M + M *)- (2'8-n)

The solution o f Eq. (2.8.11) is sought in the form
8 A (r , z) = 6A RQ cos ( k x r — hj^z) + i6A/0 sin ( k x r — h1z). (2.8.12)
Substituting Eq. (2.8.12) into Eq. (2.8.11), we obtain
Ai = ± ^ ( * L - * i ) 1 /2 > *1 = * £ + * ; , * L r = 4*0r- (2.8.1.3)
The transverse perturbations with the wave number |fcx |< fcXcrare unstable.
The maximum increment and the corresponding transverse wave number are
equal to [cf. Eqs. (2.8.9) and (2.8.10)]
U = *oV o - (2.8.14a)
* x max = fcxcr/v^’ = (2 *or ) 1/2- (2.8.14b)

The transverse dimension o f inhomogeneities, found from Eq. (2.8.14b),
« , = 27r/fe±m ax= 2 w(2fcor ) - 1/2 (2.8.15)

is in a good agreement with the estimation (2.5.12). An individual inhomogeneity
t 2
contains the power V « (a ) I0 , exceeding the critical power of self-focusing
(2.5.9), V » 27r'Pc r . As a consequence, the light beam with power greatly
exceeding the critical value and the diameter much larger than a breaks into
separate inhomogeneities which focus to form the filaments. The authors of
Ref. 70 observed experimentally the disintegration o f a laser beam into regular
inhomogeneities The power levels in the individual inhomogeneities surpass the
critical power o f self-focusing while the number o f inhomogeneities increases with
the beam intensity [see Fig. 2.17(a)-2.17(c)].
The disintegration o f optical beams with a finite aperture has been studied
71 72
theoretically for the collimated and converging and diverging beams.
The filament formation depends on the beam shape since this phenomenon is
governed by the transverse intensity profile. Thus, in a real beam, together
with its self-focusing as a whole (a large-scale self-focusing), a breaking o f the
beam into the filaments (a small-scale self-focusing) can develop. W hen the
beam power substantially exceeds the critical value, the small-scale self-focusing
predominates. Note that the characteristic properties o f spatial instability of
contrapropagating plane waves axe discussed in Ref. 73.
F IG . 2.17. D esintegration o f a laser beam during self-focusing.

70
M odulation instability o f pulses
Suppose that the initial conditions o f Eq. (2.8.3) take the form
A >W = Po t1 + ( p J P o) cos sech ( * /ro) (2.8.16)

and the amplitude pQ considerably exceeds the critical value at which a soliton
pulse is formed. A certain idea about the processes occurring in this case can
be acquired on the basis of the quasi-steady-state generalization o f Eqs. (2.8.9)
and (2.8.10), assuming in them IQ = I Q(t) . The values o f <?max and of the
corresponding modulation frequency f imax vary in the course of time and reach
the maximum value at the pulse peak. Detailed information on modulation
instability o f a pulse has been obtained from numerical experiments. 68 It has
been shown that in the case o f harmonic perturbations the frequency bandwidth
o f pulse instability differs insignificantly from that o f continuous radiation having
the same amplitude. Just as in the case o f continuous radiation, the propagation
o f a supercritical pulse is characterized with a point L p at which it breaks into
a train o f subpulses due to the weak dependence o f Lp on f2m in the center o f
the increment frequency band (see Fig. 2.16). Note that the threshold value of
the amplitude 6 A Q , at which the modulation instability becomes predominant
over the compression o f the pulse as a whole, diminishes exponentially with p0 .
Self-action o f random pulses
The effects o f random perturbations on a regular pulse at the initial stage of non
linear propagation have been studied74 76 in the fixed channel approximation
using the path integral method. The essence of the developed approach consists
in rewriting Eq. (2.7.1) in a continual-integral form which is more suitable for
an analytical determination o f statistical characteristics of randomly modulated
pulses in a nonlinear medium. Before demonstrating how this approach is taken,
we shall rewrite Eq. (2.7.1) in the form
|V = 0. (2.8.17)
Here the following designations are used:
V’( r ’ 0 = W o f ’ r = l/r0 , C = Z/Ld , R = L J L spm,

rz'i 2. Self-action o f optical pulses
where Lspm is defined by Eq. (2.3.7), and &2 < 0 . Using the Feynman m ethod
o f path integration, Eq. (2.8.17) can be written in the form
+00
H r, 0 = j i>o(0) G (O , r ; QdB, (2.8.18)

— OO
where V’o(^) = > C = 0) . Formally, the function G { 9 , r) is Green’s func-

78
tion which is expressed via the continual (path) integral
C
G{0 , t ; C) = J exp [ - J £ (r (x ) i ^(x )) dx D t (x ), (2.8.19)
£ { t (x ) , f ( x ) ) = ^ t 2{ x ) + R\ i/>(t ( x ) , x )f ,
where t ( x ) = d r(x)/dx , and the differential D t ( x ) implies that the integration

is taken over the infinite number o f paths connecting the points ( 0 , 0) and
( r , £ ) , with 8 = r(0 ) and r = r(£ ) .
In the case o f random pulses, the rigorous analytical solution o f Eqs. (2.8.18)
and (2.8.19), as well as the original Eq. (2.8.17), is impossible. Obviously,
Eq. (2.8.18) can be solved approximately by the iteration method. The maximum
contribution to Eq. (2.8.19) is due to the paths which satisfy the Euler equation
or, in our case, the equation
t - R ^ - \ i p ( r ( x ) , x)\2 — 0 , (2.8.21)
which is tractable analytically only for a certain form o f ip(r(x) , x ) . As a

zero-order approximation, one can take the solution o f either ipri ( r , x ) , cor
responding to R = 0 , or V’ni('r ) x ) > obtained from Eq. (2.8.17) in which the
dispersion term is neglected. Taking into consideration the propagation o f high-
power pulses, we shall make use o f the latter approximation
y>°(r, x ) = y>ni ( r , x ) = y>0(r)exp[-if£|y>0(r)|2x].
Consequently,
I/O -, *)|2 = |i&0(r)|2. (2.8.22)
The utilization o f this equality in Eq. (2.8.21) means that at the next stage o f
solution o f Eq. (2.8.18) we consider the propagation o f the pulse in the medium
whose properties are determined by the initial pulse. Such an approximation is
customarily called a fixed channel approximation (F C A ). It remains valid over
the distances z < Z<n] [see Eq. (2.7.2)].
75
We shall restrict our consideration to the self-action o f PM pulses. From
Eq. (2.8.22) it is easy to see that the pulse modulation does not affect the
parameters o f the given channel. Provided the pulses have the Gaussian envelope
2 2
|^>0(r)| = exp( —t ) , and taking into account Eq. (2.8.22), we obtain in the
paraxial approximation ( r < 1) the following expression for the optimal paths
from Eq. (2.8.21):
roPt(x ) = 6 «**(V ) + sin ( V ) T s m ^ C ) 0^ ’ (2.8.23)
where hQ — (2R ) 1^2 . The substitution o f Eq. (2.8.23) into Eq. (2.8.19) yields
G ( t , 6 ; 0 = [ - i 2 * h - 1 s i n ( V ) ] “ 1/2
f ( r 2 + 02) cos (/in0 — 2r0 "I

X“ P{ 0----------- 2 ^ 0 -------------- iJ^ } ' ( }
Assuming the pulse to have the random PM
V’o(r ) = e x p [ - r 2/2 + (2.8.25)
the statistical characteristics o f the phase <p0( j ) are
(^ o (r )> = 0 . (^ o (ri) P o f o ) ) = ° exP ( - ( r2 “ ri ) 2/^ph] , (2.8.26)
where rph = Tcph/ r 0 , r h is the correlation time o f phase fluctuations.

A ccording to Eqs. (2.8.18) and (2.8.24), the correlation function o f the pulse
in a nonlinear medium is ( a 1)
b (t 2 ’ ri ; 0 = i . 0 (r2 , 0 )
r i + r a “ 2( ff/ rph)2(r2 - ri ) 2-
= V2 (C)exp (2.8.27)
2V22( 0
V22( 0 = 1 + [ft“ 2(1 + 4(<r/rph) 2) - 1] sin2 (h0Q . (2.8.28)
From Eq. (2.8.27) it follows that in the considered approximation the ensemble-
averaged duration rp o f the pulse and the correlation time r, obey the similar
laws: rp (£) = j rc( 0 ~ '^2Tc p U <T ' Both quantities remain constant
^ = ^ = [1 + 4 (<rr0/ r ph)2]1 /2 , (2.8.29)
i.e., a statistically averaged pulse can propagate in a steady-state manner. This

result differs from the result obtained in Ref. 75 for a pulse with regular PM . Its
interpretation is easy. In some pulses the presence o f PM leads to an additional
broadening or compression o f the pulse, and a certain relationship o f parameters
i/o 2. Self-action o f optical pulses
FIG . 2.18. Desintegration o f a m ultiple-soliton pulse ( TV = 16 ) due to m odula

tion instability. Profiles o f input pulses (dotted lines) and o f desintegrated pulses
(solid lines) for different r .r/T 0 : (a) 0.24; ( 6) 0.96; (c) 1.92.
the average duration o f the pulse and the correlation time can therefore be
constant.
Random PM o f the pulse leads to the increase in the threshold ha (2.8.29)
o f steady-state propagation and, consequently, to the increase in the threshold
energy density. At weak phase fluctuations (a < 1) the pulse (2.8.25) can be
represented as a sum o f a regular and a random part, each o f which behaves
differently in a nonlinear medium. Hence, there is no condition for the steady-
state propagation o f such pulses. The effects o f noise perturbation on the nonlin
2.9. Quantum theory o f self-action 127
ear propagation o f a regular pulse have been considered in Ref. 74 in the given
channel approximation. Threshold conditions for optical soliton formation from
noise pulses have been analyzed in Refs. 79 and 80.
Self-actions o f noise pulses wexe investigated both by the method o f path
76 63 81 8
integration and the method o f statistical testing. ' ’ Let us
Ref. 68 where the influence o f random perturbations o f the form
= £ (O secll( * /r0) > (2.8.30)
on the supercritical pulse was examined; £(t) is the com plex Gaussian random
process with the correlation time rc . Figure 2.18 shows the intensity profiles
o f the initial and disintegrated pulses for different times rc . The pulse is seen
to disintegrate into the sequence o f randomly located subpulses. The disinte
gration length is the shortest when the characteristic “frequency” o f random
perturbations « 27r/t coincides with the center o f the instability region
determined by p0 . As the correlation time increases up to the values com pa
rable with the pulse duration, there may arise a single pulse above the broad
pedestal, although the distance at which it appears does not generally coincide
with the self-compression length o f a deterministic pulse. The overlapping inte
gral o f spectral noise density and g(Cl) play the decisive role here. Hence, the
supercritical pulses experiencing noise perturbations do not compress. At suffi
ciently long distances (z —*■oo) the pulse transforms into a sequence o f solitons
with random parameters.
76 81 82
The calculations o f correlation times, ’ intensity fluctuations, and dis-
81
tribution o f probability density o f the field fluctuations have been carried out
for the noise pulses at the initial stage o f self-action.
In conclusion, we want to emphasize that the investigation o f perturbation
evolution in the presence o f both spatial and temporal modulation is more com
plicated. That is why the behavior o f such perturbations has been so far discussed
77 83
only at the background o f a plane wave.
2.9» Quantum theory of self-action;

formation of nonclassical optical fields
As was established in Sec. 1.8, the quantum fluctuations o f ultrashort optical
pulses practically do not affect their dispersive spreading. How does the self-
action o f quantum pulses evolve? The answer to this question is of special interest
for the physics o f quantum soliton formation (see Sec. 5.11). In this section we
shall consider the quantum theory o f self-action and spell out its distinctions
from the classical theory presented earlier. We begin with a generalization of
the nonlinear Schrodinger equation (NSE) to include the quantum case.
Quantum nonlinear Schrodinger equation
This equation can be formally derived by replacing the com plex amplitudes
ip ( r , C) j 7P(T > C) in a com plex conjugate o f Eq. (2.8.17) with the slowly vary
ing operators <^(r, Q , <P+ ( t , Q corresponding to positive- and negative-
frequency parts o f the field respectively. The nonlinear term has to be replaced
iw Z. belj-achon of optical pulses
by the product o f normally ordered operators. As a result, we obtain the operator

equation in the form
i § C ^ T ’ ® + 5 J t S^ T ’ <’) + R (1>+(t ’ C)<£20 , 0 = 0. (2.9.1)
The operator (j> differs from A ^ used in Sec. 1.8 in its normalization
H r, 0 = A i+\ r , C )< 4 - ) (0 )iS ,+ )( 0 ) r 1/2 (2.9.2)
where (Aq- ^(0)^4q+\ 0 )) is the maximum “photon flux” at the entrance to a

nonlinear medium. According to Eq. (1.8.21), for the operator <f>(r, £) the
following commutation relations are valid:
[<£(>!, 0 > <£+ ( t2 , C)] = <5(7i - r2) ,

(2.9.3)
[ ^ ( t j , c), 4>(t 2 , <)] = [$ (rj, c), b iT2> 0] = o
The sequential transition from Eq. (2.8.17) to Eq. (2.9,1) consists in the
following steps [see, e.g., Refs. 97, 98], Using Eq. (2.8.17), one passes to the
equation for the Fourier components i/>(f2, £) , i/i*(fi, Q which then are com
pared with the photon creation a+ (Q , Q and annihilation a(Ct, C) operators
satisfying the commutation relations (1.8.20). Then, using the inverse Fourier
transformation, one can pass to Eq. (2.9.1) in which the operator <f>(r, Q is
related to a ( Q , £) as
+ oo
0 = I a (Q , C) exp ( —iQ r)d Q .
— OO
The operator cj>+ ( t , £) is a Hermitian conjugate o f the operator <j>(r , £) and

is defined by the expression
-f-O O
<f>+ ( t , C) — J <i+ (Cl, C) exp (iQ r )J Q .

—oo
One can easily see from Eq. (2.9.3) that Eq. (2.9.1) can be derived from the
evolution equation
C )= [i{T , 0 , H] (2.9.4)
with the Hamiltonian

- f OO
B = l \ I ^ + ( T ' ° dT
— OO
+ OC
4-00
+ R J {<f>+ ( T , C)]2 [ ^ ( t , C)]2 ^ | . (2.9.5)
This proves that Eq. (2.9.1) is a well-defined operator equation. It corresponds

to the Heisenberg picture o f the nonlinear dynamics of pulses. As in a linear
dispersive medium, the operators of the total number o f photons N (1.8.21)
and o f the total momentum P (1.8.36) remain constant in a nonlinear medium.
Q u a n tu m lig h t s q u e e z in g
We have already discussed in Sec. 1.8 the quantum effects associated with the
second derivative in Eq. (2.9.1). Therefore we shall primarily analyze here the
role o f quantum effects in self-actions in the absence o f dispersive spreading. We
shall show that the self-action process can promote formation o f non-classical
optical fields. 93-103
Thus, we proceed from the quasi-steady-state quantum equation o f self-action
i d q ^ T ’ q) + (t)+<'T ’ ? ) A r > q) = 0 (2.9.6)
having the solution
4>(t , q) = exp [jgn 0( r ) ] ^ 0( r ) , (2.9.7a)
<f>+ ( t , 3) = ( r ) exP [—*3»0( r )] > (2.9.7b)
where q = = z / £ spm , rc0(r ) = &o(T) the operator o f photon density

at the entrance to a nonlinear medium.
According to Eq. (2.9.7) the photon statistics remains constant in the process
o f self-action:
n ( r , g) = ^+ ( r , q) 4>(t , q) = n0(r ). (2.9.8)
To make the quantum effects more evident, let us first consider the self-action
o f single-mode coherent radiation described at the entrance to the medium by
the operator aQ. In this case Eqs. (2.9.7) take the form
a(q) = exp ( iqa„ aQ) aQ, (2.9.9a)
a+ (q) = a * exp ( —iqa* aQ). (2.9.9b)
For the initial coherent state with amplitude aQ, the mean value of the operator
(2.9.9a) is equal to
a(q) = (a0|a(g)|a0) = (a(q)) - aQ( e x p (iq a * aQ))
= a0 exp [*|a012 sin q — 2|a0|2 sin2( g /2 ) ] . (2.9.10)
2
At q < 1 , neglecting the terms o f order q and higher, we obtain the classical
result [cf. Eq. (2.3.3)]:
a(q) = aQ exp ( i ' t ) , (2.9.11)
where $ = ?|a0|2 is the nonlinear phase correction. From the comparison of

Eqs. (2.9.10) and (2.9.11) it can be seen that in the general case the quantum
nature o f radiation reveals itself already in the first moments o f the fie ld .101 ’ 104
The mean field amplitude is attenuated during the propagation. The mean
intensity o f the field, however, remains constant in accordance with Eq. (2.9.8):
(a+ (q) a(q)) = (a+ aQ) = |aQ|2. (2.9.12)

In quantum optics Hermitian operators correspond to measurable quantities.

Apart from the operators N and P , there exist the quadrature component
operators
X = ^ ( a + a+ ) , y = I ( a - a + ). (2.9.13)
which satisfy the commutation relation [X , F ] = i/2and consequently the

uncertainty relation
< 4 < 4 > 1 / 16, (2.9.14)
where <?x = ( ( A X ) 2) , A X — X — { X ) .
The interest in the quadrature com ponents is caused by the fact that they
determine the current o f a balanced hom odyne detector
K r) = J H ( T - Ti ) j 0( Ti ) dri ’ (2.9.15)
— OO
where H ( t ) is the response function o f the detector and j 0(r ) is the operator
o f the instantaneous current, which, in the case o f intense heterodyne radiation
and unit quantum efficiency o f the detector, is equal to
j 0( T) = A h(T) ‘t>( T ’ <l) + \ ( r ) <j>+ ( t , q ), (2.9.16)
where A h( r ) is the com plex amplitude o f the heterodyne field. At A h( r ) =

Ah
* { T) we g et
T
j { T) = 2 J H ( r - Ti ) A h( Ti ) X ( Ti ’ l ) dri- (2.9.17)
— CO
In the spectral domain for a continuous heterodyne field
j(Sl) = A hH ( Q ) X ( S l , q ), (2.9.18)
where H(Sl) is the transfer function of the detector. In the radiation detection
technique considered here the fluctuations o f current are associated with the
fluctuations o f the quadrature com ponent X .
The mean value o f the quadrature X is equal to
(X ) = ^ K l exP [- 2 K | 2 sin2( ? / 2)] co s (v ? + |a0|2 sin q) (2.9.19a)
where (p is the initial radiation phase, ip = arg aQ . For the meansquare ( X 2)

we obtain
{.X 2) = I { 1 + 2|a0|2 + 2|a0|2 exp [ - 2 |oJ2 sin2 q]
X cos(2y> + g + |a0|2 + | a j2 sin 2 q ) } . (2.9.19b)

2.9. Quanium theory o f self-action 131
FIG . 2.19. Regions o f fluctuations on the phase plane o f radiation in coherent

( l ) and squeezed ( 2 ) states.
W hen q and g|aQ|< 1 , the variance o f the quadrature X is equal to
cr2
x (q) = 1 {1 - 2 sin [2(v? + * ) ] + 4 tf2 sin2 (v? + * ) } . (2.9.20)
For a fixed radiation phase, the variance (2.9.20) is a quasiperiodic function

o f the nonlinear phase 'i' , Provided the value o f 'i' is fixed, the variance ax (q)
assumes the minimum value 100
4 m i n ( 9 ) = j [ ( l + ^ 2) 1 /2 - ^ ] 2 , (2.9.21)
at the optimum value
V’opt = \ arctan * _1 - *• (2.9.22)
Similar calculations show that under this condition the variance o f the quadra
ture Y has the maximum value
4 max(?) = i [ ( 1 + ^ ) 1/2 + ^ ] 2 . (2-9-23)
which agrees with Eq. (2.9.14).

At the entrance to the nonlinear medium, the radiation in the coherent state
corresponds to a quadrature variance <r^(0) = o’y(O) = 1 /4 . The region of
fluctuations o f the incident radiation forms a circle on the phase plane (see
Fig. 2.19). The variance ay grows with the distance traversed whereas the
variance ax diminishes. In this case the fluctuation region takes the form o f an
ellipse, distinctly different from a circle, and the state o f the radiation is usually
called quadrature-squeezed. Sometimes the radiation in this state is referred to
as squeezed light. At 1 ax & ( 4 't ) -2 « (4PxI Qz ) ~ 2 . The squeezing
efficiency in this case is inversely proportional to the square of the radiation
intensity IQ and the square o f the traversed length 2 . It should be pointed
out that the operators (2.9.7) and (2.9.9) are not reduced to the operators of
the two-photon coherent state formed in parametric processes which, under the
optimum conditions, prom ote exponential suppression o f quantum fluctuations
(see Refs. 105-107).
1'62 2. Self-action o f optical pulses
Let us analyze now the quantum self-action o f pulses, described by Eqs. (2.9.7).
Naturally, we shall be dealing with intense optical fields. First, we shall separate
in the operator <P0( t ) the fluctuation contribution A 4>0{ t ) :
h ( T) = ao(T) + A ^ o(r ) ’ ao (r ) = (^ o(r )> > {A ^ o(r ) ) = 0 - (2.9.24)
To obtain the statistical characteristics o f quadratures at the exitfrom a non

linear medium, the operator (2.9.7a) can be written as
0 ( r , q) = a ( r , q) + A ^ ( r , q ) , (2.9.25a)
o( t , q) = { $ ( r , q)} = a0(r ) exp (iqja0( r ) l 2) , (2.9.25b)
A i ( T , q ) = [ ( l + i n r ) ) A t 0(T) + i $ ( T ) e i2vA t i ( T ) ] e i* (T ), (2.9.25c)
where 'S'('r) = </|a0( r )[2. In the considered case we obtain the quantum correla
tion function o f the field (the Glauber correlation function o f the first order):
G(1)(r, r1) = (AX(r)AX(r1))=F(r)5(r-r1), (2.9.26)

where
F ( r ) = 1 {1 - 2« ( r ) sin [2 (<p + « ( r ) ) ] + 4tf2(r ) sin2 + ¥ (r )) }. (2.9.27)
The explicit temporal dependence of the correlation function (2.9.26) indicates

that a random process is transient from the classical point o f view. After averag
ing Eq. (2.9.27) with respect to time and performing the Fourier transformation,
we get the spectrum o f quadrature fluctuations:
- f OO - f CO
(f i) = ^ / - ' I ) «<0r dT = ^ / F ( r ) e‘ nT dr. (2.9.28)

—CO —oo
Note that the structure o f Eq. (2.9.27), coincides with that o f Eq. (2.9.20). If
the phase modulation o f the initial pulse satisfies the expression [cf. Eq. (2.9.22)]
¥>op,( r ) = \ arctan ^ _ 1 (r ) ~ ^ ( ^ > • (2.9.29)
then the expression (2.9.28) takes on the minimum value
= | [(1 + ^ 2( r ) ) 1/2 - H r ) } 2 , (2.9.30)
which coincides with the quadrature variance in the case o f the self-action o f
single-mode radiation (2.9.21). In fact, F ( t ) is a quadrature variance; it changes
adiabatically with the pulse profile variations. In other words, the quantum
fluctuations are suppressed non-uniformly along the pulse profile. The strict
calculation o f the spectrum (2.9.28) for the function (2.9.30) can be performed
only by numerical methods. The quantum analysis o f self-action o f ultrashort
pulses has thus shown that intense pulses can be formed in a non-classical state.
Q uantum instability o f continuous radiation

in a nonlinear m edium
In this subsection we shall be dealing with the behavior o f quantum fluctuations

108
in a continuous radiation field. T o some extent, this problem is a quantum
generalization o f the temporal instability problem which we discussed in Sec. 2.8.
An intense continuous wave will be described in a classical way, with aQ
denoting its amplitude. The photon annihilation operator at the entrance to a
nonlinear medium will be written as
^ o W = ao + 4 W - (2.9.31)
The operator £0( r ) allows for vacuum fluctuations.

By analogy with the classical problem o f the temporal instability o f a wave,
we shall seek the solution o f the quantum NSE (2.9.1) in the following form
[cf. Eq. (2.8.2)]:
4>(t . C) = [|a0l + ^ ( r > 0 ] exP [*'(tC + 0O)1 > (2.9.32)
where 0Q is the phase o f the intense wave, and 7 = 7?|«0|2 is the change o f the
wave number due to the self-action.
In the parametric approximation (in the first-order approximation o f pertur
bation theory) the evolution o f quantum fluctuations in a nonlinear medium is
described by the equation
2
4 ? + ^ ' + 7<f' + + £ ' ) = 0' (“ ' 33)
Hence for the Fourier component
+00
*(^> 0 = (2*0 1 / ^ ( r ’ C) e x p (iQ r )d r

— OO
we obtain
a A b(Q , C ) + ( 7 - m , 0 + 7 b+ ( - Q , C) = 0. (2.9.34)
The Hermitian-conjugate equation takes the form
- i A j+ ( - J 1 , C) + ( 7 - y ) h+ ( “ Q > 0 + 7 b(Q , C) = 0. (2.9.35)
From Eqs. (2.9.34) and (2.9.35) we pass to the second-order equation
2
| ^ 6 ( Q , 0 + 52(Q)6(Q, 0 = 0,
aC
9{n) = %2 72 - n 2) 1/2. (2 .9 .36 )
The solution o f Eq. (2.9.36) with boundary conditions taken into account yields
6 (fi, 0 = p ( n . + 0 * J (-n ), (2-9-37)
where
b0{Q) = b{Q, 0 ),
C) = cosh[gr(Q)C] ~ sinh[sr(fi)C], (2.9.38)
i/(f i, C) = «ff- 1 (0)7sinh[flr($l)C].
Let us consider the quadrature components
X(fi, C) =*[*(«, C )e% 6+(tt, C)e_i#],

f (2.9.39)
Y(Q, C)=^[6(fi, C)eff-b+(Q, C)e'iff],
where the phase 6 = 7 C + 0Q+ 0h and f?h is the heterodyne wave phase. In the
vacuum state (X ) = ( Y ) = (0 jV" |0) = 0 . According to Eqs. (2.9.37)-(2.9.39)
the variance o f the quadrature X is equal to
S(S2, C) = <X2($1, 0 ) = \ { w n > C)|2 + K « . O l2
+ 2 R e [( p (f i, C )K « > C) e*2#] } (2-9.40)
At the entrance to the nonlinear medium 5 ( 0 , 0) = 1 /4 . W hen S(Cl, £) <

1 /4 , the suppression o f fluctuations o f the considered quadrature component
takes place in that medium.
By proper choice o f the heterodyne radiation phase f?h , the following optimum
values can be attained:
5(fi. C)mBX>min = C )l± w n. C)|}2. (2.9.41)
These valuesare determined primarily by the value o f g(Q) . The frequency

dependence o f g(ii) is considered in Sec. 2.8. W ithin the frequency interval
1/2
0 < < f icr = 2 7 , the value o f g(£l) > 0 . Outside the interval g(Cl) is
purely imaginary so that in Eq. (2.9.38) the hyperbolic functions are replaced
by simple sine and cosine functions. The maximum value flfmax = 7 is observed
at the frequency f iopt = f lcr/\ /2 . For the characteristic frequencies = 0 and
, ,w e obtain
opt ’
S <0. C)mlnim„ = j { [ l + W ) 2] ' / ! T 7 C } ! , (2.9.42)
. C )„„ri = j exp ( T '; ( ) (2.9.43)

At the frequency fiopt the dependence o f fluctuation variance on the squeezing

parameter 7 £ proves to be the same as in the optimum case o f phase-matched
degenerate three-frequency interaction (see, for example, Ref. 102). Here the
phase mismatch introduced by an intense wave is completely offset by the fre
quency detuning and the dispersion o f the medium. At the frequencies = 0
and ficr the variance behavior (2.9.42) differs from the parametric case.
At small values o f ( y ( < 1) , one can easily see from the expansion o f
the expressions (2.9.42) and (2.9.43) that the two dependences yield identical
results:
5 ( 0 , O min)max = S ( fiopt, O min, max = l T 7 C + i ( 7 C ) 2. (2.9.44)
This examination provides the picture o f quantum fluctuation behavior at the

initial stage o f interaction with continuous radiation described by the quantum
NSE. In this book we have analyzed only the simplest case: the medium was
assumed non-dissipative and noise-free. The effects o f losses in the medium
and its distributed noise on the quantum squeezing efficiency in a continuous
radiation field have been studied in Refs. 109 and 110.
3. Parametric interactions
and coherent scattering of femtosecond pulses
For param etric am plification and conversion o f light, as well as for optical harm onic gener
ation, a nonresonant electronic nonlinear response in gases and condensed m atter is usually
em ployed. In this case the response time does not exceed 10 fs. T he increase in light inten
sity resulting from m ode-locking o f a laser (tem poral focusing) leads to a substantial growth
in the efficiency o f nonlinear interaction o f waves.
Pulse shortening is usually accom panied w ith an increase in the breakdow n threshold o f
a nonlinear m edium ; the critical field value for an avalanche break-dow n is equal to
^cr ~ V ^ /V
It is therefore natural that the ultim ate efficiency o f an optical frequency doubler and of
a superlum inescent param etric optical oscillator has been achieved for the first time in the
field o f fem tosecond pulses.
T he linear dispersion o f group velocity is a lim iting factor which manifests itself very
sharply for fem tosecond pulses. Th at is w hy the developm ent o f the m ethods to com pen
sate the group-velocity m ism atch o f interacting pulses, that is, the group-velocity m atching
m ethods, is so urgent. O n the other hand, param etric interactions o f wave packets produce,
under conditions o f strong group-velocity m ism atch, som e new nonlinear wave phenom ena
that can b e used as a basis for efficient m ethods o f ultrashort pulse form ation. A m ong these
m ethods are the generation o f “giant” param etric pulses resulting from the interaction o f
short wave packets with largely differing durations, param etric soliton form ation etc.
W hen the pulse durations r p < rn] , nonlinear interactions can be utilized in various
techniques o f transient nonlinear spectroscopy. It becom es possible not only to com pre
hensively study the relaxation o f energy and phase o f an optical excitation b ut to observe
directly the form o f m olecular oscillations o r optical vibrations o f the lattice: the m odern
fem tosecond laser technique makes it possible to obtain optical pulses whose durations last
only one osciEation period !
3.1. Physics of nonlinear interactions

of ultrashort optical wave packets
Violation o f the superposition principle in a nonlinear medium leads to an inter
action, including an energy exchange, between the wave packets with different
central frequencies and propagation directions. In this chapter we shall concen
trate on the discussion o f interaction between the waves with greatly differing
138 3. Parametric interaction and coherent scattering
frequencies. Such interactions prove efficient only when a fast optical nonlinearity
is involved. These interactions can be described in relatively simple terms. A
nonlinear response o f a medium can be represented as a power series in an optical
field:
F = F 1 + F n l, P " 1 = x m E E + x (3)E E E + . . . (3.1.1)
It should be immediately pointed out that even in the case o f high-intensity
(2s)
fields o f pico- and femtosecond optical pulses, the inequalities x E 1,
X ^ E E <C 1 for the spectral com ponents and x ^ responsible for the
interactions considered here, are usually valid. Therefore, a standard procedure
describing the nonlinearity that we intend to use, remains within the framework
o f the perturbation theory. The Maxwell equation
. _ 1 d 2E 4 t d2P l 47T d2P ni

A E -----5-----5------------------- 5----------5- = - T -9— (3.1.2)
c2 dt2 c dt2 c2 dt2
containing a nonlinear source in its right-hand side reduces to the system o f
truncated equations based on the m ethod o f slowly varying amplitudes. In this
case, specifics o f nonlinear interactions o f ultrashort pulses is connected with
various manifestations o f linear dispersion, such as group delay and dispersive
spreading o f wave packets. An obvious consequence o f group delay effects is
a limitation o f the length o f nonlinear interaction. At the same time, these
effects evoke new nonlinear phenomena, such as generation o f “giant” pulses
and parametric solitons. In the latter case, incontrast to Schrodingersolitons
considered in Sec. 2.7, formation o f steady-state pulses results from the balance
between the group delay and nonlinear energy interchange.
As a rule, the group-velocity mismatch, being a first-order dispersion effect,
predominates over the dispersive spreading o f pulses. There are nevertheless a
few significant cases o f nonlinear interaction o f waves occurring under the con
ditions o f group-velocity matching. One o f such cases will be touched upon in
Sec. 3.6 where a Raman frequency shift o f ultrashort pulses in fiber waveguides
is examined. Here, the Stokes pulse generation is governed mainly by combined
effects o f group velocity dispersion and self-phase- and cross-modulation o f in
teracting waves. These effects appear very clearly in the generation o f Raman
solitons with the Stokes frequency and amplitude exceeding considerably that o f
pump pulses.
Coming back to the methodical side o f the matter, most problems o f nonlinear
interaction o f pico- and femtosecond pulses can be solved by the method o f slowly
varying amplitudes. But in this case, however, there are also some exceptions
o f principal interest. In optical detection and difference-frequency generation
there arise electromagnetic pulses whose duration equals one period o f optical
oscillations. Naturally, such pulses can be fully described only by the complete
wave equation. Note also that in this situation, division o f wave phenomena
into self-actions and interactions, being traditional for nonlinear optics, loses its
meaning. Indeed, a spectral width o f the wave packet becomes comparable with
the carrier frequency and consequently overlaps the interval between central
frequencies o f the interacting pulses. W e shall consider an example o f such a
situation in Sec. 3.7.
From the standpoint o f practical applications, e.g., frequency doubling, con

struction o f parametric optical generators, etc., most interesting is a wave in
teraction in the presence of fast electronic nonlinearity. In spectroscopy, on the
other hand, wave interactions in the presence o f atomic and molecular resonances
are more interesting. Although problems o f nonlinear spectroscopy lie outside
the scope o f this book, we shall discuss in Sec. 3.7 one o f its branches, coher
ent Raman scattering spectroscopy, where a transient nonlinear response o f a
medium is used to its maximum advantage.
Application o f ultrashort optical pulses for generation o f pulses o f different
nature constitutes a new and rapidly developing area o f nonlinear wave optics.
In Sec. 3.8 we discuss the generation o f ultrashort acoustic pulses together
with some problems concerning their propagation in solids. No doubt, the ideas
evolved in nonlinear optics o f ultrashort pulses prove quite fruitful in the devel
opment o f this area o f physics.
3.2. Ultrashort pulse frequency doubling

Transient effects in parametric interactions o f ultrashort pulses in a medium with
quadratic nonlinearity are primarily associated with linear dispersion. As it has
been pointed out, a nonlinear response in a medium with quadratic electronic
nonlinearity can be regarded practically instantaneous down to pulse durations
o f 10 fs. Still, theoretical problems arising here turn out to be quite compli
cated and diversified. Even the truncated equations describing three-frequency
wave interactions cannot be solved exactly. Therefore, the various methods o f
additional simplification o f the truncated equations become expedient.
In this section we shall discuss the problem o f second harmonic generation
(SHG) which is considered standard in nonlinear optics. We shall also con
sistently examine the transient effects in the first-order approximation o f the
dispersion theory (with analytical results obtained both for the cases o f weak
and strong energy exchange), the transient effects caused by spreading of wave
packets (the second-order approximation o f the dispersion theory) and, finally,
the effects o f wave transience, or nonlinear coupling. The role o f these effects
in an emergence o f self-actions was discussed in Sec. 2.4. Since we are inter
ested in basic problems o f transient nonlinear interactions, interacting waves, for
simplicity, will be assumed plane and polarization effects and losses ignored.
T h e first-order approxim ation o f the dispersion theory
Suppose that a wave packet
E , { t , 0) = ^ 10(*)eiWlt + c . c . (3.2.1)
falls on a medium with quadratic optical nonlinearity. The field in the medium
can be written in the form
E ( t , z ) = E 1( t , z) + E 2( t , z)
JL^tU j . ra ram etn c interaction and coherent scattering
Substituting Eq. (3.2.2) into Eq. (3.1.2), we obtain the truncated equations in
the first-order approximation of the dispersion theory
dAi . J _ £ d i - - i y A A * e iAiz (3.2.3)

Dz + Ul 8t ~
= <3-2’4>
where
„ (2) 2 . ( 2) 2
2 ttX w, 4ttx w,
y' = - F ^ ' ,!= 1 # ( 3 ' 2 ' 5 )
are the coefficients o f nonlinear wave coupling; and u2 are the group ve
locities o f the fundamental wave and o f the second harmonic (SH), respectively;
A k = 2A/1'* — k^ is the phase mismatch.
Group velocity matching; quasi-steady-state regime. The set o f Eqs. (3.2.3)
and (3.2.4) has the exact solution when the group velocities are equal, u1 = u2
(the group-velocity matching). Th e solution appears especially simple when the
condition o f phase matching, A k = 0 , is also satisfied. Introducing the real
amplitudes and phases A n = pn exp(*Vra) > we get
Piin , 2) = P io il) sech [7 P10( t)) z\ , (3.2.6a)

P2(r) . 2) = P io ti) tanh [i p w { t}) z] , (3.2.6b)
2) = ^ io (1?), <P2(r) ’ (3.2.6c)
rj — t — z j u , 7 = 7 l = 7 2.
In the fixed field approximation, when px and (py can be assumed invariable
along the whole interaction length, that is, when the conversion o f energy of
the fundamental wave into that o f SH is insignificant, p2(r), z) = j z p yo(r}) .
The SH pulse shortens in the process. For a Gaussian pulse o f the fundamental
radiation p 10(r]) = p0 e x p ( —t 2/2T2) the SH pulse duration r2 = Ty/\/2 . As the
conversion efficiency grows, the duration r2 becomes longer and approaches .
According to Eq. (3.2.6c) the frequency doubling of a pulse with the linear chirp
¥>10(!j) — QLTj j 2 is accompanied by the doubling o f the SH frequency variation
2
rate, tp2(r)) = arj — 7r/2 .
Group delay effects; transient regime. In reality, the group-velocity matching
conditions do not hold, as a rule, u 1 ^ u2 . The group delay, appearing due
to group-velocity mismatch, defines the picture o f nonlinear interaction most
effectively. This group-velocity mismatch, or group mismatch, is equal to
a -1
A„
* -1
=A «2 1= _
1
—
1 1 / * ^” 9 * dni \ ,
(3. 2. 7)
X
Obviously, the influence o f the group-velocity mismatch A u _1 on the SHG

efficiency depends on the ratio o f the interaction length and group delay length
(referred to as the walk-off length), /
(3.2.8a)
where Atiij is the spectral width of the fundamental pulse. For a transform-
limited pulse
Lvi = r y \ A u ~ 1\. (3.2.8b)
W hen 2 < Lw , frequency doubhng o f short pulses takes place almost in

the same way as under the conditions o f group-velocity matching. We shall be
referring to this regime as quasi-steady-state. W hen z > L w , thefrequency
doubling regime is explicitly transient. For a fixed pumping field, the solutions
o f Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.4) can be found in this case as
A 2( t , z) — —iy 2 J A 2Q(t — z/u2 -\-Au 1x ) e %^ kT dx. (3.2.9)

o
According to the last equation, the SH spectral density is equal to
s 2(f2, z) = sine2 [(A u 1Q — A k ) 2 /2 ]s 2ss( Q ) , (3.2.10a)
+°° 2
ST ( n ) = ( y 2z ) y , (3.2.10b)
— OO
where ^410(Q) is the Fourier spectrum o f the com plex amplitude vl10( i ) ;
s in cz = x sin x (see Fig. 3.1). Equation (3.2.10b) describes the SH spectral
density in the quasi-steady-state regime o f generation. Equations (3.2.10) are
valid for the arbitrary modulation o f the envelope and phase o f the original pulse.
W hen z Lw , the spectral width o f the SH is less than that o f the fundamen
tal radiation. This implies that transient frequency doubling is accompanied
^_3
with strong spreading o f the SH pulse. W hen the frequency doubling o f a
transform-limited pulse takes place, the SH pulse duration is in fact independent
o f the fundamental pulse duration:
r2 k , |Au 1\z.
It should be noted that for PM pulses the transient effects arise at the lengths
z > L Yv ‘, but not at z < L Yv .
For crystals o f potassium dihydrophosphate (K D P ) and lithium niobate
(LiNbO 3 ), which are used in nonlinear optics, the excitation o f an extraordinary
SH wave by an ordinary fundamental wave with Aj = 1.06 p m is characterized
_^ 12 —13
with the mismatch A u equal to 5 .2 x 1 0 and —1 .0 x 1 0 s /cm , respec-
^ 12
tively. In the former crystal A u = 2.5 x 10 s /c m for A1 = 0.53 p m . To
evaluate the walk-off length we shall take, for example, a fundamental pulse du
ration o f Ty = 100 fs. Then for the above-mentioned values o f Aw 1 we obtain
I<w = 0.2-10 mm. A K T P crystal ( K T i 0 P 0 4 ) with the group-velocity mis-
—1 —12
match Aw = 4.4 x 10 s /c m at Ax = 1.06 p m is quite efficient in frequency
doubling o f pico- and femtosecond pulses. 57
J -tz j. ra ra m etn c interaction and coherent scattering
F IG . 3.1. Spectrum o f second harm onic excited in a transient regim e by a

Gaussian pulse fo r different relative lengths z/ L w : (1) 1 » (2) 1, (5) 5, and
(4) 4; ( / ) - ( 3 ) Afc = 0 , (4) A k L „ = - 1 .
In Ref. 107, 108 the authors calculated the group velocities and their disper
sion for widely used nonlinear crystals (B B O , KDP, K TP, L iN b O a and others).
The SH spectrum has a maximum at the frequency wmax = 2u>l — A fc /A u 1
(see Fig. 3.1), and its width A w 3 = 2n/z\Au 1|. In the transient regime the
central frequency o f the SH can be continuously timed by varying the phase
mismatch A k . In the case o f strong energy transfer, transformations o f the
spectrum and pulse shape are more complicated. One o f the possible approxi
mations to the solution of this problem is indicated in Ref. 1 where the phase
invariance is assumed (see Fig. 3.2).
F IG . 3.2. Shapes o f the pulses I j / J 0 o f fundamental frequency (solid lines) and

I 2/ / 0 (dashed lines) o f SH for L w = ^'conv and different lengths : 1
( 1 ) 0.5, (2 ) 1, ( 3 ) 5; L con r = (t / 'io ) *• Pulses o f fundam ental radiation and SH
distort while propagating through a nonlinear m edium , A u ~ 1 > 0 . SH pulse
broadening is accom panied w ith narrowing o f a fundam ental radiation pulse.
Transient frequency doubling o f a P M pulse. According to Eq. (3.2.10) a

crystal with length 2 > L used for optical frequency doubling can be treated
as a filter with narrow pass band = 2n/(z\Au |) . Then a PM pulse
passing through such a filter shortens according to the laws o f linear optics (see
Sec. 1.5). Indeed, suppose that the fundamental radiation amplitude is
^ io (* ) - P0 e x p [ - ( r ~ 2 - i a ) t 2/2], (3.2.11)
Then, for r ” 1 < A Q f < 2 a rx we obtain from Eq. (3.2.9) the SH intensity
(Air = 0) *
I2( t , z) = [-)2z I 1{t — z/u2) f sine [{t — z/u2) a z A u 1/2 ]. (3.2.12)
From the last equation the pulse duration r2 « (az\Au J|) 1 can be shown to
decrease as z 1 . 1 ’ 4
Note that due to the spatio-temporal analogy mentioned above the discussed
effects appearing in frequency doubling o f short wave packets have the evident
analogy in the theory o f frequency doubling o f limited optical beams. This
analogy has been carefully followed in Ref. 1. The group-velocity mismatch
effects have the corresponding effects associated with a drift o f the beams due
to anisotropy o f a medium.
Back-action effects o f SH on a phase o f the primary radiation; the fixed inten
sity approximation. At a high SH conversion efficiency, an analysis based only
on Eq. (3.2.4) is incorrect since the back-action effects o f the second harmonic on
the fundamental radiation need to be taken into account. A complete analytical
solution o f such a problem is impossible. At the same time, many details o f a
frequency doubling process in the presence o f the back-action can be understood
only after having taken into account the SH effects on the phase o f the funda
mental radiation. Since the phase effects are predominant, this approximation,
referred to as the fixed intensity approximation, 5 is adequate up to a frequency
doubling efficiency o f 50%.
We shall tackle first the problem that has the exact solution and allows one
to grasp the essence o f the fixed intensity approximation and indicate its scope.
For a quasi-steady-state regime, we obtain from Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.4) the
second-order equation for the SH amplitude:
d2 ... a
A 2 {t), z ) = 0 (3.2.13)
d ? + i A k f c + 2 j i'r2I i ( TI’
3A2
A Jr), z = 0) = 0 , (3.2.14)
dz 2=0
*In this chapter the intensity I is m eant as |-An |2.

Replacing the intensity I ^ r ) , z) in Eq. (3.2.13) by the input value I 10(r j ) ,

5 *
we obtain the equation in the fixed intensity approximation. The frequency
doubling thus proceeds with the phase mismatch A k 0 , but with group-
velocity mismatch A u 1 = 0 . Equation (3.2.13) has the solution
z ) - - * 7 2^ i o ( v ) ze lA<:z/2sinc (qz) , (3.2.15)
where
1/2
J l7 2
« = 2 Ak 1 + i
(Ak)
Comparing Eq. (3.2.15) with the exact solution, we can find the region in which
the approximation is valid. From Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.15) we find how the phase
o f the fundamental wave varies:
z ) = <Pq + &<P, (3.2.16)
Atp = [sine (2qz) — l]Afei JYh

1+ i 2/ l o ( 7? )
(A k )
In the case A k ^ 0 an addition to the phase, and consequently to the phase ve
locity o f the fundamental wave, depends on an intensity o f the fundamental wave.
In other words, a peculiar self-action sets in.* T h e nonlinear phase addition at
A k z > 1 and ( A k ) 2 > 167172A1/ lo (0) is equal to
(3.2.17)
It follows from the comparison o f Eqs. (3.2.17) and (2.3.4) that the equivalent
correction to the refractive index o f a medium equals
eq
7 i7 2V (2 7 r A fc ). (3.2.18)
It is seen from here that in the case o f the SH back-action on the fundamen
tal wave the nonlinear medium possesses focusing properties at A k > 0 and
defocusing properties at Afc < 0. Consequently, frequency doubling o f high-
intensity optical beams will be accompanied with self-focusing ( A k > 0) or
self-defocusing o f the fundamental beam, i.e., in media with quadratic nonlin
earity, one can observe the self-actions similar to those appearing in media with
cubic nonlinearity.
Now we shall examine a transient frequency doubling in the fixed intensity
approximation. The com plex amplitude o f the fundamental wave will be taken
in the form (3.2.11). Passing in Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.4) to the new coordinates
7)\ — t ~ z/Uy , V2 = t ' z /u2 (3.2.19)
*This phenom enon was reported for the first time in Ref. 6 .
we obtain the equation
31
+ i n * ) A ( Vl> r,2) = 0 (3.2.20)
dV! dv2 4
7?2)U1=r?2 = °>
d A / dr)l\Vl=V2 = -*'(T2/ A u _ 1 M i o e x P ( - iAfe7?2/A u _ 1 )>
where the following designations are used:
A = A 2 e x p ( —iAkr}2/ A u ~ 1) , r 2^ ) = - 8 7 j 7 2( A u _ 1) _ 2/ 10( 7?1).
The solution o f Eq. (3.2.20) by the Riemann method yields
^ 2(^2 > z) = -*72 j A lo (v 2 ~ A u ~ 1x ) e ' lAkx J0 [g(rj2 , *)] dx , (3.2.21)

0
where J0(g) is the Bessel function o f the real argument,
92(V2 > *) = 8TiT2( 2;- x ) J h o {v2 ~ A u ~ lx ) d x .

0
If the transient regime is due to phase modulation o f the fundamental pulse

(L ^
1 < z < L w) , then according to Eq. (3.2.21) the spectral density o f the SH is
equal to
s 2(£i, z) = sinc2[ 9( Q ) z / 2 ] 4 S8( f i ) , (3.2.22)
q2(Q) = (A k + A u _1 Q )2 + 8TlT27lo (0).
The spectrum s2ss(Q) is defined by Eq. (3.2.10b).

From the comparison of Eqs. (3.2.22) and (3.2.10b) it follows that in a strong
field the SH spectrum depends on the fundamental radiation intensity. In this
case the pass band of the nonlinear filter
/ 27T / 2 A 1|/2
AQf = ^ r T l 1“ 7 TlT2/lo(0) j ’ (
i.e., the SH back-action brings about a narrowing o f its spectrum. The experi
mental observations o f this effect were reported in Ref. 7. The narrowing and
140 X Parametric interaction and coherent scattering
SHG efficiency
FIG . 3.3. Energy efficiency o f SHG as reduced length C* = z /Lcony for different
P M at otr\ : (1) 0 , ( 2 ) 5, (3) 10 . 8
other modifications o f the spectrum were registered in the cross section o f the
SH excited by a Gaussian beam.
Frequency multiplication o f P M pulses; numerical results. At high conversion
coefficients, transient SHG excited by PM pulses cannot be studied analytically.
The numerical solution o f Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.4) has been obtained in Ref. 8;
the results are shown in Fig. 3.3. The phase modulation is seen to hamper a
total conversion o f the fundamental radiation energy into the SH. The phase
relations between the interacting waves produce an oscillating dependence o f the
conversion efficiency on the interaction length.
All the results listed before characterize the frequency doubling o f plane waves.
O f course, their comparison with experimental data requires the cross sectional
distribution to be allowed for. We have already mentioned Ref. 7 in which the
authors report SH spectrum modifications associated with nonuniform intensity
distribution in the beam cross section. O f particular interest is the problem o f
SHG by focused ultrashort pulses. Its detailed analysis is given in Ref. 9.
F IG . 3.4. E volu tion o f SH pulse with am plitude propagating in the field

o f quasicontinuous fundam ental radiation with am plitude p1 : ( i ) initial shape
o f SH pulse, (2) after traversing by the leading edge o f distance z < £ conv ,
(5) steady-state SH pulse form ed at z > £/conv ; t/2 — t — z / u ^ }
Strong energy conversion at large group velocity mismatch; generation o f

“giant” SH pulses. Using SHG as an example, we shall briefly discuss here the
basic possibility to obtain, due to nonlinear interactions, “giant” pulses — that

is, the pulses whose maximum power exceeds the pumping power. The physics
o f this phenomenon is quite easy to interpret. If, for example, a short pulse o f
frequency 2w1 interacts with a much longer pulse o f frequency w1 (they can
be formed independently), then under the conditions o f strong energy transfer
and large group-velocity mismatch the SH propagating at the velocity « 2 > u l
extracts energy successively from various parts o f the pumping pulse. As a result
o f this process, the peak SH power can substantially exceed the peak power at
the frequency Wj . The theory o f this effect has been developed for the first time
in Ref. 1. Assuming that at the input o f the nonlinear medium
^ 1 (^ 1 i z 0) — Pi o(t Ji ) > ^ 2 (^ 1 ' z — 0) = P 2 o ( ^ i ) > Vi = t ~ z / u \ >
we obtain from the set o f Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.4)
J^P2 + IP* = y p l a i h ~ A « _12) + P2o(% ~ Aw” 1*)
- A u ~ 1- ^ - P 2o(Vi ~ A n - 1 *). (3.2.24)
Suppose that at the moment t = 0 a rectangular SH pulse enters a medium

(see Fig. 3.4). According to Eq. (3.2.24) the shape o f the SH pulse in the
medium is described by the following expression:
P2(»7i > z ) = P o ta n h [ ^ + 7 P i o ( 2 - V A u - 1 ) ], (3.2.25)
Po ~ Pia + p Io > ta n h F = (p 10/p0)ta.nh(1 p0tll/ A u ~ 1) + p2Q/p0.
At the leading edge o f the SH pulse (t = z /u or 2 = r/l / A u ~ 1) the amplitude

sustains a jum p equal to p2Q :
P2( - ° ) = P iot m h (yPioz ) > ? 2( + 0) = ?2o + ? i o ta n h ('>'?ic^)- (3.2.26)
W hat was said is illustrated in Fig. 3.4. The duration A r 2 o f the peak forming
in the vicinity o f the leading edge is equal to
A t 2 — |A « l-^ c o n v 1 "^ con v = (T /’ io )
in accordance with Eq. (3.2.25). The shortening o f the length -£conv , or the
increase in the intensity o f the fundamental radiation, leads to shortening o f the
peak. W hen the group velocity mismatch Aw-1 = 1 x 10-13 s /cm , the length
L co n v » 0.1 cm, then A r 0 ~ 10 fs. The fronts o f such duration can be formed
in a field o f picosecond pulses o f fundamental radiation.
From the experimental standpoint, the effects of this kind are easier to ob
serve for nondegenerated interactions. In particular, a well-known example is
the generation o f giant pulses o f stimulated Raman scattering in the case o f
3T
counterpropagating wave interaction with quasi-cw pumping.
j/io J. Parametric interaction and coherent scattering
Dispersive spreading o f pulses; the optim um pulse duration

for frequency multiplication
W hen the group-velocity mismatch effects are insignificant, the dispersion can
affect a SHG efficiency by means o f dispersive spreading o f pulses. It is therefore
clear that whenever we deal with frequency multiplication o f pico- and femtosec
ond pulses, the question o f their optim um duration, resulting in the maximum
conversion efficiency, is legitimate. We shall calculate the optimum duration in
the fixed field approximation for the fundamental wave.
In the second-order approximation o f the dispersion theory the frequency
doubling is described by the equation
“ £ * 2° ^ " 2 ) A i ( ,n , z ) = ~ h A \ ( r ) , z). (3.2.27)
Here rj = t — z / « 2 ; k2 is the dispersion parameter at the SH frequency. The

fundamental radiation amplitude ^ ( 77, z) is determined by Eq. (1.3.2) when
the Gaussian pulse spreads due to dispersion. Solving Eq. (3.2.27) we find the
SH energy
^2 (*) = rf Vw? JJ{( 1+ .X^Xl - i2(1x2)

x [1 - i(2C2 - C1)(^ 1 - * 2)]} 1/2 dxx dx 2 , (3.2.28)
where
W l = TV 12/ 2 5t , C„ = z / L ^ , 4 " } = rlfk ™ , n = 1, 2.
W hen the interaction length z < Ld ’ , the energy
W 2(z) = r f V f i ? [ 1 - ( z / V i z / L ^ f i k f / k ^ - 1/2)]. (3.2.29)
The SH conversion efficiency is seen to be lower in the field o f spreading pulses.

The SH energy is shown in Fig. 3.5 as a function o f the duration 7ô f the fun
damental radiation. For curve 1 corresponding to k ^ k2^ , the saturation
energy
< » « ( * ) * 4 ^ 2( ^ 2)) - 1 /V /2 (3.2.30)
is practically reached at
0.47(|fc22)|z)1/2. (3.2.31)
Curve 2 in Fig. 3.5 is plotted for the condition k^ = 2 k ^ ; the optimum

duration is
r i 0pt « 1 .2 5 ( | 4 2)|z)1 /2 , (3.2.32)
FIG . 3.5. R elative SH energy W 2 = (2k2 ^ 2 W 2 /(z ?J^'2 W 2) as a function of

inverse relative pulse duration f - 1 = (2 k 2z ) 1^2r^~l o f the fundamental radiation
at: ( 1) k ^ = 0, 4S) = k 2 . ( 2) fc21} = 242) = k 2 ’ ( 5) 40= 42) = °-10

and the maximum energy
^ 2max « ^ n ) l/\ ^ / r loptW l (3.2.33)
Despite the large difference between the dispersion parameters and k[l> ,
the expressions for the optimum durations (3.2.31) and (3.2.32) differ only by a
numerical factor. Inasmuch as the condition k ^ = 2k ^ cannot be satisfied in
media with normal dispersion, Eq. (3.2.31) is more suitable for description o f
real phenomena.
Dispersive effects o f nonlinear coupling
Up to now we have been considering the transient SHG processes caused by

dispersion o f the linear susceptibility o f a medium. Now we shall briefly discuss
the effects o f wave transience. T o do this, Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.4) should be
supplemented with the terms o f the first order o f smallness o f /j, (2.2.8),
_ t l 9 ( a a ; ) (3 2 3 4 )
Wj dt 2wj dt
respectively. A contribution o f wave transience, or nonlinear coupling dispersion,
to the SHG process is proportional to ( w ^ ) 1 . Equations (3.2.3) and (3.2.4)
generalized in this way are not analytically tractable. Numerical calculations
under the conditions o f simultaneous phase and group-velocity matching are
presented in Ref. 11. The basic results consist in the following. The highest SH
conversion is reached at the distance
^ = 0 -8 3 ^ X 2 .4 1 ^ ). (3.2.35)
In the region z > Leff the conversion efficiency oscillates around a mean value
that is much below 100%. Thus, the nonlinear coupling dispersion can be re
garded as an additional factor limiting the efficiency o f frequency doubling of
ultrashort pulses.
3.3. Parametric amplification of short pulses

In this section, as in the previous one, we shall deal with the three-frequency
processes o f wave packet interaction emerging due to fast quadratic nonlinearity.
Most attention, however, will be dedicated to the phenomena in which an intense
high-frequency wave imparts its energy to relatively weak low-frequency waves,
i.e., to the processes reciprocal to the SHG.
Many phenomena, such as shaping and compression o f pulses, phase m odu
lation control, and giant pulse generation, discussed in Sec. 3.2, occur in para
metric interactions as well. However, in this case they are usually much more
conspicuous as they develop in the exponentially growing waves. Now we shall
briefly consider the phenomena for which the specifics o f parametric interactions
manifests itself most vividly.
Reshaping and compression o f pulses

by param etric interactions; the basic equations
In the first-order approximation o f the dispersion theory the parametric in

teraction o f wave packets
E (t, z) = E p( i , z) + Es ( t , z) + E i( t , z)
= -z) exP [*'(wp* - kPz)]+ \A ^ ’ exp [*K* “ M)]

+ 'Âi( t , z) exp [/(w^ - k.z)] + c. c. (3.3.1)
whose mean frequencies and wave vectors satisfy the relations
wp = u>s -f- Wj, (3.3.2a)

&p = ks + —Ak , (3.3.2b)
is described by the set o f truncated equations
dA 1 dA * ;A b
^ ^ ■ - (3-3.3)
dAi 13^ » iAiz .

1 7 + - ~ ^ A ? As e ’ (3.3.4)
\ a
“ 9 7 + ^ r “ 9 T = - l7 p ^ e - (3 -3-5)
where
r\ (2) 2 „ (2) 2 o v (2)2
2 ttx w 2 ttx W:
7 ^ - T T ~ ' T i = =
p
are the coefficients o f nonlinear coupling o f the waves. If the phase and group-
velocity mismatch is small, the weak waves at the frequencies w and grow
exponentially in the field o f a high-power pump wave.
3.3. Parametric amplification o f short pulses 151
Quasi-steady-state and transient parametric amplification; pulse duration con

trol. First we shall consider the simplest case. Suppose that together with an
intense high-frequency pump wave a weak (signal) wave with the frequency ws
is sent to the input o f a nonlinear medium:
E (t, z = 0) = E p(t , 0) + E s( t , 0 ), £ ;(f, 0) = 0.
If A k = 0 and walk-off effects can be neglected (wg = « . = « = « ) , then,as

follows from Eqs. (3.3.3)—(3.3.5), the signal wave E a( t , z ) and the idler wave
E ^ t , z) at the frequency w; grow with distance in the fixed pump field. For
example, the signal wave amplitude
> z ) ~ A o i v ) cosh [iPpoiv) z] > ( 3-3-6)
where rj = t —z/u, j = JsJ-r A t high gain coefficients in the field o f the

Gaussian pump pulse, we obtain from Eq. (3.3.6)
A Jtf> z ) = 7J^s0(»?)exP 0 2/ i, (3.3.7)

rs ( Z)-
r o = T^po(0) = K 1 » *■.(*) = ^ / \ / V >
where rs(z) is the duration o f the signal pulse. Thus, the signal pulse acquires
a Gaussian shape irrespective o f its original form. A duration o f the ampli
fied signal pulse shortens with distance as 1j-J z . In practice the pulse can be
compressed by several-fold.
F IG . 3.6. Shapes o f (a) signal pulse and ( 6) pum p pulse in quasi-steady-state

regime o f degenerated param etric interaction at r o2 : ( i ) 5, (2) 6 , (5) 7, (4) 8 ,
( 5 ) 1 0 ; p} = Pj(ri)/Pp0(0), t = v/rp .12
Under the conditions o f strong energy transfer the shape o f the amplified
pulse distorts. It is possible to carry out the relevant numerical calculations.
Figure 3.6 shows how the reverse transfer o f the signal wave energy to the pump
pulse results in the development o f a valley in the signal pulse form.
Note that according to Eq. (3.3.6) the phase o f the signal pulse remains
constant in the process o f parametric amplification provided both the input
signal pulse and the pump pulse are phase modulated. The situation is different
when an idler wave
M'O, z) = (Tj/7s) 1/2^ o (^ ) exP[*Vpo(^)]sinh[7/’ po(,?)z]- (3-3-8)
is considered. According to Eq. (3.3.8) this wave acquires the phase modulation
o f the pump pulse (see the cofactor exp [i<pp0(r))]) • At the same time, the phase
front o f the idler wave proves to be conjugate relative to that o f the signal
wave. As we shall see later, this fact allows the development o f efficient phase
modulation control.
Group-velocity mismatch effects. T h e analysis of the transient regime of
parametric interaction o f wave packets is best started with the case of the signal
and idler waves propagating under the conditions o f group-velocity matching
(z < L while their group-velocity mismatch relative to the pump pulse
(z > L^s ’ p ) , L ^ ’ p^) is sufficiently large. Then in the fixed pump field ap
proximation we can get from Eqs. (3.3 .3 )-(3.3 .5 ), by analogy with Eq. (3.3.6),
2) = 4 o ( ^ ) cosh ' / P Po(ri s + A u - 1px)dx (3.3.9)
where r}s = t - z j u s , A u s : p = l/uB- l /t t p
F IG . 3.7. Giant subharm on ic pulse form ation in the quasi continuous pum p field
for > u p and leading edge rise tim e r le > r cr = |Au“ 1p |La : ( l ) initial
pulse, (2) pulse at j: = L (orrn , (3) z X 2Lform , (4) ' > 2 ; LfoJm is the
distance over which the steady-state pulse is form ed; it is determ ined b y the pump
• - 13
intensity and pulse rise time.
It follows from here that the group-velocity mismatch lowers the gain; as z
grows, predominant amplification is experienced by either the leading edge o f
3.3. Parametric amplification o f short pulses 153
the pulse (at us < up ) or the trailing edge (at us > up ). As a result, the
signal pulse broadens, the interacting pulses leave a pump region at the distance
z L^’ , L^' , and the energy transfer discontinues.
Just as in the case o f SHG, generation o f giant pulses is possible in the process
o f parametric amplification under the conditions o f noticable walk-off. Figure 3.7
illustrates the dynamics o f formation o f a giant subharmonic pulse (in a degen
erated regime o f parametric amplification, ws = u i = wp/2 ) . In contrast to
the frequency doubling regime, the pulse is seen to be compressed much more
efficiently. The detailed numerical analysis is given in Refs. 13 and 14.
It should be finally noted that in the three-frequency parametric interaction o f
short optical pulses a steady-state regime o f the so-called mode amplification is
feasible. In fact, this is still another manifestation o f a peculiar balance between
the nonlinear interaction and dispersion. If the group velocities o f the pump,
signal, and idler waves are chosen so that ug < up < Uj or < up < ug , then
the exponential amplification regime remains also at the distances exceeding
the walk-off length. Besides, the pulses of invariable shape are formed at the
frequencies u g and located on either side o f the pump pulse. This effect was
discussed for the first time by Freidman et al. 15 and by Sukhorukov et al. 16
who presented an elaborate theory o f this phenomenon. The numerical analysis
is carried out in Ref. 12.
F I G .3.8. M odes o f param etric signals in the pum p field pp (ij ) = Pp0 sech (ijp / t )
(dashed line) at various values o f param eters m and l 'ni : ( / ) 1/2, 0 ; ( 2 ) 1 ,
l/ 2 £ , a ; ( J ) 2 , 3 /2 L a ; Vp = t - z / u p .1B
Figure 3.8 shows the structure o f m ode pulses at a signal wavelength for
equal group velocity mismatches A u ~ Xp = A u Xp = A n -1 . The mode gain
coefficients are equal to — e x p (r mz ) . T h e behavior o f the pulses is determined
by the ratio m o f the walk-off length to the amplification length, m = Lw/ L a ,
L w — rp/|A u 1|. At m > 1 /2 the pulse shape remains invariable, its amplitude
grows exponentially with m , and its duration shortens as against the pump
pulse, r [ m^ = rp/m . The amplification terminates at m — 1 /2 .
Note that the condition z > L W has to be satisfied in order to *pass to the
mode regime. Accordingly, the duration exceeds rs in a quasi-steady-state
regime o f amplification. The peak o f a steady-state pulse shifts relative to the
maximum of a pump pulse by the time interval —rp/2 m .
Control o f the sign and velocity o f frequency m odulation
We have considered how the phase modulation o f a pump pulse affects the phase
modulation o f an idler wave in a quasi-steady-state regime o f amplification [see
Eq. (3.3.8)]. W hat are the characteristic properties o f interaction o f PM pulses
in the transient regime o f amplification? T o answer this question, the set o f
Eqs. (3.3.3)—(3.3.5) has to be solved for a PM pump pulse. Before performing
the necessary calculations, we shall make use o f simple considerations based on
the relations between the frequencies and wave vectors:
Wp = Ws + Wi , kp — ks + t , Ak = 0 (3.3.10)
According to Eq. (3.3.10) the deviation o f a continuously varying pump fre

quency is equal to
6Wp = 6ws + , 6u>Jus + 6w J u K= up ,
whence it follows that
6ujS = g* S 8wP ,’ Slo-1 = g.w

*1
,
p 1
q = A u p , 1 1 /Au
*S '
1. ,
S , 1 5
q.
*|
= 1 — g* S . (3.3.11)/
V
In the case o f the pumping with quadratic PM <p {t) = —a pt 2j 2 the phases
o f the signal and idler waves <^5(t) = —a gt 2/ 2 and ^ ( f ) = —a [t 2/2 , where
a s ; = % ia p ■ At qs 1 the frequency variation rate o f the excited pulses
exceeds that o f the pump wave. A ccording to Eq. (3.3.11), however, the signs
o f frequency variation rate are opposite. No doubt, the actual dynamics o f the
interaction o f PM pulses o f finite duration proves to be more complicated.
Here is the solution o f Eqs. (3.3.3)-(3.3.5) for a PM Gaussian pump pulse:
AP = P p W ^ P M V V s ) , Pp(t) = Pp0 e x p ( - t 2/2r2). (3.3.12)
Using the functions
A = A s e x p { - i a iT2/ 2 ) , A 1- exp - z/L^' s)f / 2 ] ,
T = z t /Tp> o c j = a . i -p, j - s , i, p ,
we pass from the set o f Eqs. (3.3.3)-(3.3.5) to the equations
^ ^ + (3.3.13)
These equations are valid provided the process transience is associated with PM
s-*,, a z 2 <C L ^ ’ S^ L ^ ’ l^). Let us assume that at
o f the pump pulse (z < L ^ ’ ^
the input o f a nonlinear medium
A ( r > z = ° ) = A so(r ) ex p ( - * a ;r 2/ 2 ) , A ^ r , z = 0) = 0.
3.3. Parametric amplification of short pulses 155
FIG . 3.9. D ependence o f dispersion param eter q, on the frequency ratio ujJ uj
o f the idler and the pum p waves (solid line, th eory ) . 17
Then, for z <C L and for a high amplification ( z L a) we obtain in the

old notation 18
A s( t , z) = (2 V jr)_1 exp [(1 - r 2) r Q2 - iocsT /2]

-f'oo
2 2
/ j4s0( t — p x) exp [—x + ia s( r — px) /2 ] d
— OO
where p — (Au>a7-p) 1 , Au>a = ^/2(zLa) 1^2|A«i as| 1. When the frequency

bandwidth A w a o f parametric amplification substantially exceeds the spectral
widths o f interacting pulses, we can derive Eq. (3.3.7) from Eq. (3.3.14) at
lA t C .I -O .
Rewrite Eq. (3.3.14) in the form
A s( t , z) = e x p [(l - i 2/T p ) r 0z]

- f OO
x f j4s0(i2) exp — Awa 2( w -f a s<)2/4] df2, (3.3.15)
where A s0(f2) is the Fourier spectrum o f the signal pulse. It follows from the last
equation that the signal gain in a PM pump field is accompanied by a time shift o f
the frequency band o f amplification according to a linear equation u>s = u)s —a st .
Using this relation together with the expression for the instantaneous pump
frequency a / = wp — a t , one can easily derive Eq. (3.3.11). The maximum
frequency deviations in the generated pulses are
s m ax
W as r p, ' Slll>.m ax t e a1 rp .
The ratio
Su>s m ax'
/Aui a = a p\(z L a /)1/2(L(p’
V vv
s))' _1 < 1
specifies the condition at which PM o f the pump pulse weakly affects the ampli
fication process. The same condition limits the maximum frequency deviation
o f the pulse amplified.
Figure 3.9 shows the experimental frequency dependence o f the parameter qs

responsible for PM of the signal pulse. A sharp rise o f qs is seen as the degenerate
regime o f amplification is approached. This result agrees with Eq. (3.3.11). The
experimental realization o f the methods for PM pulse formation is discussed in
more detail in Sec. 4.8.
3.4. Sum-frequency generation; parametric solitons

The contents o f this section are most closely associated with that o f Sec. 3.2
because a frequency summation process is in many respects analogous to SHG
processes. However, dealing with the summation of frequencies in ultrashort
pulses, we can come across some specifics caused by a difference in group ve
locities o f the waves being mixed. Therefore, we shall briefly outline the results
which may turn useful in interpreting experimental data. Basically, the most in
teresting case is observed when the intensities o f the waves to be mixed differ by
a large amount. Under the conditions o f walk-off delay a soliton is then formed
at the sum frequency. This situation is similar to the mode amplification regime
(see Sec. 3.3).
Sum m ation o f frequencies o f ultrashort pulses
The process o f sum-frequency generation in the case o f low conversion efficiency

is described by the equation o f the type (3.3.5)
( I + { I ) A-{t • (‘ ■- t, ) ^ (* ■- i ) (3'41>
in the first-order approximation o f the dispersion theory. Here the amplitudes
A w (t) and A 2Q(t) are the given functions, A k ~ 0 . In the general case the
efficiency o f generation o f the sum frequency ws = uj1 -f lu\2 is determined by the
group-velocity mismatches
A us2 = ! / « * ~ l / U2 - = l / U2 - 1/Ul ( 3‘4 -2)
and their respective walk-off lengths. Thus, the generation practically stops
when the group delay td — |A«21 \z equals the duration o f the input pulse
propagating with the highest velocity. A t u1 > u 2 the walk-off length
1) = ( A « - 1A U i) " 1 , (3-4-3)
where A u 1 is the spectral width at the frequency .

In the considered transient regime o f mixing at z < L^ ^ , the reduced
spectral density at the sum frequency u>s is [cf. Eq. (3.2.22)]
s .(ft , z) - sinc 2 (A u s * f i z / 2 ) ^ qss)( f i ) , (3.4.4)

3-4- Sum-frequency generation; parametric solitons 157
where ft = w — ws ; s£qs<^ (ft) is the reduced spectrum for the quasi-steady-state

case [z < L^ = (A u s21A w 1) _1] . If z > L , then
ftA u 2n
P 2
ss(U , z) 1 +' (3.4.5)
A u 1A u 21
In this equation, as distinct from Eq. (3.4.4), the spectrum is not modulated at
the sum frequency. From Eq. (3.4.5) one can easily find the spectral width in a
substantially transient regime o f generation. Here is its estimation for the cascade
generation o f an extraordinary fifth harmonic in a calcite crystal by ordinary
waves consisting o f mixed fundamental and third-harmonic radiation. For the
wavelengths A1 = 1.06 fim and A2 = 0.353 fim the parameter A u s2 /u21 = 3.3
and the spectral width ratio o f the generated pulse in the transient and quasi-
steady-state regimes is equal to 0.08. In other words, the fifth-harmonic pulse
turns to be 12-fold longer than the original one. Note that the theory o f transient
frequency mixing has been developed in Refs. 19-21.
The effects associated with group velocity dispersion are considered in Ref. 20.
The joint effects o f the mismatch and dispersion o f group velocities shorten the
pulse duration at the sum frequency and raise its energy.
Param etric solitons
Let us take up now the regime o f highly efficient mixing o f short pulses. Suppose
that a pumping is provided by a wave at the frequency u>l . Then in the first-
order approximation o f the dispersion theory the process under consideration is
described by the set o f equations
dA _ i dA . *
^ 7 + 21 o f - = - z)A i M -
(3.4.6a)
dA _i dA
(3.4.6b)
~d7 + sl d ^ = ’ ^ lo fa i) ’
where rj1 = t — z/ul , with the boundary conditions
■^2 ( ^ 1 1 z ~~ 0 ) ~ '^■20 ( ^ 1 ) > A J jl\ 1 z = 0) = 0.
The general solution o f the set (3.4.6) can be written using the Riemann method;
in more detail, it is examined in Refs. 22 and 23. Here we shall discuss a para
metric soliton generation, the phenomenon which is more interesting from the
physical standpoint. When a pump pulse is short, while a pulse with the fre
quency u>2 long { A 20 ~ const), then the leading edge o f the generated pulse with
the frequency ws propagates with the velocity uld = max (u 1 , u2) and its trail
ing edge with the velocity utr = m in (u 1 , u2). The duration o f the generated
pulse increases with the distance traversed. A t z > = Ti/| A ,usl1|, =
T j/I A u ^ I a steady-state pulse is formed at the sum frequency. This quasisoli-
ton can be calculated by assuming d A %2j d z = 0 in Eq. (3.4.6). We shall
3. Parametric interaction and coherent scattering
analyze the solution in the way it has been done in Ref. 22. Depending on
the ratio o f the group velocities o f the pulse, the two regimes are distinguished:
At/ j1 > 0 and Awsl1Aw211 < 0 . In the former case the pump pulse moves
faster (w-j > u 2 , us) or slower (u j < « 2 , us) than the low-intensity waves.
A t (mj u 2 , u3 the lower limit o f integration is to be replaced by + o o . If

G (oo) = riTr (n = 1, 2 , 3 , . . . ) , the amplitude A r outside the pump pulse
(rji > Tj) is equal to zero and the steady-state pulse is thus contained inside the
pump pulse. At G (oo) = (2n + l)7r/2 the amplitude outside the pump pulse
has a constant value independent o f the pump intensity; the steady-state pulse
has in this case a practically rectangular shape.
In the case Awsl1A « 211 < 0 the pump pulse propagates at anintermediate
velocity u 2< uy < u$ or « s < u 1 < u2 . By contrast to Eq. (3.4.7), the shape
o f the steady-state pulse is smooth:
/y | A iT 1| \ 1/ 2
z ) = ( ~S, A ^ i . ) A sechG(oo)sinhC?(?y1). (3.4.8)
Vt2|A«21 IJ
At G (o o ) 1 the pulse amplitude saturates. Parametric quasisolitons can exist
in the PM field o f pump pulses. The numerical calculations presented in Ref. 23
confirm this conclusion.
In three-frequency phase-match interactions o f wave packets a “true” soli-
24
ton can exist in media with quadratic nonlinearity, where spreading o f wave
packets becomes significant. A s in the case o f Schrodinger solitons, the dis
persive spreading o f the pulses is counterbalanced by their nonlinear compres
sion. In this case, however, the pulses with different frequencies get captured
to form multiple-frequency solitons. Generation, collision and decay o f para
metric multiple-frequency solitons are investigated in detail in Ref. 25 (see also
Ref. 106).
3.5. Difference-frequency generation

and IR Cherenkov radiation of femtosecond pulses
Difference-frequency generation as a m ethod to obtain

coherent IR radiation; phase matching conditions
Difference-frequency generation in a medium with quadratic nonlinearity is a

three-frequency process o f the type
Wl - W2 = f i >
(3.5.1)
3.5. Difference-frequency generation and IR Cherenkov radtation 159
which is usually employed to produce a coherent IR radiation. Drawing together

the mean frequencies w1 and w2 o f two quasimono chromatic sources, one can
obtain radiation even in the region o f millimeter wavelengths and thus close the
gap between the optical and microwave ranges.26
The ultimate efficiency o f the process (3.5.1) is determined by the general
laws o f frequency conversion in a medium with nondissipative nonlinearity and
at fa u>2 its order o f magnitude is Cl/u>1 <C 1 . Actually, the efficiency is still
lower since for the frequency Cl lying in the fax IR range, that is most interesting
in terms o f the considered technique, the dispersive properties o f most nonlinear
media are such that the conditions o f the noncollinear phase matching,
fc(1) - fc(2) = k , (3.5.2)
are very difficult to meet. As a result, a large phase mismatch A k appears,

reducing the coherence length Lc = l/|Afc| for the considered process to about
10- 100 /im . There is, however, one important condition that somewhat helps to
overcome this obstacle. At Cl <C , u>2 the transverse dimension a of the space
occupied by a nonlinearly polarized wave with frequency Cl ( P (nl-) ~ E l E*2)
has the order o f magnitude A Rs 2ncjC l, a ~ A . Consequently, the region
occupied by the nonlinearly polarized wave and the region in which the difference-
frequency electromagnetic field is formed, are considerably separated in space.
F IG . 3.10. Generation o f Cherenkov radiation: (a) shape o f exciting pulse;

(b) profile o f exciting beam ; (c) Cherenkov pulse. T he nonlinear polarization
pulse moves at velocity u exceeding the propagation velocity o f IR radiation in a
medium . Interference of em itted waves forms a cone w ith vertex angle 7r — 20o .
Under these conditions, the coherent summation o f waves with frequency Q

in the far-field zone appears obviously in the direction 0Q determined by the
1DU 3. Parametric interaction and coherent scattering
condition (see Fig. 3.10)
- fc ( 2 ) _ knip u(fi)
« - * . = — — = — ( 3 J U >
The phase velocity tinlp(12) o f a nonlinearly polarized wave generated by the

waves with the frequencies w 1 and u>2 , exceeds the velocity v (f2) o f a free elec
tromagnetic wave o f the same frequency. The relation (3.5.3) is similar to the
well-known Cherenkov condition for the radiation directivity pattern o f a charged
particle propagating uniformly at a faster-than-light velocity in the medium. A c
cordingly, the considered phenomenon is referred to as the Cherenkov radiation
o f a nonlinearly polarized wave. Comparison o f Eqs. (3.5.3) and (3.5.2) demon
strates that the Cherenkov condition is equivalent to retaining the longitudinal
components o f wave numbers (or, in terms o f quantum mechanics, pulses).
27
Nonlinear interactions have been observed by Giordmaine et al. under
the conditions o f “ Cherenkov matching” in frequency doubling performed in
a lithium niobate crystal o f special geometry, and in generation o f millimeter
waves by means o f mixing the radiation o f two CO 2 lasers by Bagdassarian
28
et al. T he principal possibility o f the Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation by the
29 30
waves o f any nature has been indicated by Ginzburg. Askaryan has exam
ined the possibility o f Cherenkov radiation by the “bunch” o f nonlinear polar
ization.
Now we shall present the theory o f the Cherenkov IR radiation, based on the
consistent treatment o f this phenomenon in terms o f nonlinear optics presented
for the first time in Ref. 31. It should be pointed out that recent recurrence
o f the interest to this problem is evident. Apparently, the IR radiation can
be obtained by sending into a medium only one sufficiently short optical pulse
instead o f an optical doublet. Then, the beating between its different spectral
components, or the “optical detection” o f the light pulse in the medium with
quadratic nonlinear polarization, generates a short IR radiation pulse.
32
Auston et al. have carried out such experiments with femtosecond optical
pulses. The special technique perm itted a visualization o f a Cherenkov pulse, a
bipolar IR pulse with the duration o f one oscillation period.
Cherenkov radiation o f a nonlinear polarization wave

excited by a doublet o f quasi-m onochrom atic waves
To find out the laws governing the difference-frequency (D F) generation in var

ious experimental methods o f matching phase velocities, we shall treat first the
problem o f DF generation by a doublet o f m onochromatic waves. Suppose that
a superposition o f monochromatic fields of the type
E (t, r , z) = E 1( t , r , z) + E 2( t , r , z)
1 j z x — 1 . . - i(w t—k ^ z ) _ . N
~ 2 i ( r) e +5 2(r) + C ' C‘ ( ^
is fed to the input o f a nonlinear medium. Then, according to Eq. (3.1.2), the
3.5. Difference-frequency generation and IR Cherenkov radiation 161
electric field intensity at the DF Cl = u>2 —u>1 is described by the waveequation
v at
A£df - A | U f - ^ £ ( X (2)^ c at 2)
= ( 7 ) X (2 ) ^ i ( r ) A * ( r ) - fen lp Z ) ] i ( 3 -5 -5 )
&nlp = k ^ — k^ , v — c/n(Cl). (3.5.6)
The coordinate-dependent field E df(r , z) satisfies the relation E dl( t , r , z) =

E(i{(r , z)e and the equation
A E df( r , z) + k 2E d{( r , z)
= - ’TX(2) ( 7 ) A t (r) A * (r ) exp ( - i * ^ * ) , (3.5.7)
where
Cl Cl
k = - = - n(Cl) (3.5.8)
v c
is the wave number o f the free DF electromagnetic wave. Integrating Eq. (3.5.7)
for the case o f plane waves, we obtain
E d{(z) = —(Tr/4)x^2\ci/cn) A v A* e x p [-i(fc — Ak/2)z] sine (Akz/2) , (3.5.9)
where
A k = k — knlp = k - kW + k{2\
W hat is the result o f spatial finiteness o f exciting beams ? To answer this

question, we shall pass in Eq. (3.5.7) to the spatial spectra
+ OO
E d{( k ± , z) = (27r) 2 J J Ed{(r , z) exp (ik ± r ) f r . (3.5.10)

— OO
If the beams with the frequencies w1 , w2 are slightly divergent, the DF com
ponent o f the spatial spectrum satisfies the equation
d2
Edf( k x , z) + (k — kj_)Ed{( k ± , z) = —j F ( k ± ) exp (—iknlpz ) , (3.5.11)
2 2 2
k = ^|| + k± , where fey and k± are the longitudinal (along the z axis) and
transverse components o f the difference-frequency wave vector; 7 = Trx '^CT/c .

The function F ( k ± ) is determined by a convolution o f angular spectra o f excit
ing beams, which is convenient to write down as
+ OO
F ( k ± ) = J J A 1 ( k li )) A l ( k il )) 6( k ± + k f } - k l( }) d2^ d2k(l } . (3.5.12)

—OO
Integrating Eq. (3.5.11) with allowance made for the boundary conditions at
the input to the medium, E dt(k ± , 0) = 0 , and for the radiation conditions, we
obtain
z ) = ~ i k T k— F (k ± )
K || + * n lp
x exp Q ( i u + t nlp) z j sine Q ( * nlp - ty) z ) - (3.5.13)
The solution (3.5.13) makes it possible to substantiate and refine the qual
itative considerations which led us to derivation of Eq. (3.5.3). The two key
aspects are (i) a slight divergence o f pump beams, i.e., the vector &nlp insignifi
cantly deviates from the z axis, and (ii) a small characteristic size o f the spatial
region, occupied by the nonlinear polarization wave, as against the DF radiation
wavelength. Thus, the value o f jbn, in Eq. (3.5.13) can be regarded constant
and the DF field is therefore maximal when
fcniP = k± = k cos 60 , (3.5.14)
that is, when the Cherenkov condition (3.5.3) is satisfied.

The DF radiation amplitude is determined by the factor F ( k ± ) . For a Gauss
ian cross-sectional profile o f the nonlinear polarization wave
A i (r ) A l ( r ) = J„ip exp( ~ r 2/a2) , (3.5.15)
in accordance with Eq. (3.5.12)
F ( k± ) = ( 47r) _ljrniPa2 exP [ - ( ^ x a) 2/ 4 ] , (3.5.16)
F ( k ± ) is maximal at k± a —* 0. Using Eqs. (3.5.12) and (3.5.13), one can

obtain a more detailed information on intensity and directivity pattern o f the
Cherenkov radiation.
Cherenkov radiation o f ultrashort optical pulses;

optical detection
A short optical pulse propagating in a medium with quadratic nonlinearity in

duces a polarization o f the type
P ( 2\ i , v, z ) ^ X^ \ A 0( r )\2 I ( i - z / u ) , (3.5.17)
where |A0( r ) | 2 specifies the transverse intensity distribution; 1 (f) describes the
pulse shape; u is the group velocity. T h e electric field strength produced by the
pulse satisfies the equation
3.5. Difference-frequency generation and IR Cherenkov radiation 163
As before, we shall use the Fourier transformation to solve Eq. (3.5.18). Then
the frequency-angular spectrum o f the DF field at the output of a nonlinear
medium can be written as
E d{(Sl, 6 , z) = i { x ^ 'la2|A0|2z[27ri;c2(i;/u + cos 0)] *}

x Q 2I(£l) exp [—(af2 sin <?)2/ 4 i >2 — i(u 1 + v 1 cos 6)Qz/2]
x sin (20) sine [(u 1 + v 1 cos 0)J2z/2], (3.5.19)
where I(£l) is the spectral amplitude o f I ( t ) ; 6 is the polar angle relative to

the z axis; a is the radius o f the Gaussian beam.
—3 " 2
The spectral radiation density s (f2 , 9 , z) = (2w) |25d{.( 0 , 9 , z)| reaches
the maximum value at the Cherenkov angle 0Q = arccos(i>/u) (see Fig. 3.10).
The angular width o f the radiation directivity pattern A 0 = (2'ku /Hz ) cot 0Q
depends on the difference frequency Q .
The frequency spectrum o f the Cherenkov pulse drastically differs from the
spectrum o f the exciting pulse. This is caused by the frequency dependence o f
nonlinear couplings o f waves and, at 9 ^ 0Q , also by the dependence o f the
radiation efficiency on . The Cherenkov pulse shape is given by the expression
,3 + °°
E d{(t, 90> z) = C - , J I(r)
— OO
/ Z \ 2 / u \ 2 2
x «p (-j cot »„ dr, (3.5.20)
where C is a constant independent o f f 2 . The video pulse described by

Eq. (3.5.20) is obtained after the detection o f the optical pulse. The calcu
lation results obtained from Eq. (3.5.20) are shown in Fig. 3.11. Since the pulse
has a bipolar shape, it is also called an infra-red pulse with one-period duration.
From Eq. (3.5.20) one can derive the expression for the pulse duration. If the
exciting Gaussian pulse has the duration rQ then the Cherenkov pulse duration
is
2 n \ 1 /2
(3.5.21)
It follows from Eq. (3.5.21) that the finite radius o f the exciting beam leads to
an increase in rp . The more detailed presentation o f the theory o f Cherenkov
radiation can be found in Refs. 31 and 33.
The Cherenkov radiation o f a femtosecond laser pulse has been experimentally
investigated by Auston et al. 32 A dye laser was used to generate the exciting
pulses 100 fs long at the wavelength 625 nm with energy 100 pJ and repetition
rate 150 MHz. The laser radiation was split into two pulses, the exciting and
probing ones, and directed on an isotropic lithium tantalate crystal. A Cherenkov
pulse generated in the crystal propagated at an angle 0O = 69 and via the
electro-optical effect induced the birefringence which was measured by means o f
a probing pulse (see Fig. 3.12).
FIG . 3.11. Shape o f Cherenkov pulse for different ( a / « ) sin &0 : ( 1) 1.6 ps,
(2) 16 ps, (5) exciting Gaussian pulse w ith duration tq = 5 ps. 31
FIG . 3.12. Schematic o f the experim ent used to generate and detect short bursts
o f IR Cherenkov radiation from ultrasliort optical pulses. 32
In the real experiments the transformation efficiency was low (about 10 5 )

and the electric field strength in the Cherenkov pulse was about 10 V /cm . How
ever, the probing pulse propagating at the same velocity as the exciting pulse
provided long interaction lengths and accumulation o f the birefringence-related
effects. The shape o f the Cherenkov pulse was measured by varying the time
delay o f the probing pulse relative to the exciting one (see Fig. 3.13). It corre
sponded to one period o f radiation at the frequency 1.5 THz.
Such pulses can be applied in the studies o f properties o f materials in the IR
range. Cheung and Auston 34 have demonstrated how effectively the Cherenkov
radiation can be used in spectroscopy o f low frequency resonances o f nonlin
ear susceptibility o f lithium tantalate. The earlier investigation o f femtosecond
pulses o f the Cherenkov radiation in electrooptic crystals are reviewed in Ref. 109.
32 109
In the experiments ’ the Cherenkov radiation has not been coupled
out o f the crystal due to T IR . Recently, Auston and coauthors11 studied the
Cherenkov radiation in free space. To extract the electromagnetic radiation from
the crystal, the laser beam fell not at right angle, but at an angle o f 51° . In
this case the Cherenkov pulse propagated in the direction normal to the crys
tal surface. Alternative techniques for generation o f high-power FIR radiation
have been lately developed (see, for example, Refs. 111-118). Partial atten-
3.6. Stimulated Raman scattering o f uhraskort pulses 165
F IG . 3.13. Experim entally observed (solid line) and theoretical (d otted line)
32
forms o f the Cherenkov pulse.
tion was paid to the technique based on high-speed photoconductors. 111 116 In
Ref. 117 the m ethod o f generation o f femtosecond electromagnetic pulses from
semiconductor surfaces was investigated. The authors o f Ref. 118 have shown
the possibility o f the generation o f FIR radiation with gigawatt peak power from
a plasma at the focus o f the high-intensity femtosecond laser pulse as a result
acceleration o f electrons through ponderemotive forces.
3.6. Stimulated Raman scattering of ultrashort pulses
Physics o f scattering; the basic equations
Stimulated scattering o f light is associated with phase matching o f elementary

excitations due to optical nonlinearity o f a medium in the field o f a high-power
optical wave. The substance o f emerging phenomena can be clarified quite easily
by the example o f stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) o f light by intramolec
ular oscillations. The classical SRS theory is based on the allowance for the
dependence o f electronic polarizability x ° f a molecule on the configuration o f
nuclei, defined by their shift Q from the equilibrium values. In the simplest
unidimensional case
x(Q) = X0 + o
(dx/dQ) Q + ■• • (3.6.1)
The second term o f this expansion describes the modulation o f light by molecular
oscillations. In the induced polarization o f molecules the new spectral com po
nents appear, shifted by the frequency o f oscillations o f the nuclei. The molecular
polarization is
p = x ( Q ) E = x 0E + (dx/dQ) 0 QE. (3.6.2)
W hen the shift Q is determined by thermal m otion in the medium, Eq. (3.6.2)
describes the spontaneous Raman scattering.
The dependence x ( Q ) also causes a back action o f light waves on molecular

oscillations. Indeed, the energy o f interaction between the molecule and the light
wave
n = -p E = -x (Q )E 2,
and in the light field therefore appears the force
f = - s r ! F ' < 3 -6 ' 3 )
acting on the molecular oscillations. If the field contains the components with
frequencies wp and u>s whose difference is close to the natural frequency f2m w
uip —u>s of molecular oscillations, then the acting force brings about the resonance
amplification o f oscillations. The random intramolecular m otion is superposed
by regular stimulated oscillations whose phases for different molecules are de
termined by the phases o f the optical field components; a phase matching o f
molecular oscillations takes place.
Experimentally, SRS reveals itself as an instability of the high-power optical
pump wave in the Raman-active medium. The second component of the optical
field appears due to spontaneous Raman scattering. The SRS is a threshold
effect because the instability occurs when the intensity I ro f the high-power
optical pump wave with frequency wp exceeds the threshold value Ith defined
by the level o f optical losses. In this case the intensity o f a low-frequency (Stokes)
wave with frequency u>s grows according to the law
Is = Ico ™ P ( 9 sI z ) , (3-6.4)
where the coefficient gs is determined by the properties o f the medium; z is

the distance. A t gsIpz 3 > 1 the pump wave depletes and the effective energy
exchange between the waves takes place. This is a picture of the steady-state
SRS.
The characteristic properties o f transient SRS were identified by the end of
1960s and the beginning o f 1970s. 35 A t that time the experim ental36 39 and
theoretical40 45 investigations were carried out, that revealed the main features
o f SRS o f ultrashort optical pulses. T h e narrow Raman lines in gases have
the width 0.1-1 GHz. Therefore, the nonlinear response of molecules becomes
essentially transient in the field o f pulses 10-100 ns long. The inertia o f the
molecular response diminishes the amplitude of stimulated molecular oscillations
and obviously lowers the efficiency o f stimulated scattering. On the other hand,
in the stimulated scattering o f short pulses, just as in the case o f harmonic
generation and parametric interaction, the group velocity effects appear, caused
by the difference in group velocities o f the pump pulse and the Stokes pulse.
The effects caused by a finite time o f the local response (local transience) and
dispersion o f a medium (wave transience) were observed experimentally in the
beginning o f 1970s.
To analyze transient effects o f SRS, we shall consider the mathematical treat

ment o f the process, based on the set o f truncated equations:46, 64
dA i dA i i-n\d2A
^ 7 + ^ - a f - 2^ V = - ^ Q ’ ( 3 -6 ' 5 a )
dAa 1 dA i (si d 2A *
~dT + ^s ~ d f ~ 2 k* ~ d ^ = ~ iJsApQ ' (3 '6,5b)
dQ
+ Q r + i Q ) Q = ~ {1 q A p A *- (3 .6 .5 c )
dt
Here A p and A s are the amplitudes o f the pump and Stokes waves; Q is the
com plex, slowly varying amplitude o f the molecular oscillation wave; T2 is the
relaxation time determining the linewidth o f the spontaneous Raman scattering,
f2 = u p — ljs — f2m (3.6.6)

v t
is the frequency detuning. The nonlinear coupling coefficients
_ ®X t N u p _ dx * N u s _ dx 1 c
7p dQ cn p ’ 7s dQ cns ’ 7« dQ 4wMQm ’ { ' ' '
where M is the effective mass o f the nuclei; N is the number o f molecules

in a volume unit. Eqs. (3.6.5) describe the interaction o f copropagating waves
in the second-order approximation o f the dispersion theory and without taking
into account the changes in population density of vibrational levels. Generally
speaking, the right-hand side o f Eq. (3.6.5b) has to contain a random force
due to thermal fluctuations in the medium. Later, we shall limit our studies by
the case in which a “seed” pulse with the Stokes frequency and the amplitude
j4s0 = ^4S(< , z — 0) enters the medium, i.e., we shall consider the amplification
regime.
G roup delay effects in a m edium w ith broad R am an lines
We shall begin with the analysis o f group delay effects that predominate when
r0 T 2 and the dispersion length Ld exceeds the walk-off length
£ " = r " ( i ^ ) = r ”a “ " -
The equations for com plex amplitudes

where g ( 0) = 2JpJqT 2 , have in the fixed field approximation the simple solution
M *' z)
2 2
= 6Xp{ 2 (I + ^ T ) / K ° (* - f + Am_1^) I (3-6-9a)
For the intensity o f the Stokes wave we obtain
h i * ’ z ) = Jso e x p jff(ft) J - {) f 4 (3.6.9b)

p
where
2 ,-1
fl(fi) = ff(o)[i + (n r3) (3.6.10)
In the strongly transient regime o f amplification (z > Lw) Eq. (3.6.9b) reduces
to
hi* > *)= ha exPl>(n)l^Po(°)l LeffJ' (3.6.11)
The effective walk-off length Leff depends on the pump pulse shape. In the
case o f a Gaussian pulse Leff = - / tFLw. It follows from Eq. (3.6.11) that the
group-velocity mismatch leads to the amplification saturation at the distance
The effects o f finite pulse duration show very vividly in the asymmetry o f the
Stokes forward and backward scattering. In the latter case the effective length
o f the nonlinear interaction o f counterpropagating waves
T+ _
tls +U p
and, therefore, the ratio o f the Stokes radiation energies
W J W + = exp [flf(^ )| ^ p 0(0)|2(L eff - L+ff)]. (3.6.12)
For example, in quaxtz glasses L^. = 0.3 mm, and Z eff ~ 1 m for Ap =
1.06 /i m , r0 = 1 ps and the Stokes frequency shift 440 cm 1 . The asymme
try o f SRS o f copropagating and counterpropagating waves in liquids has been
experimentally studied in Ref. 38. T h e solution o f Eqs. (3.6.8) has been re
ported in Ref. 42 for the strong energy exchange and for both copropagation
and counterpropagation wave interactions. Note that in the interaction o f coun
terpropagating waves the preferential amplification o f the leading edge o f the
Stokes wave can lead to formation o f a "giant” Stokes pulse. This phenomenon
is in many respects analogous to the production o f giant pulses observed in SHG
« 47
F IG . 3.14. C ontour o f R am an gain line in fused quartz.
FIG . 3.15. Experim ental dependence o f the Stokes frequency shift on the
wavelength o f pu m p radiation. 48
and parametric amplification (see Sec. 3.3). The first experimental observation
o f this effect has been reported in Ref. 37.
The most interesting results concerning the SRS o f ultrashort pulses have been
recently obtained in fiber waveguides. Th e quartz fibers possess broad Raman
lines ( A v = 250 cm 1 , T2 ~ 100 fs, see Fig. 3.14) and consequently allow
the pulses about 100 fs long to be amplified and transformed. In the long fibers
the group delay effects develop to a large extent. The gain saturation over the
distance comparable to the walk-ofF length is only one o f those effects. Since
the gain increment [see Eq. (3.6.11)] is expressed, with allowance made for the
frequency dependence o f the walk-off length, as
g(tl = - WsO)|^pO(0)|2Leff * , (3-6-13)

2 v p s) 2
then the gain maximum coincides with the center o f the Raman line ws0 only
when the length o f the fiber L < Leff . This effect is observed quite clearly
when a frequency-tunable parametric generator is used as a pump source. As
wp approaches wcr at which the dispersion parameter —s- 0 , the walk-off
length tends to infinity and the gain maximum is realized at the frequency ws0 .
On tuning wp away from wcr the walk-off length diminishes making the gain
maximum shift toward the pump frequency. This situation is quite unusual for
the steady-state SRS.
The indicated phenomena were clearly observed experimentally. 48 Pump

pulses 30 ps long with peak power 300 W were tuned in the wavelength range
from 1.17 to 1.35 /jm . At the output o f a fiber waveguide ( L — 250 m), the
Stokes pulses registered for a pump wavelength o f AQ = 1.26 (im were shifted
by 450 cm 1 , which corresponds to the center o f the amplification line. On
tuning away from the wavelength corresponding to the zero dispersion o f the
group velocity, the value o f the Stokes shift diminishes (see Fig. 3.15). In the
experiments reported in Ref. 49 the measurements were made at a fixed wave
length o f Ap = 1.32 ( im ; the Stokes frequency shift was registered to diminish
as the fiber length increased.
This phenomenon was also studied in the time domain. 50 In particular, the
authors measured the Stokes pulse duration as a function o f the fiber length
and identified the relationship o f the temporal shift o f the center o f the Stokes
pulse and the energy transformation efficiency. The dynamics o f Stokes pulse
formation is shown in Fig. 3.16 for a normal group-velocity dispersion (ug > up) .
SRS under conditions o f group-velocity matching; R am an solitons
The specific properties o f fiber waveguides make it possible to realize in them a

Raman frequency shift under conditions o f the group-velocity matching by choos
ing the wavelengths Ap and Ag symmetrically with respect to the wavelength
corresponding to the zero dispersion o f group velocity. Another possibility is as
sociated with the application o f the waveguides with a small number o f modes,
in which the group-velocity mismatch can be compensated at the cost o f the
intermodal dispersion.
To the forefront here com e the effects connected with the joint self-phase
and cross-modulation, dispersion and Raman frequency shift. The mathemat
ical models o f these processes allowing for the variation o f refractive index in
the field o f high-intensity pulses were formulated in Ref. 51 in the first-order
approximation o f the dispersion theory and generalized in Ref. 52. For the
pulses whose initial duration is equal to a few picoseconds, amplification can
be regarded as steady-state, and the set o f Eqs. (3.6.5) written with allowance
made for self-actions takes the form
2 i — E. = - * < p)----- £ + - 2-k{p)[ f \ A \2

dz 2 dr)2 n0 l j pp' P1
(3.6.14)
2i
dz \u s u ) dr, n:o
p
+ 2 /8p l^ p|2] 4 + ^ / sp|Ap|2A s - ^ A s
where r)p — t — z /u p is the time in the coordinate frame connected with the
pump pulse, , <5s are the absorption coefficients, and / „ are the overlapping
integrals o f waveguide modes.
FIG . 3.16. Stokes-frequency pulse form ation from a continuous seed signal under
conditions o f norm al dispersion o f group velocity. Tim e marks are indicated on the
seed signal profile. T h e signal arriving at the optical fiber input simultaneously
w ith the trailing edge o f the pu m p pulse is seen to undergo the highest gain. The
follow ing parts o f the seed signal propagate through the depleted pum p field while
the preceding parts cross only a part o f the pum p pulse. T he dotted line shows
50
the in itial shape o f the pum p pulse. In the inset, the experim ental dependence
o f the Stokes pulse du ration rg on the optica l fiber length L.
Basic laws o f Raman frequency shift in fiber waveguides were found in nu
merical experiments 52 ’ based on the solution o f the set (3.6.14). Depending
on the spectral region within which a pump pulse and a Stokes component o f
SRS fall, the various generation regimes can be identified. If Ap and As belong
to the region o f normal group-velocity dispersion, the joint action o f self-phase
modulation and dispersion results in spreading o f the pump pulse and lowers
efficiency o f energy exchange. Similar phenomena are observed when the pulses
with the fundamental and Stokes frequencies interact via the nonlinear contri
bution to the refractive index (cross-m odulation). The resulting duration o f the
Stokes pulse exceeds perceptibly the initial duration o f pumping (see Fig. 3.17)
and, besides, the Stokes pulse has strong frequency modulation. In principle, it
can be compressed by means o f a dispersive delay line.
± iz J. Faram elnc interaction and coherent scattering
F IG . 3.17. E volu tion o f ultrashort SRS pulses in optical quartz fiber excited by
picosecond p u m p pulses w ith Gaussian envelope; the spectral region corresponds
to norm al dispersion o f group velocity. Show n are tem poral intensity profiles of
pum p and Stokes pulse (Ap - 1.06 fan , = 1.12 /tm , Ip = 18 M W /c m 2 ,
Tp = 5 p s , k^ = 2.3 X 10 28 s2 /c m ).
In the case when the Stokes com ponent falls within the region of anomalous
group-velocity dispersion, the picture changes radically as the joint action of
dispersion and nonlinearity provides the conditions for self-action o f the Stokes
pulse. The transition of frequency modulation of the pumping to the Stokes
frequency also promotes the pulse compression. In this regime the peak power
o f the Stokes pulse can substantially exceed the power o f the pump pulse (see
Fig. 3.18).
And, finally, at Ap , As > Acr self-action leads to self-compression o f both
the Stokes and pump pulses, with cross-modulation encouraging the process. In
this regime, the prospects for achieving higher transformation efficiencies and for
substantial (by one order o f magnitude) decrease in the Stokes pulse duration
appear (see Fig. 3.19). Choosing the proper parameters o f a pump pulse and of
a fiber, one can realize the regime o f transformation of a multiple-soliton pump
pulse into a high-power one-soliton pulse at the Stokes frequency (see Chap. 5).
These were the illustrations o f the group-velocity matching. A group-velocity
mismatch brings about a shortening o f the Stokes pulse and decrease in the
energy transformation efficiency. A t small values o f the group-velocity mismatch,
a nonlinear capture o f the Stokes pulse by the pump pulse was found in numerical
experiments, which is associated with the “reactive” interaction of the pulses via
• 53
the nonlinear contribution o f to the refractive index. Recently, the effects
caused by cross-modulation have been confirmed by direct experiments both in
the boundless media and in the fibers. 54 56
The Raman frequency shift of ultrashort pulses together with soliton effects
has brought about a whole class o f frequency-tunable femtosecond Raman soliton
lasers to be considered in Chap. 6.
3.6. Stimulated Raman scattering o f ullrashort pulses 173
FIG . 3.18. SRS pulse form ation. T he R am an frequency falls into the region o f
anom alous group-velocity dispersion whereas the pum p frequency into the normal
dispersion region (Ap = 1.25 fj,m , As = 1.32 /jm , I = 2.7 M W / c m 2 , r p =
5 ps, k2P^ = 0.34 X 10 -28 s 2 / c m ) .
T h e transient m olecular response
Here we consider the SRS of ultrashort pulses in media with narrow Raman lines
when a transient local response becom es significant (r() T2) . The joint action
o f local and wave transience was treated in detail in Ref. 45 in which, in partic
ular, the possibility of formation o f steady-state Stokes pulses and suppression
o f SRS in PM pulses were shown. W e shall restrict our considerations to the
spectroscopically significant case in which the dimensions of a medium are less
than the walk-off length L w . Then in the fixed field approximation, Eqs. (3.6.5)
X(*± j . va ra m etn c interaction and coherent scattering
___________ Signai
FIG . 3.19. E volu tion o f high-intensity Ram an solitons in the spectral region
corresponding to anom alous grou p-velocity dispersion at the frequencies
p1
(Ap = 1.55 lira. , \ = 1.67 /jm , / p = 20 M W /c m 2 , r p = 5 ps, fc(p>
2 -—
i 2i \
10 s /c m ).
assume the form
9A.
= *'TsJ^po(7?) Q* > (3.6.15a)
(3.6.15b)
where r\ — t — z j u , u = up = « s , and the detuning f2 = 0. The solution of

IAp|
IA,I
J V _ L
(a ) (b)
FIG . 3.20. D ynam ics o f transient m olecular response arising in the Ram an-
44
active m edium due to propagation o f a rectangular pum p pulse. Shown are
the tem poral distributions |Ap(t)|, |As(t)|, and |Q(t)| : (a) at the input of
the m edium ; ( 6) at the interm ediate point z — L / 2 ; (c) at the output o f the
m edium ; z = L .
these equations is
T)
sO J e x p (- t, z))& , (3.6.16)
where I 0(x ) is the modified Bessel function,

V
1/ 2
F (tj, t, z ) = 427s7 q j l^ p0(y)l dy
17-1
Since rQ <C T2 , the gain o f the Stokes com ponent is lower than in the quasi
steady-state regime, and the shape and duration o f the exciting and Stokes pulses
differ substantially. In particular, for the rectangular pump pulse we obtain, in
accordance with Eq. (3.6.16) (0 < r) < r ) ,
exp[2(G 0y / r 2) 1/2]
Js(»7> z ) 1/ 2
(3.6.17)
(g 0 v /t 2)
where G Q — 2 j sj |^4p0| z . After switching on the pumping, the Stokes com

ponent starts growing exponentially. Since this growth does not stop by the
moment the pumping discontinues,42’ 44 the Stokes pulse proves to be shorter
than the pumping pulse. Making use o f Eq. (3.6.17) and the expressions for
A s and A p , one can calculate the dynamics o f molecular response Q ( t ) . The
behavior o f j4s(<) and Q (t) at various cross sections o f the medium excited
by the rectangular pump pulse is illustrated in Fig. 3.20. Although the results
shown pertain to the case o f a rectangular exciting pulse, they can be easily
generalized to include a pulse o f arbitrary shape. The main feature is a decrease
in the Stokes pulse duration and appearance o f the delay with respect to the
pumping.
In conclusion, it should be noted that generation o f laser pulses with duration

o f 10 -1 0 0 fs made it possible to excite and probe a transient molecular response
in condensed media with broad Raman lines. The various schemes for transient
Raman scattering spectroscopy provide a subject o f the next section.
3.7. Ultrashort optical pulses

in coherent light scattering spectroscopy
Biharmonic pum ping: from spectrochronography

and m easurem ent o f envelopes o f coherent and noncoherent signals
to direct registration o f optical oscillations
One o f the main applications o f femtosecond optical technology lies in spec

troscopy o f ultrafast processes. At present, this is a well-defined field with spe
cific m ethodology and diverse experimental facilities. Both linear and nonlinear
responses o f a medium are efficiently used. In this section we shall illustrate
its possibilities by the example o f coherent light scattering spectroscopy, a ver
sion o f nonlinear laser spectroscopy associated most closely with nonlinear wave
46, 58
optics.
The idea o f the method is easier to clarify by the example o f coherent anti-
Stokes Raman scattering (C A R S) spectroscopy. The fundamental physical no
tions are in fact very close to those developed in the previous section. As distinct
from the SRS, controlled excitation o f intramolecular oscillations by biharmonic
pumping is used for spectroscopic purposes; the Stokes wave comes to the inves
tigated medium from an external source and a pump intensity is chosen below
the stimulated scattering threshold.
F IG . 3.21. C A R S spectroscopy. T w o p u m p waves w ith frequencies and u

excite coherent m olecular oscillations w hich are then p rob ed b y a wave w ith fre
quency 0;^ . T h e anti-Stokes scattering com ponent is registered at the frequency
= % + K - w2)-
Figure 3.21 illustrates the most widely used version o f active coherent spec
troscopy, that is, CARS spectroscopy. Tw o pump waves with frequencies ui^
and u>2 (whose difference w1 — w2 fa , the molecular oscillation frequency)
excite coherent molecular oscillations which then are explored by a probing wave.
3.7. Ultrashort optical pulses in scattering spectroscopy 177
FIG . 3.22. Steady-state coherent R am a n scattering spectroscopy. T h e radiation

sources operate in a cw regime. A s the frequency o f one o f the pum p lasers is
varied, the intensity / a o f anti-Stokes radiation is measured as a function o f
frequency difference u;1 — w2 of the biharm onic pum ping ( Q m is the natural
frequency o f m olecular oscillations in th e m edium ).
Figure 3.22 shows how one can get spectroscopic information provided the
excitation and probing are accomplished by means o f cw or quasi-cw frequency-
tunable sources. The higher signal intensity and application o f sources with a
narrow spectral line facilitate to enlarge the information contents o f light scat
tering spectra.
How does the scattering picture and the obtained information change on tran
sition from a quasicontinuous emission to short optical pulses?
Some new physical and technical applications appear in this case. O f greatest
interest is utilization o f extremely short, femtosecond pulses. They help not only
to trace in real time energy and phase relaxations o f optical excitation in gases
and condensed media but also directly measure the actual shape o f molecular
oscillations, i.e., construct a sampling optical oscilloscope to register the shape
o f elementary excitations in a medium.
Steady-state spectroscopy; spectrochronography;

transient spectroscopy
In the process o f coherent scattering the biharmonic optical pumping
E = E1+ E 2
— ^ e 1A 1 exp - f c ^ r ) ] + i e 2A 2 exp [i(w2t — fc^ V )] + c. c. (3.7.1)

Z £i
excites spatially coherent molecular oscillations. Indeed, according to Eq. (3.6.3)

• ♦ 2
the molecular oscillators experience a force proportional to E . I f the frequency
difference — w2 o f the pumping is close to the natural frequency o f molecu
lar oscillations Qm , the resonance build-up takes place. The scattering o f the
probing wave
E pr = ^ e A w exp [i(Wpr< - fc(prV )] + c. c. (3.7.2)
by coherent oscillations leads to an emergence o f high-power Stokes w =

wpr — Qm and anti-Stokes wa = wpr 4 - scattering components.
Depending on the form o f the fields E y , E 2 , E pr , and the conditions o f
excitation o f the medium and observation, the different versions o f the method
are possible.
1 (o y. ra ra m ein c interaction and coherent scattering
If in Eqs. (3.7.1) and (3.7.2) all amplitudes are constant, i.e.,
A x = c o n s t, A 2 = c o n s t, A pr — co n st, (3.7.3)
the excitation and probing processes are o f continuous nature and the spectro
scopic information is acquired by tuning the frequency difference w1 —u>2 o f the
pump waves. This technique is called a steady-state coherent light scattering
spectroscopy, or frequency-domain spectroscopy (see Fig. 3.22).
Obviously, an alternative version, a Fourier-conjugate, or transient (time-
domain) spectroscopy is possible. If both excitation and probing are carried out
by short optical pulses, then in the limiting case
A i = A 106(t — < i ) , A 2 = A 20 6(t — <2) , A pr = A pr0S(t — f pr) , (3.7.4)
a spectroscopic information is extracted from the data on the behavior o f the

pulse response at different time delays between the excitation and probing (see
Fig. 3.23).
i
4/»
iig[wjtii/wa(o)]
a
j y
k
Ja
F IG . 3.23. Transient coherent Ram an scattering spectroscopy. Excitation and

probing o f a m edium is accom plished b y short optical pulses. Spectroscopic in
form ation is contained in the shape o f the pulse response from the m edium , i.e.,
in the dependence o f the energy o f anti-Stokes pulse on the delay time td
betw een the exciting and probing pulses.
Various versions o f coherent light scattering spectroscopy can be generally

classified using the notion o f nonlinear susceptibility. Since, according to
Eq. (3.6.3), Q oc E 2 , the emergence o f the Stokes and anti-Stokes components
3.7. Ultrashort optical pulses tn scattering spectroscopy 179
o f the probing field in the coherent scattering process should be treated as a

result o f four-photon interaction via the cubic optical nonlinearity. For the cubic
nonlinear polarization in a modulated optical field we obtain [see Eq. (2.1.4)]
OO
P(3)= III * (3)^

o
’ <2 ’ ta)
x E (t — t j ) E (t — f j — <2) E (t — t 1 — <2 — <3) dt 1 dt 2 dt 3 , (3.7.5)
where
E — E y -f E 2 + E pr -f c. c. (3.7.6)
Using Eq. (3.7.5) and the expressions for the fields, one can easily write the
general formulas for the intensity o f signals o f steady-state and transient coherent
anti-Stokes Raman scattering:
/ K ) ~ |p(3) K ) | 2.
For the steady-state CARS
J(u, J ~ |x (3) (a,a ; Wpr, Wl , , (3.7.7)
where
OO
x (3 )K ; w pr - W1 . w 2) = \ I I J X (3 )(<1 - h > h )
0
X e x p [i(wpr^1 + — W2^3)] ^ 1 ^ 2 ^ 3 (3 -7 .8 )
is the spectral component o f the cubic nonlinear susceptibility, a three-dimension-

al Fourier-transform o f the nonlinear response function X*'3'*(î > 1 *3) •
In the transient C ARS the nonlinear response function manifests itself explic
itly. According to Eqs. (3.7.4) and (3.7.5)
'K - *pr - *1) ~ IX(3\ t pr - t ^ f l A p r A A f - (3.7.9)
if f 1 = <2 and an isolated homogeneously broadened resonance is excited.

In this case the steady-state C ARS spectroscopy provides information about
the resonance location and the homogeneous linewidth /S.vQ = (7tT2) 1 , whereas
the transient CARS spectroscopy only about the time T 2 . In terms o f deter
mining the time T 2 , the results obtained by the frequency- or time-domain
spectroscopy are fully equivalent. More complicated situations emerge in the
CARS spectroscopy o f inhomogeneously broadened excited states.
There is still another m ethod o f CARS spectroscopy which occupies in a
certain sense the intermediary between the above-mentioned limiting cases o f
steady-state spectroscopy in m onochromatic fields and time-domain spectroscopy
using, in the ideal case, 5-shaped optical pulses. We talk about the technique
10U 3 . ra ra m etn c interaction and coherent scattering
(that could be called a CARS spectrochronography) based on registration o f time-

resolved coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectra.
The objects o f measurement in C A R S spectrochronography are the transient
anti-Stokes spectra I (wa , t) defined by the time-dependent cubic nonlinear
susceptibilities
* (3) (wa ; wp r, w1( —w2 ; t).
One comes across the time-dependent transient spectra in the transient spec
troscopy while investigating nonequilibrium states. The data obtained by the
C ARS spectrochronography are not difficult to interpret if the time o f spectral
measurement
(3.7.10)
where r is the characteristic time o f “spectrum relaxation,” determined by

transient processes in the medium. In this case the data are interpreted on the
basis of the concepts developed in the steady-state spectroscopy (^ X )-
Naturally, the spectral resolution in such experiments cannot be higher than
^/^meas ‘
Application o f C A R S spectrochronography for diagnosis o f state

and fast laser-induced phase transitions at a semiconductor surface
In this subsection we shall illustrate the merits o f C A RS spectrochronography

by the example o f the studies o f the crystal lattice dynamics in the near-surface
layer o f optically excited silicon.
% ~ Q .5 5 p .m
Pulsed C__ I
P h otod etectoi
Photomultiplier —
F IG . 3.24. Layout o f spectrom eter.
Experiments o f this kind make it possible to trace in real time the physics
o f laser-induced phase transitions in solids. The spectra o f an optical phonon
59
in crystalline silicon were registered by CARS spectrochronography with the
3.7. Ulirashort optical pulses in scattering spectroscopy 181
picosecond time resolution at different excitation levels (up to melting). The

arrangement o f the experimental installation is shown in Fig. 3.24. The sources
o f picosecond pulses with tunable frequencies u 1 and u 2 were two dye lasers
synchronously pumped by the trains o f second-harmonic pulses from a Nd3+ :
Y A G laser with passive mode locking. The radiation with frequency u 1 was
also used for excitation o f the crystal.
440 510 580

v,cnr'
F IG . 3.25. Spectra o f optical ph onon m ode Fig in Si, obtained for different
energy densities (jJ o f exciting radiation.
Figure 3.25 shows the spectra o f the optical phonon mode F 2 for vari
ous energy densities o f exciting radiation from w — (0.30 ± 0.05)ui0 to w rj
wQ (w Q — 0.2 J /c m 2 is the energy density o f radiation at A = 560 nm caus
ing the melting). At room temperature in the absence o f excitation the optical
phonon spectrum consists o f a relatively narrow ( A v « 3.5 cm 1 ) intense line
located at the frequency v = 520 cm . As the excitation intensity grows, a
substantial broadening and distortion o f the line takes place, accompanied with
a fall in its intensity as against the nonresonant (electron) background. These
changes are caused by the inhomogeneous broadening o f the phonon line due
to substantial increase in the phonon temperature and generation of a dense
electron-hole plasma and strong mechanical stresses induced by the plasma in

the near-surface layer.
The lattice temperature, concentration o f photo-excited free carriers, and me
chanical stresses generated by them in a crystal through the electron-phonon
deformation potential were quantitatively evaluated by fitting the parameters of
the model spectra to the experimental data. The carrier concentration ne (t)
and temperature T ( t ) calculated for w = wQ/2 and the appropriate boundary
conditions are plotted in Fig. 3.26.
F IG . 3.26. Dynam ics o f free carrier concentration and tem perature in optically
excited silicon.
The center o f the Raman scattering (RS) line shifts due to temperature and
mechanical stress in the opposite directions: as the static experiments show,
squeezing stresses produce a shift o f the phonon line toward higher frequencies
with a rate o f 0.47 cm 1/k bar , whereas the lattice heating leads to “softening”
o f the phonon mode and broadening o f the RS line toward lower frequencies. The
presence o f the quite considerable gradients o f temperature and mechanical stress
typical for the picosecond excitation brings about an inhomogeneous spectral
broadening.
As the calculations show, the highest temperature o f 1240 K is reached at
21 —3
w = 0.7 wQ , with the maximum carrier concentration 3.5 x 10 cm and
pressure 40 kbar. The experiment thus shows that a substantial warm-up o f the
optical phonon mode in the center o f the Brillouin zone is accomplished during a
time interval o f about 10 ps. The high rate o f energy thermalization within the
optical part o f the phonon subsystem is also corroborated by the well-known fact
that the energy o f photoexcited electrons in silicon is transferred predominantly
to the short-wave parts o f the phonon branches.
A decrease in the duration o f the exciting and probing pulses and transition
to the femtosecond time scale allow the C ARS spectrochronography technique to
be extended to the studies o f an electron-phonon relaxation under the conditions
o f strong optical excitation o f a semiconductor. The first results in this field have
been so far obtained by spectrochronography o f spontaneous RS in the unique
3.7, Ultrashort optical pulses in scattering spectroscopy 183
experiments by Kash and co-workers 60 who traced the evolution o f RS spectra

within the first five picoseconds following an optical excitation. The measured
time o f electron-phonon scattering reported in Ref. 60 is equal to 165 fs.
Transient coherent spectroscopy; m ethods and results
In transient coherent spectroscopy a medium is first shock-excited by short laser

pulses and then explored by means o f a probing pulse emitted with a certain time
delay t A . The energy W R o f the anti-Stokes scattering o f the probing pulse is
measured as a function o f the delay time td . This function provides information
about mechanisms and rates o f dephasing o f in oscillations in the medium.
Successful application o f transient CARS spectroscopy in the studies o f de
phasing in gases, liquids, and solids depends on the ratio o f the relaxation time
t and the duration o f the laser pulses used for excitation and probing. Ideally,
the transient spectroscopy requires the condition
(3.7.11)
under which the pulse response carries the most comprehensive information
about the studied relaxation processes. If, conversely,
rp > rr , (3.7.12)
the shape and duration o f the registered signal are practically independent o f
the properties o f the medium and are apparently defined by the laser pulse
parameters.
46
The theory o f transient CARS spectroscopy is in fact based on the SRS
equations derived in the previous section. Assuming the shape o f exciting laser
pulses used for biharmonic pumping (3.7.1) to be A x = A ^ t , z ) , A2 =
A 2( t , z) and using Eqs. (3.6.5), we can find the envelope Q ( t ) o f molecular
oscillations. The com plex amplitude o f the anti-Stokes wave appearing in the
probing process satisfies the equation
1 7 + iT
a
lT = ^ (\ ‘ - 7 p-r - /
' <3 J 1 3 >
where A pr is the com plex amplitude o f the probing wave, A k = k ^ — k^pr^ —

( k^ — k^ ), According to Eq. (3.7.13) the intensity o f the anti-Stokes signal
-f-C O
\Q(t)\2A 2T(
p t - t d)dt.
— OO
If the probing is carried out using the pulses shorter than the relaxation time
^ pr(f ) = ^ Pro^(f ) ’ the C A RS signal
Suppose that the frequency distribution o f oscillators (the homogeneous line-

width Au >0 = 2/T 2) is Gaussian with the inhomogeneous width Awjnh . Let
the transition is excited by transform-limited laser pulses o f Gaussian shape and
duration rQ . Then the pulse response o f the medium has the shape
2 ( A w -2 , i 2 + Auint \
\Q{t)\ <x e x p ( ------(3.7.14)
V 1 + Awir)hTQ )
It follows from the last expression that the character o f the free polarization decay
in the oscillator ensemble depends on the relation between Au>0 , Awinh > ’ ’J' 1 •
If Awinh= 0 , the inhomogeneous broadening is absent, the free oscillation
frequencies are equal for all oscillators, and the polarization decays according to
the exponential law
\Q(t)f oc e x p ( - 2 f /T a) , T2 = 2 /A w 0 , (3.7.15)
with the characteristic attenuation time determined by the transverse relaxation

time T2 . On the other hand, if there is a frequency distribution Awinh o f the
oscillators and T 2 —>■oo , the relaxation proceeds according to the Gaussian law
|Q(i) |2 oc e x p [ - ( * /r * ) 2] (3.7.16)
during the time interval
T* = r f + A 0 1/2. (3.7.17)
T w o alternatives are possible here. W hen the exciting pulse isshort (r0 -C
AwinJi) , the relaxation time is determined by the spectral width o f the studied
inhomogeneously broadened band
T* — A
*
w.inn
- i
,.
If the pulse is long enough (rQ Aw^)
, the relaxation proceeds during the
time interval comparable with theduration of the exciting pulse
r* = tq . (3.7.18)
In the latter case the pulse response repeats the form o f the exciting pulse and
carries no spectroscopic information about the investigated medium.* Neglect
o f this fact leads to the wrong interpretation o f some experiments performed
*This conclusion is valid for the usual conditions o f C A R S spectroscopy when the ampli
tudes o f exciting laser pulses rem ain practically constant in the process o f interaction w ith the
m edium . It however does not h old under conditions of strong energy exchange. In R ef. 66
it is shown that when the energy o f high-frequency pu m p pulse is depleted, the transient
C A R S spectroscopy allows the hom ogeneous relaxation time to be m easured even in the case
o f substantial inhom ogeneous broadening o f the investigated resonance.
3.7. UUrashort optical pulses in scattering spectroscopy 185
FIG . 3.27. Transient C A R S spectroscopy o f a single oscillation resonance in

molecular hydrogen (experim ental d a t a 61 ). Solid lines, theory. N onm onotonic
dependence o f dephasing rate on gas pressure is caused by the Dicke effect.
to measure the ultrafast processes o f intramolecular relaxation in multiatomic

molecules. 65
The above-mentioned regimes were reliably observed in the experiments. Fig
ure 3.27 shows the intensity o f the anti-Stokes signal for transient C ARS of
the isolated oscillation transition Q01 in a hydrogen molecule. 61 The hydro
gen pressure varied in these experiments from 5 Torr to 10 atm. The data thus
obtained make it possible to trace in detail the character and rate o f dephasing
o f molecular oscillations throughout the whole pressure range, from the Doppler
limit (inhomogeneous broadening) to the region o f collisional broadening [homo
geneous broadening; the exponential dependence The most interesting
is the pressure interval from 1 to 5 atm in which the dephasing mechanism
changes and the Dicke effect becomes observable — that is, the spectral line
gets more narrow with the growth in gas density, resulting in a slow-down in the
decay o f the pulse response. The solid lines in Fig. 3.27 are plotted theoretically,
using the exponential model for the correlation function o f thermal velocities of
molecules. From the comparison o f theoretical and experimental data, the time
o f the collisional dephasing and correlation time o f thermal velocities in hydro
gen were quantitatively evaluated in Ref. 61. The results are in good agreement
with the data obtained from the alternative spectral measurements.
F IG . 3.28. Transient C A R S spectroscopy of inhom ogeneously broadened oscillation-

rotation Q band o f nitrogen cooled in a supersonic je t: 62 circles, experiment;
solid lines, theory. Q band spectra are shown at the insets.
Figure 3.28 illustrates the results o f an investigation o f a more complicated

system, an inhomogeneously broadened oscillation-rotational Q band o f m olec
ular nitrogen. The pulse response in this case represents the “quantum beats”
o f the individual spectral components o f the Q band. In experiments 62 the su
personic gas jet technique was used to simplify drastically the spectral structure
by means o f the deep cooling o f the gas and to perform the measurements with pi
cosecond laser pulses. These experiments showed that the transient C A RS spec
troscopy can be effectively applied for thermometry of supercooled gas streams.
From the analysis o f the mean decay curves o f the pulse response interesting
results were obtained on the temperature dependence o f the cross section o f ro-
tationally inelastic collisions in nitrogen (see also Ref. 63). The transition to
femtosecond laser pulses extends this technique to the studies o f intramolecular
relaxation in multiatomic molecules.
R egistration o f molecular oscillation wave form s;

an optical sampling oscilloscope
Transition in transient C A RS spectroscopy to the pulses a few femtoseconds long

opens quite new opportunities in the investigation of elementary excitations in
molecules in condensed media. If, with picosecond optical pulses, the CARS
technique makes it possible to observe the evolution o f the envelope o f molecular
oscillations and investigate the various dephasing processes,* the transition to
*Naturally, when registering a tem poral evolution o f a noncoherent anti-Stokes signal in
dependent o f phase relations, one can measure the longitudinal relaxation time T j , i.e., the
energy relaxation time (for m ore details see Ref. 46).
3.7. Ultrashort optical pulses in scattering spectroscopy 187
femtosecond pulses whose duration is considerably shorter than the period o f

molecular oscillations,
^ p « r m = 27T/J2m! (3.7.19)
allows one for the first time to register the evolution o f the molecular oscillation
coordinate itself. The direct oscillography of molecular oscillations becomes thus
possible, as well as the probing o f the amplitude and the phase o f molecular
oscillations.
The physics o f interaction o f such short pulses with the medium is character
ized by a number o f distinctions. If the condition (3.7.19) is met, the spectral
width o f an exciting laser pulse exceeds, obviously, the Stokes shift:
A Wp» 7- ; 1 > n m. (3.7.20)
Under these conditions the biharmonic pumping is not needed any more. One
femtosecond pulse is sufficient for excitation o f Raman resonance since the spec
tral com ponent o f the field (the Stokes com ponent) shifted by the value o f the
frequency o f molecular oscillations is contained already in the pump pulse itself.
In this case the C A RS processes can be regarded as apeculiar Raman self-action;
due to theexcitation o f molecular oscillations, the energyredistribution takes
place in the spectrum o f the ultrashort optical pulse (the shift toward the Stokes
side) that excites the Raman-active medium (see Fig. 3.29).
F IG . 3.29. Spectrum o f an ultrashort pulse in Ram an-active medium. The red

shift is caused by by Ram an self-action o f the pulse w ith duration rp < f i ” 1 ,68
Femtosecond pulses offer the way to control the amplitude and phase o f m olec
ular oscillations. For example, if two femtosecond pulses separated by a time
delay tfd act on an oscillator ensemble, the second pulse can, depending on the
value o f tfd , amplify or attenuate the molecular oscillations as well as change
their phase. In particular, when the delay is equal to half o f the period of molec
ular oscillations, the second pulse suppresses them completely. Application o f
trains o f femtosecond optical pulses offers interesting possibilities for control o f
molecular oscillations. For example, a frequency-selective buildup o f molecular
oscillations or excitation o f “rectified” oscillations become possible.
De Silvestri and co-workers 67 realized experimentally the femtosecond C A RS
spectroscopy under the conditions (3.7.20). The coherent Raman scattering was
observed with the two phonon modes o f perilene (the mode frequencies are 80
and 104 c m - 1 ) with the exciting pulses 70 fs long. The schematic layout o f the
experiment is shown in Fig. 3.30. The crossing o f the exciting pulses with wave
Scattered
pulse
Exciting
pulses
F IG . 3.30. Layout o f C A R S spectroscopy o f fem tosecond optical pulses. 67
vector difference K induces the coherent optical phonons that form a standing
wave with wave vector K . After a delay ,td , a probing femtosecond pulse is
sent which is diffracted by the lattice oscillations induced by the exciting pulses.
The energy o f the scattered (diffracted) pulse is measured as a function o f .
This function conveys directly the form of molecular oscillations.
• • 67
F IG . 3.31. Experim ental data o f transient C A R S spectroscopy o f perilene crystal.
Beats o f sum and difference frequencies o f Ram an-active m odes are clearly seen.
3.7. UUrashori optical pulses in scattering spectroscopy 189
The experimental results reported in Ref. 67 are shown in Fig. 3.31. The
pulse response is made up o f the beats in which both the difference and the sum
o f frequencies o f molecular oscillations are represented.
119
The similar method was applied to study low-frequency molecular oscilla
tions in some liquids. In particular, the pulsed response from a CH2B r2 molecule
was measured. The response can be, in fact, regarded as an oscillogram o f molec
ular oscillations with a period o f 197 fs and frequency o f 173 cm - 1 . In the same
experiment, the pulsed response o f liquid carbon bisulphide CS2 was observed,
caused by rotation o f anisotropic molecules in the field o f a polarized femtosecond
optical pulse. It is interesting to note that the response keeps growing for some
time after the termination o f the exciting pulse. This effect is obviously due to
inertia o f orientational m otion o f molecules in a liquid. The detailed discussion
o f possible applications o f the SRS and C A R S techniques for femtosecond optical
pulses can be found in Ref. 68.
Nonselective excitation o f molecular oscillations;

spectrum reconstruction from a pulsed response
If, for example, a coherent optical pulse with duration rp = 30 ps has a spectral
width A i/p = 1/ CT'p = 1 cm - 1 , then a 60-fs pulse has Ai^p = 500 cm 1 and a
6-fe pulse Ai'p = 5000 cm - 1 . These evaluations show that picosecond pulses are
capable o f exciting selectively certain well-defined oscillations in a molecule, that
is, the oscillations o f an atom or group o f atoms. On the other hand, femtosecond
pulses possessing a very wide frequency spectrum provide a nonselective excita
tion o f molecular oscillations in a wide spectral range. In this case the pulsed
response combines several modes, i.e., it is indicative o f dynamic properties of
the com plex molecular system as a whole, but not an individual oscillational
subsystem o f the molecule.
The beat frequencies can be accurately found by computer simulation, i.e.,
the “difference” spectrum o f molecular oscillations can be reconstructed. In
the experiments reported in Ref. 120, where 80-fs laser pulses were used, the
pulsed response o f a mixture o f pyridine and cyclohexane was measured. The
data obtained allowed the authors to derive the difference spectrum o f molecular
oscillations in the broad spectral region exceeding 300 cm
Femtosecond C A R S spectroscopy o f polaritons

with tem poral and spatial resolution
Studies o f propagation and relaxation o f ultrashort phonon-polariton pulses in

crystals is a vivid demonstration o f capabilities o f transient C ARS spectroscopy.
The principal ideas o f the technique are illustrated in Fig. 3.32. A polariton
pulse excited by the biharmonic picosecond pumping propagates in a crystal at
a certain angle to the propagation direction o f exciting pulses. The amplitude
o f the polariton pulse can be measured by coherent anti-Stokes scattering o f the
probing pulse properly delayed in time and displaced in space. Thus, the high
temporal and spatial resolutions are realized simultaneously. This technique
was developed by Flytzanis et al. 69 for investigation o f polaritons in a NH4C1
Probe Poiariton
direction direction
F IG . 3.32. Layout o f G ARS spectroscopy o f polaritons resolved in time and
space ( td , time delay; , probing beam displacem ent).
crystal. The experiments on excitation and probing o f coherent polaritons in a

lithium tantalate crystal by femtosecond pulses were reported in Ref. 70. The
pulses were 50 fs long. This was sufficient to register the form o f poiariton
oscillations.
F IG . 3.33. Transient polarization C A R S spectroscopy of atom ic thallium va

pors. T he R am an transition 6 P Xf 2 —6 P 3/ 2 is probed: (a ) response pulse shape
measured for parallel orientation o f exciting fields (purely anisotropic scattering);
( 6) the same for perpendicular polarizations of exciting fields (purely antisym
m etric scattering). T h e broad arrow indicates the polarization direction o f the
registered anti-Stokes radiation. 71
3.8. Ultrashort acoustic pulses 191
Transient polarization C A R S spectroscopy o f atom s
Application o f polarization technique adds more opportunities to the C ARS spec

troscopy. By varying the polarization o f the exciting and probing waves both in
the steady-state and transient spectroscopy, one can obtain a new spectroscopic
information.
Figure 3.33 taken from Ref. 71 illustrates the opportunities o f transient po
larization C A R S spectroscopy. Using this technique the authors o f Ref. 71 could
register the dephasing o f various multipole components o f Raman scattering in
atomic thallium vapors. Figure 3.33 (a) shows the pulse response measured for
the case o f parallel polarizations o f exciting fields. Only the anisotropic scatter
ing was registered. To register only the antisymmetric scattering, the following
combination of polarizations was used: the polarizations o f exciting fields are
orthogonal and the polarization o f the probing wave makes an angle o f 45° with
them. It is seen in Fig. 3.33 that the shapes o f the pulse responses in the two
indicated cases differ substantially. Thus, application o f polarization technique
in the transient C A RS spectroscopy makes it possible to measure separately the
pulse response o f various multipole com ponents o f Raman scattering and to open
new opportunities in atomic spectroscopy.
3.8. Ultrashort acoustic pulses;

optical generation methods
Sub-nanosecond and picosecond pulses

in physical and applied acoustics
Application o f ultrashort pulses opens basically new opportunities in acoustic

spectroscopy and nonlinear and applied acoustics. The spatial extent / o f
acoustic video pulses
^ with duration r& « 1 ps is equal to / 3, = c3 rd ~ 5 nm
in solids, c ~ 500 m /s is the velocity o f the longitudinal sound. This fact
provides a significant increase in the spatial resolution in acoustic spectroscopy
and flaw detection. The typical dimensions o f picosecond deformation pulses are
comparable with the lattice constant. The observations o f the joint nonlinear and
dispersive effects in solids, including an excitation o f acoustic solitons, becom e a
reality.
In recent years much research was dedicated to the development o f the op
tical methods of excitation and registration o f still shorter coherent pulses o f
deformation. 72 80 In many respects this is associated with the prospects for
practical application o f this remote-measurement m ethod for fast diagnostics
o f various substances. The acoustic nanosecond pulses excited by lasers were
effectively used for determination o f anisotropy o f elasticity moduli and dis-
82
tribution o f spatial charge in dielectrics. Development o f optical generators o f
picosecond acoustic pulses makes it possible to measure an acoustic absorption in
giga-an d terahertz frequency ranges, 76 ’ 79 to study elastic properties, 6 ’ 78 ’ 80
distribution of defects and residual stresses in films, as well as to measure a
74 77 78
thickness o f thin films. ’ ’ However, the current investigations have un
doubtedly more fundamental objectives. On the one hand, it is the development
J
‘ . Parametric interaction and coherent scattering
o f a pulsed acoustic spectrometer o f fast transient processes. On the other hand,

the studies o f propagation o f coherent acoustic waves under the conditions in
which the discrete structure o f crystals manifests itself perceptibly enough.
Mechanisms o f generation o f short acoustic pulses are diverse. Such pulses
emerge, for example, during a laser breakdown. However, the methods based on
nondestructive action o f laser radiation on a substance prove to be sufficiently
effective. Naturally, to obtain sub-nanosecond and picosecond acoustic pulses,
excitation is to be implemented by ultra-sliort laser pulses. This does not mean,
however, that the acoustic pulse duration will be close to that o f the exciting
laser pulse. There are many causes leading to broadening o f the acoustic pulse,
so that, typically, ra > rp . A characteristic feature o f coherent deformation
pulses appearing in optoacoustic interactions should be also pointed out. The
appearance o f the acoustic pulse is, in fact, a result o f an optical pulse rectifi
cation. This situation is in many respects analogous to that emerging during
the generation o f high-power IR pulses due to optical rectification o f ultrashort
pulses in a medium with quadratic nonlinearity (see Sec. 3.5). Therefore, the
appearing acoustic pulse is a video pulse o f one-period duration, possessing many
com mon features with the pulse o f Cherenkov radiation giving rise to a coherent
bunch o f nonlinear polarization.
In the experiments reported in Refs. 72 and 73, the deformation waves were
generated due to the pressure exerted on a sample by expanding plasma formed
in the process o f laser heating o f an absorbing layer fixed between optically
transparent glasses. Here the acoustic pulse duration is determined by slow
processes o f plasma cooling and can substantially exceed the optica] interaction
72
time.
In such a generator, the efficiency o f conversion o f optical energy to acoustic
energy amounts to 10%. W ith laser pulses 10 ps long and energy 10 mJ acting on
a metal target with an intensity o f 400 G W /c m , the shock compression waves
72 73
produce pressures up to 10 kbar. ' These laser generators o f shock waves
can be applied to promote an initiation o f chemical and phase transformations.
Am ong the nondestructive mechanisms o f optical generation o f sound, the
most universal is the thermal elasticity associated with deformation o f the crys
tal during its optical heating. In the process o f thermalization the absorbed
optical energy is partially transmitted into the acoustic subsystem o f a solid,
replenishing the coherent and random wave motion o f the lattice. In the case o f
thermoelastic generation o f sound, the sources o f sonic waves are spatial, i.e., the
acoustic waves are excited throughout the whole region o f heating. Therefore,
the thermoelastic generation o f acousto-optic pulses is described by an inhomo-
geneous wave equation. In the simplest case, when the laser irradiates the free
surface o f a half-space z > 0 (see Fig. 3.34), only the plane longitudinal waves
are excited in the crystal. For the vibrational velocity we have the equation
^ Vv ib r 2^ Vv ib r _ ^ ^ /■<> o i\
d t2 a “ p0 d td z ’
where pQ is the equilibrium density o f a substance; is the bulk modulus o f

elasticity; /?T is the thermal expansion coefficient. The spatio-temporal evo-
3.8. UHrashort acoustic pulses 193
FIG . 3.34. Generation o f ultrashort acou stic pulses: on the left, optical pulse falls
on crystal surface and is absorbed in the layer whose thickness I b ~ S ; on the
right, the tem poral profile o f oscillation velocity o f acoustical pulse propagating
within the crystal. T h e acoustic pulse polarity is determ ined by the deform ation
potential eipot (the case o f dpot < 0 is show n).
lution o f the temperature field T ( z , t ) can be described by the diffusion-type

equation
dT_ d2T 6 (1 - R p ) ,,
dt ~ T dz2 |0 o c p W J ’( *
where 6 and R 0 are the coefficients o f absorption and reflection o f light; D T

is the coefficient o f diffusion o f the temperature field (thermal diffusivity); cp is
the constant-pressure heat capacity; I ( t ) is the intensity envelope of an optical
pulse with duration rp . Equation (3.8.2) is written under the assumption o f
instantaneous thermalization o f the optical energy absorbed.
The mathematical analysis o f Eqs. (3.8.1) and (3.8.2) shows that an acous
tic video pulse emerges close to the irradiated surface in the region o f transient
spatially nonuniform temperature variations (see Fig. 3.34). Its temporal pa
rameters are directly connected with the duration o f the optical pulse envelope.
In particular, the absorption coefficient 6 depends on the carrier frequency o f
the laser pulse. At room temperature the acoustic video pulse runs away from
the flux o f high-frequency phonons which propagate in a diffusionlike manner
under these conditions.
The duration o f excited deformation pulses can be limited from below not only
by the value o f rp , but also by the time the sound takes to travel across the
region o f heated lattice, defined either by the light absorption length /abs ~ 6 ,
or by.the thermal conductivity length— that is, the distance through which the
crystal gets heated during the time o f optical action via the energy transfer by
electrons, phonons, etc. The phonon thermal conductivity always proceeds with
subsonic velocities and therefore does not lead to broadening o f acoustic pulses.
The m otion o f electrons in metals and o f electron-hole plasma in semiconduc
tors can substantially enlarge the heated region o f the lattice, especially at low
temperatures. At room temperature the diffusion o f carriers is to a large ex
tent slowed down due to a strong scattering by thermal vibrations o f the lattice.
Accordingly, for thermoelastic generation o f ultrashort deformation pulses, it is
necessary to decrease the duration o f laser irradiation simultaneously with the
optical absorption length. Finally, it should be borne in mind that the time o f
lattice heating can be determined not by the time o f optical irradiation, but by
the time o f energy transfer from electrons to phonons, which also hinders the
shortening o f deformation pulses.
O ptical excitation and detection o f acoustic pulses;

experim ental data review
The sub-nanosecond acoustic pulses generated due to thermoelastic excitation

during the absorption o f optical radiation were registered for the first time in
Ref. 74. They were excited after the absorption in stainless steel o f laser pulses
with duration t = 0 .5 ns and wavelength A = 0.337 f i m , and registered by
a thin-film ZnO transducer. The sound pulses with duration ra = 0 .5 ns, ex
cited either thermoelastically or in an ablation process under the action o f light
( r = 70 ps, A = 1.06 fim ) on graphite or metallic coatings, were registered by
capacitor transducers. 75 Investigations o f attenuation and dispersion o f these
high-frequency acoustic waves in polym er films o f Teflon, Mylar, and others
provided the information about the m icroscopic structure, porosity, etc., o f the
materials. It is reported in Ref. 76 that the sub-nanosecond longitudinal sound
pulses were registered in water during the absorption o f erbium garnet laser radi
ation ( r = 80 ps, A = 2.93 fim ). In this case, a hypersound generation in water
is associated with strong absorption o f laser radiation (8 ~ 1.3 x 104 cm *). A c
cording to the estimate made by the authors o f Ref. 76 the shock waves excited
in water at the light intensity I about 30 G W /c m , whose nonlinear prop
agation was observed experimentally, produce pressures up to 20 kbar. This
furnishes the necessary information to calculate the equation o f state o f water
at high pressures.
It should be noted that in the listed publications (Refs. 74-76) the acoustic
pulses were visualized by means o f oscillographs with the frequency bandwidth
not exceeding 1 GHz, which is inadequate for observation o f the sound pulse
shape. On the whole', the further progress in the detection o f high-frequency
broadband acoustic signals using electric registration methods obviously faces
serious problems. New prospects in this direction appear in using various optical
systems o f registration o f ultrafast processes.
For the first time, a registration o f acoustic oscillations having the period less
that 100 ps was reported in Ref. 77. For excitation and registration o f acoustic
waves in amorphous films o f S i0 2 and A s2Te3 , the authors used the picosecond
optical pulses ( r = 1 ps) with the energy of a quantum hux = 2 eV and high
repetition rate ur =0.5 MHz. The exciting pulses had the energy W ~ 1 nJ ,
while the probing pulses about 2 orders o f magnitude lower. The experiment
consisted in measuring the transmission through the film and the reflection o f
the probing pulses depending on their delay with respect to the exciting pulses.
Against the background o f monotonically diminishing signal induced by pho
toexcitation o f carriers and their relaxation, the subsiding oscillations o f the
FIG . 3.35. Change in optical transm ittance o f a thin film o f a-A s 2 Te , caused
b y m ultiple reflections wit hit; the film o f a p h otoexcited acoustic pulse; the film
thickness values are indicated for each curve. 77
reflectivity and transmittivity Tt o f light are observed, associated with the

modulation o f the band structure in the films by the acoustic waves excited in
them (see Fig. 3.35). For example, the narrowing o f the forbidden band in amor
phous semiconductors in the process o f acoustic deformation brings about an
increase in the absorption o f the probing radiation and the subsequent decrease
in the film transmittivity. The experimentally registered acoustically induced
changes in reflectivity and transmittivity were in the range from 3 x 10- 5 to
3 x 1 0 4 . W hen using thin films with thickness 50-150 nm, the authors o f Ref. 77
could observe propagation o f a gigahertz sound (with acoustic frequencies u >
10 GHz) at room temperature and determine the sound velocities. According
to the results obtained, for example, in a- A s2Te3 , the velocity ca = 1600 m /s,
so that the acoustic pulses with duration t ~ 20 ps can be obtained at 8 1 ~
78
30 nm. In a later publication the analogous optical system, with rp = 0 .5 ps,
A = 0.625 p m , W ~ 2 nJ, and ut = 0.2 MHz, was used for the study o f In-
GaAsP films and determination o f the sound velocity and deformation potential
constants o f the valence and conduction bands.
79
Figure 3.36 shows the experimental arrangement for optical registration
o f propagation and attenuation o f sinusoidal gigahertz acoustic waves (j/ ~
25 GHz). The broadband acoustic pulses, being induced due to absorption o f
laser pump pulses ( r fa 0.2 ps, hux = 2 eV, vt = 110 MHz) in aluminum
films or in a-Ge : H, propagated in optical glass. It is reported in Ref. 80 that
the acoustic waves were registered as in Ref. 79 using the piezo-reflection effect,
that is, the change in reflectivity o f the probing radiation from the surface at
the moment the sonic wave reaches it. This time the experiments were carried
out in metals (Ni, Zr, Ti, P t). As in Refs. 77-79, introduction o f additional
low-frequency acousto-optical modulation o f the exciting pulses and selective
kU
0 500 WOO 1500 «a, ps

FIG . 3.36. Layout o f optica l registration o f propagation and attenuation of
gigahertz harm onic acoustic waves; below , reflectivity R0 o f the probing pulse
79
as a fun ction o f its delay £d with respect to the exciting pulse.
amplification for processing the reflected signals allow the reception sensitivity
to be substantially increased. In the case o f vr — 250 MHz and modulation
frequency 10 MHz the relative changes o f reflectivity of about 10 6 were reliably
gg ( _-r
registered; the highest possible sensitivity was estimated to be 10 . The
signal profiles reported in Ref. 83 have typical durations about 10 ps.
Recently the methods o f thermal modulation reflection spectroscopy devel-
84
oped in Refs. 80 and 83 were transferred from the picosecond into the fem
tosecond region o f temporal resolution ( r ~ 65 fs). 85 In the nearest future, one
can expect the experiments in which ultrashort acoustic pulses will be registered
using femtosecond optical pulses. As to the generation o f sound, the application
o f femtosecond lasers in the considered experimental systems does not seem ad
vantageous so far, since the actual duration o f excited acoustic pulses depends
on the depth o f the radiation penetration into a crystal, or the thickness o f an
absorbing film, or the surface quality. Even for iabs ~ 5 nm and ca ~ 5000 m /s,
the characteristic acoustic time ra ta fabs/ c a ~ 1 ps substantially exceeds the
times of femtosecond phenomena. Still, femtosecond lasers can be used in other
systems for generation o f giga- and terahertz acoustic waves. For example, owing
to an introduction of modulation instability in the radiation propagating along
an optical fiber, a train o f sub-picosecond optical pulses ( r = 0.5 ps) with a
tunable repetition rate o f vr = 0.3 THz has been obtained. 86 Obviously, the
similar trains o f laser pulses can be used for generation o f quasiharmonic acous
tic pulses with frequency ss vr in complete analogy with the experiment
described in Ref. 87 in which picosecond lasers ( r = 10 ps, ur = 0.02 GHz)
were used for the first time for generation o f sound over 20 years ago.
Up to now, all the experiments on laser generation o f ultrashort deformation

pulses have been conducted at room temperature which restricted the study
o f propagating acoustic waves with frequencies v > 10 GHz down to micro
scopic lengths. Diagnostics o f macroscopic samples by optically induced picosec
ond acoustic pulses is possible only at cryogenic (helium) temperatures. As it
was theoretically shown in Ref. 8 8 , transition to cryogenic temperatures gives
rise to qualitative changes in the process o f thermoelastic generation o f sound.
On the one hand, generation o f ultrashort deformation pulses at the surface o f
macroscopic metal samples is eliminated. Indeed, as the temperature drops,
89
the electron thermal conductivity o f metals grows drastically, and at helium
temperatures the electrons can propagate without scattering during the time
intervals substantially exceeding rp.9° In this case, the typical dimension o f the
heated region I ~ uFTp (with uF being the Fermi velocity o f electrons) and the
duration o f the excited deformation pulse exceeds that o f the light pulse at least
by 2 or 3 orders o f magnitude: ra ~ rpt)f, / c a (t>F ~ 107- 108 cm /s). Therefore,
the metals can be apparently used at low temperatures for optical generation o f
88
sound only in the form o f a film on dielectric substrata.
On the other hand, the behavior o f the phonon subsystem o f the crystal
changes at low temperatures. First, the processes o f establishing the equilibrium
distribution o f phonons slow down so that the phonons become nonequilibrium
with respect to ultrashort optical signals and the process o f thermalization o f
the absorbed light energy cannot be described only by an increase in the crystal
temperature. In this case the generation o f coherent acoustic pulses is a result
88 • •
o f nonlinear interaction o f random acoustic waves, and the nonequilibrium
analog o f the region with spatial temperature gradient is a region with the en
ergy density gradient o f the phonon field. It is in such regions that the regular
lattice deformations are excited. Second, at low temperatures the behavior o f
phonon thermal conductivity can also change, the diffusion regime is superseded
by the ballistic one, at which the phonons can propagate over m acroscopic dis-
90 91
tances without scattering. ’ Thus, the region in which the optical energy is
absorbed emits at low temperatures a transient flux o f nonequilibrium phonons
88 92
whose front moves with the sonic velocity. ’ The front is associated with the
gradient o f energy density o f the phonon field resulting in a synchronous gen
eration in this region o f a coherent sound whose deformation amplitude grows
with time according to a logarithmic law. 92 The inverse influence o f the ex
cited coherent acoustic waves on the phonon propagation has been analyzed in
Ref. 93. It should be reminded that in any case the phonon thermal conductivity
cannot broaden the optically induced acoustic pulses.
Electronic mechanism o f optical generation o f sound

in semiconductors; prospects for generation
o f extrem ely short acoustic pulses
The experimental and theoretical investigations 94-96 have disclosed a number

o f important advantages that can be realized in using semiconductor crystals
for the construction o f optical generators of picosecond acoustic nulses Thp
most significant feature o f semiconductors in this respect is presence, apart from

thermal elasticity, o f an additional mechanism o f crystal lattice deformation.
This is a so-called electronic, or concentration-strain mechanism 04-07 which is
caused by the change o f the equilibrium density o f semiconductors during the
optical generation o f nonequilibrium electron-hole pairs.
Acoustic waves are excited in semiconductors by any spatio-temporal change
in electron-hole plasma concentration n e . In this case an inhomogeneous wave
equation similar to Eq. (3.8.1) assumes the form
d \ ib r _ 2 d \ ib r = dp d ‘ n
(3-8.3)
d t2 a dx2 P0 d t d
where dpot is the deformation potential constant o f an electron-hole pair. The

advantages o f the deformation mechanism o f optical generation o f submicrom
eter acoustic bunches over thermoelastic one are directly connected with the
difference in the dynamics o f plasma and phonon subsystems o f a semiconduc
tor. To describe the diffusion o f photoexcited electron-hole plasma, one can use
the equation
9jle _ p0\ % , 6( 1 ~ R o) , - ^ r ( f / r } fo cA
o ' “ 1 7 “ ^ + — ( / -} ' ( 3 'M
where D is the coefficient o f ambipolar diffusion, rrec is the time o f recombi

nation o f electron-hole pairs.
Therm oelastic generation o f deformation waves results from a spatially non-
uniform heating or cooling o f the lattice, with the decrease in temperature T
o f an object being determined solely by thermal conductivity. The deforma
tion wave generation due to the electronic mechanism takes place according to
Eq. (3-8.3) during the growth or decrease o f concentration o f nonequilibrium
carriers ne (in the case o f interband light absorption). In contrast to the crys
tal temperature T , however, the carrier concentration ne in the plasma falls
according to Eq. (3.8.4) not only because of its spatial diffusion but also due
to recombination o f electron-hole pairs. Importantly, the recombination time
Trec nonequilibrium carriers depends significantly on their concentration ne ;
_1 ^ ^ _2
r re c ~ n
ê
for the bimole cular recombination and r rec ~ n e for the Auger
&
recombination. Therefore, changing the energy density o f the optical wave and,
consequently, the characteristic concentration o f photoexcited carriers, one can
efficiently affect the plasma evolution after the termination o f the optical ex
citation, or, in other words, the process o f deformation wave generation. By
reducing the recombination time r,ec , one can manage to switch off the de
formation source o f acoustic waves during the time interval not exceeding the
duration rp o f optical wave (at rrec < r ) and to decrease significantly the
diffusion length lD = ^ /D r rec o f nonequilibrium carriers. Both o f these effects
lead to shortening o f the deformation pulses optically induced in semiconductors
Qfi
down to r a ~ r p . ’
An important advantage o f the electronic mechanism o f sound generation
consists in the fact that at rrec > rD this mechanism is approximately one order
3.8. UHrashori acoustic pulses 199
9 4 _gg
o f magnitude more efficient than the thermoelastic one. Only at rrec < rp
the thermoelastic mechanism starts com peting with the electronic mechanism as
a result o f saturation o f photoexcited carrier concentration and acceleration o f
thermalization process.
Note that the strong dependence o f the absorption coefficient o f optical radia
tion on the excess o f the energy o f a light quantum hvx over the forbidden band
width Wf makes it possible, using the various (or tunable) sources o f light, to
change the characteristic depth o f the carrier photogeneration region Zabs ~ 6 1
in a wide range. In those cases when the duration o f acoustic pulses is deter
mined by the time taken by the sound to cross the region o f light absorption
[Ta ~ r« = ( 6ca) L] , the effective adjustment o f the acoustic pulse duration
can be accomplished. For the generation o f ultrashort deformation pulses with
ra ~ rp , it is significant that in semiconductors the optical radiation absorption
can be realized in a thin near-surface layer (/abs i'N
m' 10 - 10 6 cm ).
Finally, the basic advantage o f the electronic mechanism o f acoustic pulse
excitation with ra < 10 ps in comparison with the thermoelastic one lies in
the fact that it switches on practically instantaneously on absorption o f an op
tical quantum (during the transition o f the electron from the valence to the
conduction band). Fast excitation o f the phonon subsystem o f a semiconductor
takes place only in the indirect processes o f the interband absorption o f light.
However, in this case the heating o f the lattice is produced by an insignificant
part o f the absorbed energy. The main part o f the absorbed energy is trans
mitted to the lattice during the electron-phonon interactions and radiationless
clectron-hole recombination. The time o f energy exchange between the electron
subsystem that absorbed the light energy and the phonon subsystem diminishes
as the concentration o f photoexcited plasma grows. On reaching critical con
centrations o f nonequilibrium carriers, however, the processes o f electron-hole
recombination and scattering o f carriers by the phonons can be substantially
screened. For example, in Ref. 98 it is reported that the time of three-particle
(Auger) recombination in silicon cannot be reduced to less than 6 ps (satura-
20 _3
tion sets in at ne > 5 x 10 cm ) . Thus, there is a minimal time needed for a
substantial heating o f the semi4onductor during the radiationless recombination.
Accordingly, this finite delay in the energy transmission from the carriers to the
lattice prevents the excitation o f high-power picosecond acoustic pulses via the
thermoelastic mechanism.
The theory developed in Ref. 95 helps to evaluate the characteristic temporal
parameters o f the acoustic pulse optically induced in the vicinity o f the free
surface o f the semiconductor (see Fig. 3.34) via the electronic mechanism. The
vibrational velocity profile is represented in Fig. 3.34 for dpot > 0 . The rise
time r]d o f the leading edge o f the pulse is the largest o f the three values:
(i) the duration o f optical excitation r ; (ii) the time taken by the sound to
cross the region o f light absorption, ra = (<5ca) ~ 1 ; and (iii) the characteristic
time
^ f t e c ) = 2 ( D /c ’ ) [l + (1 + 4 D / c I t ' J 12] - 1 ,
2
associated with the carrier diffusion. Note that at rrec <C D fc^ , the time t d &
\/DTrcc/c&, i.e., t d has the meaning o f the time taken by the sound to travel
the distance through which the carriers diffuse before recombination. As the
acoustic pulse reverses its polarity over the time approximately equal to r (see
Fig. 3.34), the generation o f dilatation pulses with duration ra ~ r requires
that rJd ~ rp , i.e., ra , TD(rrec) < rp . For optical pulses with duration rp ~
100 ps such a situation can be realized, for example, in silicon by using the optical
radiation with a wavelength o f 0.53 //m . Indeed, assuming ca ~ 106 c m /s ,
D < 100 cm 2 /s , 6 > 104 cm 1 , we get ra < 100 ps, f D (r,ec) < 100 ps. In the
general case for the crystal deformation the following approximate evaluations
are valid : the acoustic Mach number M a ~ dpotne/(pQc^) , p a ~ dpotne ■ For
silicon (cfpot « 8-1 eV ) they lead to
M a ~ 6 x 10 24ne [cm 3] , p a [kbar] ~ 1.3 x 10 2°n e [cm 3],
In the considered case, the growth in carrier concentration is not restricted to

2 —1
volume recombination up to rp ~ rrec , i.e., (7 nQ) ~ rp , nQ ~ V -y /T 7^ ~
1.6x 1020 cm 3 ( 7 = 4 x 10 31 cm 6/ s is the Auger constant in Si). At ne < nQ
the concentration ne « dpot (1 — R 0) I t j h v t . Thus, the increase in the in-
. 2
tensity o f optical excitation up to I ~ 100 M W /c m is accompanied with a
linear increase in M a , p a , n and the conversion coefficient o f optical radi
ation into sound r)conv = IJ I » (dpotne) 2/(P0CJ ) ~ I up to the values
M a ~ 10 3 , pa ~ 2 kbar , ne ~ 1.6x 102° cm 3 , »?conv ~ 5 x 10 3 . On the fur
ther increase in the intensity, all the indicated parameters grow sublinearly due
to a gradual saturation o f concentration o f the photoexcited carriers. In the sat-
1 /3
uration regime (rrec , ne ~ I ) the conversion coefficient fJconv for the
concentration mechanism o f generation starts actually falling: f]conv ~ I ^ 3-

Note that the spatial
^ dimension o f the excited acoustic bunch Ia — c a ra ~
1 f i m . Thus, pressure gradients up to 20 M b a r/cm are realized in the acoustic
wave. These pressure drops can be even higher as the leading edge o f the pulse
becomes shorter as a result o f its nonlinear propagation. The length o f disconti
nuity formation in the acoustic wave is estimated to be Jdjsc /a/ e aM a , which
in the considered case gives /disc ~ 80 nm ( e is the nonlinear parameter).
Thus, optica] excitation o f such acoustic waves makes it possible to study the
99
processes o f their nonlinear transformation in the samples with a thickness
over 100 / / m .
The shortening o f the dilatation pulse (see Fig. 3.34) down to ra = 1-10 ps can
be impeded by the diffusion o f nonequilibrium carriers. Indeed, due to screening
o f electron-phonon interaction in Si rrec > 6 ps and therefore rD > 25 ps.
This conclusion, however, cannot be considered unconditionally correct since
there are some experimental observations 100 pointing to a confinement o f the
plasma close to the surface o f the semiconductor in a potential well emerging on
a heating o f near-surface region. On the whole, the behavior o f the photoexcited
electron-hole plasma has not been com pletely clarified so far. There are some
experiments 101 ’ 102 showing that the plasma undergoes a supersonic hydrody
namic expansion with the drift velocities vd reaching 10?- 1 0 8 cm /s. At the
same time, there are other experiments, e.g., Ref. 103, in which the plasma could
not be accelerated above the velocity o f a slow transverse acoustic mode. The
final answer could be obtained from acousto-optical experiments. For example,
if under the assumptions made in the foregoing calculation, the drift expansion
o f plasma takes place within the time rd ~ rp , the acoustic signal will reach
a detector earlier by the time interval A t = vdTp/c& ~ 1-10 ns than in the
absence o f the supersonic motion o f plasma. If the plasma does not break the
sonic barrier, its motion does not broaden the acoustic pulses under any condi
tions. In this case, by decreasing the penetration depth o f the optical radiation
to /abs ~ 10 6 cm and the duration o f optical excitation to rp ~ 1 ps, we can
reduce the duration of dilatation pulses down to ra ~ fabs/ c a ~ 1 ps.
A ccording to the experimantal results reported in Ref. 104 the concentra-
22 _3
tion ne > 2 x 10 cm was achieved for A = 0.31 //m at rp = 100 fs,
I tp as 10 m J//cm 2 . Our evaluations show that in this case one can obtain M a ~
0.1, pa ~ 300 k b a r, >?conv~ 0 .0 3 , /a ~ 0 . 0 1 / / m , pa/ / a ~ 3 x 105 M b a r/cm ,
ldisc ~ / . Thus, propagation o f such pulses can be studied only at low temper
atures because /disc ~ /a . A decrease in n& by one order o f magnitude and,
consequently, in pa and M a would make the length of discontinuity formation
equal to /disc ~ 0.1 //m and the nonlinear acoustic processes observable in thin
films at the room temperature.
The duration of the trailing edge o f the compression pulse is equal, according
to Ref. 95, at rdisc > r*r to rtr ~ r(* = m a x {r p , rD , r j . If the carrier
recombination time rrec < rtr , then rtr ~ max { r rec, rp} . Thus, if rrec is less
than the time ra taken by the sound to travel the photoexcited region and the
time t d associated with the motion o f carriers, the compression pulse decay
time and, consequently, the compression pulse duration are independent o f the
absorption depth and diffusion processes. This is because the compression pulse
is a result o f superposition o f two acoustic pulses, one o f which is generated
during the photogeneration o f plasma and the other during its recombination.
The durations o f either signal depend on Ta and t d . They have the opposite
polarities and are delayed by the time equal approximately to the sum rp + r.ec .
That is why at rrec < rn , t d the compression pulse duration in the resulting
wave turns out to be independent o f ra and t d . Therefore, there are no obsta
cles caused by fast plasma expansion for generation o f picosecond compression
pulses. In accordance with the ideas developed in Refs. 94-96, if at low optical
intensities r.ec ra r and the compression pulse decay time rtr ~ ra ,
then the conditions rrec < rp < Ta can be realized, as the light intensity and,
consequently, plasma concentration ne grow, and the acoustic pulses with dura
tion ra ~ rp can be excited. Such an approach has been experimentally realized
in the nanosecond ran ge.94, 96 An increase in the optical energy density (Si,
A = 1.06 / / m ) from 0.1 to 1 J /c m was accompanied with shortening o f the
compression pulse from ra ~ r a « 100 ns (6 « 0.1 c m ' ) to ra ~ rp « 20 ns.
202 S. Parametric interaction and coherent scattering
Let us evaluate the parameters o f this effect in the case o f gallium arsenide
subjected to the pulsed radiation with wavelength A = 0.53 //m and rp = 30 ps.
Then 6 « 7 x 104 cm 1 , ca « 5 x 103 m /s , D ~ 200 cm 2/ s and therefore ra «
30 ps and at rrec > rp the time rD > V D r/ r.a ks 150 ps. If there were no super
position o f the signals, induced by photogeneration and carrier recombination,
then the compression pulse duration would obey the condition ra ~ t d « 150 ps.
Actually, when we satisfy the condition rrec ~ rp , we obtain ra ~ rp ; this hap
pens provided the carrier concentration nQ ~ w 2 x 102° cm - 3 ( 7 «
7 x 10 31 cm6/s in G aA s). In the considered case ( t d ra) , the concentra
tion o f carriers does not grow because o f their diffusion deeper into the crys
tal. Hence, the required excitation intensity is estimated from the relation
n 0 ~ (1 — R 0)lTp/ ( y j D r phv to be equal to J ~ 300 M W /c m 2 ; we also obtain
M a ~ 10~2 3 n0 [cm- 3 ] ~ 0.002, p a ~ 3 kbar, ??conv ~ 0.001, /a ~ 0.15 //m,

pa/ / a ~ 200 M b a r/cm , /disc ~ 15 //m . One can thus expect acoustic nonlin
earity to be observed in thin films with thickness about 50 //m . In cryogenic
99
experiments, as the theory predicts, com petition between the nonlinearity and
dispersion may lead to the decay o f intensive acoustic bunches into a sequence
o f solitons each o f which has a duration o f about 1 ps.
To excite picosecond acoustic pulses directly in the process o f interband optical
absorption, one has to decrease rp and simultaneously increase the density o f
absorbed optical energy, which results in the reduction o f rrec .
We can state in conclusion that the optical excitation can produce in semi
conductors coherent deformation pulses with duration ra = 1 -1 0 0 ps, spatial
dimension 0.01-1 / i m , and pressures about 1-100 kbar. The coefficient o f con
version o f optical radiation into sound may amount to ??conv = 0 .001- 0 .1 .
Finally it should be pointed out that picosecond acoustooptics has been ap-
121 122 123 124
plied for diagnostics o f thin films ’ and layered structures. ’ Acous
tooptic observation o f oscillations o f two-com ponent com position superlattice
that are located close to the surface 123, 125 and acoustooptic spectroscopy of
films o f amorphous materials in the 180-250 GHz frequency band at room
12 6 • • 1 2 7 128
temperature are o f particular interest. The first theoretical studies
should aslo be noted, which predict an effective excitation o f ultrashort pulse de
formation caused by inversive piezoelectric effect induced by spatial separation
o f nonequilibrium photoexcited charge carriers.
4. Fast phase control;
compression and shaping of optical pulses
P rodu ction o f extrem ely short pulses is a result o f realization o f a simple and obvious
com pression principle, the tem poral focusin g o f optical radiation. T h e key features o f the
tem poral focusing, in analogy w ith the spatial focusing o f wave beam s, are the fast phase
(frequency) m odulation and com pression o f the m odulated pulse in a dispersive m edium .
O bviously, if we want to produce pulses whose duration is com parable with a period o f optical
oscillations, the range o f frequency sweep m ust be com parable with the carrier frequency.
A t present, the m ost convenient m eth od o f creating the required fast m odulation is a
self-phase m odulation in a m edium with fast electron nonlinearity. A n ideal com pression
system , similarly to an aberration-free focusin g o f a wave beam , perform s a linear-in-tim e
F M and accurate phase-m atching o f the com ponents o f a broadened spectrum at the focal
poin t. A practical realization o f the con ditions for ideal com pression presents a fairly difficult
problem . T h e elim ination o f aberrations appearing in a m odulator and com pressor, increase
in energy efficiency, im provem ent in quality a nd stability o f com pressed pulses, and effective
con trol o f the shape are the problem s now attracting m ost attention.
4.1. Nonlinear optical phase modulators

The idea o f using optical nonlinearity for creation o f a phase modulator, i.e., a
“temporal lens” ,* was expressed and realized at the end o f the 1960s.1 At that
time, liquids com posed o f anisotropically polarizing molecules were used as non
linear materials, characterized by relatively large nonlinearity o f the refractive
index ( « 2 as 10 11 CG SE ) and relaxation time o f few picoseconds.
Self-phase modulation in liquids with n2 > 0 gives rise to a positive chirp
o f a pulse in those of its parts where the profile curvature is positive. In order
to compress such pulses, as it follows from Sec. 1.4, one must have media with
*A s it has been m entioned in Chap. 1 , a “tem poral lens” can b e constructed on the basis
o f an electro-optical m odulator. W hen the generation o f picosecond or sub-picosecond optical
pulses is undertaken, the m odulator must b e controlled b y picosecond electric pulses. T he
potential o f this technique was lately dem onstrated in Ref. 2. Having accom plished the fast
phase m odulation o f cw argon laser radiation w ith a subsequent convertion o f phase m odulation
into am plitude m odulation in a dispersive delay line, the authors o f Ref. 2 obtained the pulses
w ith duration 8 ps and repetition rate 10 G H z. It is too early to claim however that this
technique can successfully com pete w ith the m ethods o f nonlinear-optics com pression.
Z lK i 4 . Uompression and shaping o f optical pulses
anomalous group-velocity dispersion. Cells with metal vapors (in the frequency
3 1
region close to one-photon resonance), devices made o f a pair o f diffraction
gratings,4 and some types o f interferometers 5 were used as such media. Com
pression ratios S ~ 10 (from 20 to 2 ps 6 and from 100 to 7 ps 7 ) were achieved
in experiments. The drawbacks o f compression schemes that use bulk media are
associated with the nonuniformity o f the chirp in the transverse cross section o f
the beam and with close relationship between spatial and temporal self-action
effects, leading to instabilities o f compressed pulse parameters.
Indeed, the compression ratio o f the pulse is proportional to the relative broad
ening o f its spectrum. Resorting to the formula for the relative value o f spectral
broadening (2.3.15)
Aw 1 + ( 0.88kan2^ - L
1/ 2
(4.1.1)
a—
A /,? ^
“'o ‘-’ e f f
and taking into account that the effective self-action in a nonlinear medium takes
place over the longitudinal length of the beam waist region L « 2kQaQ, where
aQ is the beam radius, we conclude that a perceptible spectral broadening can
be obtained only at the power V Q « ir/(2k2h2) which corresponds to critical
power o f self-focusing (2.5.9).
A radical change in the situation has become possible owing to the use of
single-mode optical fibers as nonlinear phase modulators. The small nonlinear
contribution to the index o f refraction in quartz glasses (n 2 « 10~~13 CGSE)
is more than compensated by the possibility o f sustaining a stable transverse
profile o f the light beam with diameter 5-10 //m over the distances o f the order
o f a characteristic absorption length /abs « (in the visible optical range
/abs = 100 — 1000 m ). Comparing /abs with the characteristic length o f focal
waist L « 2k0a,Q , we obtain an increase o f 105- 106 in the nonlinear interaction
length. Using the fibers o f various length, one can get a substantial spectral
broadening not only for high-power pulsed lasers, but also for the sources oper
ating with a high repetition rate and with peak powers o f pulses equal to a few
watts. Due to the wide transparency range of quartz glasses the compression
can be accomplished in the wide wavelength range. Besides, the high breakdown
threshold and stability o f the geometry o f fibers should also be noted.
The magnitude o f the nonlinear contribution to the index o f refraction be
comes comparable in quartz fibers with the core-cladding index difference only
2 2
for intensities I & 1 T W /c m . If one works in the interval 1-1000 M W /c m ,
the self-action model based on the assumption o f constancy o f the radiation
mode structure in a fiber is quite adequate (see Sec. 1.7). From the conservation
o f radiation mode structure one more important advantage follows immediately,
a high degree of homogeneity o f FM in a transverse cross section o f the beam.
Real limitations on the frequency scanning range in a fiber modulator are spec
ified to a large extent by the input pulse parameters. For high-power pulses
o f picosecond duration (V 0 « 1 kW ) the basic limitations are associated with
a com peting SRS process. For pulses with peak power o f a few watts, whose
modulation is carried out in the long fibers (100-1000 m ), optical losses become
4-2. Optical compressors 205
a limiting factor. The specifics o f femtosecond pulse compression are presented

in Sec. 4.7.
4.2. Optical compressors

In an optical fiber modulator (n 2 > 0) the modulated carrier frequency grows
from the leading to the trailing edge, and therefore an optical compressor must
have anomalous dispersion, i.e., the group-velocity delay time for low-frequency
spectral com ponents located at the leading edge o f the pulse must be longer than
for high-frequency components located at its trailing edge. The simplest grating
compressor is shown in Fig. 4.1. It consists o f a pair o f diffraction gratings
placed parallel to each other.
FIG. 4.1. C om pressor consisting o f a pair o f diffraction holographic gratings.

T h e rays are shown, corresponding to wavelengths A and \l .
The time taken to travel the optical path A B C is expressed in terms o f the
incidence angle j 0 , diffraction angle #dif , and distance b as
T - (b + b sin 0dif sin j Q) /c . (4.2.1)
The dispersion parameter which specifies the variation o f group-velocity delay

time with wavelength assumes the form
n _ 1 8T _ 1 + sin 0d.f sin 7q db , cos ffdif sin Tq 30dif

bd\~ be ox c ~ax~' -
Using the known relationship between the angles of incidence and diffraction
d (sin 7 0 + sin 0dif) = A , (4.2.3)
where d is the grating period, we obtain

9 9 d if _ SeC g d i f t o _ 6 S e c 2 g d i f S in g d i f (A 9
8\ d ’ 8A d (’
The substitution o f Eq. (4.2.4) into Eq. (4.2.1) yields the expression for the
dispersion parameter
4 . vom pression and shaping o f optical pulses
Taking into account the relationship between D and the coefficient k2 ,
D = —27tc^2/Aq , (4.2.6)
we come to the conclusion that a pair o f diffraction gratings, placed at the

distance b , is equivalent to an anomalously dispersive medium, with
t (c) _ _ Ap (A J d f
2 <1 2 1
2irc 1 — /\ /J — sin
(AQ/d • 7 0)\2 ' )
For typical values of the parameters j Q = 60° , d — 1 //m , A0 = 0.5 fim, the
coefficient k ^ is of the order 10 26s2/ c m , and the effective dispersion length
for tq 1 ps is L a = r ^ / k ^ m 1 m.
Significantly larger values o f dispersion can be achieved by letting the light
beam fall on a grating at the grazing angle. Such arrangements are used for
compression o f pulses with initial duration about tens o f picoseconds. The char
acteristic features o f such a system are discussed in Ref. 9.
FIG . 4.2. Com pressor w ith anom alous dispersion: (a ) one-pass variant in which
spatial displacement o f spectral com ponents takes place; ( 6) two-pass variant.
Possibilities for controlling the am plitudes and phases of spectral com ponents
using a phase screen are shown.
Note that in the grating pair shown in Fig. 4.2 (a) an undesirable effect devel
ops, which is the spatial shift o f high-frequency and low-frequency components.
The indicated drawback can be overcome by using a mirror that sends the radi
ation back to the grating pair. The spatial shift o f the frequency components is
offset after a double passage o f the beam 10 [see Fig. 4.2 (6) ].
Cells with alkali metal vapors are successfully used as media with anomalous
dispersion at frequencies close to the one-photon resonance. 3 A n acceptable
level o f losses (20%) can be achieved in such cells. Weak points o f these elements
4-2. Optical compressors 207
FIG . 4.3. Prism com pressor realizing anom alous and normal dispersions 11 .
are associated with the need for operating close to fixed wavelengths and some
technological problems o f their fabrication.
For compression o f FM pulses with an initial pulse duration o f tens and hun
dreds o f femtoseconds, prism compressors were developed 11 whose experimental
layout is shown in Fig. 4.3. The prisms are so oriented that an optical beam
falls on the entrance face o f the first prism at the Brewster angle, while all the
remaining prisms are oriented under the angle o f the minimum deflection. It is
demonstrated in R e f 11 that such a prism system is equivalent to a medium
with dispersion constant
Evaluations carried out for quartz prisms at A0 = 0.62 /i m , / = 25 cm, give

the values o f ^ 3.5 x 10 28 s2/ c m . The advantages o f prism compressors
are related to low energy losses and absence o f a spatial frequency shift. They
are applied mainly in intraresonator compression system s.12 ’ 13
Recently it has been demonstrated that the dispersion o f prism compressors
can be increased by more than one order o f magnitude by using the prisms
manufactured from glass with high dispersion (F2, SF10) and by choosing an
incidence angle that is smaller than the angle corresponding to the minimum
deflection o f the optical beam. Thus, the authors o f Ref. 14 succeeded in a
75-fold compression o f a chirped pulse with a duration o f 21 ps and with energy
efficiency o f 85%.
We shall note in conclusion that the dependence o f the dispersion parameter
on u) and the corresponding quadratic FM characterized by the param-
fc)
eter k:A ' may prove crucial in compression o f pulses with broad spectrum in
both prism and grating compressors. This points to a possibility o f constructing
aberration-free compressors capable o f compressing efficiently the pulses having
both linear and quadratic FM.
To sum up, there appears a chance to correct aberrations o f temporal distri
bution o f phase, appearing in the process o f pulse propagation.
ûo 4 . Uompression and shaping o f optical pulses
4.3. Dispersive self-phase modulation

Self-phase modulation (SPM ) o f a real laser pulse leads to a com plex phase versus
time dependence even in a medium with fast nonlinearity. In other words, the
“temporal lens,” based on SPM , has, generally speaking, strong aberrations. It
is easy to see, however, that the second-order dispersion can, to a large extent,
correct the situation.
F IG . 4.4. Schematics for com pression o f optical pulses using SPM in a fiber
waveguide. Shown are the tem poral profiles o f the correction 5cj(r) to carrier
frequency and o f intensity 1 { t ) , and the pulse spectrum s(w ) at the waveguide
output.
The compression system schematically shown in Fig. 4.4 comprises a source of

transform-limited picosecond pulses, optical fiber modulator, and grating com
pressor. The mathematical analysis o f the process of dispersive SPM is based
on the nonlinear Schrodinger equation describing variations o f the com plex am
plitude o f the field. We shall write this equation for the case of normal group-
velocity dispersion [cf. Eq. (2.8.17)]:
= + t4 '3' 1)
where r = (t — z/u )tq 1 is the “running” time normalized to the initial pulse
duration, the distance £ is expressed in units o f dispersion length L d = /k2 ,
the parameter 6 = SQLd characterizes the absorption over the dispersion length,
and the amplitude xp is normalized to the maximum value.
The nonlinearity is characterized by the ratio R = L J £ spm o f the dispersion
length to the SPM length L spm = (ô” 2êff) 1 • con*rast to the case o f a plane
wave, £ spm is determined by the effective value o f peak radiation intensity in
the optical fiber
h ft = Io (U 4)/(U 2) , (4.3.2)
2* 00
where (Un) = f dtp f Unr d r , and IQ is the peak intensity value. For practical
° °
calculations it is more convenient to use the expression
^ e ff — n / ^ r r ’
(4.3.3)
4-3. Dispersive self-phase modulation 209
where V 0 is the peak power, Sefc = ( U 2) j(U^) is the effective area o f a mode,
which differs only insignificantly from the geometric area of the optical fiber core.
Note that the self-action efficiency also depends on radiation polarization.
The expression for nonlinearity parameter R given before is valid for an optical
fiber in which the light polarization remains constant. In the case o f circular
polarization n 2 should be substituted for 2n2/3 ; when the polarization varies
randomly the averaged value 5n2/6 can be u sed .15 Some interesting effects o f
polarization self-action were examined both theoretically and experim entally.16
Nevertheless, the optical fibers in which the linear polarization remains constant
seem to be most suitable for pulse compression.
Typical modifications o f an envelope, spectrum, and frequency modulation of
a Gaussian pulse, obtained as a result of numerical solution o f Eq. (4.3.1), are
shown in Fig. 4.5.
FIG . 4.5. E volution o f the profile and spectrum o f an ultrashort pulse in the
case o f self-action in a m edium with norm al dispersion.
The dynamics o f the self-action process o f a temporal profile is determined by

relationships between characteristic lengths o f SPM L. , dispersion Ld , and
* 1/2 ^
self-action L n] = ( £ spm£ d) • For the experiments on compression o f pulses
with initial duration o f several picoseconds, the situation is typical when the
length L o f an optical fiber satisfies the inequalities L spm <C I « I til. < L cl, . In
this case at the initial stage o f pulse propagation the dominant process is the
SPM leading to the spectral broadening and formation o f linear FM within the
central part o f the pulse. Lowering o f the frequency at the leading edge and
its increase at the trailing edge under the conditions o f normal group-velocity
dispersion cause an additional nonlinear spreading o f the pulse and flattening
o f its peak. A result of the combined effect of dispersion and nonlinearity is
the formation at the distance z ~ 2L j o f a practically rectangular pulse with
linear FM.
2 1 0 4- Compression and shaping o f optical pulses
iri/ b
JL
-1 t* -1 1 *
6 w t0 SaitB
x
X J
l/h l/i„
-0.5 0.5 1 -0 .5 0.5 t

(a ) (b)
FIG . 4.6. Tim e-dom ain profiles o f intensity, carrier frequency correction and
profiles o f com pressed pulses: (a) dispersive regime; ( 6) nondispersive self-action
regime.
In Fig. 4.6 the temporal profiles o f intensity and instantaneous frequency are
compared for two compression regimes, nondispersive and dispersive ones. Pa
rameters V Q and L are chosen so as to provide the same compression ratio in
the both cases, either by increasing V 0 or L . The analysis o f the compressed
pulse structure vividly demonstrates the merits o f the dispersive regime. A l
most 90% o f the energy in the dispersive regimes is contained within a narrow
central peak, whereas in the nondispersive regime the corresponding fraction of
energy does not exceed 68%, which testifies to perceptible aberrations that the
“temporal lens” possesses in this case.
4.4. O ptim ization of com pression system s

Practical realization o f optical-fiber compression schemes requires the solution
o f a number o f problems pertaining to establishing optimum relations between
17—19
the parameters o f an initial pulse, optical fiber, and compressor. In the
nondispersive regime o f SPM the calculation o f compression can be carried out
easily if one assumes certain values o f tq and 7eff for the parameters o f the
initial pulse and L for the optical fiber length.
Using Eq. (2.3.15) describing the nonlinear spectral broadening o f a Gaussian
pulse, we obtain for the maximum phase value <pmax > 1 at the pulse peak
(4.4.1)
The approximate expression for the compression ratio determined from the spec
tral broadening [see Eq. (1.4.26)] takes the form
S « 0.88 k0h2IeffL — 0.88L/Lspm. (4.4.2)

4-4- Optimization o f compression systems 211
F IG . 4.7. O ptim al com pression conditions: (a) relative peak intensity o f a

com pressed pulse as a fun ction of the red u ced fiber waveguide length £ = z jL ^ \
( 6) com pressed pulse duration as a fu n ction o f £ ; (c) optim al distance between
the com pressor gratings b/Ld . Values of nonlinearity param eter R : ( 1 ) 100,
( 2 ) 200, ( 3) 300, ( 4 ) 500. 17
The optim um distance between the gratings
l . U T 2(k(2c)k0n2IeSL y \ (4.4.3)
The given expressions illustrate the scaling laws o f compression, but do not al
low calculations of such important characteristics as the compressed pulse shape,
its peak power, etc. In particular, it follows from Eq. (4.4.2) that the compres
sion ratio must grow linearly with distance. However, it is clear from the previous
section that the rate o f FM will be limited by dispersive spreading.
212 J,. Compression and shaping o f optical pulses
Real quantitative laws o f the dispersive regime o f compression were established

in Refs. 17 and 19 by computer simulation methods. In numerical experimeitts
the nonlinear Schrodinger equation (4.3.1) was integrated over £ for different
values o f nonlinearity parameter R = “P q/V ■ Intensity profiles, instantaneous
frequency distributions at various cross sections £ o f a fiber, and compressions
o f FM pulses were calculated for the optimum adjustment o f a grating compres
sor. Figure 4.7 shows how the minimum pulse duration depends on the length
o f an optical fiber. It can be seen that for each value o f R there is an optimum
length j£ t o f an optical fiber, at which the maximum compression ratio 5 max
is reached. The existence o f the optimum is due to the fact that for small dis
tances z ~ Lspm the pulse shape does not practically change and the nonlinear
broadening o f the spectrum grows proportionally with distance [see Eq. (4.4.2)].
At a distance z ~ L nl the pulse spreading leads to suppression o f SPM, while
at z > L n] the continued dispersive spreading o f the pulse edges reduces the
possibility o f its compression in a quadratic compressor.
The analysis o f the dependence o f S on £ and R given in Ref. 17 has made
it possible to establish simple empirical relations for the optimum length o f an
optical fiber and the peak intensity gain:
Lopt = C L ni, ' max/ ' o = C - V t f , S « / max/ / 0.(4.4.4
The constant C in these expressions varies slightly with variation o f an in

put pulse shape, provided the pulse is transform-limited. For Gaussian pulses
C — 1.79; for pulses with a profile in the form o f a hyperbolic secant ip0 — sech t ,
the constant C = 1.84.
Figure 4.7 (c) illustrates the dependence o f the optimal distance between the
gratings, expressed in units o f L d , on the length L o f an optical fiber, and
nonlinearity parameter R . The relations (4.4.4) are valid in a wide range of
nonlinearity parameter, 10 < R < 10 , with an error not exceeding 5%.
FIG . 4.8. A ppearance o f instability at the b o th edges o f the pulse at large

supercritical power, /? > in (only one half o f the pulse is shown).
The case o f larger nonlinearities, R = 104- 1 0 5 , which are typical for com
pression o f pulses with initial duration o f the order o f tens o f picoseconds is
examined in Ref. 20. A specific instability appearing at steep edges o f a pulse
was observed in numerical experiments in the vicinity o f the point z = L opt
4-5. Spectralfiltering, compression o f noise pulses 213
(see Fig. 4.8). The appearance o f this effect is associated with characteristic
properties o f the temporal dependence o f instantaneous frequency (see Fig. 4.5).
Under the conditions o f very weak normal dispersion of group velocity, the low-
frequency components, corresponding to the point o f deflection o f the intensity
profile, overtake the higher-frequency components located at the leading edge.
This results in a frequency mixing and appearance o f a small-scale pattern of in
terference type. The results obtained in Ref. 20 helped to explain some features
in the spectra observed in Ref. 21.
The expression (4.4.4) for the compression ratio has been obtained without
taking into consideration com peting nonlinear processes. In real experimental
situations the compression ratio is limited, as a rule, by the SRS process.
The SRS process starting from the random noise level leads to a pump deple
tion under the conditions that
S je f t L « 16 . ( 4 '4 ' 5 )
where gs is the signal gain coefficient at the Stokes frequency, equal to about
2 X 10- U c m /W in the visible optical range. On substitution of L = 16/(ffs/ eff )
into Eq. (4.4.2) we obtain the following limiting value for S in the nondispersive
approximation:
S < 14kQfi2/gs fa 30. (4.4.6)
This limitation has a fundamental character since the compression ratio S is

determined after all by the ratio o f the real and imaginary parts o f the cubic
susceptibility.
O f course, the real picture o f the Raman frequency conversion is much more
com plicated since the pulses at the fundamental and Stokes frequencies “walk
off” because o f the difference in group velocities. The typical value o f this effect
has the order o f several picoseconds per meter (for the frequency difference A t' «
440 cm corresponding to the center o f the Raman gain spectrum). By lowering
the input power level and increasing the length o f an optical fiber, one can attain
compression ratios S » 100. In this situation optical losses become a basic
factor limiting the value o f L at the level
£eff = ( l - e ~ 6°L) / V (4-4.7)
Ultimate compression ratios will be considered in Sec. 4.7.
4.5. Spectral filtering and compression of noise pulses

The conditions for optimal compression were formulated in the previous section
with reference to transform-limited pulses. Real laser systems have amplitude
and phase fluctuations that influence perceptibly the self-action o f pulses, max
imum compression ratio, and fluctuation level o f output parameters. In this
section we shall examine the specifics o f random pulse compression and the ex
isting methods o f stabilization o f radiation parameters by methods o f spectral
filtering.
214 4. Compression and shaping o f optical pulses
An important example o f the input signal is furnished by a superposition o f

“signal + noise” type:
rp {r, 0) = ^ 0( r ) + <rrp(r) , (4.5.1)
where i p Q and % [> are the deterministic and random field components, er is
the parameter characterizing the noise level. The most comprehensive informa
tion on processes taking place in an optical fiber can be obtained in numerical
experiments that make it possible to analyze both a behavior o f individual real
izations and statistical characteristics averaged over the ensemble o f solutions of
Eq. (4.3.1) with the initial data (4.5.1).
W e shall begin with a discussion o f some results o f mathematic modeling o f
self-action o f optical noise bursts
rp(r, 0) = er£(r)^0( r ) , (4.5.2)
where £ (r ) is the com plex Gaussian random process with a zero average value,
variance equal to 1 and with Gaussian correlation function. Figure 4.9 shows
the temporal dependences o f intensity I ~ |^>|2 and frequency chirp at
different cross sections z/Lnl o f an optical fiber.
FIG . 4.9. Self-action o f a noise pulse in optical waveguide with normal group-
velocity dispersion: (a) tem poral intensity profiles; (f>) carrier frequency cor
rections. 22
A t the initial stage o f propagation SPM plays the main part as z ~ ■^spm <
L n l. W ithin the limits of fluctuation intensity overshoots a positive chirp is
J,.5. Spectral filtering, compression o f noise pulses 215
formed which under the conditions o f normal group-velocity dispersion leads to

the dispersive spreading o f the overshoots. Therefore, frequency and intensity
fluctuations sm ooth out at large distances and 8w becomes a linear function o f
t . Figure 4.10 presents the dependences I ( t ) and 6 d ( t ) at the distance corre
sponding to the optimal length o f an optical fiber for compression o f transform-

limited pulses. It is seen that the frequency and intensity fluctuations concen
trate mainly at the both pulse edges. Compressed pulses [see Fig. 4.10( c )] have
almost regular structure and differ mainly by the peak intensity value. Similar
characteristic features are also observed for input data of “signal + noise” type
(4.5.1).
(*)
U)
FIG . 4.10. Self-action o f a noise pulse: (a) tem poral intensity profiles at
the waveguide outpu t; (S>) carrier frequency corrections; (c) com pressed pulses.
A series o f curves corresponds to various realizations, z — 1.8L nt , R = 300.22
An approximate analytical description o f the process o f pushing fluctuations

23 24
to the periphery o f a pulse can be obtained using the method o f moments.
Let us introduce a dimensionless rms duration o f a pulse
+ oo
0 (0 = j •tp(r)r2tp*(T) dr. (4.5.3)

—OO
The equation for 0 is obtained by the following stages: (i) multiplication o f

Eq. (4.3.1) by the conjugate amplitude xp* ; (ii) multiplication of Eq. (4.3.1)
by the conjugate equation; (iii) summation o f the equations thus obtained; and
(iv) integration o f the sum with weight factor r 2 . The equation describing the
2164 • Compression and shaping o f optical pulses
dynamics o f the rms duration take the form
^ 0 ( 0 = - * {i>*rxp) + c. c . ,
(4.5.4)
“ 2 0 (C ) = 2 + R ((ipip *)2) ,
“C
+ oo
where the angular brackets denote a time average, ( / ) = f f d r , and the
—oo
overdot denotes differentiation with respect to r . The rms duration averaged
over the ensemble o f realizations o f the initial data (4.5.1),
+ 00
0(C ) = j rpr2\j}* dr , (4.5.5)
— OO
is asuperposition o f the deterministic 0o and noise 9 components:
0 ( 0 = M O + ° 2m - (4-5.6)
Substituting Eq. (4.5.1) into Eq. (4.5.4), averagingand equalizing the values o f
the same order o f smallness in terms o f i t , we obtain two equations
- ^ 0 = 2 {< M o ) + ’
\ ^ _ (4.5-7)
— = 2 ( ( ^ * ) ) + 4 R ((r p 0rp*0)(-ip^*)).
“C
It follows from these equations that a low-intensity noise almost does not af
fect the rms duration o f the deterministic com ponent. The reciprocal effect o f
the signal on the noise is more significant: the rate of spreading o f the noise
component grows.
Let us make the initial conditions more specific by assuming
^ o (r > ° ) = exP ( —»r2/ 2) . ^ ( r > 0) = £ (r )ô> (4.5.8)
and calculate the right-hand side o f Eq. (4.5.7) at the point £ = 0 . We get the
equations with a constant right-hand side
.2 _
0o = v ^ ( l + R/y/2),
2 (4-5-9)
-j -j O = [1 + 4 (r ~ 2 + R j a/2)] , .
“C
where the correlation time rc is normalized to the initial pulse duration. The
equations adequately describe the initial stage o f evolution (£ <C 1) o f the rms
4-5. Spectralfiltering, compression of noise pulses 217
FIG . 4.11. Ensem ble-averaged com pression ratio as a function o f reduced length
of optical waveguide (solid line). T h e dashed line corresponds to a transform-
lim ited pulse. T he nonlinearity param eter R — 300 . Standard deviations are
indicated. 22
duration o f an average pulse. It follows from Eq. (4.5.9) that 0Q and 9 grow
proportionally to a square o f distance and at R 1 the rate o f spreading o f
the noise component is about four times higher than that o f the deterministic
component.
Now let us discuss statistical characteristics o f compressed pulses using the
22 25
results o f mathematical modeling ’ Figure 4.11 shows the dependence o f the
compression ratio S , averaged over the ensemble o f realizations, on the length
o f the optical fiber expressed in units o f L nl . For comparison, the corresponding
dependence calculated for a transform-limited pulse [<r = 0 in Eq. (4.5.1)] is
shown by a dashed line. It is seen that, as before, the optimal compression is
obtained at the length 2 k , 2L n] o f the optical fiber. The presence o f fluctuations
leads to a decrease o f the average compression ratio with the growth o f <7 . A s
the numerical experiments showed, a decrease o f the correlation time o f noise
also leads to a decrease o f the value o f S .
These results are quite natural as the amplitude and phase fluctuations in
the initial pulse bring about an increase in the rate o f dispersive spreading and
a resulting decrease o f amplitude and, therefore, o f effective nonlinearity. The
analysis carried out in Ref. 25 showed that systems o f optical-fiber compression
operating in the dispersive regime are less sensitive to phase fluctuations than
to amplitude ones.
The special features o f self-action o f partially coherent pulses noticed in nu
merical experiments and, in particular, the fluctuations being “pushed” toward
high- and low-frequency wings o f the spectrum, permit a stabilization o f param
eters o f compressed pulses by spatial filtration o f their spectral components in
a grating compressor. The simplest spectral filtration is achieved by placing an
appropriate mask at the plane o f beam-returning mirror (see Fig. 4.12).
Mathematical modeling shows that an addition o f a frequency filter with the
rectangular transmission function K [ w ) = 1 in the spectral band Aw corre
sponding to the value o f the spectral broadening o f a deterministic pulse, lowers
FIG . 4.12. Stabilization o f param eters o f com pressed pulses: (a ) correspon

dence betw een spectrum , tem poral dependence o f frequency, and intensity;
( 6) practical realization o f spatial filtration o f spectral com ponents in a two-pass
grating com pressor (the filter is located in the returning m irror plane).
the fluctuation level o f the compressed pulse duration approximately by a factor

o f 2.
Nonlinear-optics filtration o f noise in the nondispersive regime o f compres
sion is less efficient since at small distances C 4C 1 the amplitude and phase
fluctuations are not smoothed out perceptibly. Besides, the single-valued rela
tionship between the instantaneous frequency w (r) and time r is violated in
the nondispersive regime. Nevertheless, spectral filtration provides stabilization
o f radiation parameters at the expense o f lower compression ratios; for example,
for <r = 0.2 , r . = 0.64, the ratio <*s f S diminishes from 23% to 12% with S
decreasing from 4.3 to 3.3.
In cascade schemes of compression the role of frequency filter stabilizing out
put pulse parameters can be implemented by a narrow-band intermediate am
plifier which in the linear regime operates similarly to a spectral filter with the
Lorentz transmission profile. 26 ’ 27 The established behavior is confirmed by the
28
results o f laboratory experiments.
In Chap. 6 we shall present experimental and theoretical results pertaining to
the compression system in which a nonlinear K T P crystal is placed immediately
after an optical fiber. Apart from its primary function o f frequency doubling,
the crystal doubles the rate o f FM and filters noise components o f the spectrum.
4.6. Control of duration and shape of ultrashort pulses

The technique o f spatial filtration o f spectral components can be used not only
for filtration of noise radiation, but also for pulse shape control on a femtosecond
28 29
time scale. ’ Here the greatest opportunities are opened up by the action
on the amplitude and phase o f the Fourier components o f the pulse.
W e shall begin with discussing the problem o f an ideal compressor. Essentially,
we are dealing with a device performing a complete phase matching of all the
spectral components o f the pulse and, therefore, forming a pulse o f shortest
possible duration. The expression for the transfer coefficient o f a passive linear
4-6. Control o f duration and shape o f ulirashori pulses 219
compressor can be written as
K (w ) = \K(w)| exp[*Vc(w)] (4.6.1)
where |A'(w)| < 1 for all w . The spectrum o f a pulse which has undergone
SPM assumes the form
A(u) = \A{w)\ exp[«V(w )].
At the output of a compressor we have
A c(ui) = |if(w)||A(w)|exp[j'(<?+ <pc)].

The compressor matches the phases o f all spectral components o f the pulse pro
vided that
¥ » » + ^w ) = 0, \K(w)\ = l. (4.6.2)
A similar problem applied for linear systems was treated in Sec. 1.4.
FIG . 4.13. Pulse shape control by phase-m atching o f spectral com ponents:
(a) spectral pow er density (solid line) a n d phases o f Fourier com ponents (dashed
line) o f a pulse after nondispersive S P M , z/ L &prn = 1 8 ; ( 6) shape o f the com
pressed pulse after an “ideal” (solid line) and a quadratic (dashed line) com pressor,
the pulse com pressed using apodizing filter (dotted line). 29
As was shown in Sec. 4.2, real grating and prism compressors perform phase
matching o f spectral harmonics in a parabolic approximation. The dependences
<p(uj) arising in the process o f SPM are more complicated. As an illustration,
Fig. 4 .1 3 (a ) shows the dependences s(w ) = |A(w)|2 and <p{w) for a Gaussian
pulse that had undergone nondispersive SPM. Figure 4.13(6) shows the shape
o f a compressed pulse for the cases o f ideal and quadratic compressions. It can
be seen that the use o f the ideal compressor gives a significant increase in the
intensity and compression ratio. The addition o f apodizing frequency filter with
the transmission function
|ff(«)l = exP [~(w - w0)W/AuW],

220 4- Compression and shaping o f optical pulses
where N = 4 -6 , and the proper selection o f the passband Aw improve the con
trast o f the compressed pulse [see Fig. 4 .1 3 (6 )]. This effect is used when the
pulses in the near IR (A ~ 1 fim) with initial duration o f tens o f picoseconds are
compressed. As a rule, compression o f these pulses is performed in the nondis
persive regime.
In practice, an ideal compressor can be realized with the aid o f a usual grat
ing pair and a phase mask placed in the plane o f the “returning” mirror [see
Fig. 4 .1 2 (6 )]. Its function is to remove phase aberrations, i.e., deviations o f
the real dependence ip(u>) from a parabolic dependence. The controlled liquid-
crystal spatial modulators are successfully used at the present time for phase
30
correction o f coherent optical beams and in adaptive interferometers.
Combination o f amplitude and phase methods o f control o f the spectrum
broadened by SPM allows one not only to compress pulses and improve the
structure o f compressed pulses, but also to solve a number o f other shape control
problems. It is reported in Ref. 31 that rectangular transform-limited pulses,
with duration about 6 ps and rise time less than 1 ps, can be produced by means
o f amplitude-phase masks placed in a grating compressor. Such pulses can be
applied in metrology and optical information systems.
Ls«0)
0)
(V
F IG . 4.14. Envelope control using an am plitude mask: (a) tem poral depen
dences o f intensity, frequency and transmission function o f the filter; ( 6) pulse
spectrum after filtration s(w) , tem poral dependence o f intensity after filtration,
I ( t ) , and at the com pressor output / com ( r ) .
Using the amplitude filtration technique, one can easily form a train o f several
pulses from one FM pulse. For illustration, we present here some results o f math
ematical modeling. Figure 4.14 (a) illustrates the profile o f a transform-limited
pulse at the output o f an optical fiber, dependence 6 u i(r), and transmission func
tion o f a frequency filter, having the form o f two separated bands. A practically
single-valued relationship between the moment o f time r and the corresponding
spectral region results in a sequence o f two pulses with almost rectangular shape
forming at the filter output. The pulse repetition interval A r is expressed in
4-7. Compression o f high-power femtosecond pulses 221
terms o f FM rate a and the width A t ps a A u o f the “ darkened” region o f the

filter. Figure 4.14 (b) shows the compressed pulses.
An original approach to the problem o f forming pulses with a required profile
has been developed in Ref. 32. Here is the essence o f the technique. Having
assumed a required shape o f a compressed pulse, one can solve the reverse prob
lem and calculate the necessary temporal distributions o f intensity and phase
o f an input pulse. Significantly, the duration o f the input pulse exceeds that o f
the compressed pulse by a factor o f 10 or 100, and therefore a programmable
high-speed modulator can be used for its formation.
In Ref. 32 it is also shown that an Hermitian pulse with the envelope xp =
2 2
(1 — r ) exp (—r /2 ) and typical duration 10 ps can be formed at the compressor
output. An input pulse'is 135 ps long and for its formation a modulator with
a time resolution o f 20-30 ps was used. In fact, this technique is similar to the
30
algorithm o f programmed control o f radiation parameters at an input aperture
known from nonlinear adaptive optics o f light beams.
In conclusion it should be summarized that the use in optical compression
schemes o f fast controlled elements makes it possible to develop adaptive systems
that effectively control spectral and temporal characteristics o f ultrashort optical
pulses.
In the last few years a notable advance has been made in ultrashort pulse shap
ing. The authors o f Ref. 46 succeeded in generation o f a femtosecond pulse train
with terahertz repetition frequency, using a purely phase filtration technique.
In Ref. 47 it is reported about the development o f a multielement liquid-crystal
phase m odulator and its successful application for shaping o f femtosecond pulses.
4.7. Special features of self-action and compression

of high-power femtosecond pulses
The optical-fiber pulse compression technique is successfully used in a very wide
range o f initial pulse durations, from hundreds o f picoseconds to tens o f fem
toseconds. For a fixed compression ratio, a shorter input pulse must necessarily
have a higher intensity. Indeed, for efficient compression, predominance o f SPM
over dispersive spreading has to be ensured. This is expressed by the inequality
L&pm < Ld which is equivalent to the condition
êff -> ^2/(^0^2ro ) ’ (4-7.1)
W ith a decrease o f rQ down to 40 fs, / ff grows up to 1 T W /c m and

the character o f nonlinear processes becomes much more complicated. Besides,
the transition to pulse durations o f several optical oscillation periods leads to
the necessity o f revising the initial assumptions which were absolutely natural
in the picosecond range o f pulse durations. A m ong these are the assumptions
about slow variation o f the com plex amplitude, quasi-steady-state nature o f the
nonlinear response, neglect o f higher-order dispersions, etc. Recently, all these
problems began attracting the attention o f researchers 33 38 in connection with
the need for optimization o f compressors and interpretation o f accumulated ex
perimental d a ta .39, 40
The initial equation written with allowance made for nonlinear group-velocity
dispersion, transient character o f nonlinear response, and third-order dispersion,
takes the form
.dtp 1 d 2tp u. d3xp d , .

ld c = ~ 2 + R6nip + l Y d 7 -
where the small parameter //j = k3/(k2rQ) -C 1 characterizes the relative con
tribution o f third-order dispersion, the parameter fi = T0/(wr0) , appearing in
front o f the term responsible for nonlinear dispersion o f group velocity, is pro
portional to the ratio o f the optical oscillation period TQ ~ 2 fs to the initial
pulse duration.
The dynamics o f establishing a normalized nonlinear contribution 8 n(r , ( )
to the refractive index can be described by the phenomenological equation o f the
relaxation type (2.2.9)
fi2~ 8 n + 6n = \ip\2 , (4.7.3)
where the parameter fi2 = t J r Q characterizes an inertia o f the nonlinear re

sponse. It is experimentally found that the relaxation time rnl in quartz glasses
does not exceed 100 fs and the theoretical evaluation gives r (ps 6 fs. Under
the conditions, when fi2 < 1 is a small parameter, the approximate value o f 6n
assumes the form
S n = \ r P f - ^ 2~ M \ (4.7.4)
and the equation for complex amplitude can be written as
= ~ Y d } + R ~ ^ 2^ J ^ l 2 + - (4.7.5)
Nonlinear group-velocity dispersion and inertia o f nonlinear response affect

significantly a self-action process already at the initial stage o f pulse propaga
tion along an optical fiber since the corresponding terms enter Eq. (4.7.5) with
coefficients (i2R ~ 1 and (iR ~ 1 (n 2 , / ( < 1 , R 1) . The thirdôrder dis
persion becomes significant as the pulse spectrum broadens in the process o f
SPM.
A detailed picture of self-action for various combinations o f perturbing factors
has been clarified in the numerical experiments. 36 38 Some illustrations related
to the case o f predominance of nonlinear dispersion o f group-velocity (jx.2 —* 0 ,
—►0) are shown in Fig. 4.15. At the distance z < L ( , the nonlinear
group-velocity dispersion leads to the increase o f group velocity delay o f the
top o f the pulse and,therefore, to the steepening o f the pulsetrailing edge.
Furtherpropagation o f the pulse is accompanied by aflattening o f its top and
an increase o f the FM rate. At this stage, the frequency sweep rate is decreasing
at the leading edge and increasing at the trailing edge o f the pulse. The influence
o f this process on the pulse spectrum is shown in Fig. 4.16 (a) . The spectrum
becom es asymmetric and develops a “wing” in the high-frequency region while
J,. 7. Compression o f high-power femtosecond pulses 223
FIG . 4.15. Self-action o f fem tosecond pulses: (a ) pulse shape at different dis
tances from the optical waveguide in pu t; ( b ) tem poral dependence o f instanta-
T 35
neous irequency.
FIG . 4.16. Self-action o f fem tosecond pulses, (a) M odification o f spectrum

w ith distance; (fe) com pression ratio as a function o f reduced length o f an optical
waveguide z/Lnl for different values o f param eter ft.35
the intensities o f spectral components in the near low-frequency region slightly

increase.
The influence o f all these processes on the compression ratio that can be
achieved in a quadratic compressor is illustrated in Fig. 4.16 (6) which shows
the dependence o f S on the optical fiber length expressed in units o f L nl for a
fixed value o f the nonlinearity parameter R and various values o f fi . It can be
seen that with an increase o f ft the compression ratio decreases and the point
o f optimal compression shifts to longer fiber lengths. In contrast to nonlinear
group-velocity dispersion, inertia o f nonlinear response leads to a steepening o f
the leading edge o f the pulse and appearance o f a “wing” in the low-frequency
37
region o f the spectrum. Consequently, the effects o f nonlinear group-velocity
dispersion and delayed nonlinear response 5n compete in the formation o f the
chirp u>(r) .
Having taken into account all perturbing factors, one can interpret various
features o f femtosecond pulse compression observed in experim ents,39' 40 such
as asymmetric spectra and their superlinear broadening with the growth o f input
power, violation o f FM linearity, saturation o f compression ratio with the increase
o f R . The offset o f quadratic correction to linear FM by means o f a combined
grating-prism compressor allowed the authors o f Ref. 42 to reduce the pulse
duration from 10 to 6 fs.
4.8. Compression systems using parametric amplification

Optical-fiber compression is an efficient technique for obtaining pulses o f ex
tremely short duration in the visible and near IR ranges. However, the output
energy in these systems usually does not exceed a few nanojoules so that in some
applications there appears a need for further pulse amplification (see Sec. 6.5)
that brings in some technical problems. In this section we want to draw attention
to new opportunities in amplification and control o f FM in media with quadratic
nonlinearity.43 Recent investigations showed that the use o f three-frequency in
teractions is very promising for generation o f high-power femtosecond pulses
tunable in a wide range o f wavelengths.
FIG . 4.17. Experim ental layout for param etric acceleration o f FM pulses:
( i ) phosphate-glass laser with passive m ode-locking, (£) frequency doubler,
( 3) param etric amplifier using a C D A crystal, [ 4 ) single-m ode fiber optical wave
guide, (5) dynam ic interferometer, (5) com pressor. (7) duration meter. 43
We shall begin with considering the experiments on parametric amplification

o f FM pulses and reversal o f the sign o f FM. 43 ’ 44 The schematic diagram
o f the experimental system is shown in Fig. 4.17. A single pump pulse with
duration r ^ 2 = 5 ps, energy W p « 3 mJ, and wavelength A = 1.054 ftm
was generated in a neodymium glass laser with passive mode-locking. Then the
pulse was sent (with 40% efficiency) into a short section o f a single-mode optical
fiber (L = 1.3 m ). After SPM its spectrum broadened on the average up to
400 cm 1 . For parametric amplification a C D A crystal with the 90-degree
synchronism was used as an active medium. Its amplification bandwidth was
equal to A v 2000 cm 1 (the length 4 cm and interaction e-oo ).
A signal pulse from the output of an optical fiber together with a pump pulse
with Ap = 0.527 ftm provided by the second harmonic o f Nd-glass laser, were
simultaneously coupled into a C D A crystal through optical-delay matching lines.
The energy gain amounted to 104 . The pump pulse had a shorter duration
4-8. Compression systems using parametric amplication 225
than the signal pulse, so that the frequency sweep range at the crystal output
decreased down to 200 c m -1 .
I--------1 5 5 5 cm -1
FIG . 4.18. D ynam ic interferograms: (a) at the optical waveguide output;

( 6) , (c) at the am plifier output: ( 6) signal pulse; (c) idler pulse. 43
Investigation o f FM o f signal and idler pulses was carried out by the dynamic
interferometry m ethod. Figure 4.18 illustrates the dynamic interferograms at the
output o f an optical fiber and at the output o f parametric amplifier. The range
o f free dispersion o f the Michelson interferometer amounted to 555 cm _1 . Mea
suring the fringe inclination, one can calculate the rates o f frequency variation o f
a p , a s , and with time. The sign o f fringe inclination is determined by the
sign o f FM . As it can be seen from the figure, the fringes corresponding to the
frequencies ws and wi are inclined to opposite sides, i.e., the phase characteris
tics o f signal and idler waves are conjugate, which immediately follows from the
equations o f parametric amplification, written in the approximation o f a given
pump field (see Sec. 3.3). Parametrically amplified FM pulses were compressed
to 280 fs, with peak powers o f compressed pulses reaching 1 G W .
Broadband parametric amplification allows in many cases an increase in the
energy o f FM pulses by 5 or 6 orders o f magnitude without distortion o f their fre
quency characteristics. Besides, the concurrent generation o f a phase-conjugate
pulse at an idler wavelength allows the FM reversal in the picosecond duration
range. In essence, we deal with a temporal analog o f the wave front reversal.
In particular, FM reversal allows one to use media with normal group-velocity
dispersion as compressors.
The second group o f experiments 45 relates to FM transformation o f pulses
in optical parametric generators with synchronous pumping. The main outcom e
o f such experiments was the development o f a new technique for FM rate con
trol. It was experimentally shown that the frequency variation rates a s and n i
o f parametric generation pulses may substantially exceed the rate o f frequency
variation a p o f pump pulses, with the coefficient o f transformation o f the values
o f a s and being determined only by dispersion characteristics o f the crystal
(see also Sec. 3.3).
The parametric amplification in the presence o f FM o f pump pulses is equiv
alent to the amplification accompanied with the temporal shift o f the frequency
band. Indeed, when the pump frequency varies with time according to a linear
law
wp = wp o - (V > (4 '8-1)
where the time r is normalized to the pump pulse duration, then the central
frequencies at the maximum o f the amplification lines o f signal and idler waves
vary as
Ws = Ws0 - a sr » Wi = Wi0 - a ir - ( 4 -8 - 2 )
The expressions for FM rates take the form
a s = %aP ’ ai = « i aP> 9S + «; = !• (4 -8-3)
The value o f the FM transformation coefficient qs and, consequently, o f qt =

1 —qs in the vicinity o f the degenerated regime o o - e o f interaction can be assessed
using the equation
, = ________^ ________ ( 4 8 4)
where Awp ; = l / up ~ l / ui is the group-velocity mismatch.

45
In the experiments a pump pulse had, by the end o f the train o f generated
pulses, the FM rate 8 cm - 1 /p s at Ap = 0.534 fim . The signal (Aa = 1.02 p m )
and idler (A; = 1.12 f i m ) pulses with duration « 3.5 ps entered a medium
with normal group-velocity dispersion, the KRS crystal. At the compressor
output, the signal pulse with positive FM broadened up to 13 ps whereas the
idler pulse with negative FM compressed to 0.5 ps.
Thus, the study o f transformation o f frequency characteristics o f pumping in
the process o f parametric optical generation has led to the creation o f a new
method for FM rate control in ultrashort optical pulses.
5. Optical solitons;
picosecond and femtosecond pulses
in optical information systems
T h e shorter an optical wave packet, the m ore substantial its envelope distortion due to
the effects o f dispersion and nonlinearity. In the foregoing chapters we considered diverse
examples in w hich these distortions bring about destabilizing effects, such as m odulation
instability, pulse spreading, and filament form ation.
O f special interest is the case when the balance between dispersion and nonlinearity
yields the stable pulses that keep practically invariable shape during their propagation over
the distance exceeding the pulse length / = cr 0 b y the factor 10 6- 107 - Such pulses are
reasonably called optical solitons. T h e first cogent observations o f optical solitons were
carried out in 1980. This becam e possible owing to advanced laser sources o f transform-
lim ited picosecond pulses, tunable in the near IR , find developm ent o f single-m ode fiber
waveguides w ith losses o f a few tenths o f a decibel per kilometer.
T he succeeding experiments perform ed under carefully controlled conditions made it pos
sible to reveal a num ber o f subtle peculiarities in the form ation, propagation, and interaction
o f solitons in the presence o f numerous pertu rbing factors, and designate the prospects for
diverse technical applications. A t present, the soliton effects are clearly shown to b e appli
cable for inform ation transmission in optical fibers, generation and shaping of fem tosecond
pulses, and research o f ultrafast processes.
5.1. Formation of optical solitons: competition

and balance of nonlinear compression
and dispersive spreading effects
Our simple qualitative analysis o f the physics o f formation o f single steady-state
pulses will be based on the results obtained in Chap. 2.* In the spectral range
characterized by anomalous group-velocity dispersion (k,2 < 0 , A > 1.3 / i m ) ,
the com peting effects o f dispersion and nonlinearity result, at a certain level o f
input power, in stabilization o f pulse duration. The following simple evaluations
clarify the issue.
Ôbservation o f optical solitons in fiber waveguides was predicted to b e possible b y Hasegawa

and T a p p e rt 1 and perform ed in m eticulous experiments by Mollenauer, Stolen, and G ordon. 2
T he subsequent progress in this field was review ed in Refs. 3 -6 .
228 5. Optical solitons
A transform-limited pulse having traversed the distance z in an optical fiber

acquires a FM whose rate a (z ) varies with distance as
a ( z ) - k2 1( z 2 + L2
d) ~ 1z. (5.1.1)
As k2 < 0 , the instantaneous frequency decreases from the leading to trailing

edge o f the pulse. A t z < L d the FM rate is proportional to the distance,
a ( z ) = k ~ l L~d 2z. (5.1.2)
Conversely, the SPM process causes the frequency to grow from the leading to
trailing edge,
q 2j
% m ( * ) = ~ k0h 2-^2 Z « * o V e f f T0~2*- ( 5-L 3 )
Assuming that both processes counterbalance, i.e., <*+ <*spm = 0 , and the pulses
therefore remain transform-limited, we derive the balance condition
h W s * = N / ro . (5-i-4)
2
in which the equalities êff ~ Vo /Seff , and Ld = rQf\k2\ are taken into account.
From Eq. (5.1.4) one can appraise the critical power as
(5.L 5)
A similar result is also obtained from the condition o f cqnstant rms duration of
the pulse (see Sec. 4.5.). Allowing for the sign o f k2 , we can write the equation
for rms duration
~~2 { ‘^ T‘2’‘P*) = - R{{il)tj}*)2) ,(5.1.6

d,Q
where R = Ld/spm and the angular brackets denote the averaging over t . The
first term on theright-hand side o f this equation can be treated as a dispersion
“force” leading to an increase in pulse duration whereas thesecond term as a
nonlinear “force” tending to adjust the dispersive spread.
Assuming a specific shape o f the pulse, for example, %j} = sechr , we calculate
the right-hand side o f Eq. (5.1.6) at £ = 0 and equating it to zero, we obtain
the balance condition:
R = LJ L svm = rl\k2\~l k0h2V CIS~J = 1. (5.1.7)
The expression for critical power obtained from this equation coincides with
Eq. (5.1.5). Substituting into Eq. (5.1.5) the typical values o f the parameters
[A = 1.5 fim , D = 15 p s/(n m •k m ), 5 gff = 100 jjm 2 , rQ = 3 -4 p s , h 2 —
3.2 x 10-16 cm 2/ W ] , we get V cr w 1 W .
5.2. Soliton solutions o f the nonlinear Schrodinger equation 229
A soliton stabilization mechanism can be illustrated in the spectral domain.

The dispersion is responsible for appearance in spectral components at the fre
quency 12 = u — o f the phase shift which is proportional to the distance
traversed and Q 2 . The nonlinear index of refraction compensates a phase mis
match o f various spectral components of the pulse.
This treatment applies to integral characteristics of the pulse and offers real
istic estimates o f the critical power. But this approach provides no answers to
important problems concerning the stability of the dispersion-nonlinearity bal
ance, the shape o f a steady-state pulse, and the way in which steady-state pulses
interact. The next section is devoted to discussion o f single- and multiple-soliton
solutions o f the nonlinear Schrodinger equation describing the propagation o f a
picosecond pulse along a single-mode optical fiber. The influence o f perturbing
factors such as optical losses, higher-order dispersions, and com peting nonlinear
processes, will be analyzed in Sec. 5.5.
5.2. Single-soliton and multisoliton solutions

of the nonlinear Schrodinger equation
Neglecting the term responsible for losses and renormalizing q ( r , ( ) = V7{ x
1/’ (T > C) 7 we shall write Eq. (4.3.1) for k2 < 0 in the form convenient for
mathematical analysis;
dq \ d 2q | 2 . 0 .
- 257 1,1 + '■ ( 5 2 ' 1 )
In Sec. 2.6 we derived one o f the soliton solutions o f the nonlinear Schrodinger
equation (NSE), q = sech r exp ( —*C/2) • Let us generalize it by using the
directly verified invariance (5.2.1) with respect to the scaling transformations
q-Kq, C ,'= C / x 2 , t - rjx. (5.2.2)
W hence it follows that
q {r , £) = x s e ch x r exp ( —i x 2£ /2 ) (5.2.3)
is also a solution o f Eq. (5.2.1); the parameter x defining the amplitude and
duration o f a soliton is frequently referred to as a form factor. Since Eq. (5.2.1)
is invariant with respect to the Galilean transformation
T =T-VC, c' = c , (5.2.4)
we can conduct further generalization and write Eq. (5.2.3) in the form
q(r , £) = x sech ( x ( r — ^ £ )] exp [—i V t + i ( V 2 —x 2)C/2], (5.2.5)
It can be easily shown that the solution (5.2.5) used with thearbitrary constant
phase (pQ and the initial coordinate r . of the pulse center,
q = q exp (iipn) , / = r - t. ,
also satisfies Eq. (5.2.1). Another significant class o f analytically tractable NSE
solutions is a bound state o f N solitons that corresponds to the initial conditions
q ( r , 0) = g0 sech r , (5.2.6)
where qQ = N , and N is an integer. Here we shall present only a brief summary

o f the results o f the analysis o f iV-soliton solutions carried out using the inverse
•j
scattering method (see also Sec. 5.8). It is demonstrated that the Af-soliton’
pulse represents a nonlinear superposition o f solitons with form factors x n =
(2 n — 1) , where n — 1 , 2 , . . . , N . For N — 2 the solution o f Eq. (5.2.1)
assumes the form
/ cosh 3 r + 3 exp ( —4 * 0 cosh t

qJr ,
2
C) = 4 e x p (—iC /2) -----, „ „— ^ --------_
cosh 4 r + 4 cosh t + 3 cos 4£
(5.2.7)
It is worth mentioning that |g2| varies periodically with respect to £ , with the
period £0 = 7t/2 (in dimensional variables, zQ = ttL^/2) . For N > 2 the
solution can be found for the arbitrary r , C from the set o f N linear equations
(see Sec. 5.8).
FIG . 5.1. Self-com pression o f an JV-soliton pulse for N = 4 . Inset: dependence

o f the minim al pulse duration on qQ (solid line, theory; circles, experim ent).
It is essential that for the boundary conditions (5.2.6) and for q0 > 1 a
transform-limited pulse experiences self-compression at the initial propagation
stage. This indicates a possibility o f efficient compression o f transform-limited
pulses. A profile modification o f iV-soliton pulse is illustrated in Fig. 5.1 for
N = 4 . In the case of small amplitude perturbations qQ = iV -f £ for |£| < 1 / 2
the asymptotic behavior o f the pulse is determined by its soliton component with
the relative error 0 [£ / (N + £ ) 2] (see Ref. 7).
Figure 5.2 illustrates a soliton in the process o f its formation from the pulse
5 ( 7-, 0 ) = qQsech t for qQ = 1 + £ , where |£[ < 1 /2 is the perturbation o f the
5.2. Soliton solutions o f the nonlinear Schrodinger equation 231
F IG . 5.2. D ynam ics o f form ation o f one-soliton pulse at different initial am
plitudes q0 . T h e peak am plitude is shown as a fun ction o f reduced distance
C= and its steady-state value is indicated. 7
FIG . 5.3. Soliton form ation from a super-Gaussian pulse.
initial amplitude. The pulse amplitude is seen to approach, after few oscillations,
the constant value >c = 1 + 2£ . At £ < 0 the process starts with broadening o f
the pulse whereas at £ > 0 it starts with self-compression.
The soliton solution sets in very fast whenever the initial pulse envelope differs
strongly from a hyperbolic secant form. Figure 5.3 shows how a super-Gaussian
pulse with initial profile g ( r , 0) = g0 e x p ( —t 6/2 ) modifies with distance for

q0 = y/2 . After several decaying oscillations o f amplitude a soliton solution sets
— 1/2
in while the nonsoliton component vanishes as £ at £ —►oo .
. . . 8
In the analysis o f NSE solutions the motion integrals play an important role.
Out o f the infinite sequence we shall write the first three integrals:
4-co -foo -l-oo
dq *2
dr.
—CO —00 —oo
(5.2.8)
From the mathematical standpoint, the conservation o f follows from the
invariance o f the NSE with respect to the transformation q —* q e v° , J2 from
the translation invariance, and J3 from the invariance with respect to the shift
£ —+ C—Co • Note also that the integral 7i = —J3 is a Hamiltonian for Eq. (5.2.1).
Existence o f the infinite number o f conservation integrals is associated with in-
tegrability o f NSE by the inverse scattering method.
Introducing the spectral amplitude g ( f i ) , where i} — u —u 0 and passing in
Eq. (5.2.8) to spectral terms, we can easily see that retaining o f the first two
m otion integrals yields the relations
4-co -foo
/ |S(fi)|! « = const, / fl|5 (fl)|2 dS2 = c o n s t, (5.2.9)

—CO —OO
that express the condition o f constant moments o f the spectral power density
• 2
distribution. In terms of quantum mechanics the value o f |g(flf)| is proportional
to the number N. o f photons having the frequency u>i = fl. + w Q. Replacing
the integrals in Eq. (5.2.9) by the sums, we obtain
T ; N. = c o n s t, u i ^ i = const. (5.2.10)
i i
Here the first equality expresses the conservation o f the general number o f pho
tons, and the second the conservation o f their total energy or the total momentum
o f the field. A more detailed treatment o f this problem in the spectral domain
can be found in Ref. 9.
Finally, we shall mention still another significant property of the Schrodinger
solitons, that is, their stability with respect to collisions. If at £ —►—oo two
solitons with form factors , >c2 have the velocities V1 and V2 , then after the
collision at £ —►+ o o their parameters , x 2 and V1 , V2 remain invariable;
only the phases <p01 , ipQ2 and coordinates o f the maxima r01 , r02 vary. When
several solitons interact, the collective effects are absent and the total shift of
soliton parameters ipQi, rQ. is an algebraic sum o f pair shifts. 8
To illustrate, Fig. 5.4 shows the results of computer simulation of collision of
the Schrodinger solitons. Figure 5.4 (6) corresponds to the solitons with equal
phase and with the initial condition
q(0 , r ) = sech ( r - r j exp [ - i V ^ r - r j + i<pJ

+ sech ( r - r2) exp [—iV ^ r - r2) + itp2] , (5.2.11)
5.2. Sohton solutions o f the nonlinear Schrodinger equation 233
(a) (b)
FIG . 5.4. Collision o f Schrodinger solitons: (a) opposite-phase solitons;
( 6) equal-phase solitons.
where r x = —3 , r2 = 3 Vj = 1, V2 = —1, tfii — ^2 = 0 • The solitons pass

through one another and the interaction is o f attractive type. Figure 5.4 (a)
shows the picture o f the colliding solitons possessing the opposite (differing
by 7r) phases for the case when in Eq. (5.2.11) <p1 = 0 , <p2 = 7r. The in
teraction is repulsive by nature, so that the pulses move apart after having
approached to the minimum distance determined by the initial velocities Vx
and V2 .
In the spectral region o f the normal group-velocity dispersion (k2 > 0)
Eq. (5.2.1) describing the evolution o f the temporal envelope takes the form
.dq
(5.2.12)
dC
It has an important particular solution
g(£ , r ) = tanh r exp ( —i£) , (5.2.13)
representing a dip against a uniform radiation background
|9(C, r)|2 = 1 - sech2r , (5.2.14)
and referred to as a dark soliton. By analogy with bright solitons, the general
solution can be easily written as
q = x ta n h [x r(r — VC)] exp [ i V t — i ( V 2 + 2xr2) C/2]. (5.2.15)
In their early publications, Hasegawa and Tappert used computer simulation

methods to demonstrate stability o f dark solitons to collisions, stochastic per
turbations of initial data, and other disturbing factors. Zakharov and Shabat 58
proved integrability o f Eq. (5.2.12) applying the inverse scattering method and
developed procedures to obtain multisoliton solutions.
As in the previous case, the physical picture o f dark soliton formation is
determined by the joint effects of SPM and group-velocity dispersion. Owing to a
nonlinear index o f refracion, the instantaneous frequency increases at the leading
edge and decreases at the trailing edge o f the pulse (5.2.14). Under conditions of
normal group-velocity dispersion, when red-shifted pulses propagate faster than
blue-shifted ones, the dispersive spreading o f the intensity dip is inhibited. In
the next section we shall briefly consider experimental aspects of dark soliton
realization.
5.3. Experimental demonstration of optical solitons

Formation and propagation o f single- and multi-soliton picosecond pulses have
•
been experimentally studied for the first time by Mollenauer, Stolen, Gordon.
Using carefully formed transform-limited picosecond pulses, the authors clearly
registered one-, two-, three-, and four-soliton pulses in a single-mode optical
waveguide.
The pulses were generated by a synchronously pumped laser with color
centers in a NaCl crystal (tunable in the 1.35-1.75 p m range). The crystal was
colored by an electron beam and the operational temperature was equal to 70 K.
A synchronous pumping was provided by a N d:YAG laser. From the measure
ments o f the generation spectrum and intensity correlation function it was estab
lished that the laser emitted pulses with duration = 6 ps. The value o f the
product = 0.18 implies that the pulses were transform-limited and their
shape intermediate between the hyperbole-secant envelope ( r ^ A / = 0.315)
and that of exponential decay type ( r ^ A / = 0.11) .
The laser radiation was coupled via a small objective lens into a single-mode
fiber made o f doped fused quartz with step-index profile (the core diameter is
9.3 p m , the length L = 700 m , and the loss about 1 d B /k m at A = 1.55 p m) .
The peak power V Q o f the pulse in the fiber varied from 0.3 to 22.5 W .
Experimental profiles o f intensity correlation functions are shown in Fig. 5.5
for difFerent values o f V 0 . A t V a — 0.3 W the pulse spread according to a
linear law and its value agreed with the calculation results. As V q grew, the
duration o f the output pulse diminished to becom e equal, at V 0 — 1.2 W , to
that o f the initial pulse. In other words, dispersive spreading was completely
counterbalanced by nonlinear self-compression. This case corresponds to a one-
soliton pulse.
The output pulse compression (down to 2 ps at V 0 = 5 W ) was then observed,
which corresponds to a two-soliton solution o f NSE. At V 0 = 5 W , two lateral
maxima appeared in the intensity correlation profile. The distance L — 700 m
was equal to the dimensionless length C — tt/4 for which the two-soliton coupling
produced a two-hump structure and the correlation function had three maxima
(see Fig. 5.5). And finally, at the power V Q = 22.5 W , a four-soliton state was
formed: three characteristic maxima were observed in the pulse and five in the
correlation function profile. The experimental values o f power differed from the
theoretical predictions by about 20%.
5.3. Experimental demonstration of optical solitons 235
i_i_i
-10 0 10ps
5.0 11A 22 .5
20-
10
F IG . 5.5. Self-action o f N -soliton pulses for N = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 (from left to

right): (a) experimental profiles o f intensity correlation functions at the fiber
waveguide o u t p u t ' (the peak values o f input pow er are shown); (b} calculated
intensity profiles.
And finally, a few words on experiments with dark solitons. The experimen
tal realization o f “pure” dark solitons, i.e., a dip against the uniform radation
background (see Sec. 5.2) involves some difficulties primarily due to a com pe
tition o f the stimulat ed Brillouin scattering emerging when the cw radiation
intensity reaches tens o f milliwatts. Nevertheless, a pico- or subpicosecond dip
at the background o f a pulse a few picosecond long provides a good approxima
tion. In this case the Brillouin scattering is depressed because the characteristic
. 5 9
time o f Brillouin response lies in the nanosecond range. In the experiments
an input pulse was 26 ps and a dip 5 ps long. The authors o f Ref. 60 used
longer pulses (100 ps) with a subpicosecond (0.3 ps) dip. To form the inten
sity dip (with a phase changing by 7 r ) , the pulse shaping technique described
in Sec. 4.6 was successfully applied by the authors o f Ref. 61. At present,
the fine effects associated with Raman frequency self-shift of dark solitons are
experimentally studied. Successful experiments with optical solitons yield the
results that quantitatively agree with the theory and thus stimulate experimental
and theoretical studies in new directions. Here is the list o f new research areas:
(i) control over the envelope and spectra o f picosecond pulses, including their
compression down to femtosecond durations; (ii) research o f soliton propagation
over very long distances due to loss compensation; (iii) development o f soliton
lasers; (iv) generation in fiber waveguides o f pulse trains with extremely high
repetition rate; (v) nonlinear-optics filtration. In the following sections we shall
discuss the main results obtained in these areas o f investigation.
& U \J v. upncai soizions
5.4. Self-compression of high-power picosecond pulses

In this section we shall examine soliton effects applied in generating pulses of
ultimately short duration. The most natural approach is to use self-compression
o f an Af-soliton pulse in a fiber waveguide. In fact, we deal with a temporal
analog o f light beam self-focusing.
For experimental accomplishment o f self-compression, a number o f practi
cally significant problems concerning the optimal fiber length and the limiting
compression ratio have to be solved. Simple estimations of these values are
obtained from the considerations analogous to those o f Sec. 4.4. From the
value o f nonlinear spectral broadening Aw w rQ m and the condition
A td ss zk2Aw = 2tq it can be easily shown that the trailing edge o f the pulse
where high-frequency spectral com ponents axe initially localized, catches up with
the low-frequency leading edge over the distance L opt ~ L n, . Thus, the length
o f a fiber should be o f the same order of magnitude as the nonlinear length. The
compression ratio S can be evaluated from the relation S « A w /A w 0 . If an
initial pulse was transform-limited at the input o f the medium, then
S ~ £ „ » /spm = ô( W e f f / i y ) 1/2 = N , (5.4.1)
i.e., the compression ratio is proportional to the number of solitons contained in

the initial pulse.
FIG . 5.6. Calculated dependence of optim al fiber waveguide length (in units
) on initial pulse amplitude.
No doubt, the complete information on the dependence o f S and Lopt on the

radiation characteristics and waveguide parameters can be obtained only from
the numerical experiments. The authors o f Ref. 10 investigated how the optimal
waveguide length, the compression ratio, and the energy fraction incorporated
within the narrow central peak (see Figs. 5.1 and 5.6) depend on the pulse
amplitude qQ in the case q(r , 0) = q0 sech r .
As q0 grows from 2 to 15, the optim al waveguide length diminishes mono-
tonically from 1.5 Ln[ to 0.6 Lnl with the decreasing rate. In the indicated
interval o f q0 variation the compression ratio obeys the approximate relation
5 = C ( q 0 - 1 ), (5.4.2)
in which C fa 4.6 . The uncertainty o f this relation does not exceed 10% at
2 < qQ < 15 . It should be noted that the fraction o f energy contained in the
5-4■ Self-compression o f high-power picosecond pulses 237
narrow central peak diminishes monotonically with the growth o f q,, ; at qn = 15

the ratio A W /W 0 fa 0.1.
The results o f experimental studies of self-action are presented in Ref. 10.
A transform-limited pulse o f a synchronously pumped laser (A = 1.5 fim,
Tl j,l = 7 ps) was coupled into a 320-m fiber waveguide. A t the peak radia
tion power V 0 = 200 W , which corresponds to N = 13 , the pulse duration at
the waveguide output reduces down to 310 fs. In a shorter 100-m fiber and at
higher powers the 260-fs pulses are obtained and the compression ratio S = 27
achieved.
In the case o f the pulses with initial duration o f tens o f picoseconds the cascade
technique suggested and analyzed in Refs. 11 and 12 seem to be more promising.
The initial section o f an optical waveguide ( L 1 <C Lnl) is employed as a phase
modulator ( k2 > 0 ) . Pulses a few picoseconds long are formed at the output
o f a grating compressor. Their subsequent self-compression can be attained in a
comparatively short section o f the waveguide with k2 < 0 .
Unique possibilities for compression become possible in the spectral range
close to the zero dispersion wavelength, A fa 1.3 /xm, since the critical (thresh
old) power V o f soliton formation is low here due to a small value o f dispersion
(|&2|—»■0) [see Eq. (5.1.5)]. The waveguides with normal and anomalous group-
velocity dispersion have been manufactured for this spectral range.
The relevant experiment is described in Ref. 13. The transform-limited pulses
from a m ode-locked N d:YAG laser (A = 1.319 /im , r = 100 ps) are cou
pled into a single-mode 2-km positive dispersion fiber waveguide (zero dispersion
wavelength Acr = 1.59 p m ) and compressed into 2-ps pulses by a grating pair.
The resulting pulses with peak power V a ft* 90 W are coupled into a 40-m sec
tion o f negative dispersion fiber waveguide (Acr = 1.275 fim ) and compressed in
the soliton regime into the 90-fs pulses, consisting o f about 20 optical oscillation
periods. The calculations show that in the second stage the self-compression
o f N -soliton pulses with N —1 is realized. The authors took into account the
effects o f third-order (linear) dispersion and nonlinear dispersion on the optimal
fiber length and the maximum compression ratio. In fact, it was established that
these factors practically do not affect a soliton compression.
Note that in the considered spectral range one can also employ purely fiber-
optics techniques (without a grating compressor). Indeed, in the first (normal
dispersion) section o f the fiber a pulse assumes a positive chirp (a > 0 ). In
the second (anomalous dispersion) section the chirped pulse compresses effi
ciently due to the combined dispersive and nonlinear effects. The optimal oper
ational conditions o f such arrangements are examined both theoretically 14 and
experimentally.
The problem o f ultimate soliton self-compression is o f great practical interest.
At initial durations o f the iV-soliton (TV 1) pulse equal to picoseconds or tens
o f picoseconds, the primary limiting factor is due to modulational instability (see
Sec. 2.8) leading to the pulse decay prior to the maximum self-compression point.
For example, for N = 1 6 and a noise level o f 1%, the decay occurs at the half
self-compression length. In beam self-focusing this corresponds to the situation
when the small-scale self-focusing starts prevailing over the large-scale one.
In the process o f self-compression o f femtosecond pulses, a nonlinear dispersion

o f group velocity, inertial nonlinear response, and third-order dispersion (see
Sec. 4.7) plays significant role. The influence o f the mentioned factors on the
ultimate compression ratio and on the field structure in the “focal” point has
been analyzed in Ref. 16.
Lately, another promising approach evolved in the physics and technology of
ultrashort pulse formation in the near IR , which is a compression accompanied
by Raman frequency conversion. We mean a practical utilization o f an TV-soli ton
pump pulse converting into a high-power single-soliton pulse at the Stokes fre
quency (see also Ref. 18). The total or partial compensation of group-velocity
mismatch at the frequencies wp and u>s is crucial in this process. Such a com
pensation can be implemented using a fiber dispersion (in a waveguide with small
number o f modes) or choosing wp and u>s symmetric with the zero dispersion
frequency in a single-mode optical waveguide.
Using computer simulation methods, it was shown in Ref. 18 that the proper
choice of the waveguide and pulse parameters can assure the active energy inter
change between the waves in the region o f maximum self-compression o f pump
pulses. The wave interaction via the nonlinear contribution to the refractive
index (cross-modulation) promotes pulse compression and accelerates energy ex
change. Then the pump depletion creates the conditions under which self-action
o f the Stokes pulse becomes prevailing. A result o f nonlinear transformation is
a Stokes-frequency soliton whose energy is practically equal to the energy o f a
multisoliton pump pulse. Thus, for example, the pump pulse qp = N sech r at
N = 3 turns into a Stokes soliton qs = x s e c h x r with form factor >c — 7 . Also
considered are other possibilities o f control o f the Stokes pulse envelope, such as
generation o f bound states o f SRS solitons or o f a train o f pulses at the Stokes
pulse frequency.
The authors o f Ref. 19 succeeded in experimental compression o f pulses to
gether with Raman frequency conversion in a single-mode fiber. A parametric
optical generator was used as a source (- r ^ = 30 ps , A = 1.5- 1.65 ^ m ). W ith
an input pulse power V Q = 900 W , the 200-fs 55-kW pulses were formed at the
output o f the 250-m fiber, the Stokes shift being equal to 55 c m -1 .
The high degree o f compression in the fiber waveguide-amplifier system was
20
shown feasible. Significantly, the self-compression combined with amplification
allows formation o f single high-power pulses without a pedestal.
5.5. Solitons in transmission lines;

the role of perturbing factors
In linear fiber-optics communication systems the ultimate velocity of information
transmission is primarily limited by dispersive spreading o f pulses. In particular,
a pulse with initial duration o f 1 ps (A = 1.5 ^ m ) broadens by a factor o f 2 after
having traversed 40 or 50 m. Utilization o f picosecond optical solitons makes it
possible to overcome the dispersive limitations and raise the information trans
mission velocity up to 1 T b it/s. Ultimate capabilities o f soliton communication
systems and optimal conditions for information transmission can be identified
5.5. Solitons in transmission lines 239
provided a number of perturbing factors, such as optical losses, higher-order

dispersions, com peting nonlinear processes, soliton interaction within the pulse
train, etc., are taken into account.
It should be emphasized that the nonlinear perturbing factors are significant
not because of high intensities o f optical fields, as in the case o f self-compression
of multisoliton pulses, but owing to long propagation distances over which pulse
shape distortions accumulate.
The mathematical model is based on the equation for the com plex amplitude
®(C, r)
5C ~ 2 a r 2' + M q ~ >«> + H j ? “ Z>d 7 (l<zl q) ~ i6q ’ (5 ’5' 1)
which differs from Eq. (4.7.2) by the sign in front o f the dispersive term; the pa
rameters n , fi1 , fi2 coincide with those introduced in Sec. 4.7. Let us analyze
the contributions o f perturbing terms on the right-hand side o f Eq. (5.5.1).
O ptical losses and their com pensation by R am an gain
The minimal level o f optical losses at A = 1.55 ^m equals 0.2 d B /k m , so that

their influence on soliton pulse evolution can be estimated by a perturbation
+ 0° 2
method. In the presence o f losses, the pulse energy W^(C) = / M d r decreases
— OO
with distance according to the exponential law
WXC) = % e x p (—26C). (5.5.2)
If optical losses over a distance o f the order o f the dispersion length are small,
then the soliton amplitude »c(C) will decrease, and its duration r(£ ) = >f_1 will
grow:
jf = jf Qexp ( —25C) , r = rQexp (2<5£). (5.5.3)
For example, for losses 0.2 d B /k m the pulse duration will increase by a factor
o f 2.7 over a distance 20 km for an initial pulse duration r0 & 10 p s . Validity
o f Eq. (5.5.3) is determined by the inequality 5 < 1 that expresses, in fact, the
condition for adiabatic transformation o f a soliton to the new amplitude value
jf(C) corresponding to a lower energy. A comprehensive analysis can be found
in Ref. 21.
More complicated is the question concerning the influence o f large optical
losses on the evolution o f single solitons and N solitons. In this case the m od
ification o f the intensity profile can b e studied by the methods o f computer
22 23
simulation. ’ Figure 5.7 shows the £ dependences obtained by the authors
o f Ref. 23 o f the mean square o f the length of an JV-soliton pulse ( N = 2) for
different levels o f losses <5. The spatial period o f pulsations {r2(£)) and modula
tion depth are seen to increase with the growth of 6 . In numerical experiments
a decay o f the bound state o f solitons into two pulses moving in the opposite
directions was also discovered.
o. Uptical solitons
FIG . 5.7. Solitons in an absorbing m edium . D ependence o f the rms pulse dura
tion on the distance C = for different levels of losses: solid lines, N = 2 ;
dotted lines, N = l .23
The broadening o f pulses caused by optical losses can be reduced to a min

imum and even com pletely removed by using the SRS process. 24 In the fixed
pump field approximation the power o f a Stokes wave grows exponentially with
distance,
P.GO = n ( 0 ) exp ( 9sV pz j S en) , (5.5.4)
where the gain <jrg is o f the order o f 10 11 c m /W for the frequency shift v —vs »
440 cm 1 , corresponding to the center o f amplification line. The effective area
S'eff in Eq. (5.5.4) is determined by the overlap integral (Up}(U^)/{Up U^)
and in a single-mode optical fiber differs only slightly from the geometric area
S — Traa o f the core cross section. Note that the pump depletion can be allowed
25
for by a substitution o f the distance z for the effective length
ieff = ( 1 - e" V ) / V ( 5-5-5)

The possibility o f compensating for optical losses by Raman gain has been con
vincingly demonstrated in recent experiments. 24 TVansform-limited pulses from
a color-center laser (Ag = 1.56 p m , t1j 2 = 10 ps) were coupled into a 10-km
single-mode fiber waveguide. Continuous pump radiation (A = 1.46 p m , V =
125 m W ) was coupled into the waveguide from its output end. In the absence
o f pumping, the output pulse duration increased by approximately a factor
o f 1.5 (see Fig. 5.8), however, the use o f Raman amplification has made it
possible to compensate for the pulse broadening completely (dashed line in
Fig. 5.8).
In Ref. 26 the transmission o f soliton trains over very long distances was
investigated numerically in the presence o f periodically located amplifying areas
o f a fiber waveguide. It is shown that with the optimal choice o f system param
eters it is possible to reach the information transmission rates about 10 G b it/s
5.5. Solitons m transmission lines 241
FIG . 5.8. Schematic arrangement for the com pensation o f losses dining soliton
propagation in lon g fiber waveguides using SRS. Inset: the profiles of intensity
correlation functions: ( J) input pulse, (2) output pulse in a waveguide with losses,
(5) output pulse after com pensation o f losses. 24
over distances up to 1000 km. A nonlinear stabilization o f pulse duration over

comparatively short distances is discussed in Ref. 27.
Higher-order dispersion effects
By including cubic terms in the expansion k(u — wQ) we obtain the summand
3 3 .
(iH1/6)d q/dr in the right-hand side o f Eq. (5.5.1), where [i1 = kz/(rQ\k2\)
characterizes the relative contribution o f the third-order dispersion. In the re
gion o f maximum transparency o f quartz glass (A « 1.5 /xm ) this parameter is
small (/ij » 10 2 for rQ ~ 1 ps; see Sec. 1.3) and the third-order dispersion
effects are estimated using the perturbation theory. The authors o f Ref. 21 have
shown that in this case there appear insignificant distortions o f the envelope
and a group-velocity correction o f the order O(^Xj) . Qualitative results o f per
turbation analysis performed in Ref. 21 are confirmed by results o f numerical
28
experiments, even for ~ 1 . Typical intensity profiles are illustrated in
Fig. 5.9 for different values o f £ (jtj = 1, q(r , 0) = sech t ) .
However, as the radiation wavelength approaches the region o f zero group-
velocity distortion and increase o f nonlinearity parameter, the physical picture o f
self-action changes. An irreversible decay o f the initial pulse into fragments takes
place, and its total duration and additional group delay increases significantly.
The characteristic intensity profiles are given in Fig. 5.10. Note that the third-
order dispersion being a perturbing factor with respect to bound states o f N
solitons leads to a removal o f degeneration in terms o f velocity and to an eventual
decay into single-soliton pulses.
Dispersion o f nonlinearity
For high-power subpi'cosecond pulses a significant perturbing factor is the disper

sion o f nonlinearity which is responsible for the formation o f a profile shock wave
o. vpncai som ons
FIG . 5.9. Self-action o f an ultrashort pulse in a fiber waveguide with cubic

dispersion for ’P0 = 'PCI..28
F IG . 5.10. D ecay o f an ultrashort pulse in a m edium with cubic dispersion when

the pow er substantially exceeds the critical pow er p g = 10 ’Pcr 28
(see Sec. 2.4). The presence o f a second-order anomalous dispersion, however,

leads to stabilization o f the steepness o f the trailing e d g e .29 At = fi2 — 0
the original equation describing the evolution o f a propagating pulse assumes
the form
.dq 1 d2q 2.d..2,._,

dC = ' q ~ ttXd r " q' '
Let us consider how the perturbing term affects the steady-state soliton solu
tion. T o do this, we shall pass in Eq. (5.5.6) to real amplitude and phase using
the substitution
l ( T , C) = p(t , C) e x p [ i> ( r , C)]- (5.5.7)

5.5. Solitons in transmission lines 243
Separating the real and imaginary parts, we obtain the set o f equations
/a \ 2
dip Id p I f dcp\ 3 adip
= 0,
p d c + 2 ^ ~ 2 p { d ^ J + p + f x p dr
(5.5.8)
dC d r dr 2 P dr2 9t
As we are interested in a partial solution representing a steady-state pulse prop

agating in the moving coordinate frame at the “ velocity” V , we shall assume
r, — t — VC, , p = p(rj), ip = ip0( r ))~ KC
and pass in Eq. (5.5.8) to the variables r) , £ :
( rs t l d 2p 1 f& i p \ 2 3 3 dip
0,
dr)
(5.5.9)
rdp dp dip 1 d ip „ 2 dp
+ 3pp 0.
dr) dr) d-q 2 P d r? ' '"'~r dr.
Multiplying the second equation o f (5.5.9) by p we shall transform it to the

form
d_ 1 2 / dip
dr) 2 P ( d 7 + v
up = o. (5.5.10)
Since we seek the solution in the form o f a single pulse for which p(r,) —+ 0 at,
H
|^| —* oo , then
= (5.5.11)
In fact, this formula establishes how the frequency modulation o f a steady-state

pulse is related with the temporal distribution o f the real amplitude p(rj) . Sub-
stituting Eq. (5.5.11) into Eq. (5.5.8) and neglecting the terms 0 ( p ) , we
obtain
d2p V
- ^ + 2 (l-p V )p - 2 p \ K - T J=Q. (5.5.12)
Multiplying this equation by dp/dr) , we can easily see that it possesses the
integral o f the form
H(p) = p \ l - p V ) - p 2 (5.5.13)
K l 'l +nM = c-
Since p (r)), dp/dr) —►0 for |^| —*■oo , the constant C x = 0 . Assuming
P{®) = P0 , (dp/dr)T=Q = 0 ,
we shall normalize the potential II (p) by the condition II (p0) = 0. Then the
constant K determining the phase shift £ is expressed as
Integrating Eq. (5.5.13) with allowance for the normalizations made, we derive
the expression for the shape o f the steady-state pulse:
p ( v) = Pa sech (pQyj\ - fxVr}). (5.5.14)
Moreover, in the first-order perturbation theory (in terms o f the parameter f i )

the dispersion o f nonlinearity leads to the appearance in the steady-state soliton
pulse o f the frequency modulation coinciding in its shape with the temporal
intensity distribution:
M 7?) = sech2(p oX/ l - h V tj) - V. (5.5.15)
A more general case is considered in Ref. 30. Note that Eq. (5.5.6) is integrable
by the inverse scattering method; the detailed analysis is given, for example, in
Ref. 31.
The evolution of JV-soliton pulses is affected by the dispersion o f nonlinearity
far more significantly. The shift o f the central frequency o f the spectrum toward
the Stokes region appearing due to the nonlinear frequency modulation (5.5.15)
and depending on the soliton amplitude leads to a removal o f degeneration in
terms o f velocity and a decay o f bound states. Nontrivial dynamics o f the ini
tial stageo f decay has been tackled by the authors o f Ref. 32 innumerical
experiments, and the comprehensive analysis has been published, for example,
in Ref. 31.
Another interesting feature o f propagation o f femtosecond solitons that was
observed in recent experiments is to be mentioned here. It is connected with the
distance-dependent shift o f the central frequency in the spectrum o f a femtosec-
33
ond soliton toward lower frequencies. The effect is associated with Raman
interaction of various spectral components o f the pulse. If the low-frequency
wing o f the soliton spectrum falls into the Raman gain band, the energy o f high-
frequency spectral region converts into the low-frequency region. So, for the
initial pulse duration t^ 2 — 120 fs (A = 1.5 /im ), the shift o f the maximum in
the soliton spectrum amounts to 20 THz at the output o f the fiber waveguide
52 m long. The magnitude o f the effect is shown to be strongly dependent on the
pulse duration; the frequency shift is proportional to . The physical pic
ture o f SRS self-transformation and the corresponding methods o f mathematical
description were discussed in detail in Sec. 3.6.
Interaction o f solitons
Transmission o f information along optical fiber communication lines is planned

to be accomplished by a sequence o f solitons, and therefore the problems o f
soliton interaction are quite important. The physical picture o f a Schrodinger-
type soliton interaction is treated in Ref. 34 by perturbation theory methods,
and in: Refs. 35, and 36 by the inverse scattering method. An obvious result is
that the propagation dynamics of a soliton pair o f the form
q (r , 0) = sech ( r + T ) + sech (r — T ) exp (iAip) (5.5.16)

5.5, SolHons in transmission lines 245
with an initial pulse sequence period 2T can be described in terms o f quasipar

ticles, between which acts an exponentially decreasing “force” . The magnitude
and sign o f this “force” strongly depend on the phase difference A <p . When A ip
changes from 0 to i r , “attraction” changes to “repulsion” . Estimates for the
merging point L coU o f two “attracting” solitons were obtained; in particular,
for 2Tc a 80 ps and r0 f s 4 ps, L coll is about 100 km.
trajectories o f m otion o f intensity m axim a are shown for the initial conditions
(5.5.16). 36 T w o solitons w hose m axim a initially are separated in the time dom ain
com e closer, merge, propagate as a single wave packet, and then separate once
again. T h e variable param eter is the tem poral interval 2Tc between the original
pulses.
An effective approach that allows one to select a soliton com ponent for an
arbitrary sequence o f N pulses and to study its evolution with distance is de
veloped in Ref. 36. As an illustration, Fig. 5.11 shows the motion trajectories
for the m axim a o f the function |(/(r)|2 for the case A c2 = >c,
Ccoll = ( 7 r / 4 ) ^ 2sinh^T c tanh_1.<Tc . (5.5.17)
— 2
In the limit T —* oo , the value £ (1 ^ (?r/4)>f exp >cTc , which agrees with
the asym ptotic result o f Ref. 35.
Direct experimental observations o f the interaction o f optical solitons have
been carried out by the authors o f Ref. 56. The soliton laser pulses with ini
tial duration 1 ps (A = 1.5 ^ m ) were sent to the Michelson interferometer at
whose output a pair o f pulses was formed with the controlled time delay and
phase difference. It was observed that the solitons having equal phases superim
posed after traveling a distance o f 340 m (corresponding to about 15 dispersion
lengths) along an optical fiber. The solitons with opposite phases repelled, as the
theory predicted. Some departures from the theory based on the nondegener
ate Schrodinger equation were, however, observed for the time delays comparable
with the duration of pulses. According to the authors o f Ref. 56, these departures
are associated with a Raman carrier-frequency shift leading to an accumulation

o f phase difference.
The comprehensive analysis o f the physical picture o f solitons propagating
along real fiber waveguides carried out over the recent years has confirmed the
usefulness o f utilizing solitons in optical information systems.
At present, much work is being done on construction o f laboratory models o f
soliton communication lines capable o f transmitting information over distances
o f hundreds o f kilometers with a rate o f tens o f gigabit per second. 63 ’ 64 Con
siderable success has been achieved owing to the development o f active waveg
uides made o f erbium-doped silica fibers. They have an amplification band of
200 cm 1 and therefore can effectively amplify not only picosecond- but also
femtosecond solitons. 65 The record distance o f information transmission has
been so far realized by Mollenauer an co-workers.
Increase in the distance o f information transmission by means o f solitons
spurred investigations o f various mechanisms o f their interaction. The authors
o f Ref. 67 observed experimentally a soliton interaction via dispersive waves,
which is independent o f phase relations. The electrostriction mechanism o f in
teraction was theoretically analyzed in Ref. 68, while in Ref. 69 the interaction
due to inertial Raman contribution to the nonlinear susceptibility was studied.
A lso growing is interest to the effects o f polarization dispersion, associated with
. . . . 70
random variations o f birefringence, on soliton propagation.
5.6. Soliton lasers

37
This term was coined with reference to a source of stable frequency-tunable
and duration-controlled pulses with an envelope in the form q ~ sech t . A block
diagram showing the principle o f soliton laser operation is given in Fig. 5.12.
The laser consists o f two coupled resonators, the main one (the mirrors M 1 ,
M 2 , M 0 ) and the auxiliary one (the mirrors M 0 , M 3) .
FIG . 5.12. B lock diagram of a soliton laser. A synchronously pu m ped color

center laser w ith a resonator form ed b y the mirrors M j - M q and an auxiliary
resonator M Q—M 3 containing a fiber waveguide: L 1 and L 2 are lenses. 37
5.6. Soliton Lasers 241
The main resonator constitutes a color-center laser with synchronous pump

ing, generating in an autonomous regime transform-limited 8 ps pulses with a
mean power o f 1 W and a repetition rate 100 MHz. In the soliton laser regime a
part o f radiation is coupled through the semitransparent mirror M Q (with trans
mission coefficient 30%) and a beam splitter into the second resonator, containing
a single-mode fiber waveguide. The power level in the second resonator and the
fiber waveguide length are chosen in such a way that the self-compressed pulse
is injected into the main resonator synchronously with pumping. This leads to
generation o f a shorter pulse, etc., until the steady-state regime is reached. In
the steady-state regime a pulse was reproduced after it passed twice through the
fiber waveguide and represented a bound' state o f two solitons. Its parameters
can be found from the conditions
2L = (tt/2 )£ d , V 2 = 47>c r , (5.6.1)
where L is the waveguide length, and V is the critical power determined by

Eq. (5.1.5). Thus, apart from the condition o f balance between amplification
and losses usual for a steady-state regime o f generation, one adds a condition o f
balance between the dispersive spreading and nonlinear self-compression, which
determines the duration o f the generated pulse.
T o perform the specific physical analysis, we shall return in Eq. (5.6.1) to
dimensional variables
2L = (*/2)T2
0 \k2\ - \ V2 = 4\k2\Sea/ ( r X ^ ) - (5-6.2)
F IG . 5.13. Soliton laser perform ance. 37 T he critical pow er o f form ation o f one-
soliton ( P t ) and tw o-soliton (V 2 ) pulses, as well as the length o f the forming
fiber, are shown as a function o f the reciprocal duration o f the generated pulse.
The stable operation poin t r 2 is indicated.
Following Ref. 37, we shall draw the quantities 2L and V., as functions o f
the reciprocal o f pulse duration t ~j 2 (it should be reminded that txj2 — 1.76rQ) .
5. Optical solitons
Figure 5.13 also shows the dependence o f the peak power value V o f the pulse
in a fiber:
V p - 0 . 5 n (V )T r/ro. (5.6.3)
where r] is the coupling coefficient, (V) is the time-averaged power in the second
resonator, and Tr is the repetition period o f the pulses with duration t q . The
slope o f the straight line in Fig. 5.13 varies with the change o f rj. The laser
operation is stable at the point r2 where all three conditions (5.6.2) and (5.6.3)
are simultaneously satisfied. If, owing to some random influences, the pulse
duration grows, the optimum point r2 shifts to the left along the straight line
(5.6.3), and the inequalities V p > ' P 2 , ( v / i ) L (i > 2L becom e valid. This results
in the shortening o f duration at the waveguide output.
To make synchronous operation o f a soliton laser stable, a very accurate
matching (to 1 /jm ) of the lengths o f the main and auxiliary resonators is
required. An automated system for stabilization o f soliton laser operation is
reported in Ref. 38, allowing the minimal pulse duration to be reduced to 100 fs.
Note that other operation points determined by the condition V N = N 2rPCT,
where 7V = 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . , may in principle exist. Obviously, the point V 1 = V
corresponding to the propagation o f a single-mode pulse in a fiber waveguide,
possesses the lowest energy threshold. However, there has been no confirmation
o f experimental realization o f such regimes so far.
Although the soliton laser theory underwent rapid developm ent39-41 recently,
all presently existing simplified models, so far, have not reached the level assuring
quantitative agreement with performance o f real devices.
/ T l \
< ■'>500-m fiber >
Pumping Output beam

9
K9=1A7/jm<? X^r=1.536/J.m
j2 ~ ®PS ; ? = 240-350f s
F IG . 5.14. Layout o f Reiman soliton laser with synchronous pum ping. ‘
’• 71 72
The most recent investigations ’ demonstrated convincingly that the pres
ence o f an additional resonator containing a fiber waveguide results in a sub
stantial compression o f the output pulse in the spectral region of normal group-
velocity dispersion as well.
The theory o f this effect is based on the concept of additive-pulse mode
73
locking. Here is a simplified picture o f the pulse compression. The pulse
experiences a self-phase modulation in the passive nonlinear optical resonator.
Getting back into the active resonator, it interferes with the primary pulse. If
5.6. Soliton Lasers 249
the phase difference between the peaks o f the primary and auxilliary pulses is
a multiple o f 2 ir, the constructive interference leads to formation o f a “spike
on pedestal” structure which in its turn brings about shortening o f the pulse
circulating in the active resonator.
In the experiments described in Ref. 74 it was found that in an active
Ti : A120 3 element the generation may develop from the spontaneous noise level
without synchronous pumping o f the active element. The authors o f Ref. 75
analyzed the self-starting conditions for generation and established that the pro
cesses o f dynamic saturation o f amplification play a decisive role.
The soliton effects in combination with Raman frequency conversion consti
tute the basis o f Raman soliton lasers. The simplest scheme o f such a laser is
42
presented in Fig. 5.14. A color-center laser emits a train o f pulses (A =
1.47 /im , Tjy2 = 10 ps) that are coupled into a synchronous resonator contain
ing a single-mode fiber waveguide 500 m long. The zero-dispersion wavelength
of the optical fiber is shifted toward Acr = 1.536 /im by special choice o f the
refractive index profile. Thus, the center o f the Raman gain line As = 1.588 fim
falls into the region o f anomalous group-velocity dispersion.
As soon as the peak power pumped into the fiber reaches 6 W , the 240-
fs soliton pulses with peak power o f tens o f watts are formed at the Stokes
frequency at the laser output. The process o f effective energy transfer between
the pump radiation and the Stokes pulse discontinues at a distance o f 100 m from
the fiber input end. The rest of the fiber serves as a nonlinear filter improving
the temporal structure o f the radiation (see Sec. 5.9).
Delay 1\ming
line elem ent
FIG . 5.15. Schem atic o f a fiber laser o f soliton type working in the region of
44
norm al group-velocity dispersion.
The physical picture o f formation of SRS solitons has been studied in

Ref. 18 and discussed in Sec. 3.6. The theory o f dynamic processes o f cas
cade self-synchronization of modes in fiber SRS lasers was developed by the
authors o f Ref. 43. Raman lasers o f soliton type also can be constructed in the
spectral range corresponding to normal group-velocity dispersion. The layout
44
o f the experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.15. A quasi-cw radi
ation from a NdrYAG laser (Ap = 1.064 p m , rxj 2 = 80 ps) is coupled into
a synchronous ring resonator comprising a single-mode 100-m fiber waveguide,
grating compressor, interference filter used as a tuning element, and a number
o f birefringent plates ensuring the restoration o f polarization.
A t the output o f the system, 0.8-ps pulses are formed at the Stokes frequency
(Ag = 1.10 fim ). In this system a synchronously pumped fiber waveguide acts as
a lasing medium and a fast phase m odulator, while the presence o f the grating
compressor allows stabilization o f the minimum duration o f the output pulse. In
similar devices, the minimum duration is limited by the Raman-gain bandwidth
and can be in principle reduced down to 100 fs.
5.7. Generation of picosecond pulse trains with high

repetition rates; use of modulation instabilities
The clear and consistent picture o f soliton formation and interaction presented
in the foregoing sections refers first o f all to the situation when the optical pulse
power slightly exceeds the critical power o f soliton formation, that is, when
N = \/'P()/yPC[ — 1-10. At V 0 ~S> Vcr and N 1 , the picture becomes more
complicated. As we saw in Sec. 2.8, in this case the pulse is not monotonically
compressed as a whole, but decays into subpulses. This phenomenon is in many
respects analogous to small-scale focusing o f light beams.
A complete theoretical analysis o f these phenomena is possible only on the ba
sis o f computer simulation. However, certain knowledge about the initial stages
o f decay o f multisoliton pulses into one-soliton pulses can be obtained using the
perturbation method. In this case the description is based on the theory o f m od-
ulational instability (see Sec. 2.8). In the present section we shall pay special
attention to applications o f modulat.ional instability. In fact, it proves to be
a unique m ethod for generation o f trains o f pico- and femtosecond pulses with
extremely high repetition rates (up to 1 TH z).
The physical picture o f development o f modulational instability was analyzed
as early as the late sixties and the first direct observations o f temporal insta
bility were reported by Tai, Hasegawa, and T om ita 48 only in 1986. In these
experiments a N d:YAG laser generating 100-ps transform-limited pulses with
repetition rate 100 MHz was used.
The radiation wavelength A = 1.319 fim fell into the region of anomalous
group-velocity dispersion [ D = 2 .4-3.75 p s / (nm - km)] o f single-mode fiber wave
guides with a length from 0.5 to 2 km. The peak power o f the pulses reached
7 W.
The instability starts growing from the spontaneous noise level in the incre
ment frequency band. Figure 5.16 shows a series o f spectra at the fiber output
measured at different values o f input power. The appearance o f lateral bands in
the spectrum is clearly seen for V 0 & h W - The intensity o f these bands grows
with ( according to an exponential law. For V Q ss 6 W one can observe the
depletion o f radiation at the pump frequency and the appearance o f the spec
trum structure associated with SPM . The further increase in power leads to the
development o f SRS process.
5.7. Generation o f picosecond pulse trains; modulation instabilities 251
i___ i___ u
[b>
1 1 ---- 1
l»)
, — / \ J L rv,
(d)
i ✓'■'“ ' v ' \ w

1313 1315 1317 1313 1321 1323 X7nm
FIG . 5.16. Developm ent o f m odulational instability starting from the sponta
neous noise level. Shown are the spectra at the waveguide output measured for
different values of input power: (a) below -threshold power; (b) V 0 = 5.5 W ;
48
(<0 W ; (d) W.
FIG . 5.17. C orrelation function o f radiation intensity at the output o f the fiber,
measured experimentally. A tem poral separation o f 2.2 ps between the maxim a
corresponds to self-m odulation period.
The intensity correlation function is given in Fig. 5.17. The 2.2-ps time inter
val between the consecutive maxima corresponds to the self-modulation period.
The experimental values o f the period are in good agreement with the theoretical
predictions. Indeed, the maximum increment o f perturbation growth obeys the
formula [see Eq. (2.8.9)]
9max = V 2 V 5 e f I = i s’ pm t 5 ’ 7 ' 1)
For typical values o f parameters (V Q = 6.5 W , Sef( = 100 p m 2 , A = 1.319p m ,

h2 = 3.2 x 10-16 cm2/W ) the value <jmax ps 10-4 cm -1 . For a pulse repetition
period Tt corresponding to ffmax we have the expression
T = * f i \ k 2 |/w (5.7.2)
which yields T fw 2 ps for the indicated values and D = 2 .4 p s /(n m - km).
FIG . 5.18. Layout o f an experimental arrangement for measuring an induced

m odulational instability. A t the fiber input the prim ary laser radiation is m ixed
w ith the radiation from the frequency-tuned auxiliary laser. 49
To produce a pulse train with tunable repetition rate, a regular seed m od
ulation was employed by the authors o f Ref. 49. The experimental arrange
ment is schematically shown in Fig. 5.18. The radiation from a N d:YAG laser
(A - 1.319 /im , t^ 2 = 100 ps) was mixed in a single-mode fiber waveguide
with semiconductor laser radiation o f close frequency in order to produce an ini
tial modulation o f intensity. To raise the threshold o f emergence o f com peting
nonlinear processes, such as SRS and SBS, the beams o f the main and auxil
iary lasers were coupled into the fiber with orthogonal polarizations. The initial
modulation frequency was tuned by varying the frequency o f the semiconductor
laser radiation.
FIG . 5.19. Correlation function o f the intensity at the fiber output, measured
at different detunings o f the primary and auxiliary lasers. 49
The intensity correlation functions measured experimentally are shown in

Fig. 5.19 for two different values o f detuning o f the frequencies o f the main
and auxiliary lasers. The pulse repetition period is inversely proportional to the
value o f this detuning. The typical pulse duration in the train equals 0.5 ps.
5.8. Analysis o f nonlinear wave fields 253
The authors o f Ref. 49 point to a good quantitative agreement o f experimental

data with the results o f mathematical modeling. Use o f modulational instability
for generation o f picosecond pulse trains with extremely high repetition rates
opens bright prospects for diverse applications (see Sec. 3.8).
Further refinement o f the theory o f modulational instability has been made
by the authors o f Ref. 30 who allowed for dispersion o f nonlinearity affecting
the borders o f the spectral region within which the instability takes place. In
Ref. 46 the results o f numerical experiments are published which make it possible
to trace the process dynamics at substantially nonlinear stages. The profound
theoretical analysis o f the solution o f the nonlinear Schrodinger equation with
periodic initial conditions is provided in Ref. 47.
Evolution o f modulational instability is studied in Ref. 57 under the conditions
o f strong influence o f third-order dispersion. It is shown that the closer the
radiation wavelength is to the wavelength o f zero quadratic dispersion, the higher
the pulse repetition rate is for a fixed input radiation power. From the analysis
o f the structure o f the generated pulses it follows that the maximum contrast
is reached when the optimal m odulation o f the input radiation is performed at
the frequency exceeding by a factor of \/Z/2 the frequency o f maximum gain
increment.
In this section we considered a single wave propagating under condition of
anomalous group-velocity dispersion. Some interesting effects however arise
when two propagating waves with nonoverlapping spectra interact due to non
linear correction to the index o f refraction (cross-phase m odulation). The the
ory o f cross-phase modulation instability has been comprehensively presented
in Ref. 76. Essentially, the stability may develop even when the both waves
belong to the spectral range characterized by normal group-velocity dispersion.
The direct experimental confirmation o f this possibility has been recently ob
tained. In Ref. 77 the cross-modulation interaction o f two orthogonally polarized
modes was studied in a birefringent fiber waveguide (A = 0.6 p m , ^ = 9 ps,
L f = 18 m ). In a total agreement with the theoretical predictions, an almost
100-percent modulation factor was observed at a frequency o f 3.5 THz.
5.8. Analysis of nonlinear wave fields

by the inverse scattering method
A great variety o f problems treated in the foregoing sections and connected with
assessment o f ultimate capabilities o f optical information systems, transmission
o f solitons over very long distances, etc., imposes stringent requirements for
accuracy o f mathematical description o f relevant processes. Traditional direct
numerical methods for solution of Schrodinger-type equations (both grid and
50
spectral ) allow correct computations o f wave fields over distances not exceed
ing a few dispersion lengths. The grid dispersion and artificial periodization o f
the solution result in emergence o f artifacts. The greatest difficulty arises in the
solution o f stochastic problems o f self-action in the far-field zone (£ 1 ). In
the case o f picosecond pulses (r Q ~ 6 ps, A = 1.5 p m ) this involves relatively
long distances about 1 km, but on transition to femtosecond durations the range
ZD'i 5. Optical solitons
o f reliable modeling diminishes drastically, so that at rQ = 100 fs the dispersion

length Ld » 30 cm.
The adequate theoretical analysis o f nonlinear wave fields in the far-field zone
• s
is based on the inverse scattering m ethod that is in fact a nonlinear general
ization o f the spectral approach briefly discussed in Sec. 2.6. We shall mention
here some basic points necessary for the subsequent description o f practical ap
plications.
Let us consider the Cauchy problem for the NSE written in the conventional
form (5.2.1)
= + W|2« - (5 '8 1 )
with the initial condition q ( r , 0) = g ° (r ) . We shall restrict the class o f initial

OO
conditions by assuming that f \q \dr < o o , and take into account that the
— OO
modulus |g°| decreases faster as |r| —►oo than any power function. One has to
find q { r , £) for an arbitrary £ > 0 .
According to the inverse scattering m ethod, instead o f Eq. (5.8.1) we consider
a linear scattering problem, in which the required solution q enters in the form
o f a potential
9 *± (l 0 ^ ± , . /0 q° \
8 f* = iAU + • (,.- I ) * • (5.»-2)
where $ ± denotes matrix functions o f r and o f the spectral parameter A £

M , q is the complex conjugate o f q . One can easily see that the functions
satisfy the asymptotic relations
'1 0
$ ± ( A, r ) - * exp (5.8.3)
i A r ' 0-1
when r —►± o o , respectively, since the potential q —►0 when r —►± o o . The
relationship between the functions $ and + is established by means o f the
scattering matrix T ,
$ ~ = $ +T, T =(_J*a)> ( 5 8 -4)
whose coefficients depend only on A £ 1 . From Eqs. (5.8.3) and (5.8.4) one
can derive directly the following expression
« p (-iA 7 )= (J) exp (-iA r) + ^ ) Q « p ( i A r) , (5.8.5)
which can be regarded as the relation between the amplitudes o f the waves:
(i) the incident one coming from + 0 0 (the first term on the right-hand side),
(ii) the reflected one due to the potential with the coefficient r ( A) = b/a ,
5.8. Analysis o f nonlinear wave fields 255
and (iii) the one transmitted to —oo (the left-hand side). The coefficients a and
■ 12 2
b are related by the normalization condition |a| + |6| = 1 . Besides, a(A) —►1
and 6(A) —►0 when |A| —►oo .
Note that for com plex values o f the spectral parameter A Eq. (5.8.2) can
generally have the solutions that vanish both when r —►+ o o and t —►—oo .
These values {A j.} constitute a discrete spectrum and coincide with the roots
(zeros) o f the coefficient a : a(A k) = 0 , analytically extended to the upper
half-plane Im A > 0 . As shown in Ref. 8, the potential q° is unambiguously
determined by the scattering data including the set o f zeros o f the coefficient a ,
the values bk = b(Kk) , and the reflection coefficient r(A ) = bja , specified on
the real axis A £ l .
It should be pointed out that if g ( £ , r ) satisfies Eq. (5.8.1), then the coef
ficient b(A , C) varies with distance as
fe(A, 0 = b(A , 0) exp (2*A2C ), (5.8.6)
and the coefficient a is independent o f £ : a(A , ( ) = a ( A , 0) . Owing to this

fact, the scattering data can be easily com puted at any £ > 0 .
The soliton solution q * ( r , Q corresponding to A k takes the form
«s = *ksech b t ( r - rok ~ *fcO] exP H V + KVt ~ - (5-8-7)

where x-fc = 2 Im Afc is the soliton amplitude determining also the duration,
Vk = 2 Re Aj. is its velocity, rQk is the initial coordinate o f the maximum, and
ipok is the phase. If the velocity of all the solitons included in the solution of
Eq. (5.8.1) is different, then at £ —* oo the soliton component o f the solution is
determined by the trivial linear superposition
N
9s = X X ( r ’ 0 . ( 5-8-8)
fc=l
k
where qs is expressed by Eq. (5.8.7). Th e nonsoliton component o f the solution
o f Eq. (5.8.1) determined by the reflection coefficient J’ ( A ) , A £ M declines for
_1/2
( c o as ( . Note that the collision o f Schrodinger solitons results only in
the shift o f their centers and phases.
An energy relationship between the soliton and nonsoliton parts o f the solution
can be found using a nonlinear generalization o f the Parseval theorem according
to which
+ oo N +oo
J k ( T , 0 \ 2 dr = 2 + X~1 / l n [1 + K 0 r * ( 0 ] (i£- (5.8.9)

— oo m = l _ CXJ
The first term on the right-hand side o f this equality corresponds to the energy
o f the soliton part o f the solution (a discrete spectrum) while the second term
corresponds to the nonsoliton part (a continuous spectrum). This theorem allows
one to establish a relationship between a Fourier spectrum and its nonlinear

analog determined by the coefficient r ( A ) . It is seen from Eq. (5.8.9) that in
the absence of the soliton component ln (l + rr*) » rr* and r ( A) practically
coincides with the Fourier spectrum <Z°(w) for |r| 1.
For a finite £ the soliton component is derived from the formula
N
fl.0 -. 0 = - 2 £ c m(C)*m( r ) , (5.8.10)
m = l
in which the vector column X = ( X j , x 2 , . . . , x N) tr is a solution o f the set

o f linear equations
( i- k ) x = p, p = (p 1 , p 2 , . . . . Pjv)t r .
p k — exp ( —2i'A £t) . The elements A m o f the matrix A are calculated as

follows
A _ y - CJt( CK, mCm ( 0
m,n h A * , mv » '
CJ t ( 0 = ( 6 J t / « l ) e X p ( 2 i A JtC ) , e m, n = eXP ( 2i Am , n T)>
Am , n = Am - An> n< N ,
and the prime denotes differentiation with respect to A .

Unfortunately, the analytical calculation o f scattering data and, therefore,
reconstruction o f qs( r , Q , can be performed only in a few partial cases. In
particular, for the initial data o f the form
g °(r ) = TV sech r , (5.8.11)
where TV is aninteger, a bound state o f N solitons is formed with the spectral

parameters A k = i(k — 1/ 2) , k — 1 , 2 , . . . , N , to which correspond the
scattering coefficients
N
° ( a ) = r i ( A ~ AJt)/(A ~ Ai ) , k =(-*■)*•
k= 1
The dynamics o f propagating A'-soliton pulses has been studied by the inverse
scattering method 10 in connection with the problem o f self-compression (see
Fig. 5.1). In Refs. 35 and 36 the analogous technique was applied for the
analysis o f superposition o f two time-resolved solitons.
The number o f practical problems that can be effectively treated using the
inverse scattering method increased substantially after the development o f an
efficient numerical procedure for calculating scattering data and subsequent
reconstruction o f q ( r , £) at arbitrary Q . 51 According to this procedure a
5.8. Analysis o f nonlinear viave fields 257
F IG . 5.20. Soliton spectrum of a Gaussian pulse (solid lines) com pared with
that o f an N -soliton pulse (dotted lines). Inset: the ratio of the energy W of
soliton com ponent to the initial energy W 0 o f the pulse as a function o f the initial
am plitude g0 .51
grid is introduced, splitting the r axis into a set o f nodal points { r k} , k =

1 , 2 , . . . , K . Over each segment \rk , rjfc+1] with the length hk = Tj.+1 — rk
the function <fy!(r) is approximated by the staircase function qk . The partial
scattering matrix Tj. , corresponding to the fc-th step, is calculated analytically,
and its elements are
j sin dk
ak - exp (i k h k) cos dk — iAnk—
Ur
(5.8.12)
, o*. , 0 - A , s in d
K = % hk ( Aj+1 / 2) j
where dk = hk^J'a2 + |^°|2 . The global scattering matrix T is defined as a

product o f partial matrices
T (A ) = n T t (A). (5.8.13)
k=l
Separating in this matrix the coefficients a and b , one can, using standard
com putational procedures, find the set o f the roots {A j.}. and other scattering
data required for restoration o f q ( r , £) .
5. Optical solitons
A soliton spectrum is illustrated in Fig. 5.20 where the dependence of { x k}

on the amplitude qQ is shown for a Gaussian pulse q ( r , 0) = q0 exp ( —r / 2 ) .
For comparison, the dashed lines show the corresponding dependences for the
initial data (5.8.11). Figure 5.21 illustrates the profiles o f intensity |g0(r)|2 and
phase o f a noise pulse, as well as the result o f restoration o f its soliton component
qs for £ = 1 . 52
F IG . 5.21. Soliton com ponent of a n oisy pulse: (a) initial profiles o f intensity
and phase; ( 6) soliton com ponent separated by the inverse scattering m eth od at
52
the distance C — 1 *
The procedures developed make it possible to solve a number o f important

problems o f stochastic self-action to be discussed in the following sections.
5.9. Nonlinear filtering of noise pulses; soliton statistics

In this section we shall concentrate on statistical problems o f optical soliton
theory. The interest to this issue is associated with studies o f the influence o f
fluctuations o f the initial pulse parameters on the ultimate rate o f information
transmission in the soliton regime and with the use o f optical waveguides as
5.9. Nonlinear filtering o f noise pulses 259
nonlinear filtersimproving the spatio-temporal structure o f radiation. From the

standpoint o f stochastic theory o f nonlinear waves, it is essential to explore the
possibility o f soliton formation from optical noise and the interaction o f statistical
characteristics of the initial signal and the formed solitons.
First, we shall consider the case when the initial data o f Eq. (5.8.1) can be
represented as a superposition “signal noise” :
<l{T, 0) = q0( r) + <Tq(T) , (5.9.1)
where q0( r) corresponds to a deterministic, and q(r) to a random component,

and <r is the parameter characterizing the noise level. Recall that a similar prob
lem was examined in Sec. 4.5 in connection with the studies o f self-action and
compression o f pulses o f partially coherent radiation in the spectral region with
normal group-velocity dispersion. By analogy with Sec. 4.5 let us analyze the
variation o f the integral parameters o f radiation in the case o f small fluctuations
<r < 1 .
In this approximation the rms pulse duration averaged over the ensemble o f
-f-OO_____
initial data realizations, 0 ( Q = f q* t q d r , can be represented as a linear
— OO
superposition o f deterministic and noise components,

\
0 ( 0 = 90 + a 20.
The functions #0(C) and 0(£) satisfy the set o f equations [cf. Eq. (4.5.7)]
^ 0 o= 2<9 oO - < ( 9 oO 2) ’
(5.9.2)
- ^ 0 = 2 ( ^ * ) - 4 ((q0ql)(qq*))
The overdot denotes differentiation with respect to r . From Eq. (5.9.2) it

follows that inthisapproximation the noise component o f the signal does not
affect the rms duration o f the deterministic com ponent. The reciprocal influence
(the second term on the right-hand side o f the last equation) is more substan
tial: it brings about a slowdown in the rate o f dispersive spreading of the noise
component o f the pulse.
Let us specify the functions q0( r) and q(r) in the form
% = sech t , q = ?0(r)<T^(r), (5.9.3)
where £ ( t ) is the com plex steady-state Gaussian noise with the zero mean
value, unitary dispersion, and Gaussian correlation function. After substitut
ing Eq. (5.9.3) into the right-hand side o f Eq. (5.9.2) and assuming £ = 0 , we
obtain Eq. (5.9.2) in the form
ZDU 5. Optical solitons
It can be directly verified that
d 7t I „ d -
d f o | c= o= 0 >
It follows from here that the soliton component suppresses the dispersive spread
ing o f “slow” fluctuations with r > \/2 (it should be recalled that the corre
lation time is expressed here in the units o f the initial pulse duration). For fast
fluctuations with r < \/2 the rms duration o f the noise component grows with
£ according to a quadratic law
0 ( 0 = 0(0) + 2(2/ r 2 - 1)C2. (5.9.5)
The indicated behavior is observed at the distances £ not exceeding the charac
teristic self-action length since the right-hand side o f Eq. (5.9.2) was calculated
at the point £ = 0 .
FIG . 5.22. Nonlinear filtration o f a pulse with random initial P M . Intensity

profiles are shown at different cross sections o f the fiber; distances are expressed
in dispersion lengths.
T o trace the dynamics o f self-action o f the noise com ponent at long distances,
we shall use the results o f mathematical modeling based on numerical integration
53
o f NSE. Figure 5.22 shows the intensity profiles at different £ for a pulse with
the random phase modulation
q (r, 0 ) = sech r exp [»y>(r)], (5.9.6)

where the phase <p(r) is distributed according to a Gaussian law with the zero
2
mean,' the variance <x = 0.25 >, and the correlation time rC = 0.2 at £’ — 0 .
From the intensity profiles shown one can see that a fast conversion of phase
fluctuations into amplitude ones takes place at the initial stage o f propagation.
The mean peak duration equals r . Later, a relatively fast filtering o f the
soliton component proceeds at the expense o f dispersive spreading o f the noise
com ponent. A t £ « 1 the pulse turns into a soliton. Note that the soliton
amplitude obtained by direct integration o f NSE coincides with that calculated
by the inverse scattering method for the same realization o f the initial data
(5.9.6).
FIG . 5.23. D ependence o f the total energy o f soliton and noisy com ponents
within a fixed time interval for different initial correlation times o f phase fluctu
ations rc : (1) 0.1, (g ) 0.2, (5) 0.4.
Figure 5.23 illustrates the dependence o f the total energy of soliton and noise
T /2
components W T = / (qq ) d r within the time interval ( —T / 2 , T /2 ) , where

-T /2
T = 5 . The calculations were carried out for the three realizations o f the initial
data (5.9.6) differing by the value o f the correlation time rc . The decrease in
energy within the chosen time interval (see Fig. 5.23) is associated with dis
persive spreading o f the noise com ponent beyond the limits o f the integration
interval. The waveguide length needed to perform an effective filtering o f the
soliton com ponent is seen to decrease as the initial correlation time rc dimin
ishes. This result is very important from the practical point of view since it
indicates the possibility of an optical soliton forming from the pulses o f partially
coherent radiation.
Naturally, the soliton parameters, that is, the amplitude x and velocity V ,
change from one realization to another, and, consequently, are random values.
There arises the problem o f establishing a relationship between statistical char
acteristics o f the initial data and the solitons formed at £ > 1 . This relationship
can be analyzed only in terms of the inverse scattering problem. 51 ’ 54
As a basis for the analysis, we shall be using the formula derived in Ref. 36 re
lating the soliton parameter variations with the small perturbations Sq at £ = 0 .
W ithout loss o f generality, we can assume that the soliton component o f the ini
tial data takes the form
qn( t ) = sechr.
Then the soliton parameter variations caused by the perturbation Sq can be

written as
OO
. f e T6q(r)
Sq(T) + e TSq*(
T6q ( t ) , ,r .
6V + i 8 x = i / -----------------’ ~ , ■ ; dr. (5.9.7)
J 2 cosh2 t
— CO
Let us consider some important specific cases.
A m plitu de fluctuations o f an initial pulse
Suppose that
q (r , 0) = [1 + p { t )\ sech r , 8q = p ( r ) sech r , (5.9.8)
where p( r ) isthe real random process with correlation time tc . It then follows
from Eq.(5.9.7) thatonly the amplitude o f the formed soliton fluctuates:
CO
8x
= J/ -cosh
^ rT dT- ( 5-9 -9)
For slow ( r > 1) fluctuations, p (r ) can be represented by a series with random

coefficients:
P(T) = P o + P i ( T/Tc ) + 0 [ ( t / t c) 2]. (5.9.10)
Substituting this expansion into Eq. (5.9.9) we see that the first-order term does
not contribute to the amplitude change o f the formed soliton. Random variations
o f the coefficient pQ lead to the amplitude fluctuations
8 x = 2 p 0. (5.9.11)
A wave packet at the output o f the waveguide with the length £ > 1 has the
envelope
qs{ r , 0 = (1 + 2^0) sech [(1 + 2p 0)r] exp [ i( l + 2pQf C/2]. (5.9.12)
If the random amplitude p0 has a Gaussian distribution, then the distribution

function p ( x ) is also described by a Gaussian function, and the standard devi
ation o f fluctuations doubles: a = 2<r
*
Phase fluctuations
Let us consider the phase modulation (5.9.6) where <p(r) is, as before, a real
Gaussian random process with correlation time tc . Then
8q — exp (i(p) — 1. (5.9.13)
For slow fluctuations ( r > 1) the expansion similar to Eq. (5.9.10) is valid:
(? ) = <£0 + ^ ( t / t ) + 0 [ ( r / r c) 2]. (5.9.14)

Substituting the last equation into Eq. (5.9.7) one can easily see that the random
component o f the phase <p0 does not change the soliton velocity and amplitude,
whereas the component linear in terms o f r leads to their variations:
8 V + i&x = i i / 2) ^ l/2 (5.9.15)

sinh (7r<^1/2 )
It follows from here that at <C 1 the velocity variations 5V = (pY are of
the first-order and the amplitude variations 8>c ~ are o f the second-order of
smallness.
Thus, the output pulse at £ 3> 1 represents a disturbed solitone
9s( r > 0 = sech ( r - ^ i< ) e x p (-i£ iT -M '< ^ < /2 ). (5.9.16)
If the distribution density o f the random coefficient <p1 is Gaussian, then the
velocity distribution is described by the same law. The standard deviations of
the parameters 8V and <p1 coincide.
Transient am plitude and phase noise
Let us consider a more general case o f the initial data (5.9.3) where £ (r ) is the
steady-state com plex Gaussian noise. After substituting these initial conditions
in Eq. (5.9.7) we immediately find that the amplitude fluctuations are deter
mined by the real com ponent o f the noise R e £ ( r ) , and the velocity fluctuations
by the imaginary component Im £ (r ) . Since £ = 0 , the mean values o f varia
tions Sx — 0 and SV = 0 . For variances cr2 and <rj) one obtains the following
54 x
expressions:
2 a 2 [ T3t s t coth 7- — 1
<x = 8<x I B ( t ) -----------g---------dr
I B^ ~ sinh t
(5-9.17)
(Ty = 8<t2 f B ( t ) -------- ^ dr ,

V J ^ [cosh (2 r ) — 1]
G ( t ) = 6 sinh (2 r ) [sinh (2 r ) — 2 r]
— [cosh (2 r ) — 1] [2 cosh (2r ) — 2 + t sinh ( 2 r ) ] ,
where B ( t ) is the noise correlation function. The analysis o f the formulas

• • 2 2
derived shows that (i) the fluctuation variances cr and a v are proportional
2 ^ . 2
to the noise variance <r , (ii) the soliton amplitude variance cr monotonically
grows with the initial correlation time tc and with the trend toward saturation
at r —+ o o , and (iii) the velocity fluctuations 8V linearly increase at tc <g. 1,
reach a maximum at r C w 1 and fall down to zero as r C —+ c © . This behavior
is illustrated in Fig. 5.24. Note that the curves plotted relate to the case o f the
FIG . 5.24. R edu ced variance o f fluctuations o f form ed soliton param eters as a
function o f correlation tim e o f initial perturbations: (a ) am plitude fluctuations;
( 6) velocity fluctuations (solid lines, perturbation m ethod calculations; points,
com puter sim ulation).
Gaussian correlation function B ( t ) and their generalization to the arbitrary

B ( t ) presents no special problems.
Investigation of distribution functions p(>c) , p ( V ) and their moments turns
out to be far more complicated in the case o f large fluctuations o f the initial
signal, i.e., optical noise flash pulses. In this situation, the specific realization o f
the initial data at £ —+ oo can give rise either to one or several solitons, or a
pulse undergoing dispersive spreading. Study of such regimes is of interest when
analyzing the requirements imposed on the signal sources for soliton transmission
lines, and provides such vital characteristics as the probability o f a missed signal
(i.e., the absence o f a soliton in the given realization) or a false registration (two
or more solitons from one laser pulse). These cases are comprehensively treated
in Ref. 54. Here we shall discuss only some numerical experiments.
The numerical modeling procedure is based on a statistical evaluation o f the
distribution function and its moments by the Monte Carlo method. For a sam
ple comprising M ;§> 1 realizations o f the initial data (5.9.3) the soliton spectra
{jtj.} , {V ^} , k = 1 , 2 , . . . , M were calculated. The ensemble-averaged val
ues Jc and V and their variances were found, and the histograms drawn to
characterize the distribution function. Th e statistical analysis o f the histograms
using the criteria o f Neyman-Pearson or Kolm ogorov allows one to verify the
hypothesis about the character o f distribution and to establish its significance
level.
Figure 5.25 shows the histograms of random amplitudes o f solitons formed at
C 1 for the initial data (5.9.3) (the modulated Gaussian noise). The value of
P(x)
FIG . 5.25. Histograms o f ran dom am plitudes o f form ed solitons at different

, . 54
variances oi noise.
correlation time r = 0.5 is fixed, the variable parameter is the noise variance
<r = 0.25, 0 .5, 1, and the number o f realizations M = 1024. Comparison
o f the histograms calculated for different noise variances shows that for a < 0.5
the distributions p ( x ) and p ( V ) are close to Gaussian.
The <?-dependences o f the mean amplitude 3? and standard deviations <?
and <rv are plotted in Fig. 5.26. The curves shown demonstrate that the linear
formulas o f the perturbation theory for and crv are in good agreement with
the data of numerical experiments for a < 0.5 . In the range 0.5 < <r < 1 the
linear perturbation theory fails (see Fig. 5.26). The obvious deviations o f p ( x )
5. Optical solrtons
from the Gaussian law, caused by the violation o f one-soliton regime, have to be
pointed out. It is interesting that the velocity distribution p ( V ) is adequately
approximated by a Gaussian function throughout the considered cr range.
As an illustration o f practical application o f the found behavior, we shall con
sider the transmission o f soliton pulses (r Q = 7.1 p s , A = 1.5 /im , V Q — 1 W )
along a 10-km fiber waveguide with a core cross-section area o f 100 /<m . Let
us evaluate the temporal scatter o f solitons registered by a detector in the case
when the energy signal-to-noise ratio equals 10, and the Gaussian noise (5.9.3)
has r = 0.3 ps. The delay o f a single pulse expressed in units o f its duration
is equal to the ratio o f the waveguide length L to the dispersion length L-d ,
multiplied by the standard deviation o f velocity fluctuations:
St / to = ( L /Ld)ffV
Estimating <xv from the curve in Fig. 5.26 to be equal to 0.15 and taking
into account that for the chosen parameter values Ld = 2.4 km, we obtain
St fw 0.6r0 = 4 ps. The relative energy fluctuations o f the registered solitons
equals 20%.
FIG . 5.26. Calculated average am plitude value X o f form ed solitons and the
standard am plitude a x and velocity a v deviations as a function of a (solid
lines, com puter simulation; dashed lines, perturbation theory calculations). 54
Thus, the approach incorporating the approximate analytical assessment o f

integral characteristics (5.9.5), the perturbation theory applied to the inverse
scattering m ethod (5.9.7) and the large-scale numerical experiment, yields the
com plete statistical description o f self-action o f noise pulses and identifies the
optimal regimes for using fiber waveguides as nonlinear filters.
5.10. Reconstruction o f the picosecond laser pulse shape 267
5.10. Reconstruction of the picosecond laser pulse shape

Registration of temporal behavior o f the intensity and phase o f laser pulses with
sub-picosecond resolution opens the way for substantial progress in studies o f
ultrafast processes in atoms, molecules, and condensed media. Some o f the pro
cedures applied in this field will be discussed in Chap. 6. In this section we shall
examine quite new techniques whose theoretical foundations are provided by the
inverse scattering method and experimental basis by frequency- and duration-
tunable soliton lasers and by the reduction of losses in a fiber waveguide, as well
as by their compensation by the Raman gain.
Proceeding from the results o f the previous section, we shall consider the
method o f reconstructing the unknown com plex amplitude q ( r , 0) from the
results o f measurement o f amplitudes a n d /or group velocities o f probing one-
soliton pulses qs( r , £) after their superposition with q. Thus, a superposition
q(T, 0) = q(r , 0) + «8( r , 0 ), (5.10.1)
is coupled into a nonlinear fiber waveguide. Here qs is the probing soliton defined
by the parameters x , V , <p0 , rd and q(r , 0) is the unknown ( “signal” ) pulse
to be reconstructed.
We shall begin with the case when the signal pulse amplitude is small, so
that the dispersive spreading is predominant. Superposition o f q ( r , 0) with
the soliton pulse qs( r , 0) results at £ 1 in a change o f the probing soliton
parameters: x —> x + 6 x , V —* V + SV . This change can be expressed in
terms o f the perturbation theory 36 as
oC TV^+. i- Co x — i■x I1 ---------------

G + ( r ) ? * ( 5r-----------------------
) + G' - ( r ) ? ( r ) dJr . (5.10.2)
J 2 cosh [ x ( t — rd)]
G + ( t ) = exp [i<p0 + i V r + x ( t - rd) ] ,

G_(t) = exp [~itp0 — i V t — x ( t - rd)].
Our task consists in finding q from the registered variations 6V , 6>c, treated
as functions o f the probing soliton parameters. Depending on the variable pa
rameters, several approaches can be identified.55
Positional m ethod
In this method the variable parameter is a time delay rd o f the probing soliton
relative to the signal pulse. W ithout loss o f generality, it can be assumed that
<p0 = 0 and both the probing soliton and the signal pulse have equal group
velocities, i.e., carrier frequencies, and therefore V = 0 . From Eq. (5.10.2) it
immediately follows that
OO
qR( r) dr
S x ( T d ) = X J
cosh [ x ( t — Td)]
(5.10.3)
sinh - T,)l
rd)] ^
/ ---- - 3 — ---------
, - f \[ x ( t —
8V{Td) = x q ^ d r,
J cosh2
cosh [fxx (( tt -— rrd)]
,)\ ‘
4U O b. Optical solitons
where qR and g7 are the real and imaginary components o f the com plex ampli
tude o f the pulse to be reconstructed. The second relation o f Eq. (5.10.3) can
be readily reduced to the form
CO
6V
= / (5 1 0 '4)
In the specific case o f a “narrow” soliton ( x 1) one can obtain from

Eqs. (5.10.3) and (5.10.4), using the known expression
lim — X-------- — = 7x8( t — Tj) ,

cosh[x(r —rd)] d
where 6 is the Dirac delta function, the simple linear reconstruction algorithm
Td
? fl(rd) = 7r~ 1^ ( rd ) . ? / ( rd) = 7r_1 J $v (r)dT. (5.10.5)
— OO
In the considered version o f the position method the empirical data are the
soliton amplitude that definitively corresponds to the energy W — 2 (x + 6 x ) ,
with the soliton being formed at £ 1 , and the contribution to the group
velocity that is definitively expressed via the additional time delay.
In practice, a more convenient approach involves two probing solitons with
the fixed time delay rd , interacting with the signal pulses in two independent
channels (fibers) and differing by the initial phases (^’q1’1 = 0 , = 7t/2 ).
Denoting the corresponding amplitude variations by 6x^ , 6 x ^ 2> and making
use o f Eq. (5.10.2), we obtain
OO
= * — 777-7 - ------------------------------------- v r * --(5.10.6

J( cosh —r.)j
cosh [[ xx (( rr - rd)]
— OO
The right-hand side o f Eq. (5.10.6) is a convolution o f the signal pulse with the
probing soliton; its inversion yields the reconstruction procedure sought
- 1/2
« ( T) = -F- { ( ^ ) C° sh ^ F+ [<5>f(1)(rd) " * 5>f(2)( rd)]| > (5.10.7)
where
OO
F ± ( f ) — (2ir) J f ( x ) exp(=pi ux ) d x
is the direct and inverse Fourier transformation. For a “narrow” soliton, the
kernel function o f the integral transformation (5.10.6) can be substituted by the
delta function. Finally, the algorithm is written in the following form:
? ( rd) = 7r_1[ ^ (1) (>d) ~ (rd)]- (5.10.8)

FIG . 5.27. N umerical experiments on reconstruction o f ultrashort pulse enve

lo p e from the data o f soliton probing, (a ) Transform -lim ited rectangular pulses
w ith different initial am plitudes (dashed line, initial pulse; solid line, result o f re
construction; ( l ) ~( S) , results o f consecutive iterations); quality o f reconstruction
is seen to im prove w ith dim inishing o f q0 and greater num ber o f iterations; ( 6)
reconstruction o f a chirped rectangular pulse (dashed lines, envelope o f the initial
pulse and the form o f its chirp; solid lines, result o f reconstruction). 66
The uncertainty o f the given formulas (in terms o f the amplitude contrast) has
•the order o f magnitude 0 ( Q / x ) , where Q = max |g(r , 0)| .
Here are some results on envelope reconstruction from numerical experiments.
Figure 5.27 (a) shows the signal pulse with rectangular envelope (the dashed
line) and the result o f its reconstruction by means o f Eq. (5.10.8) in the narrow
soliton approximation, x 1 . The accuracy o f amplitude reconstruction is
seen to improve as Q diminishes from 2 to 0.5. Here the temporal resolution is
determined by the probing pulse duration x ~ X = 0.1. Figure 5.27 (6) illustrates
the reconstruction o f a pulse with a linear chirp.
FIG . 5.28. R econstruction o f ultrashort pulse envelope in the case o f b roa d prob
ing soliton: dashed line, initial pulse; solid line, result o f inversion o f convolution
(5.10.6); dotted , calculation using Eq. (5.10.8), one h alf o f the pulse is shown.
Figure 5.28 characterizes the procedure o f reconstruction o f a symmetric

transform-limited pulse,
?(r)= ?0{[exP[-4(r~ °'5)2]+ exP[-4(r+ °-5)2])> % ~ °-5
(dashed line), for different probing soliton amplitudes x -. Since the probing
soliton duration is close to that o f the signal pulse, the application o f algorithm
(5.10.8) fails to provide satisfactory results (dotted line). The reconstruction
by means o f a more general formula (5.10.7) ensures the temporal resolution o f
the signal pulse structure (solid line) even at = 1 . Note that the number o f
discrete points taken for the parameter rd was relatively small (M = 16).
Relying on the analogy between the solitons and quasiparticles, the soliton
probing can also be compared to the methods generally adopted in nuclear
physics for determination o f structure o f atoms and nuclei from the scattering
o f probing particles, such as protons, a particles, etc. The soliton parameters
will change drastically in those points o f the time axis, where the “potential”
determined by the signal pulse has conspicuous maxima.
M eth o d o f variation o f probing soliton velocity
In this method we fix rd (hereafter we shall assume, for definiteness, rd = 0 )

and examine 6A*-1 ’ ^ = (1 /2 ) (6V/I'1 ’-\-iSx~1' 2-*) as a function with parameter
V . Using Eq. (5.10.2), we obtain
OO
t . f 1) , , , , . , . ( 2) , m i f cosh xrr - sinh xrr -ivT ,

i5Aw ( ^ ) - i8A> J( V ) - - x / --------------g------------ q(r)e dr. (5.10.9)
^ J cosh X T
— OO
The right-hand side o f Eq. (5.10.9) is in fact the Fourier transformation o f the
product o f the unknown function q(r) and the kernel function determined by
a probing soliton. Performing the inverse Fourier transformation o f (5.10.9), we
obtain
q(T) = v g Z L - cosh * r ----- f t [ga(1 V ) + i«A (2}(^ )]. (5.10.10)

x sinh x t — cosh x t ~
We shall also write two useful formulas allowing one to express the com plex
amplitude o f the signal pulse in terms o f amplitude and velocity variations o f
probing solitons:
/Q N - i / 2
g (r ) = ------------- cos\i x t F _T[ 8i<'1\ v ) — i h x 1^ ( K ) ] ,

* 2 “ (5.10.11)
,-(r )= g * ). COShu XTF ’ [SVm (V) + iSVm (V)].
x sinh x t
Note that in physical experiments the velocity variation o f probing solitons
can be accomplished by tuning the frequency o f a soliton generator within the
spectral width of the signal pulse. Such a technique can be referred to as spectral
probing. A reconstruction process using the velocity variation o f the probing
soliton is illustrated in Fig. 5.29. As before, the pulse to be reconstructed is
drawn by the dashed line. The probing soliton had the amplitude x = 1 and
its velocity expressed in dimensionless units changed from 0 to 8 by steps o f
0.125. It is seen that for Q j x < 0.5 the linear formula (5.10.11) ensures a fair
reconstruction.
In Ref. 55 it is shown that the limitation Q j x < 1 on the amplitude o f a
probing pulse, ensuring the validity o f the linear theory o f reconstruction, can
be overcome by using the iteration procedure based on the Newton-Kantorovich
m ethod. Practically, the choice o f the specific technique for reconstruction o f
q { r ) , the determination o f optimal parameters o f probing solitons, intervals and
steps for variation o f the parameters rd or V , can be successfully solved if some
additional information on the spectrum o f the reconstructed pulse and its ap
proximate duration is available. It is not very difficult to obtain this information
from a physical experiment. Note that the procedures discussed here are not
critically sensitive to the noise o f empirical data Sx(rd , V ) and SV(rd , V) .
The physical idea forming the basis for the considered methods, that is,
application o f nonlinear interaction between a signal and probing pulses in a
medium with cubic nonlinearity (a fiber waveguide), adjoins the conventional
cross-correlation methods in which the interaction o f the signal and probing
pulses in a medium with quadratic nonlinearity is used.
Z iz b. Optical solitons
FIG . 5.29. Envelope reconstruction with variation o f velocity (frequency) o f the

p robin g soliton for different amplitudes Q o f the signal pulse: dashed line, the
initial signal; solid line, result o f reconstruction using Eq. (5.10.11). 55
5.11. Quantum theory of optical solitons

In terms o f applications, the interest in the quantum theory o f solitons is aroused
on the one hand by a potential realization o f intense non-classical fields, and on
the other hand by the possibilities to combine in a single information carrier a
high transmission rate with low registration threshold. The investigations carried
out so far in the area o f quantum theory o f optical solitons can be subdivided
into two groups. In a series o f publications (see Refs. 78 and 79) the possibility
in principle o f quantum states o f optical solitons is elucidated. T o do this, the
Schrodinger picture is used for the analysis o f the nonlinear Schrodinger equation
(NSE). In particular, it was established that the solitons can exist in a squeezed
state. Other publications 80 85 are devoted to studies o f dynamic behavior o f
quantum fluctuations o f a soliton in the parametric approxim ation80-83 (see
Sec. 2.9) or in the fixed channel approxim ation84,85 which for the case of
classical fluctuations o f a soliton are given in Sec. 2.8. The conclusions drawn in
Refs. 80-83 are valid at the initial stage o f nonlinear propagation o f a soliton,
whereas the results given in Refs. 84 and 85 are not confined by this restriction.
In this section we shall examine, following Ref. 85, the evolution o f a soliton’s
quantum fluctuations. The propagation o f a soliton in a nonlinear medium is
described by the operator equation (2.9.1)
5.11. Quantum theory of optical solitons 273
Suppose that a soliton at the entrance to a nonlinear medium is in a coherent
l°o> = I I l 0o(Q )> ’ (5.11.2)

n
where |a0(Q )) is the eigenstate o f the photon annihilation operator o Q(fi) which
is the Fourier com ponent o f the operator <^0( r ) = <^0( t , 0) [see Eq. (1.8.19):
+oo
o Q(fi) = (2tt) 1 J ^0(r)e*nr dr. (5.11.3)

— OO
The average value o f the operator <^n( r ) is equal to
(<f>o(T)) = {°o l^ o (r )l°o) = ° o ( r )- (5.11.4)

4*00
o Q( r ) = J o 0(Q )e *nr dr = e v ° sech r. (5.11.5)
— OO
Here o 0(fi) is the eigenvalue o f the operator a0(fi) and <p0 is the initial phase
o f the soliton. Let us write down the operator <^0( r ) in the form
^ o(r ) = ° o ( r ) + A h ( T)- (5.11.6)

As in Sec. 2.9, the operator A a l l o w s for the presence o f quantum fluctu
ations; here (A ^ 0( r )) = 0 . The study o f the behavior o f a soliton’s quantum
fluctuations (in the parametric approximation) presents a very difficult problem.
Still, if one assumes that the soliton retains its shape when quantum fluctuations
are not taken into account, then the fixed channel approximation can be used.
To solve the quantum problem in this approximation, the quantum NSE has to
be first represented in a path-integral form . The appropriate expression for the
operator equation (5.11.1) is given in Ref. 85.
Equation (5.11.1) is written in the form
4*oo
0 = J g(t, v ; C) dr>> (5.11.7)

— oo
G (t, 77; C) = J T exp [i L ( r ( y ) , y ) ] D r ( y ) . (5.11.8)
Here
C,
L{T(y), y) = J S(r{y), y)dy , (5.11.9a)
0
S(r(y), y) = ^ [^ (y )]2 + R<j>+ ( r ( y ) , y ) ^ ( r ( y ) , y), (5.11.9b)
\ dr(y) ^ dr(y)
and T is the chronological product operator:
C
T exp [i L ( r ( y ) , y)] = exp [i S ( r ( y ) , y) dy\.
y—0
As i n Eq. (2.8.9), t h e d if f e r e n t i a l D r ( y ) i n Eq. (5.11.9) im p l i e s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n

o v e r a n in f i n i t e n u m b e r o f p a t h s c o n n e c t i n g t h e p o i n t s w i t h c o o r d in a t e s (7 7 , 0)
and ( r , C ) •
By analogy with Eq. (5.11.6), we shall write the operator o f a soliton in a
nonlinear medium as
4>{T > 0 = a( T , 0 + A ^ ( r , C) (5.11.10)
where a (r , £) is a classical function.

The solution o f Eq. (5.11.1) will be sought by the iteration method. After
neglecting the soliton fluctuations [A 4>(t , C) = 0] , the problem reduces to
the classical problem examined in Secs. 2.7 and 5.2. W hen R = 1 , for the
fundamental soliton we have
a ( r , C) = exP [* (ô + C/2)] sech r. (5.11.11)
From comparison of Eq. (5.11.11) with Eq. (5.11.5)) it follows that, providing
the solution o f the quantum NSE is represented in the form o f Eq. (5.11.7), the
“Green’s function” (5.11.8) corresponds to the operator
G(t , t)\ C) = i j e x p [ i L 0( T( y) ) ]DT( y) = I exp (i£ /2 ) <5( r - 77) , (5.11.12)
where I is the unit operator and
C
L o(T( y)) = J S0( T ( y )) d y , S0( r( y )) = (y) + |o0(r)|2.
0
Let us analyze now the behavior o f quantum fluctuations in the field of the
soliton (5.11.11). The operator <f>(r, £) in Eq. (5.11.8) is to be replaced by
4>0(t ) ■ In the linear (in terms o f fluctuations) approximation we obtain
C
L ( r ( y ) ) = L 0(T(y)) + 6 L( T( y ) ) , SL(r ( y ) ) = J SA ( r( y ) ) d y , (5.11.13)
0
where
SA ( r( y ) ) = a0(ri)[A<j>+ ( r( y ) ) + A <£(r(y))].
Replacing in the last expression A ^ (r (j/)) by A(j>0(r)) , i.e., assuming that the
fluctuations do not affect the paths over which the integration in Eq. (5.11.9) is
taken, we get
SA{r}) = o 0(tj)[A ^0 (tj) + A4>0{t))\ , 5L{tj) = SA { j?)C ,

5.11. Quantum theory o f optical solitons 275
and
T exp [iL(r(y))] = exp [iLQ(r (y )) + iSL(rj)].
In the considered approximation, the Green’s function (5.11.8) becomes
G ( t , 77; C) = I &(T ~ Tl) exP [*’C/2 + , (5.11.14)
where Eq. (5.11.12) is taken into account. As a result, the solution of

Eq. (5.11.7) assumes the form
4>(t , C) = exp[»'C/2 + i6L(T)]<j>0( T). (5.11.15)
In the analysis o f variance o f a soliton’s quantum fluctuations in a nonlinear

medium, it is sufficient to take only the terms linear in A<^+ ( r ) and A <^0 ( t ) .
Thus we obtain
A^r, C) = [1 C)]^/2A^0(r)
-iH (r, C ) e (2Vo+C/2}A ^ ( r ) , (5.11.16)
where H ( r , C) = Oq(t)£ . The structure o f Eq. (5.11.16) is analogous to that

o f Eq. (2.9.25c) with the only difference that in the soliton regime o f ultrashort
pulse propagation in a nonlinear medium the additional phase is independent o f
the pulse shape and is uniformly distributed along its profile. In the considered
case the phase is equal to C/2 .
On the basis of what was just said and using the results o f Sec. 2.9, one can
write the expression for the spectrum o f quadrature fluctuations o f a soliton; in
particular, for the quadrature A X ( r , C) = (1 /2 ) [A<^(r, £) + A<^+ ( r , £)] :
+00
^ a x (^ ) “ ( ^ ) 1 J F ( r ) e xp ( iQr) dT , (5.11.17)
— OO
where
= C )s in (2 ^ 0 + C) + 4 t f 2(T , C) sin2 ( ^ 0 + C/2)]. (5.11.18)
As mentioned in Sec. 2.9, the quantity F ( r ) is a quadrature variance whose

value in a nonlinear medium is defined by the pulse intensity at the given moment
o f time. At the entrance to a nonlinear medium F ( t ) = 1 /4 . In a nonlinear
medium the value o f F ( r ) can be either less or greater than 1/4. It goes without
saying that the variance of the other quadrature A Y = ( l/« 2 ) [ A ^ ( r , C) —
A 4>+ ( r , C)] satisfies the uncertainty relation at any moment o f time. In other
words, when the variance o f quadrature A X is less than 1 /4 , the variance
o f quadrature A Y turns to be greater than 1 /4 and vice versa. Thus, the
soliton, being initially in the coherent state, goes over into the squeezed state in
a nonlinear medium: the fluctuations o f one o f the quadratures is less than in

the coherent state.
The basic parameter affecting suppression o f a soliton’s quantum fluctuations
is H ( 0 , C) = aQ(0)£ = z/Ld . Let us evaluate this parameter for typical condi
tions. In single-mode fiber waveguides the propagation o f a fundamental soliton
at the wavelength A0 = 1.5 fxm and dispersion parameter, D = 15 p s/(n m - km)
can be realized for a pulse power o f 1 W and duration rg = 4 ps. In this case
L n] = Ld = 800 m. For a fiber waveguide a few kilometers long, H (0 , C) will
be equal to a few units. Consequently, high-power pulses with suppressed quan
tum fluctuations are quite possible. O f course, it should be borne in mind that
the losses in a nonlinear medium and the presence o f distributed noise in it can
introduce certain changes in these evaluations. In Refs. 81 and 83 the authors
calculated how these effects influence the efficiency o f squeezing in the process
described by the quantum NSE.
Quantum fluctuations o f an optical soliton analyzed by the m ethod given
earlier indicate that their variance at any moment o f time is determined by
the intensity at the same moment (the quasi-steady-state approximation). This
approach can be used for dark solitons as well as for higher-order solitons.
In the terms o f the given approximation, one answer to the question about
the behavior o f quantum fluctuations is quite obvious: the temporal dynamics
o f the quadrature variances will be associated with the soliton envelope.
In conclusion we should note that in this section we analyzed only the vari
ance o f soliton quadratures, which determines the noise level in the case o f bal
anced hom odyne detection. In terms o f direct registration of solitons, however,
the photon statistics acquires much significance. According to Eq. (5.11.15)
0 ^ ( t > 0 = <ô(r ) ^ o ( r )> that is, as in the case o f self-action o f an
ultrashort pulse (see Sec. 2.9), the photon statistics does not change, remaining
Poisson during the soliton propagation in a nonlinear medium. At the same time,
the interference o f the soliton which has traversed a nonlinear medium with co
herent radiation allows transformation o f the photon statistics o f the combined
radiation into sub-Poisson statistics. In Ref. 85 the types o f amplitude and phase
modulation o f coherent radiation were found for which the optimum suppression
o f fluctuations o f the number o f photons is provided and their sub-Poisson statis
tics maintained. Registration o f ultrashort optical pulses by the photon counting
method has been recently investigated in Ref. 86.
6. Femtosecond laser systems
Laser system s generating stable frequency-tunable pulses w ith duration from 100 to 10 fs
are n o d ou b t one o f the highest achievements o f m od em physics and technology. T h e m ost
im portant constituents o f this progress are the successful realization o f new ideas in putting
together the m ethods o f generation and am plification o f short pulses in lasing media, the
wide application o f control com puters, and the creation o f effective nonlinear and lasing
m edia.
M o d e m pico- and fem tosecond laser system s make it possible to explore thoroughly the
physics o f energy and phase relaxation o f op tica l excitation in com plex m olecules and solids,
and to develop direct experim ental m ethod s for m olecular dynam ics studies.
A dvances in am plification technique o f ultrashort light pulses allowed the generation o f
very strong optical fields with the strengths about 10 G V /c m , i.e., one order o f magnitude
higher than intratom ic field strengths. O th er applications include picosecon d electronics,
produ ction o f ultrashort electron bunches, and x-ray and acoustic pulses.
Needless to say, a detailed review o f the facts accum ulated in these areas would neces
sitate a special m onograph. Consequently, in this chapter we pursue a m ore m odest goal,
w hich is to illustrate the trends and achievements o f m o d e m fem tosecond technology by the
exam ple o f the systems utilizing solid-state lasers as m aster oscillators. Prim ary emphasis
is given to quasi-cw pico- and fem tosecond systems based on such lasers; the developm ent
o f highly efficient nonlinear-optics frequency converters using the K T P crystals makes these
systems truly pliable. T h e contents o f this chapter is based primarily on the research, tech
niques, and approaches being developed in the Nonlinear O ptics Laboratory o f the M oscow
University. W h at has been said also relates to the discussion o f further progress in generation
o f fem tosecond pulses in the UV and far IR ranges.
6.1. Basic principles of construction

of femtosecond laser systems
In this section we shall consider the com position of femtosecond laser systems. In
recent years, a number o f important ideas have been formulated and reinterpreted
which allowed considerable progress in femtosecond laser physics, including the
direct methods for generating in dye lasers o f the pulses with duration down to
only tens o f optical oscillations.
Optical fiber compression technique have been rapidly developing owing to
the employment of media with cubic nonlinearity for spectral broadening o f ul
trashort pulses and subsequent phasing o f spectral components. Various efficient
methods for amplification o f femtosecond pulses have been suggested.
278 6. Femtosecond laser systems
Construction of femtosecond laser systems required not only novel physical

ideas, but also new technological approaches. T o illustrate some o f the tech
nical problems arising here, we shall make a few assessments. A 30-fs pulse
(A = 0.6 /<m) is produced by phasing o f spectral components in the wavelength
range AA « 20 nm. After propagating 15 m in air, it broadens by a half due
to dispersion. In transparent condensed media, such as glass and water, the
dispersion length does not exceed 1 cm. The changes in amplitude and phase
characteristics o f femtosecond pulses on reflection from multiple-layer dielectric
mirrors, the transmission through lenses, prisms, and other optical elements,
have been already considered in Chap. 1. It should be pointed out that the de
velopment o f broadband optical elements with controlled amplitude and phase
characteristics is now one o f the topical problems.
In femtosecond lasers, a synchronous pumping regime requires that the lengths
o f resonators be matched with interferometric accuracy (10-3 cm) so that the
1 K change in the ambient temperature results in the violation o f the synchro
nous regime (when a steel optical bench is used). Accordingly, computer-aided
automatic stabilization and control o f optical systems assumes cardinal im por
tance.
Femtosecond technique is being successfully built up in a number o f labora
tories. The experience gained helps to develop the basic operational modules to
assemble flexible femtosecond systems to be applied in physics of solid state and
semiconductors, research in electro-optics, and dynamics o f chemical reactions
and biological processes.
Am ong the basic modules are the fixed-wavelength master oscillators employ
ing solid-state or ion lasers. Recently, of special interest have become the highly
0j
stable Nd : Y A G lasers working either in a mode-locked regime or in the com
bined, m ode-locked and Q-switching, regime. The master oscillator frequency
is converted, as a rule, with an accompanying pulse compression, by methods
o f nonlinear optics (generation o f harmonics, parametric frequency transforma
tion) or by pumping frequency-tunable (dye, color center, semiconductor, or SRS)
lasers.
Duration control, including compression down to several femtoseconds, and
control o f the shape o f ultrashort pulses are accomplished by means o£ fiber-optics
compressors equipped with amplitude and phase filters. A n important element
of femtosecond laser systems is a broadband amplifier (employing dyes, eximers,
glasses, color center crystals) making it possible in some cases to raise the peak
power values up to 1 T W . And finally, the control-and-diagnostics complexes
have been constructed to measure energy, duration and evolution o f intensity
and phase o f ultrashort pulses.
The basic operational modules allowing construction of flexible femtosecond
laser systems designed for research o f ultrafast processes and interaction o f highly
intensive optical fields with matter, are listed in Table 6.1. Further, we intend
to trace step by step the evolution o f the pulse traveling all the way from the
master oscillator through nonlinear-optics frequency converters, tunable lasers,
compressors, and amplifiers to the systems registrating the temporal dependence
o f intensity and phase.
6.1. Basic principles o f laser systems construction 279
Operational modules
T A B L E 6 .1 .
of fem tosecond laser complexes
Master oscillators Frequency- Nonlinear- Broadband

o f transform- tunable sourses optics amplifier
limited pulses o f transform- compressors
limited pulses
Pulses Synchronously Fiber modulators Multiple-

Nd3+ : Y A G pum ped dye lasers and grating cascade dye
lasers with Raman fiber lasers compressors with amplifiers
electronic spectral com Eximer
Q-switching ponent filtering amplifiers
cw- and Q- Parametric Nonlinear-optics Broadband

switched optical generators compressors with high-presure
N d.YAG Parametric frequency amplifiers
lasers converters to the IR conversion
6.2. Solid-state master oscillators

In this section we shall briefly discuss the basic characteristics o f solid-state
master oscillators used in femtosecond laser systems since the physical founda
tions o f picosecond pulse generation have been comprehensively covered in the
literature. Special attention is paid to the latest advances in the area o f spec
tral quality improvement, stability, reproducibility, and compression o f master
oscillator pulses.
Picosecond solid-state lasers
The main advantage of passively mode-locked solid-state lasers with pulsed

pumping lies in a high-energy and relatively short initial duration o f the pulses.
Here are some typical characteristics o f a passively mode-locked Nd3+ : Y AG
laser: the total energy o f the generated pulse train amounts to 10 mJ and the
energy o f a single pulse equals 1 mJ for durations between 20 and 40 ps. The
repetition rate can be equal to tens of hertz.
Stability and reproducibility o f generation characteristics o f the similar sys
tems are substantially improved by the introduction o f electronic control o f the
Q factor. ’ The schematic diagram o f the generating system is shown in
Fig. 6.1. A birefringent Nd3+ : Y A 103 crystal cut along the 6 axis served as
an active element. A set o f three dispersive prisms ensured the laser tuning to
a radiation wavelength o f 1.064 / / m . Passive m ode locking is performed by a
cell containing a solution o f dye No. 3955 in isobutyl alcohol, which is placed in
close contact with the nontransmitting mirror o f the resonator.
FIG . 6 .1 . Layout of a passively m od e-locked Q -sw itched solid-state laser:

( i ) m irror with a cell, (2) electro-optical switch, (3) diaphragm, (4) lasing el
ement, (5) set of prisms; (5) output m irror, (7) auxiliary prism , (S) and (5)
ph otodiodes, (10) amplifier, ( l l ) avalanche transistors, (12) delay line, (13) Q
factor control unit. 4
The Q factor is controlled by means o f an electro-optic crystal.During

the first stage, it is subjected to a “blocking” voltage which reduces the Q
factor o f the resonator (see Fig. 6.2). Part of the energy o f the train generated
6.2. Solid-state master oscillators 281
by the passively mode-locked laser is directed to photodiodes. As soon as the

radiation power reaches a certain threshold value, an electric circuit produces a
synchronizing pulse and switches on a negative feedback loop which reduces the
Q factor o f the resonator to a value close to the generation threshold. For
some time, the energy of the spikes in the generated train remains at a constant
level and their duration decreases owing to the losses in the resonator. This
process continues for a controlled time interval o f A t fa 800 ns. Then the
crystal is subjected to an “unblocking” pulse o f high amplitude which raises
the Q factor o f the resonator to its maximum value. Owing to a high value
o f population inversion o f the lasing element, a train o f high-power picosecond
pulses is generated.
FIG . 6.2. T im e variation o f Q fa ctor o f the resonator and envelope I o f the

train em itted b y a Q -sw itched laser.
Experimental studies o f this generator show ed4 that by controlling the

Q factor the pulse duration rp was shortened from 35 to 15 ps while the stan
dard deviation <r and fluctuations o f radiation energy, evaluated by the second
harmonic, diminished almost fivefold down to a few percent. Utilization o f the
synchronizing pulse preceding a generated train by a time interval variable con
tinuously within the range 300-1500 ns, accurate to within ± 5 ns, provides the
technique to solve the problems of synchronization with other devices. Applica
tions o f this generator for the formation o f femtosecond pulses in the visible and
UV ranges are described in Secs. 6.3 and 6.5.
A promising improvement o f such systems is associated with the controlled in
traresonator SPM . According to calculation data, 5 the SPM in resonators with
small Fresnel number is uniform along the beam cross section and its presence
results in a decrease o f pulse durations down to minimal values 2 or 3 ps de
termined by the gain bandwidth o f a lasing medium. The physical picture o f
compression o f a chirped pulse in the process o f its amplification is illustrated in
Fig. 6.3.
Lasing elements manufactured from silicate or phosphate glasses with Nd
doping have a broad gain bandwidth (over 100 cm 1 ) and are thus capable
o f amplifying and generating sub-picosecond pulses. In practice, however, mode
locking has not yet been accomplished within the whole amplification band. Typ
ical values of pulse durations lie within the interval from 4 to 10 ps for the energy
FIG . 6.3. Shortening o f a chirped pulse during its am plification: (a) inten
sity I and instantaneous frequency v o f the initial pulse as a function o f time;
(b) gain line contour; (c) output pulse.
equal to 10 mJ. Note that high spectral quality is achieved as a rule in the begin
ning o f the generated train. In the case o f a broad inhomogeneously broadened
amplification line the SPM plays a negative role by promoting the development
of modulational instabilities, appearance of substructure, and spectral quality
deterioration.
The situation can be radically changed by introducing a frequency filter into
the resonator. The authors o f Ref. 6 studied generation characteristics o f an
actively mode-locked Q-switched phosphate-glass laser. A Fabry-Perot etalon
having a thickness o f 0.25 mm and transmission band 15 cm was used as a
filter. Owing to SPM and a restricted amplification band, the duration o f pulses
in the train diminished from 40 down to 4 ps. The highest spectral quality was
observed at the end o f the train.
Another method of stabilization and improvement o f performance character
istics o f solid-state lasers has been recently developed, which uses negative feed
back to trace pulse energy variations over a round-trip period. In this method,
the losses introduced into the resonator by electronic control o f the Q-factor are
determined by the pulse energy on one o f the previous (usually preceding) round
trips. By using negative feedback, one can succeed in producing a train o f repro
ducible picosecond pulses. Such a train may contain several thousands pulses.
Negative feedback has been employed in N d-glass,104 106 Nd-.YAG,107 108 and
ruby 106 lasers. For example, the authors o f Ref. 107 report the production of a
stable laser pulse train containing up to 5,000 pulses, each 20 ps long. The total
energy was about 2 mJ and variation o f pulse energy in the train did not exceed
5%.
Continuously pum ped solid-state lasers with active m ode locking
These lasers constitute another important class o f master oscillators applied

in femtosecond optics. Quasi-cw systems provide great possibilities in signal
processing, including fast data accumulation, application o f the methods for
synchronous amplification, detection, etc. They produce pulses 70-100 ps long
6.2. Solid-siaie master oscillators 283
with repetition rates from 82 to 100 MHz and average output power from 7 to
10 W . The rms fluctuations o f the output power at the fundamenal radiation
frequency do not exceed 1.5-2% . Frequency doubling in a K T P crystal leads
to the following parameter values: rp = 30-70 ps, (V) =1.5-0.75 W , power
fluctuations 2 -3% . The pulses produced by these lasers at the fundamental
and second-harmonic frequencies are successfully compressed more than 100-fold
using optical fiber compressors. The experimental data are reviewed in Sec. 6.4.
One o f the primary applications for which these systems are extensively used is
synchronous pumping o f frequency-tunable dye lasers.
Q -sw itched solid-state lasers with active m ode locking
In these lasers the merits o f pulsed (high-energy) and quasi-cw (high repetition
rate, stability) systems are successfully combined. One o f the possible versions
o f the laser with double modulation is schematically shown in Fig. 6.4. Mode
locking is affected by a standing-wave acousto-optic modulator. A traveling-
wave acousto-optic m odulator is used for Q-switching. In the double modulation
regime the laser emits a train o f picosecond pulses with variable repetition rate
(up to 5 kHz). The average power attained at the fundamental frequency equals
2 W , mean pulse duration 70 ps, peak power 2 M W , number o f pulses in the train
30, energy fluctuations 4%. The efficient frequency doubling in a K T P crystal
produces the second-haxmonic pulses with duration about 50 ps and peak power
1 MW.
1
%— p i— r
n r L — 1
1 2 3 *
3 +
F IG . 6.4. Schem atic of a Q-sw itched actively m ode-locked N d : Y A G laser:
( i ) non-transm itting spherical mirror, ( 2) Brewster plate, (J) lasing element,
(^) acou sto-optical m odulator o f Q factor, operating in a travelling wave regime,
(5) acou sto-optical m od e synchronizer operating in the standing wave regime,
(5) ou tpu t mirror. 7
qI
Performance o f a Nd : Y A G laser with double modulation has been further
refined by using the electronic control o f the Q factor and by a special choice o f
< S ♦ • •
the operation regime (see Fig. 6.5). The time-domain structure o f radiation
was preliminarily shaped when the resonator had a low Q factor; then, after a
sharp increase o f the Q factor, a rapid generation o f the pulse train took place.
The electronic feedback system provided a sudden rise o f the Q factor of the
resonator within the interval between the peaks o f preliminary generation. For
the optimal 100- ps duration o f free generation, the trains o f 35-fs transform-
limited pulses were formed with peak power over 1 M W (at repetition rate 1 kHz)
and energy fluctuations below the 5% level. The repetition rate o f the trains
v rep could be varied from several kilohertz to tens of kilohertz. The authors of
Ref. 8 believe that the frequency v can be raised up to hundreds o f kilohertz
provided a special Q-switching technique is used.
zo4 6. Femtosecond, laser systems
F I G .6.5. O peration o f a N d3"'" : Y A G laser with double m odulation: ( i ) I'll[frac

tion efficiency in an acousto-optical sw itch o f Q factor, ( 2 ) diffraction efficiency
in the m od e synchronizer, (5) envelope o f laser radiation train. 8
The generators with double m odulation at the fundamental and second-har

monic frequencies are successfully applied for synchronous pumping o f dye and
color-center lasers and parametric oscillators. Thus, the transform-limited pulses
with peak powers of tens of kilowatts can be produced in a very wide wavelength
range.
As before, wide application find inert gas ion (argon and krypton) lasers. In
the m ode-locked regime, they generate pulses about 100 ps long, with repetition
rate 100 MHz and average poweT over 1 W , and are primarily used fox dye laser
pumping.
6.3. Frequency-tunable picosecond

and femtosecond lasers
For most applications, the frequency-tunable sources o f ultrashort pulses evoke
keen interest. In this section we shall discuss the main recent trends in their
development.
Frequency-tunable pulses whose duration was shorter than 100 fs were ob
tained for the first time in 1981 by Shank, Green, and Fork9 in a passively
mode-locked dye laser pum ped by an argon laser. For a few years the collid
ing pulse mode-locked (C P M ) laser proposed by them remained the commonest
frequency-tunable generator o f femtosecond pulses. Utilization o f intraresonator
SPM and self-compression allowed an additional compression o f the generated
pulse down to 30 fs.
3_|_
The advent o f high-stability Nd : Y A G lasers with active and passive mode
locking and highly efficient frequency doublers using K T P crystals (at present
providing an average second-harmonic power of 10 W ) rapidly brought about
diverse systems for synchronous pumping o f dye lasers. The various arrange
ments for hybrid mode locking are used to improve stability of synchronously
pum ped lasers and more efficiently compress the pulses generated by them. Pre
cisely shaped transform-limitied pulses with duration shorter than 100 fs are
6.3. Frequency-tunable picosecond and femtosecond lasers 285
reliably obtained at the output. Many laboratories are engaged in the develop
ment o f such lasers whose performance favorably compares with, and in many
cases excels, that of passively m ode-locked lasers.
Tunable femtosecond pulses are generated due to parametric interactions in
media with quadratic nonlinearity, as well as in media with broad Raman gain
lines, especially in fiber waveguides. The high efficiency o f synchronous pumping
in such systems has been convincingly demonstrated in recent publications.
Femtosecond pulses in dye lasers w ith passive m ode locking
A schematic diagram o f a dye ring laser with the pulses colliding in the absorbing
jet is shown in Fig. 6.6 (a) . Pulse compression in this system is caused by the
bleaching o f the absorber resulting from the interference o f two pulses traveling
toward each other. In the experiment by Shank et al. 9 a rhodamine 6G laser
operated with a D O D C I solution used as a saturable absorber. The size of the
absorbing element is known to be significant; in the work cited the solution jet
was 30 fim thick. At the laser output, the pulses 65-90 fs long were obtained
with the spectral width about 125 cm 1 . The physical picture o f pulse shaping
in the lasers o f this kind has been comprehensively analyzed and described, for
example, in a monograph. 2
laser w ith intracavity com pression; ( 1) absorber, (2) lasing dye jet, (3 ) prism
10
com pressor.
zoo 0. fem tosecond laser systems
As rp diminishes down to a few tens o f femtoseconds, the combined effects of

SPM and group-velocity dispersion in the resonator acquire fundamental im por
tance. A chirp appearing due to nonlinear refractive index o f the solvent, am
plification and transient saturation o f the absorber, reflection from the mirrors,
etc., can be utilized for compression o f the generated pulses. For this purpose, a
dispersive element, e.g., a prism compressor, is introduced into the resonator [see
Fig. 6.6 ( 6 ) ] . 10 The authors o f Ref. 11 demonstrated that specially designed
mirrors can be also utilized; a Gires-Tournois interferometer is reported to be
used in Ref. 12.
Potentialities o f intraresonator compression are clearly demonstrated in
Ref. 13. Having supplemented a colliding-pulse ring laser with a prism com
pressor, the authors obtained the pulses as short as 27 fs. In a linear resonator,
when the colliding-pulse regime is not used, the value o f rp is equal to 33 fs.
In the case o f dispersive and nonlinear elements located in the resonator cavity,
pulse shaping is in many respects analogous to formation o f optical solitons. The
theory o f these processes and a number o f important experimental results are
presented in Ref. 14. In recent experiments 15 it was shown that in the passively
mode-locked lasers the formation o f analogs o f A7-soli ton pulses with a clearly
defined structure is possible.
Until recently, passively m ode-locked femtosecond lasers operated in a rela
tively narrow wavelength range 610-640 nm determined by the choice o f gain
and absorbing dyes (rhodamin 6G and D O D C I). The authors o f Ref. 16 selected
seven pairs o f dyes to span the spectral range from 550 to 700 nm. A further
extension to the IR range is reported in Ref. 17 whose authors obtained 65-fs
pulses at 850 nm by using the hybrid mode locking and succeeded in tuning from
840-880 nm.
The 1.2—1 .6-/im range is o f particular interest for molecular spectroscopy
and fiber optics. Improvement in efficiency and stability o f dyes pum ped by
Nd-glass laser radiation, and development o f special pumping techniques make
it possible to raise the energy efficiency o f picosecond lasers by 10% when the
lifetime o f excited state in a dye equals a few picoseconds. Successful operation of
a femtosecond laser ( rp =300 fs) tunable in the wavelength range 1.25-1.35 n m
is reported in Ref. 18. Synchronous pumping was accomplished by the pulses
3 _|_
from an actively m ode-locked Nd : Y A G laser, shortened in an optical fiber
compressor down to 5 ps.
Synchronously pu m ped dye lasers
A synchronous pumping technique consists in modulation o f the gain of a lasing

medium pumped by the pulses whose repetition frequency is equal to or is a
multiple o f reciprocal o f round trip-time with which the generated pulse passes
through the resonator. A synchronously pumped laser emits either a continuous
or limited train of pulses following in synchronism with pump pulses. T o perform
a transient gain modulation in a lasing medium, the pump pulses should have
the duration rpump , substantially shorter than the lifetime Tx o f the excited
high-energy lasing state, and the energy exceeding the self-excitation threshold
o f the laser. Synchronous pumping is efficient when the repetition period o f the
pump pulses Tpump Tx . In this situation the generated pulses are rapidly
formed from the spontaneous luminescence noise serving as a seed.
In the analysis o f performance of synchronously pumped lasers, the depen
dence o f the generated pulse duration rp on the detuning o f the resonator
lengths o f the pumping and the pum ped lasers, A L = — £ pump , plays an
important part. In real systems, this detuning characteristic takes the form o f
a sharply asymmetric resonance curve with a typical width A L/L ~ 10 6 . In
practice, the resonator lengths are adjusted to provide the minimal width o f the
intensity correlation function or the highest energy of the second harmonic. The
resonance properties o f the detuning characteristic and its small relative width
require a meticulous stabilization o f the pump pulse repetition rate. Fine tuning
o f the repetition rate within a ± 10-kHz interval is performed by an acousto-optic
modulator.
2 .....................
J /
t^ M=w
/ .* Ik
/ ' //
j N.
X
Wk M~?0
\ ■
\
r .v
j/\
<55> ;:
/ /\
i 5
it
/ :
/ ••
-
j A
A
/■ ’ ...... . M=150
/ ;
/ .•
s 1 / i i i
FIG . 6.7. D ynam ics o f form ation o f an ultrashort pulse in a synchronously

pu m p ed laser after M passes through the resonator: (1) pum p pulse, (2) gain,
(5) loss level, (4) generated pulse (the am plitude is norm alized to the peak
value ) . 19
Figure 6.7 illustrates the evolution o f an ultrashort pulse during its consecu-
19
tive passes through the resonator. A t the outset o f pumping, during the first
t>. Femtosecond laser systems
passes the lasing medium develops the gain exceeding the loss level. The tem po
ral gain maximum corresponds to the peak of generated pulses that are longer
than the pump pulses. During subsequent passes, the intensity o f the generated
pulses grows while their duration diminishes due to preferential amplification of
the pulse peak coinciding with the gain maximum. In the process o f transition
to the saturation regime, the generated pulse peak shifts toward the pump pulse
and thus leaves the maximum gain region. In the steady-state generation regime
the gain-loss balance is realized over a repetition period o f the pump pulses.
(a)
FIG . 6 .8 . Dye laser synchronously p u m p ed b y SH radiation from an actively

m ode-locked N d3^" : Y A G laser w ithout (a ) and with ( 6) cavity dumping:
( 1) pu m p ed dye je t, ( 2) Lio filter, (5) a cou sto-optical deflector for periodic ex
tractions o f the pulse from the resonator.
The schematic diagram o f a typical dye laser synchronously pumped by sec

ond-harmonic radiation o f an actively mode-locked Nd3+ : Y A G laser is shown
in
Fig. 6.8 ( a ) . The pump radiation is focused by a spherical mirror on the dye
jet oriented at the Brewster angle relative to the resonator axis. For an average
pump power o f 750 m W and 70-ps pump pulses, the laser produces the pulses
whose duration is shorter than 2.5 ps, repetition rate 82 MHz and average power
100 mW . The energy o f a single pulse is 1.2 nJ. The radiation frequency is tuned
by means o f frequency-selective elements (a Lio filter, Fabry-Perot etalon, prism,
grating) incorporated in the resonator. Application o f the cavity dumping tech
nique depicted in Fig. 6.8 (fc) ensures a considerable increase in output pulse
energy through lowering the repetition rate.
The operation o f this system is based on the replacement o f the output mirror
by the selector consisting o f a pair o f spherical mirrors and an acousto-optical
or electro-optical deflector bringing the pulse out o f the resonator after several
tens o f passes. Between these consecutive extractions, the resonator accumulates
energy. The pulse duration thus grows by a factor o f 2 or 3 and energy more
than one order o f magnitude (up to 20 nJ). Significantly, the pulse repetition
rate can be varied from tens o f hertz up to several megahertz.
A m inim al pulse duration in synchronously pum ped lasers
The generation process in dye solutions is adequately described by a four-level

model o f an active medium (see Fig. 6.9). 20 A pump quantum o f frequency
Wpump is absorbed in the 1~4 transition between different electron states o f
a dye molecule. Then the excited electron state undergoes a fast oscillation
relaxation with intrinsic time rr ~ 1 ps (the J- 3 transition). The 3 - 2 transition
is radiative and characterized with intrinsic time T y . Finally, a fast (with time
rr ) oscillation relaxation proceeds to the level corresponding to the minimal
energy o f the ground electron state (the 2-1 transition).
F IG . 6.9. Energy levels o f a dye laser.
If the duration rpump and intensity Ipump o f the pump pulses satisfy the
inequalities rpump > r , Jpump/J ,at <C T J tt , where 7sat is the saturation
intensity, then the rate o f transition from level 1 to level 4 is less than the 4~3
transition rate and therefore levels 4 and 2 will be practically depleted. For a
small detuning from the generation line center, the resonance contribution to
the SPM can be neglected. Then the set o f equations describing the interaction
1 _ .2 1
o f pump radiation with a four-level medium can be transformed to the set o f
equations for an equivalent two-level medium.
In the steady-state regime and for the zero detuning o f the resonator lengths
( A L = 0) , the generated pulse duration is estimated to be equal to
t
p
~ (Vr pumpT „2)-'1 /2 ’ , (6.3.1)
V /
where T2 is the relaxation time o f free polarization (for rhodamine 6G

T2 ~ 5 fs).
The dependence o f the duration rp o f the pulse produced by a synchronously
22
pumped dye laser on the pump pulse duration was experimentally studied (see
Fig. 6.10). The pump pulses were formed from the second-harmonic radiation
3I
o f anactively mode-locked Nd : Y A G laser using a fiber compressor, that
allowed theirduration to be varied in the wide range from 34 ps to 460 fs. The
empirical dependence
t ~ r 0 ' 52 (6 .3 .2 )
p pum p V /
FIG . 6 . 1 0 . Experim ental dependence o f duration o f the pulse generated b y a

synchronously pu m p ed dye laser on p u m p pulse duration. 22
agrees well with the theoretical dependence (6.3.1). The shortest duration at
tained in these experiments, rp = 210 fs, at rpump = 460 fs, with average
23
output power being equal to 40 m W . In the subsequent studies the output
power wets raised to 125 m W owing to the additional pumping o f the dye by
non-compressed radiation and the shortest pulse duration reduced to 180 fs.
The theoretical limit o f duration o f the pulses generated in the synchronous
pumping regime is associated with the fact that the population inversion of the
lasing level cannot be produced during the time interval less than the oscillation
relaxation time r « 1 ps for the given excited state o f a dye molecule. If the
pump pulse duration rpump falls within the interval T2 <C Tpump r . , then the
minimal duration o f the generated pulse is limited, as the calculations 24 show,
by the value rmin = \JrI'.2Tr & 50 fs.
The dependence o f r on the transmission bandwidth A v o f the frequency-
selective element for the constant duration o f pump pulses (i"pump = 100 ps)
— 1/2
was experimentally studied in Ref. 15. It was shown that rp ~ A t/
Statistical characteristics o f synchronously pu m ped lasers
Studies o f statistical properties o f radiation emitted by synchronously

pumped lasers are o f vital importance since they help to detect the principal
destabilizing factors, formulate the requirements for stability o f pump laser pa
rameters, and identify the most stable operational conditions. The efficient
method o f studying the statistical characteristics is provided by a numerical
experiment in which one can distinguish the contributions submitted by fluctu
ations o f various parameters o f the pump pulses. 26
As an example, we shall consider the generation characteristics o f a dye laser
pumped by a continuous train o f pulses with fluctuating duration (the repetition
rate and pump pulse intensity are kept constant). Figure 6.11 illustrates the
random output parameters o f generated pulses (peak intensity, repetition period,
and duration) in the steady-state regime o f generation as a function o f time
expressed in units 2L/c . In random variations o f parameters o f the continuous
output train one can see a pronounced temporal correlation despite the statistical
independence o f fluctuations o f pump pulse duration.
Intensity, Arbitrary unite
Duration, ps
FIG . 6.11. Tem poral dependence o f ran dom param eters o f the pulses generated
by a dye laser synchronously pu m ped by a cw train o f pulses with fluctuating
duration (the relative standard deviation 10% ).
Note that the intensity fluctuations are “fast” as their characteristic correla
tion time is comparable with the time that the radiation takes to pass several
times along the resonator. The fluctuations o f duration and delay time are rel-
27
atively slow, which agrees with the experimental results. The appearance o f
the two characteristic correlation scales is linked with the presence in the system
o f two substantially different characteristic times, i.e., the lifetime o f a photon
in the resonator and the time o f form ation o f the generated pulse.
Statistical treatment o f the ensemble o f realizations allows one to analyze the
distribution o f random parameters o f the output train and to calculate the aver
age values and variances. The calculations carried out in Ref. 26 showed that in
the case of the normal distribution o f fluctuations of pump pulse duration and
intensity, the distribution o f the corresponding parameters o f the output radia
tion is also close to the normal law. The typical values o f standard deviations
are summarized in Table 6.2.
Statistical investigations o f synchronously pumped lasers demonstrated that
the main destabilizing factor affecting the reproducibility o f output parameters
is the instability o f the repetition period o f pump pulses that is equivalent to
the fluctuating detuning o f the resonator lengths. This conclusion is in good
27
agreement with the experimental results.
T A B L E 6 . 2 . Fluctuations o f radiation
param eters o f synchronously pum ped lasers*
Fluctuations o f generation pulse parameters
Fluctuations
o f pump pulse Intensity Duration Rep etition
parameters period
Intensity 10.0 10.4 2.2 10.4

Duration 10.0 10.4 2.2 10.4
Repetition period 0-1 03.4 2.8 02.1
’'‘Relative standard deviations are given in percents.

T h e hybrid active-passive m ode locking
Using the passive mode locking in picosecond lasers, one obtains shorter pulses
and higher stability o f radiation parameters, while the active mode locking pro
vides higher-energy characteristics. In many cases simultaneous application of
the two methods in synchronous pumping o f picosecond lasers provides optimal
results. 28.
The dynamics o f transition to steady-state generation in a synchronously
pumped laser with saturable absorber spatially separated from a lasing medium
was studied in numerical experiments. 26 To distinghish the effects o f the sat
urable absorber, the initial transmittance o f the system was taken equal to the
initial transmittance o f the synchronously pumped laser considered in the pre
vious section.
For A L = 0 and in the absence o f radiation focusing into the absorber,
the duration o f generation pulses remains practically constant. In numerical
experiments, after a fivefold increase o f intensity in the absorber (due to beam
focusing), the duration was found to be shortened almost by half. The physics o f
the process is as follows. A t the initial stages (the linear regime) the dynamics
o f the generation pulse compression does not differ at all from that considered
earlier. At the nonlinear stage (the saturation o f the lasing and absorbing media)
the effects o f the absorber lead to the steepening o f the leading edge o f the pulse,
whereas the lasing medium in this situation brings about the steepening o f the
trailing edge o f the pulse.
The essential feature o f lasers with hybrid mode locking is a relatively weak
29
dependence o f the generation pulse on the resonator length detuning. This
reduces the accuracy requirements for resonator tuning and stability o f pump
pulse parameters. In the region o f large negative detunings the pulse duration
practically does not change with A L , but its energy falls. On further increase
o f |AL| a new generation regime sets in, a pulsed one. In this regime a pulse
is first formed during 400-500 passages, then it slowly shifts forward in time,
and finally disappears. Then a new pulse starts forming and the process repeats
itself. Neither satellite pulses nor com plicated fine structure are observed in the
process.
Such a property o f the detuning characteristics is due to the fact that in the
case o f combined mode locking the lasing media can compensate considerable
detunings o f the resonators. Negative delays are caused by an absorbing medium
and positive delays by an amplifying one. A substantial increase in stability of
the generation regime as compared with the purely active mode locking is to be
also noted.
Let us analyze the systems in which the hybrid mode locking is applied. Using
rhodamine 6G as the gain and D Q O CI as the absorber medium, the authors o f
Ref. 30 obtained 70-fs pulses with average power 30 m W . Second-harmonic
oI
pulses with average power 300 m W from a Nd : Y A G laser were used for
31
pumping. In subsequent experiments a different technique was realized: one
o f the resonator mirrors was replaced by an antiresonance cavity containing a
saturable-absorber jet (see Fig. 6.12). The cavity geometry is chosen so that
the two pulses propagating in the absorber in opposite directions collide causing
£ -------2w N d 3+ :Y A G
F IG . 6.12. H ybrid synchronously pu m p ed dye laser; one o f the resonator mirrors

30
is replaced b y an antiresonance cavity containing a saturable absorber jet.
an increase in the bleaching degree o f the absorber and therefore to a lowering

o f the femtosecond pulse generation threshold. The output duration rp = 85 fs
was achieved and the tuning within the wavelength range from 595 to 620 nm
was demonstrated to be accompanied with broadening o f rp to 250 fs.
Transient generation conditions
Synchronous pumping o f lasers can be accomplished by means o f the trains of

powerful picosecond pulses produced by passively mode-locked solid-state lasers
or systems operating in a double modulation regime. In this case a higher pulsed
power (up to 10 M W ) can be generated, which extends substantially the appli
cation range o f these lasers. However, the transient regime o f generation results
in a noticeable broadening o f the pulses; besides, their parameters vary from
pulse to pulse within the train. This is illustrated in Fig. 6.13 showing both
theoretical and experimental results. 24
1.0
6t
0.5
a
FIG . 6.13. Calculated distribution o f pulse param eters in the train generated by
a dye laser synchronously pu m ped by a train o f N pulses: ( i ) pum p pulse energy,
(2) generated pulse energy, (5) generated pulse duration, (4) delay o f generated
pulses w ith respect to pum p pulses (points, experimental results 24 ).
The physical picture o f pulse shaping can be imagined as follows. The first
pump pulses provide a gain in a lasing medium, sufficient for generation o f long
6.3. Frequency-tunable picosecond and fem tosecond lasers 295
pulses existing as long as the gain exceeds the losses (see Fig. 6.7). The peak o f
the generated pulse corresponds to the gain maximum. W ith each subsequent
passage, the generated pulse rapidly shortens and its intensity grows due to
the temporal gain modulation. As this takes place, the delay relative to the
pump pulse does not practically change. Next, as the gain saturates, the peak o f
the generated pulse shifts toward the pum p pulse resulting in a mismatch with
the gain maximum. This process leads to a steady-state regime when the gain
increment due to the pumping is counterbalanced by its decrease caused by the
pulse generation. These temporal variations of the delay and o f the gain o f the
32
lasing medium were explored using the temporal dependence o f spontaneous
luminescence proportional to the gain o f the medium.
FIG . 6.14. C alculated dependences o f duration (rp) averaged over the train
and energy (VF) , norm alized to the steady-state value (VFSS) on the num ber M
o f pulses in the pum p train. 26
T he generated pulse duration (r ) averaged over the train is illustrated in

Fig. 6.14 as a function o f the number M o f pump pulses. The steady-state value
(r ) is seen to set in as soon as M reaches 40-60. The primary factor limiting
the minimal duration o f the output pulses is the temporal modulation o f the
pump pulse train. As a result, the different pulses do not reach the generation
threshold simultaneously any more, causing a broadening o f the generated pulse.
It should be noted that the self-mode-locked solid-state lasers with electronic
control o f the (J-factor show promise in generating the long trains (M ~ 100)
o f picosecond pulses o f constant amplitude.
O ther types o f synchronously pu m p ed lasers
The commonest efficient sources operating in the near IR are color-center lasers
using alkali halide crystals. 33 A typical example is provided by the F2 color-
center KF laser described in Ref. 34. W hen pumped by a continuous pulse
train generated by a Nd3+ : Y A G laser ( {V) = 5 W , rp =100 ps, repetition rate
100 M Hz), it produces pulses 3-5 ps long in the tunable range 1.24-1.45 /im .
The lasing element is placed in a vacuum cryostat maintaining an operation
temperature of 70 K; the crystal is colored by an electron beam. In Ref. 35 an

analogous laser is described, employing F^ color centers in NaCl and covering
the range 1.37-1.75 p m . T o improve the spectral characteristics, a frequency-
selective element in the form of a sapphire plate 4 mm thick was introduced
into the resonator to produce the pulses with spectral quality A i'r = 0 .1 8 . The
authors o f Ref. 36 succeeded in the generation in a LiF crystal pumped by
3-f*
the second-harmonic pulse train from a mode-locked Q-switched Nd : YAG
laser. The studies showed that the pulse duration within the train shortens from
100-15 ps reaching the highest spectral quality at the end o f the train.
Recently, the color-center picosecond lasers using RbCl:Li and KCl:Li crys
tals have been developed, generating transform-limited pulses about 10 ps long
in the IR range 2.74-3.15 p m . Argon laser radiation was used for synchro-
37
nous pumping. These sources operating with a repetition rate o f 82 MHz and
average power 30 m W substantially extend scope for research o f the nonlinear-
optics phenomena in fiber waveguides and ultrafast processes in semiconductor
structures and molecules.
A few words about Raman fiber lasers. A detailed theoretical investigation o f
their performance is carried out in Ref. 38 and many practical suggestions are
given in Ref. 33. Fiber waveguides provide efficient conversion o f pump radiation
into Raman frequency radiation owing to the combination o f a high power density
with a large length o f nonlinear interaction. Broad lines o f Raman resonances
in quartz glasses (A i/ « 250 cm - 1 ) allow formation o f pulses as short as 60 fs
and tuning o f the radiation wavelength within several hundreds o f reciprocal
centimeters.
In the system described in Ref. 40 a Raman fiber laser was synchronously
pumped by an IR dye laser generating 1-ps pulses at Apump = 1.32 p m . A single
m ode fiber waveguide (18 m long, with core diameter 4.1 p m ) was placed in a
linear resonator formed by the two mirrors with transmission coefficients 0.5%
and 20% at the Raman frequency 1.38 p m . At an average pump power o f 50 m W
and losses o f 2-3 dB, the laser produced 80-fs pulses with an average power
exceeding 10 m W . The authors point out that the pulse formation is strongly
affected by the balance of dispersive spreading and nonlinear self-compression.
Param etric generation o f ultrashort pulses
Due to the broad bandwidth o f parametric gain in crystals with quadratic nonlin
earity, the femtosecond optical pulses can be amplified; the summary on optical
parametric oscillators (O P O ) is given in Ref. 3. Application o f O PO in femtosec
ond laser systems imposes more stringent requirements on stability and spectral
quality o f generated pulses.
A very advantageous method to improve the spatial and temporal haracter-
istics o f OPO radiation is an injection o f a highly coherent low-power external
signal. In this case the generation starts developing not from the noise level but
from the level of the injected signal. For injection, one can use the radiation
emitted by semiconductor lasers41 or dye lasers synchronously pumped by the
part of the train produced by the master oscillator. In distinction to the semicon
ductor lasers which possess a narrow frequency-tuning range, the injecting dye
lasers permit a O PO to be continuously tuned in a relatively wide wavelength

range.
Another approach to the problem o f compression and spectral quality im
provement o f pulses is based on a resonator synchronously-pumped parametric
oscillator . 42 In the synchronous pumping regime the signal an d /or idler pulse
enters, after reflection from the resonator mirrors, a nonlinear crystal simultane
ously with the next pump pulse. As a result, the effective amplification length
grows sufficiently to lower the threshold pump intensity. This makes it possible
to use for pumping not only the second-harmonic pulse trains from the passively
mode-locked glass or garnet lasers, but also the systems with double modulation,
operating at the pulse repetition rate o f several kilohertz, and even the actively
m ode-locked garnet lasers emitting quasi-cw radiation.
It is natural that for a synchronously pum ped parametric oscillator, just as for
a dye laser, the accurate adjustment o f the resonator length to the repetition rate
o f pump pulses plays a fundamental role. The bandwidth o f the resonance char
acteristic diminishes as the pump pulses become shorter and slightly increases
when the pum p intensity threshold is appreciably surpassed. Significantly, the
resonance characteristic in O PO has, as a rule, the two maxima correspond
ing to group-velocity matching o f the signal and idler pulses. As is shown in
Ref. 3, the energy efficiency o f synchronously pumped parametric oscillators
reaches the maximum when the generation threshold is exceeded by a factor o f
4 or 5.
Param etric generation o f pulses o f squeezed light
Optical pulses o f this kind are obtained as a result o f degenerate parametric

amplification o f quantum noise. In distinction to the self-action process con
sidered in Sec. 2.9, degenerate parametric amplification is characterized by a
phase selectivity which manifests itself in a different behavior o f the quadrature
components o f the input quantum noise components (see the reviews 109, 110).
One o f the quadratures possesses a phase which favors its amplification, whereas
in the other quadrature, shifted with respect to the first by 7r/2 , the fluctua
tions are suppressed. When the degenerate parametric amplifier is pumped by
a train o f high-intensity laser pulses, production o f a train o f pulses o f squeezed
light is obviously possible. To observe the compression o f the pulse train using
a balanced hom odyne detector, another pulse train must be used as reference
radiation. The energy spectrum o f the noise o f the difference current registered
by this m ethod at the balanced detector output and normalized by the energy
spectrum o f the vacuum fluctuations, is described by the expression 111
Tj 2
f F 2(t) exp [ i 2 r ( f — <d)z] dt
s- r»Vtiuj)^
/m a x , m in
~T/ 2—----------------------------------------
— ------- T j2 ’
f F\t)dt
- T /2
where T (i) = y p nc(t) , y is the nonlinear wave coupling coefficient, pnc(t) is

the envelope o f the pumping pulses (see Sec. 3.3), F ( t ) is the shape o f the
pulses emitted by the heterodyne, T is the pulse repetition period and t d is

the delay time. The maximum enhancement or suppression o f registered noise is
defined by the functions r(f) and F( l ) . T o provide maximum noise suppression,
the maxima o f the functions F ( t ) and T(t — t d) must apparently coincide.
The registration o f quadrature-squeezed light considered here can be classified
as a direct method. Indirect registration methods in which the fluctuations
o f the amplified quadrature play a significant role, are also possible. In the
investigations o f squeezed states o f ultra-short optical pulses both approaches
have been taken.
The suppression o f fluctuations o f the quadrature component in short optical
pulses has been directly observed (see Ref. 112). The pumping laser emitted
140-ps pulses at a wavelength o f 1.06 fim with a repetition period o f 5 ns.
After being passed through a beamsplitter the pulses were coupled to the signal
channel and heterodyne channel o f the balanced homodyne detector. In the
signal channel the frequency was first doubled in a K T P crystal to form 100-ps
50-W second-harmonic pulses. These pulses were used to pump the degenerate
parametric amplifier o f the vacuum fluctuations, employing two K T P crystals.
The difference current o f the balanced detector measured at a frequency o f 53
MHz proved to be an oscillating function o f the heterodyne radiation phase. The
112
authors observed the noise to be reduced by 0.6-0.7 dB below the vacuum
fluctuation level.
Another technique involved second-harmonic generation to register the
squeezed light pulses. Radiation in the squeezed state is k n ow n 110 to possess a
phase-conjugate spectrum, that is, the phases o f the Fourier components located
symmetrically relative to the carrier frequency are conjugate. After frequency
doubling o f the broadband squeezed light, an extremely narrow peak appears
against the broad second-harmonic pedestal. This structure o f the SH spectrum
was also reported in Refs. 113-115. A squeezed light source was provided by
a parametric optical generator consisting o f two LilO 3 crystals 2.5 cm long,
3 i ^
pumped by SH radiation from an Nd : Y A G laser. The duration o f the
squeezed light pulses was equal to 13 ps, while their power reached 1 M W . The SH
spectrum excited noncollinearly in the LilO 3 crystal had the above-mentioned
structure near the wavelength 0.53 nm. Similar features were registered in the
SH spectrum o f squeezed light by Piskarskcis and co-w orkers.114 ’ 115 In Ref. 115
production o f squeezed light pulses from the output o f a superluminescent para
metric optical generator using a CDA crystal 4 cm long and pumped by pulses
at a wavelength o f 0.532 nm was reported.
Finally, it should be emphasized that squeezed light pulses act as sources of
m acroscopic quantum fields. Their application is expected to open up quite new
possibilities in optical processing and transmission o f information.
6.4. Compression systems: experimental data review

The optical compressors employing SPM o f pulses in fiber waveguides have be
come an integral part o f femtosecond laser systems. Although the basic princi
ples o f their construction are com mon, the design o f the compressors intended
for different lasers and different duration ranges has some special features.
6-4- Compression system s: experimental data review 299
One can distinguish at least three areas in which the development o f compression
systems and phase modulators calls for technical realization.
In the first place, the frequency-tunable pulses generated by synchronously
pumped lasers are compressed from the initial duration o f several picoseconds
down to a few tens o f femtoseconds. Here we usually deal with sufficiently pow
erful pulses; moreover, there are possibilities for an intermediate amplification,
including also the amplification o f pulse trains with kilohertz repetition rate. In
this case the multistage compression techniques and conventional grating com
pressors are very efficient.
The second approach involves a highly efficient compression o f pulses gener
ated by quasi-cw actively mode-locked solid-state lasers from the initial duration
o f tens o f picoseconds down to hundreds o f femtoseconds. More often, the rel
atively low-power pulses are treated here and amplifiers are usually rejected.
At the same time, the nonlinear processes utilized are o f quasi-steady-state na
ture and the inertia o f a nonlinear response does not practically show up. In
the development o f the grating compressors, to the forefront come the problems
o f enhancing the transmittance and eliminating the spatial shift o f frequency
components (see Sec. 4.2).
The third area covers the production o f ultimately short optical pulses (6 -
10 fs) by compressing the amplified pulses with initial duration 40-100 fs emitted
by the dye lasers. In this situation, the transient effects leading to the violation
o f a linear chirp at the fiber output prove to be significant. Compensation o f
nonlinear aberrations plays a vital role in compressors.
Com pression o f picosecond dye laser pulses
Practical interest in these methods to obtain ultrashort pulses was to a large

measure stimulated by the paper by Grischkowsky, Nakatsuka, and B alant43
who demonstrated for the first time a suppression o f nonlinear aberrations in
the casevof dispersive SPM (see Sec. 4.3).
The authors o f Ref. 43 investigated the nonlinear transformation o f the en
velope and sp ectru m .of picosecond pulses ( r = 5.5 p s, V Q = 10 W , A =
0.59 p m ) in a single-mode 70-m optical fiber with the core diameter 4 p m . As
a result o f self-action, the pulse broadened to 20 ps and its shape acquired a
rectangular form. Having passed through a delay line (a sodium vapor cell), the
pulse shortened to 1.5 ps. In Fig. 6.15 the experimental data are compared
with the results o f the numerical solution o f the nonlinear Schrodinger equation.
The pulse is seen to acquire a rectangular shape and therefore its FM becomes
practically linear. The slight differences between experimental and calculated
data are observed only at the pulse edges. These results served as a basis for
dispersive compression o f frequency-tunable pulses o f a dye laser from 5.4 ps
down to 450 fs; 44 the compression ratio amounts to S = 12 .
Substantially higher compression ratios were realized by the two-stage
technique45 (see Fig. 6.16). The initial 5.9-ps pulse with peak power 2 kW
was shortened down to 200 fs after having experienced a dispersive SPM in a
3-m optical fiber (the first compressor). In fact, the highest compression ratio
attained at the first stage was equal to about 30 since the further increase of
FIG . 6.15. Correlation function B and intensity profile I o f a picosecond pulse

at the ou tpu t o f an optical fiber: points, experimental results; solid line, calculated
data. 43
the input power fostered SRS. In the second 55-cm fiber a stronger chirp was
obtained. At the output of the second compressor the pulses had a duration of
90 fs, peak power 10 kW , and repetition rate 800 Hz. The further refinement
of this technique by utilization o f an intermediate dye amplifier allowed one to
attain extremely short (16-fs) output pulses with peak power 88 kW and 1-kHz
repetition rate. 46
FIG . 6.16. T w o-stage com pression. 45

6.4■ Compression system s: experimental data review 301
Effective suppression o f nonlinear aberrations was demonstrated in Ref. 47.

The authors reported a successful application o f nonlinear birefringence effects
for improvement o f the temporal structure o f the compressed pulses. They suc
ceeded in compressing dye laser pulses from 6 ps down to 380 fs in one stage;
the shape o f the compressed pulses followed very accurately a hyperbolic secant
law.
C o m p r e s s io n o f q u a s i-c w r a d ia tio n o f s o lid -s ta te lasers
Quasi-cw Nd : Y AG lasers emit relatively long 100-ps pulses with low peak
power about 100 W and high repetition rate 100 kHz. A sufficient chirp o f such
pulses can be achieved only in long (100-1000 m ) fibers.
The authors o f Ref. 48 succeeded in 80-fold compression o f second harmonic
pulses from an actively m ode-locked Nd3+ : Y A G laser. The 33-ps initial pulses
had a peak power o f 240 W and repetition rate 100 MHz. The input radiation
parameters were matched with those o f a polarization-preserving 105-m optical
fiber with core diameter 3.8 (im to realize the optimal compression regime.
The round-trip grating compressor technique made it possible to eliminate the
diffraction shift o f beams and to obtain 410-fs pulses with a peak power o f 1.2 kW .
49
In the following work the output peak power was raised up to 3.4 kW owing to
an increase in the transmission coefficient o f the compressor. Duration-tunable
compressed pulses were used for synchronous pumping o f the dye laser.
Let us discuss the experiments on compression of the pulses generated by
Nd3+ : Y A G lasers at the fundamental frequency. On conversion from the visible
to the IR range, the losses in the fiber diminish from 16-20 to 0.2-1 dB /km ,
making it possible to use the fibers 100-1000 m long and efficiently compress
low-power pulses. For example, the authors o f Ref. 50 succeeded in a 45-fold
compression (from 80 to 1.8 ps) o f quasi-cw Nd3+ : Y AG laser pulses. A 300-m
single-mode optical fiber served as a phase modulator. After frequency doubling
in a K T P crystal, the average power became equal to 40 m W at repetition rate
82 MHz.
A two-stage technique allowed the authors o f Ref. 51 to achieve a compression
ratio o f 113 and obtain subpicosecond (750-fs) pulses with power PQ = 400 W .
As a rule, the first stage operates in a nondispersive and the second stage in
a dispersive SPM regime. The further advance in the cascade compression
52
technique resulted in raising S up to 450. The compressed pulses were 200 fs
long and their peak power equal to 8 kW .
The detailed study o f spectral and temporal characteristics at A = 1.06 /jm
was carried out by the authors o f Ref. 53. As the input power V Q increased
from 50 to 100 W , the pulse duration at the output o f the 125-m fiber waveguide
increased from 85 to 127 ps while its envelope acquired a more rectangular shape
(see Fig. 6.17). Then rp was observed to shorten down to 43 ps at V 0 =
180 W . The authors o f Ref. 53 believe that this nonmonotonic behavior is
associated with Raman frequency conversion. This can be illustrated by part
(5) of Fig. 6.17 (a) in which the Stokes pulse (Ag = 1.12 fxm ) is clearly seen to
lead the pump pulse. The generation o f Stokes-frequency radiation is supressed
due to a group-velocity mismatch. The pulse divergence rate at the frequency
1.0655 1.0625
__ i
12 7ps
FIG . 6.17. Self-action o f picosecon d pulse in an optical fiber at different average

input pow er ( V) : (a) intensity profile (w ith input pulse shown on the right-hand
side); (f>) spectra; ( 1) 0.2 W , (2) 0.8 W , (3) 1.5 W . 43
shift 440 cm 1 corresponding to the center o f the Raman gain line, is equal to
1.5 p s/m at A = 1.06 fim and 5 p s/m at A = 0.53 fj.m . This restricts the length
o f efficient energy exchange to 20-70 m for pulse duration 100 ps. In the case o f
a large group-velocity mismatch the Raman frequency conversion is equivalent
to a growth o f losses at the fundamental frequency and therefore reduces the
efficiency o f SPM.
To refine the ultrafast optical information systems and provide their metro
logical support, the ultrashort pulses at A « 1.3 fjim
are needed. It is reported
in Ref. 54 that the pulses generated by a Nd : Y AG laser at 1.319 (im were
compressed by a factor o f 50 from 100 to 2 ps. To obtain a dispersive SPM,
a 2-km optical fiber was used. The wavelength Acr corresponding to the zero
group-velocity dispersion was shifted to the vicinity o f 1.59 fjim
by proper dop
ing o f the glass and by special choice o f the refractive index profile. The peak
power V = 615 W of the output pulse was achieved. Addition o f the second
40-m fiber with anomalous group-velocity dispersion (Acr = 1.275 / /m ) made it
possible to obtain the 90-fs pulses in the soliton self-compression regime. The
total compression ratio S — 1000.
Usage o f optical fibers with opposite signs o f group-velocity dispersion allows
one to create the compression systems without prism compressors. 55 The first
fiber is used as a phase modulator and the second as a distributed nonlinear
compressor. The theory o f such compression systems published in Ref. 56 iden
tifies the optimal operation conditions and recommends how they can be utilized
to convert multisoliton pump pulses into high-power one-soliton pulses.
6.4. Compression system s: experimental data review 303
Nonlinear filtering and compression o f pulses produced

by Q -sw itched solid-state lasers w ith active m ode locking
The merits o f lasers operating in the double modulation regime were discussed
in detail in Sec. 6.2. The main advantage is the combination o f a high pulsed
power o f about 1 M W with the kilohertz repetition rate. To compress high-
57 58
energy pulses at both the fundamental and second harmonic frequencies,
one has to use the relatively short optical fibers from 1 to 10 m long. The restric
tion imposed on the optical fiber length L is determined by a SRS threshold
and leads to the inequality I ^ L < 16/<75 , where gB ~ 10 11 c m /W and 7eff is
the effective intensity (see Sec. 5.5). In this case a nondispersive SPM is real
ized, which reduces the eneigy efficiency o f compression and the contiast o f the
compressed pulse. Besides, the lasers with double modulation possess a higher
level o f fluctuations o f radiation parameters and are thus characterized with less
stable parameters o f the compressed pulses.
To overcome these drawbacks, a special compression technique was proposed
with a frequency-doubling crystal placed between an optical fiber and a grating
compressor. 59 It should be remembered that in the nondispersive regime the
compression ratio S w 0.88 x 2irh2IeftL/\ . Since the limiting value o f the prod-
uct IeftL < 16/<7s and the gain gs at the Stokes frequency is inversely propor
tional to the wavelength: gs — C/X , where the constant C ~ 10- U c m /jm /W ,
then the highest ratio o f non-dispersive compression S = 0.88 x 2nh2lQ/C fa 30
is practically independent of the wavelength. In the systems where the frequency
doubling is accomplished either before or after compression, the ratio S calcu
lated relative to the pulse duration at the monitor frequency grows by a factor
o f \/2 due to pulse shortening during SHG.
In the technique proposed by the authors o f Ref. 59 (see Fig. 6.18) the
frequency o f the swept pulses doubles. If in this process the bandwidth o f spectral
synchronism does not limit the radiation spectrum, then the frequency sweeping
range also doubles. As a result, the ultimate compression ratio at the second
harmonic frequency is raised by a factor o f \/2 . W ith an increase in the length
o f a nonlinear crystal, the bandwidth o f spectral synchronism narrows and the
doubling crystal begins to operate as an apodyzing band filter. As the results o f
59
com puter simulation and experiments showed, the spectral filtering enhances
the contrast and suppresses the fluctuations o f compressed pulse parameters.
The experimental layout is shown in Fig. 6.18. A laser operating in the
double m odulation legim e emitted pulse tiains with 2-kHz repetition rate (A =
1.06 fj.m , t = 100 ps, V 0 = 1 M W ). The basic elements o f an optical fiber
compressor were a 1-m single-mode fiber, K T P crystal, and holographic diffrac
tion grating. The bandwidth o f spectral synchronism was varied by changing the
length o f the doubling crystal Z cr (2, 5, 8, and 11 mm). Figure 6.18 illustrates
the intensity correlation functions o f the second harmonic measured prior to (a)
and after (6) compression in the grating compressor. The increase o f L(.r from
2 to 11 mm is seen to reduce the duration o f the chirped pulses at the crystal
output from 62 to 30 ps. A s it takes place, the compressed pulse duration grows
from 1.1 to 2.8 ps. This reduction in a compression ratio is however compensated
*•* • ••
.*• • • Lor=i,mm
• ••
* f v s . Jtfps
• »
• • • •
«
•*
•. •• •* ••
•• *•
•••* (* )
■
9 ...
• • •
• • ••
• L cr = 8mm • . L c r - 2mm
•
• •
* 4 8p s /./p s
* r - p • •
• •
/
• •
•••
• •• (b)
FIG . 6.18. Nonlinear-optics com pressor: ( l ) lenses, (2) fiber waveguide,

(3) frequency-doubling crystal, (4) splitting plate, (5) holographic grating,
(6’) prism , (7) m irror. Insets: intensity correlation functions for the pulses at the
output o f dou bler ( a ) and com pressor ( 6 ) for different lengths of K T P crystal.
by the increase o f contrast and threefold decrease o f duration fluctuations down

to 10%. Note that a mere turn o f a doubling crystal ensures a continuous tuning
o f radiation frequency over the whole spectrum broadened in the fiber waveguide
( A v = 10-20 cm 1 ).
It should be finally emphasized that the nonlinear-optics compression tech
nique described here makes it possible to combine the stabilization and control
o f pulsed radiation parameters with the high compression ratio S ~ 100 . The
high-power ( V Q > 200 W ) high-contrast 1-ps pulses are used for pumping vari
ous types o f frequency-tunable fem tosecond lasers.
6.4- Compression systems: experimental data review 305
Experim ents on production

o f extrem ely short pulses in the visible range
In the first experiments o f this kind the colliding-pulse dye ring lasers were used
as sources. The dye amplifiers provided a high input power o f about 1 M W
(see Sec. 6.5) that was necessary for compression and eventual production o f
fem tosecond pulses with energies o f tens o f nanojoules.
FIG . 6.19. (a) Intensity correlation function o f a fem tosecond pulse obtained
experim entally; (6) correlation fu n ction o f the field o f a 6-fs pulse. 64
Shank, Fork, Yen, and S tolen 60 compressed frequency-tunable dye laser

pulses from 90 to 30 fs by means o f dispersive SPM in a 15-cm single-mode
optical fiber using the conventional grating compressor.
The results o f the following experiments on compression o f femtosecond dye
laser pulses aie summarized in Table 6.3. They clearly demonstrate the piogress
in methods o f generation, amplification and compression o f femtosecond pulses.
TABLE 6.3. C o m p r e s s io n o f fe m t o s e c o n d p u lses
Initial Input Fiber Output Compression Repetition Refs.

duration power length duration ratio rate
(fs) (kW ) (cm ) (fs) (Hz)
90 6.7 15.0 30 3 10 60
65 55.0 0.8 16 4 10 61
110 260.0 1.5 12 8 800 62
40 250.0 0.7 8 5 5 000 63
50 200.0
300.0 0.8 6 8.3 8 000 64
6-4- Compression system s: experimental data review 307
The minimal duration achieved using a grating compressor for matching the
harmonics o f the broadened spectrum in the parabolic approximation, is equal
to 8 fs 63 and corresponds to about four periods o f optical oscillations.
The next step toward production o f ultimately short pulses was taken after
the theoretical analysis o f perturbing effects (see Sec. 4.7) violating the chirp
linearity due to self-action in fibers, and after the development o f combined
grating-prism compressors that made it possible to compensate not only the
linear but also quadratic chirp, i.e., the development o f the “temporal lens”
capable o f eliminating aberrations.
In the experiments 64 50-fs 125-nJ pulses o f the wavelength 0.625 p m were
chirped in a 8-mm optical fiber. Then they were compressed down to 10 fs using
a grating pair (600 lines/m m , 6 = 4 m m ). Registering the dependence o f the
signal generated at the sum frequency (o f the initial and compressed pulses) in
a thin K D P crystal on the relative tem poral delay o f the pulses, the authors
o f Ref. 64 detected the presence o f residual quadratic chirp in the compressed
pulse. Elimination o f this chirp by the compressor consisting of two prism pairs,
two gratings and a quartz plate, ensured compression of the pulses down to only
6 fs. Intensity correlation function o f the compressed pulses measured using
the collinear SHG technique is illustrated in Fig. 6.19. Thus, the experimental
results, obtained in the visible range, approached very closely to the theoretical
limit o f one optical oscillation.
Cross-phase m odulation technique

applied for shaping extrem ely short pulses
The prospects for using X P M in ultrashort pulse shaping are becom ing quite
clear now. Consider two wave packets A x( t , z) and A 2( t , z) interacting due
to a nonlinear correction to the index o f refraction producing the additional
nonlinear phase
where j = 1 , 2 and /? is the wave coupling coefficient. In particular, (3 = 2

when the interacting wave packets have different carrier frequencies, and 8 — 2 /3
when waves with different polarizations (but identical carrier frequencies) inter
act in a birefringent fiber waveguide. Utilization o f X P M allows one to broaden
the frequency sweeping range and thus increase the compression ratio. In addi
tion, by sending a high-intensity laser pulse to the input o f a fiber waveguide,
one can frequency-modulate a low-intensity pulse in order to compress the latter
by means o f a grating pair.
Experimental utilization o f X P M for pulse compression by a grating pair was
demonstrated in Ref. 116. So-called intrafiber compression was realized by the
author o f Ref. 117. T w o pulses, a strong modulating pulse and a weak modulated
one, with variable temporal separation were sent to the input o f a birefringent
fiber waveguide. If the time delay is chosen so that the modulated pulse is
located at the leading edge o f the modulating pulse, then negative FM appears
and the modulated pulse shortens during its propagation along the fiber with
normal group-velocity dispersion. Thus, the dye laser pulses were compressed
3(J8 6. Femtosecond, laser systems
from 2 ps to 300 f s . 117 The authors o f Ref. 118 used X PM for conversion of
cw radiation emitted by a diode laser (A = 1.5 /jm ) into a continuous train of
100-ps pulses following with a repetition frequency o f 100 MHz. A cw-pumped
mode-locked N d:YAG laser ( A = 1.06 /Jm ) was used as the modulation source.
Positive FM o f cw radiation from a diode laser led under conditions o f anomalous
group-velocity dispersion to the formation o f a pulse train.
6.5. Ultrashort pulse amplification

Optical amplifiers are among the key elements o f modern femtosecond laser sys
tems. A measure o f their applicability in the femtosecond duration range is
determined primarily by the amplification bandwidth A u . The duration o f the
amplified pulse cannot be longer than Azv-1 and consequently the following
three types o f amplifiers found practical application, that is, the amplifiers uti
lizing dyes, N d-doped glass and excimers.* Dye amplifiers have a very broad
amplification bandwidth A v ~ 1000 cm 1 and they can amplify extremely
short pulses. In Nd-glass and excimer amplifiers A v ~ 100 cm -1 and the min
imal duration o f the amplified pulse is about 100 fs.
The physics and practice o f amplification depend on the application o f the
pulses reshaped. For example, in spectroscopy one does not need the output
energy higher than several tens o f nanojoules. Primary attention is paid to
keeping the pulse shape constant, to their contrast and requirements in high
repetition rates. The gain lies in the range from 104 to 106 -
On the other hand, there is another area where high-power optical fields are
necessary. In this case together with the broad amplification width, the density
o f saturation energy wsat acquires significance. In this respect, o f special in
terest are solid-state Nd-glass amplifiers providing wsat ~ 1 J /c m 2 and excimer
t 2
amplifiers in which u; t ~ 1 m J /cm is substantially less, but which allow much
greater apertures.
D ye amplifiers
In the visible wavelength range, most efficient are the dye amplifiers that can
be pumped by second-harmonic radiation from solid-state lasers, by excimer
lasers and metal vapor lasers. Figure 6.20 shows the schematic of a relatively
65
simple system whose main element is a dye laser synchronously pumped by
second-harmonic radiation o f a passively mode-locked phosphate glass laser. On
matching o f the resonator lengths, the dye laser emitted the trains o f 6-8 pulses
with average duration 10 ps and peak power 16 kW. The pulse possessing the
highest amplitude was singled out by means o f an electro-optical switch. The
dye laser pulse was then chirped in a 5-m single-mode fiber so that its spectrum
broadened to 40 cm -1 . At the compressor output the pulses were 700 fs long.
The peak pulse amplitude was raised up to 7 M W by a two-stage amplifier
pum ped by amplified monitor radiation at the double frequency. The usage
o f the same monitor for pumping both the dye laser and amplifiers eliminates
*Possibilities o f param etric am plification were discussed in Chap. 4

6.5. UHrashort pulse amplification 309
FIG . 6.20. (a) G eneration o f high-pow er frequency-tunable transform-limited

subpicosecond pulses; (i>) com pression o f a pulse train (dashed lines, a pulse at
the fiber ou tpu t; solid lines, after com pressor). 65
the difficulties arising in synchronization of amplification stages and lowers the

fluctuation level.
A similar approach to the development o f frequency- and duration-tunable
sources o f high-power subpicosecond pulses was realized by the authors o f Ref. 66.
A characteristic feature o f this system was a passively mode-locked Q-switched
oi
Nd : YA 103 laser used as a monitor (see Sec. 6.2). A train o f pulses with
average duration 20 ps used, after frequency doubling, for synchronous pumping
o f a C160 dye laser generating transform-limited pulses with an average dura
tion o f 6 ps. These pulses were compressed down to 500 fs in an optical fiber
compressor and coupled to the input o f a two-stage dye amplifier. A transverse
pumping o f this amplifier was provided by an excimer laser. Since the excimer
laser pulse was short ( r = 10 ns), it was used in the gate circuit for extracting
a single pulse from the train generated by the dye laser. Between the two am
plification stages, a saturable absorber was placed. The amplified pulse energy
reached 50 fiJ which corresponded to the peak power 10 M W .
More serious problems are to be overcome when amplifying the pulses with
duration o f tens o f femtoseconds up to gigawatt powers. The typical experimental
setup is given in Fig. 6.21. 67 For pumping, a second-harmonic radiation from a
3-4-
Q-switched Nd : Y A G laser was used ( r = 8 ns , W Q — 350 mJ, repetition
rate 10 Hz). The laser beam broadened to 40 mm pumped transversely the
FIG . 6.21. Multistage amplifier o f fem tosecond pulses: ( I ) pum p laser w ith am
plifier, (2) frequency doubler, (•?)-(6) dye cells, (7) grating com pressor. Filters of
spatial frequencies with saturable absorbers are placed between the am plification
stages. 67
first three amplification stages. The fourth stage was pumped longitudinally.
The pump energy was distributed among the four stages as follows: 1.5, 1.5,
26, and 71%. The respective gains, with allowance made for absorption, were
equal to 750, 20, 10, and 40. The important elements o f this setup were the
filters o f spatial frequencies used for improvement o f the spatial structure o f the
beam and the saturable absorbers that enhanced the temporal contrast o f the
amplified pulses and suppressed the spontaneous emission.
During amplification o f the dye laser pulses with initial duration 70 fs and
energy 0.2 n j up to the energy 1 mJ (the peak power 2 G W ) their duration
increased up to 400 fs. A perceptible increase in duration is associated with dis
persive spreading in a solvent (water, 20 cm) and optical elements (quartz, 5 cm).
A grating compressor placed at the output o f the system ensured compensation
o f dispersive spreading and production o f 70-fs 0.3-G W transform-limited pulses.
The compressor consisted o f two parallel gratings (600 lines/m m ) separated by
a distance 5.2 cm.
Further improvement o f femtosecond pulse amplification technique is a de
velopment o f amplifiers operating with very high repetition rates. 68 A part o f
second-harmonic radiation from an actively mode-locked Nd3+ : Y A G laser serv
ing as a monitor, was used for synchronous pumping o f a dye laser. Additional
shortening o f the dye laser pulses was achieved by means o f a saturable absorber
and the colliding-pulse operation technique. The other part o f monitor radia
tion was coupled to a regenerative garnet amplifier assembled according to the
scheme similar to the one shown in Fig. 6.22. After 45 round trips, the amplified
pulse was coupled from the resonator with an energy o f 1 mJ, duration 100 ps,
and repetition rate 1 kHz. Then after frequency doubling in a KDP crystal with
efficiency 30%, it was used for transverse pumping o f a dye amplifier comprising
two cells each 1 cm long. During the amplification, the pulse energy grew from
350 pJ up to 1.5 fij (a gain o f 10 4 ) and duration from 85 to 170 fs. Pulse broad
ening is associated with dispersive spreading and gain saturation. In principle,
such systems make it possible to amplify the pulses with duration o f several tens
o f femtoseconds up to megawatt values o f power for kilohertz repetition rate.
6.5. Ulirashort pulse amplification 311
FIG . 6.22. Setup for generation o f h igh-pow er picosecond pulses: ( i ) m onitor

(an actively m ode-locked N d3^ : Y A G laser), (2) 1.4-km optical fiber, (J) re
generative amplifier, (4) two-pass grating com pressor. Shown are the tem poral
dependences o f intensity and phase at the characteristic points of the systems.
Multipassage dye je t amplifiers 69 proved to be very useful. For their pumping,

copper vapor lasers are employed, generating the pump pulses 10-20 ns long with
average power about 10 W and kilohertz repetition rate. In the experiments
on amplification o f femtosecond dye laser pulses with an energy o f 10 fiJ (a
gain o f 10 ) was achieved after six passages at the repetition rate 6.5 kHz and
70
spontaneous emission level not exceeding 5%.
Lately, much effort has been primarily concentrated on improving the energy
efficiency o f multipass jet amplifiers and hindering the dispersive and nonlinear
broadening o f amplified pulses.119 ’ 120
N eodym ium -glass amplifiers
The experiments on amplification and compression o f phosphate glass laser pulses

(A = 1.054 fim , r = 5 ps) were performed by the authors o f Ref. 71. A single
pulse extracted from a generated train experienced nondispersive SPM in a 40-
cm section o f a gradient multimode optical fiber. Utilization o f the multimode
fiber waveguide with relatively large (50 fim ) core diameter allowed the output
energy o f the chirped pulse to be raised to 2 /i j . Then its energy was amplified
to 500 /iJ in a phosphate glass amplifier. Finally, the pulse was compressed
down to 700 fs. Its parameters were registered by the two-photon luminescence
technique using a multichannel optical analyzer. W ith allowance made for losses,
the peak pulse power was found to be equal to 300 MW-
Let us consider the experiments devoted to formation o f high-power ultra-
short pulses at the frequency o f a solid-state monitor. Figure 6.22 shows the ex-
72 . . - 3+
perimental layout comprising a quasi-cw actively mode-locked Nd : YAG
laser, single-mode 1.4-km fiber waveguide with 9- fim core diameter, regener
ative neodymium-glass amplifier, and two-pass grating compressor. Owing to
self-action in the fiber, the monitor pulse duration grows from 150 to 300 ps
and spectral width broadens to 5 nm. Chirped pulses are injected into the re
generative neodymium-glass amplifier. A A /4 plate and a Pockels cell placed
into the amplifier resonator couple the amplified pulse out o f it after several tens
o f passages. The energy o f the amplified pulse with a linear chirp amounts to
2 mJ. Then it couples into the grating compressor and shortens down to 1.5 ps.
Despite some envelope distortions caused by the gain saturation, the contrast o f
the compressed pulses is fairly high.
A ccording to recent communications, the pulse energy was raised to 100 mJ
♦ • • 73
and eventually to 1.3 J by adding more amplification stages. The peak power
o f such a pulse reaches 600 G W . The authors o f Ref. 73 report a high degree of
coherence: the focal spot diameter exceeds the diffraction limit only by a factor
18 2
o f 2. This enables one to obtain intensities o f 10 W /c m at the focal point.
Further progress in amplification o f FM pulses and their successive compres
sion is associated with sharpening o f contrast and lowering a fluctuation level o f
121
output pulse parameters by means o f spectral windowing technique. Energies
about 10 J have been achieved by now for an output pulse duration below one
picosecond.
It should be emphasized that from the standpoint o f reaching the minimum
duration, the amplification o f a chirped pulse and its subsequent compression
are equivalent to its compression and subsequent amplification since the gain
bandwidth is o f fundamental significance here. In energy terms, however, the
amplification o f a chirped pulse is more favorable, since self-focusing and break
down limit the peak intensity value in the amplifier by a level o f 10 10 W /c m 2 .
The peak intensity o f a chirped pulse is 2 orders o f magnitude lower than that of.
the compressed pulse and therefore the maximal energy extracted from a lasing
medium grows considerably.
6.6. Generation and amplification

of high-power femtosecond pulses in the U V range
The problem o f shaping high-power femtosecond pulses in the UV range evokes
particular interest because o f its fundamental applications in laser photochem
istry, plasma physics, and studies o f condensed matter. UV pulses emitted with
peak powers o f 1 T W can be used for generation o f radiation in the range o f
vacuum UV and soft x-rays. This section is devoted to the analysis o f some
important results obtained in this area in recent years.
As early as in the beginning o f 1980s it became clear that the prospects for
generation o f ultrashort UV pulses are determined by a frequency doubling o f
dye laser radiation with its subsequent amplification by excimer amplifiers. The
passive or active mode locking is difficult to realize in excimer lasers because o f
short times o f existence o f population inversion in the lasing medium (10~6-
10 8 s), which drastically restrict the number o f passages o f radiation along
6.6. Generation and amplification o f ultrashort UV pulses 313
the resonator. By now, the minimal duration attained in active mode-locking

regime is equal to 120 ps. 74 The achievements in the development o f picosecond
excimer systems are reviewed in Ref. 75.
Transition to the femtosecond range became possible owing to progress in
generation o f ultrashort, pulses in the visible range, development o f optical fiber
compression technique, amplification, and nonlinear-optics frequency conver
sion from the visible to UV range. This enabled a formation o f sufficiently
powerful seed pulses for cascade amplification in excimer amplifiers. The ad
vantages o f excimer media in amplification o f femtosecond UV pulses are due
to a relatively broad amplification bandwidth (A ^ « 160 cm 1 for X eC l at
X = 0.308 fim ) , high specific energy output o f 1 J /l and high efficiency. A ccord
ingly, the femtosecond laser systems constructed in the advanced laser laborato
ries differ mainly by the technique o f shaping the seed UV pulses.
The authors o f Ref. 76 used a dye laser synchronously pumped by an ar
gon laser. The 6-ps 0.616 pm output pulses possessing an average energy o f
200 m W were first shortened to 600 fs in a fiber compressor and then amplified
up to an energy o f 0.3 mJ by a four-stage amplifier pumped by the second har-
* • • 3+
monic radiation from a Q-switched Nd : Y A G laser. Frequency doubling was
accomplished in a K D P crystal. The seed pulses shaped in this way were finally
amplified up to an energy o f 10 mJ (a peak power o f 30 G W ) by a two-stage
X eC l amplifier to obtain 350-fs output pulses.
The authors o f Ref. 77 used a quasi-cw actively m ode-locked Nd3+ : Y AG
laser as a monitor that after frequency doubling pumped a passively mode-
locked dye laser. The latter emitted 1.5-ps 0.745-pm pulses with an average
energy o f 40 m W , which were shortened in a fiber compressor to 150 fs and then
amplified in a two-stage dye laser pumped by second-harmonic radiation from a
Q-switched Nd3+ : Y A G laser. Then the frequency o f the 210-fs 130- pJ ampli
fied pulses was tripled and their energy further amplified by two KrF amplifiers.
Eventually, the 220-fs pulses with energy of 20 mJ (a peak energy o f 100 G W )
were obtained at a wavelength o f 0.248 pm .
In Ref. 78 the radiation o f a nanosecond excimer laser ( r = 20 n s , W —
100 mJ) was used to pump a number o f dye cells, the first o f which was a
quenched dye laser ( r = 120 ps , X = 0.340 p m ). The amplified pulses o f this
laser pumped the short cavity laser ( r = 18 p s , X = 0.365 pm) whose pulses
were further amplified by a three-stage dye amplifier equipped with gated ab
sorbers ( r = 8 ps, W — 5 p j ). The pulses thus obtained pumped a distributed
feedback (D F B ) dye laser and (r = 320 fs). After the next three amplification
stages their frequency doubled in a K D P crystal 0.5 mm thick. The energy o f the
seed UV pulses was equal to 5 pJ . In the excimer module operating in a double
pass arrangement, their energy grew to 5 mJ (r = 220 f s , X = 0.308 pm ) .
In Ref. 79, the seed pulses were formed at the wavelength X = 0.248 pm
owing to the dye replacement in DFB lasers and amplifiers. They were then
boosted in a KrF amplifier and after two passages had an energy o f 15 mJ and
370-fs duration. Since the pulses acquired a linear chirp, they were shortened to
80 fs by a prism compressor. Amplifying these uncompressed pulses in a wide-
aperture KrF gain module, the authors obtained an output energy o f 70 mJ.
FIG . 6.23. Fem tosecond laser system o f the UV range constructed at the Non
linear O ptics L aboratory o f the M oscow State University. 80
F IG . 6.24. Intensity correlation function o f a UV pulse measured by noncollinear

SHG technique after reflection from the surface o f a nonlinear crystal. 81
In the Nonlinear Optics Laboratory o f the Moscow University a femtosecond

UV system has been built (see Fig. 6.23) in which a high-power passively mode-
locked Q-switched solid-state laser described in detail in Sec. 6.2 was used as
a m onitor. Such an arrangement of femtosecond excimer system allows one to
obtain high-power picosecond IR pulses synchronized with pico- or femtosecond
pulses in the visible and UV ranges. The other components o f the system, a fiber
compressor and a two-stage dye amplifier pumped by excimer laser radiation, are
also considered in Secs. 6.4 and 6.5. For frequency doubling o f compressed pulses
6. 6. Generation and amplification o f ultrashort UV pulses 315
(r = 500 fs , A = 0.616 pm ) , a KD P crystal 2 mm thick is used, whose spectral

synchronism bandwidth at the fundamental wavelength is equal to 40 cm 1 and
at the second-harmonic wavelength 80 cm 1 . The efficiency o f SHG is 5%, the
seed pulse energy is 2.5 fi J for 350-fs duration. The ratio o f the peak intensity
to the intensity o f lateral maxima is not less than 400. After a two-stage boost
the output pulse energy reaches 20 mJ, which for 350-fs duration corresponds
to a peak power o f 60 G W . The intensity correlation function measured by the
method o f SHG after the reflection from the surface o f a nonlinear crystal, is
shown in Fig. 6.24. The details o f the measurement technique are discussed in
Sec. 6.8.
The data on femtosecond excimer systems are summarized in Table 6.4. Let
us examine the amplification o f femtosecond pulses in excimers in more detail.
The fundamental specifics is associated with a broad amplification bandwidth
and large cross section o f the induced transition (crt = 10 16 cm 2) . Accordingly,
the probability o f spurious oscillation is high in excimer amplifiers. This calls
for the application o f high-contrast seed pulses and spatial radiation filtering in
the intervals between the stages. A large fraction o f the energy stored up in the
medium can be released by a short radiation pulse provided the seed pulse pos
sesses a sufficient energy (such that the energy saturation level would be reached
over the distance that is short compared with the total length o f the amplifier).
80
The experimental measurements clearly showed that the saturation energy
became more than twice as high on the pulse shortening from 6 ps to 350 fs (see
Fig. 6.25).
F IG . 6.25. Energy density o f pico- (triangles) and fem tosecond (circles) pulse
amplified in X eC l excim er as a function o f energy density o f input radiation.
The theoretical studies o f the process o f short pulse amplification in an excimer

laser was carried out in Refs. 80 and 81. An important, although probably
unexpected at first sight, conclusion was made, stating that the amplification
process turns practically incoherent as the pulse becomes shorter. This effect
is caused by the specific spectral structure o f the excimer molecule. Therefore,
while the picosecond pulse amplification is accompanied by the coherent effects
TABLE 6.4. Comparative parameters

of femtosecond excimer laser systems
Refs. Monitor Excimer X rp No. Aperture W VQ

molecule (nm ) (fs) o f final (m J) (G W )
stages
amplifier
( c m 2)
76 A r + laser X eCl 308 350 2 2.2 x 0.9 10 30

with pas
sive mode
locking
80 Q-switched X eCl 308 350 2 3.1 x 3.5 20 60

Nd3+ : YA10
laser with
passive mode
loking
77 Nd3 + :Y A G KrF 248 350 2 1.5 x 1.0 20 60

laser with
active mode
loking
78 Dye laser X eC l 308 220 2 2.3 x 1.1 5 20

79 pum ped KrF 248 80 3 4.0 x 3.5 70 900
by XeCl
laser
6.6. Generation and amplification o f ultrashori UV pulses 317
FIG . 6.26. U V picosecond pulse shape measured using a streak cam era at the
output o f X e C l amplifier operating under the deep saturation conditions. Break
ing into subpulses is associated with coherent effects. 83
induced by oscillation o f populations at individual rotational transitions, with

the break into subpulses (see Fig. 6.26), etc., the femtosecond amplification is
based on noncoherent interactions.
At the present time, the nonlinear-optics phenomena occurring in the field o f
high-power femtosecond pulses come under careful scrutiny. In Ref. 83 a signif
icant spectral broadening caused by ultrashort pulse focusing into high-pressure
gases was reported for the first time (A - 0.308 p m , rp = 350 fs , W = 1.5 mJ,
lens focal length 3 m ). Prior to focusing, the spectral bandwidth o f the pulses
was equal to 60 cm 1 and after focusing to 1000 cm 1 . A similar broadening
was described in Ref. 81, the spectra are shown in Fig. 6.27 ( r = 350 fs , V Q =
10 G W , focal length 1.5 m ). One can see the modulation with a period o f 25
cm o f the spectrum extending over 600 c m - . Since the spectral broadening
was not accompanied by any noticeable distortions o f the pulse shape, the effect
can be applied in broadband absorption spectroscopy. The physical mechanism
o f supercontinuum generation is sufficiently complicated. It is clear though that
SPM arising under conditions o f self-focusing, as well as plasma generation, play
83
an important part here.
Recent advances in generation and amplification o f UV femtosecond pulses
are associated with the transition to broadband amplifiers based on KrF (A =
0.248 p m ). The authors o f Ref. 122 succeeded in amplification o f 80-fs pulses
up to peak powers o f 900 G W . The development o f a multi-terawatt setup is
reported in Ref. 123. A multicascade amplification system made it possible to
raise the output pulse energy to 1.5 J; this means that for a 390-fs pulse the
peak power reached as high as 4 T W . The further efforts 124 were directed to
the increase in repetition rate to 10 Hz and to the formation o f regular spatial
structure o f the radiation which allowed the output pulse to be focused into a
spot with diameter 2.3 /im and its ultimate radiation intensities pushed up to
about 3 x 1019 W /c m 2 .
FIG . 6.27. Superbroadening o f a U V fem tosecond pulse in air when focused by

a lens with focal length 1.5 m ; peak pow er o f the initial pulse 10 G W , duration
350 fs. 81
Ultra-high-power sources o f femtosecond UV pulses are used primarily in the

research o f properties o f matter in very strong fields whose intensity exceeds the
intratomic intensities 1 G V /cm .
6.7. Femtosecond pulses in the far IR range

High-power sources o f ultrashort pulses o f the far IR range are o f vital importance
in transient spectroscopy o f multiatomic molecules, development o f the methods
to obtain nonequilibrium intramolecular excitations, and in research o f narrow-
gap semiconductors.
The idea to employ SPM and dispersive compression proved fruitful in the IR
84
at the CO 2 laser wavelength. In the initial experiments a 2-ps CO 2 laser
pulse was coupled to a regenerative high-pressure amplifier. In the process o f
formation of the output pulse train, the pulses shortened from 2 ps to 600 fs with
a typical peak intensity o f 1 T W /c m . The authors suggested that the observed
pulse compression is associated with the formation o f electronic density wave.
Radiation-stimulated growth o f charged particle concentration brings about a
change in both the real and imaginary parts o f refractive index and appearance
o f a chirp. During propagation through a medium with anomalous dispersion,
which in the discussed experiment was a NaCl crystal, a chirped pulse shortens.
In subsequent theoretical papers, ' 86 the mutual influence o f high-power
C O 2 laser radiation and the electronic density wave induced by the radiation
was analyzed. It was shown that if the laser pulse intensity is sufficiently high in
order to vary the electron concentration, the resulting change in the refractive
index causes the instantaneous frequency to increase at the pulse leading edge
and the loss to grow at the trailing edge.
The various mechanisms leading to the charge concentration growth, i.e.,
“heating” o f electrons by radiation with the following electron shock ionization
6.7. Femtosecond pulses in ihe far IR range 319
and photoionization o f excited atoms in the intense radiation field, are analyzed
in Ref. 86.
The latest achievements in the femtosecond IR pulse generation are reported
in Ref. 87. A relatively long hybrid C O laser pulse ( r = 100 n s , A = 9.5 /im )
was gated using two fast semiconductor switches. One o f them, made o f cadmium
telluride, used for reflection (see Fig. 6.28). At the moment when a high-
power femtosecond pulse o f visible range reaches the semiconductor, the highly
concentrated free carriers released at its surface form a plasma mirror sending
an IR pulse to the second switch used for transmission. This switch is made o f
silicon and serves to shape the trailing edge o f the IR pulse.
FIG . 6.28. Experim ental setup for generation o f IR fem tosecond pulses:
( / } fem tosecond dye laser, (2) dye amplifier, (3) hybrid C O 2 laser, (./) CdTe
reflection switch, (5) germ anium etalon, (6) polarizer, (7) quartz transmission
switch. 87
Th e 70-fs gate pulses o f visible range emitted by a dye laser were boosted in
a two-stage amplifier pumped by excimer laser radiation. The moments o f their
arrival to the switches were controlled by an optical delay line. The resulting IR
pulse had 130-fs duration that corresponded to four optical oscillation periods at
a wavelength 9.5 pm . Its spectrum shown in Fig. 6.29 spanned the range from
7.5 to 10.5 fj,m . The power o f the final IR pulse is relatively low, V Q m 10 kW .
As seen from Fig. 6.29, the central wavelength AQ = 9.3 /im in the spectrum
o f the femtosecond IR pulse is shifted from the initial value 9.5 p m toward the
anti-Stokes region. According to the authors, this shift is caused by the growth
o f density o f free charge carriers in the second switch and the associated chirping
o f the passing pulse. Reduction in the duration of gate pulses from a dye laser
down to 35 fs opens the real prospects for generation of IR pulses whose duration
equals one optical oscillation period.
F IG . 6.29. Spectrum of an IR pulse w ith duration o f four optical oscillation

87
periods.
An alternative approach to the gating o f CO 2 laser pulses was proposed

in Ref. 88. It is based on a two-stage generation o f the difference frequency;
wi 06 —wio 6 ~ wi is ’ wi 06 —wi is = wio 6 ■ staSe>fr°m the seed ra-
34 -
diation o f a cw 1-W CO 2 laser and a picosecond pulse o f a gating Y A 103 : Nd
laser, the difference frequency 1.18-pm pulses were formed. In the second stage,
the parametric interaction o f the pump radiation and the difference frequency
pulses generated once again the 10.6-p m pulses with 20-ps duration and 20-nJ
energy. These pulses were injected in a regenerative high-pressure CO 2 am
plifier, yielding a train o f 10 pulses at its output. The highest energy o f an
individual pulse was equal to 0.8 m j.
The two-stage technique o f difference-frequency generation allows the ultra-
short IR pulses to be formed in a simple and efficient way. By varying the
intensities o f the waves interacting in the first stage and the length o f nonlinear
crystals, one can control the pulse duration. The minimal durations that can be
achieved in this technique are determined by the bandwidth o f the parametric
converter. Thus, pulses with duration over 4 ps can be transformed using the
crystal 22 mm long. Reduction in the length of the crystal leads to broadening
o f the transformation bandwidth accompanied with decline in efficiency.
The systems considered here operate at the fixed wavelength o f CO 2 laser ra
diation whereas for spectroscopic applications the frequency-tunable sources are
S9
needed. The experimental arrangements for difference-frequency generation
earned much credit. High-power 1.055- pm picosecond phosphate glass laser
pulses with e-polarization and the radiation emitted by an optical paramet
ric oscillator (Aj. = 0 .7 -1 .4 p m , o-polarization) mix in a A g 3 A sS 3 in a non-
collinear scheme. By turning the crystal through an angle o f 22 ° , one can tune
continuously within the wavelength 3.7-10.2 pm . The difference-frequency gen
eration provides a relatively high energy efficiency up to 30% o f the signal wave
energy. Further penetration into the IR range to 20 p m was carried out by
difference-frequency generation in a CdSe crystal.
The application of the frequency-difference generation technique in the fem
tosecond range is demonstrated in Ref. 90. A three-stage dye amplifier pumped
by excimer laser radiation boosted 480-fs dye ring laser pulses to an energy of
35 pJ . A larger fraction (25 pJ ) focused on a cell filled with ethanol in which a
sub-picosecond optical supercontinuum was generated. The pulse thus obtained
6.8. Advances in the fem tosecond pulse measurement technique 321
focused, together with the rest part o f the radiation (10 pJ ) coupled out o f the
amplifier, on a LiNbO 3 crystal. The output radiation carried by 200-fs 10-kW
pulses at the difference-frequency could be tuned over the range 1.7-4 pm by
turning the crystal.
For the development o f parametric oscillators in the IR range, AgGaS 2 crys
tals look very promising because o f their high nonlinearity and broad transparent
window extending from 0.6 to 13 pm . Figure 6.30(a) shows the conversion curve
o f this generator pumped by a Nd3+ : Y A G laser. Figure 6.30(6) illustrates the
91
quantum conversion efficiency as a function o f the radiation wavelength.
FIG . 6.30. Characteristics of optical param etric oscillator using A gG aS 2 crys-

3+
tal pu m p ed by the fundamental frequency radiation from a N d : Y A G laser:
(a) tim ing curves; (6) quantum efficiency as a function o f the wavelength (open
circles, signal frequencies; solid circles, idler frequencies).
Prospects for compression o f pulses in the medium IR range have recently

90
appeared. They are associated with the refinement o f optical fibers fabricated
o f chalcogenide and fluoride glasses and used for pulse chirping as well as with
direct experimental observation o f strong SPM in IR pulses propagating in semi
conductors which allows these pulses to be further compressed in dispersive delay
lines. Additional possibilities arise when the cross-modulation effect is brought
into action. A high-power exciting IR pulse whose frequency is close to the res
onance induces conspicuous and fast changes o f the refractive index resulting in
a chirp o f the long wavelength pulse.
6.8. Advances in the femtosecond

pulse measurement technique
Ultrashort pulse parameter measurement instrumentation began developing prac
tically immediately after the first solid-state mode-locked lasers had been put
in operation. By the late 1960s it had been shown that along with the di
rect electron-optical registration methods, important information was provided
by indirect methods based on measurements o f intensity correlation functions
o f various orders. In 1967 Weber suggested measuring pulse duration by the
method based on collinear generation o f the second harmonic, Armstrong by the

method based on SHG after reflection from the surface o f a crystal, and Maier
et al. suggested a noncollinear generation technique. Simultaneously, the two-
photon luminescence technique proposed by Giordmaine et al. was refined. A
detailed review o f these methods is presented in Ref. 1.
At present, the correlation methods became a routine way to measure the
duration and in some cases the shape o f ultrashort pulses. If specific conditions
are satisfied, these methods are also applicable for measurement of duration o f
ultimately short pulses with rp ~ 6-8 fs. At the same time, the information
derived from the intensity correlation functions is obviously not sufficient for
modern femtosecond systems. There is a need now in a complete characterization
o f the pulse, including the temporal dependence o f the profile and phase and
also statistical information about long quasiperiodic trains. The knowledge o f
the above-mentioned characteristics allows the realization o f all advantages of
the physical experiment in the research of transient response from the objects
investigated.
Correlators for fem tosecond pulses
In femtosecond pulse measurements wide acceptance has been gained by the

noncollinear SHG technique. The schematic layout o f the correlator is shown in
Fig. 6.31. The direction o f SH propagation is determined by the condition o f
vector synchronism and does not coincide with the direction o f propagation of
the exciting beams. The thickness o f the nonlinear crystal has to be chosen small
enough for the bandwidth o f spectral synchronism to exceed the spectral width o f
the investigated pulse. The group-velocity dispersion may become another source
o f errors resulting in a pulse spreading in the correlator crystal and, therefore,
in overestimating the measured pulse duration. According to the evaluations
reported in Ref. 60, the dispersive spread o f the pulse with the initial duration
30 fs does not exceed 5 fs for the 2 0 0 - thickness o f the KD P crystal. The
background-free technique enables the measurements with high contrast.
In the experiments with ultrashort pulses, 63 the errors arising from nonpar
allel orientation o f wave fronts play a large role. Accordingly, the authors o f
Ref. 63 used not only a noncollinear, but also a collinear, SHG technique in
which the wave fronts can be aligned with interferometric precision.
A major advance in the technique o f correlation measurements o f femtosecond
pulses is related to the SHG caused by reflection from the surface o f a nonlinear
93
crystal. The correlator is schematically shown in Fig. 6.32. This technique re
tains the merits o f the noncollinear SHG: the beams radiated at the fundamental
and doubled frequencies propagate in different directions, thus simplifying the
SH registration, since the background signal traveling in the direction o f the
registered wave originates only from the scattering by the crystal surface defects
and the measured correlation function has no pedestal.
The principal advantage o f the correlator considered here consists in a possi
bility o f measuring the duration o f femtosecond pulses in a very broad spectral
region extending from the IR to UV without a replacement o f optical elements.
Indeed, the harmonic generation takes place in the near-surface layer o f the
FIG . 6.31. Correlator layout to m easure duration o f ultrashort pulses in the

case o f noncollinear SH G: (1) splitting plate, (2) switch m odulator, (5) scanned
optical delay line, (4 ) frequency-doubling crystal, (5) diaphragm , (6) photoelectric
multiplier.
FIG . 6.32. Correlator for measuring duration o f fem tosecond pulses in the U V,
93
visible, and IR ranges.
crystal whose thickness is o f the order o f the wavelength, so that no problems

involving the crystal transparency arise. Besides, there are no restrictions on the
measured duration due to group-velocity dispersion.
The shortcoming o f this technique is the low SH conversion coefficient, rj ~
_g
10 , for the radiation intensity at the fundamental frequency I ~
100 M W /c m 2. A reliable signal registration in the presence o f the background
from the fundamental frequency radiation scattering is provided by additional
spectral filtration (in the visible and IR ranges) or by employment o f a photo
electric multiplier insensitive to the visible optical radiation (in the U V).
The temporal resolution 7"min o f the correlator depends on the accuracy with
which the temporal delay is set (7 fs for a 1- pm step) and on dispersive spreading
in the optical elements o f the correlator. When necessary, the optical path in
quartz can be reduced to a minimal thickness o f the input window in a vacuum
chamber. An input window thickness o f 3.5 mm corresponds to the 8-fs dispersive
spread o f a 0.308-pm UV pulse. The duration o f a pulse in the visible and
UV ranges can be measured without evacuation o f the nonlinear crystal, thus
preventing the pulse propagation through dispersive elements.
FIG . 6.33. Noncollinear SHG u pon reflection from the surface (a) and within a
nonlinear crystal (b) ; illustrated are the effects that are associated with a beam
convergence angle.
The noncollinear technique o f SHG imposes an additional limitation on the

measured pulse duration, linked with the beam convergence angle 7 [see
Fig. 6.33 (a )] and leading to the inequality
rp > ( a/c ) sin 7 . (6 .8 .1 )
where a is the dimension o f the spot at the crystal surface in which the beams
overlap. Suppose that for a reliable signal registration, N 2 quanta o f SH radi
ation are needed. Then the minimal pulse energy at the fundamental frequency
is equal to W u = 2huiN2M/r,c . This energy can be focused into a spot with
l/2
minimal diameter amin = \^WwjiTWth sin (7 / 2 )] , where u>th is the threshold
density o f the energy destroying the nonlinear crystal surface. In this case, the
minimal duration rmi = (“ mjn/ c) sin 7 ■ For a GaAs crystal at A = 0.53 pm ,
2 —9
u>th — 0.1 J /cm " , 7]c = 10 , 7 = 0.1 rad, we obtain rmin = 10 fs. The ex-
perimental intensity correlation functions for femtosecond UV pulses are shown
in Sec. 6 .6 (see Fig. 6.24).
A m ong the correlation methods recently developed to measure the duration
o f ultrashort optical pulses we specifically distinguish the technique based on
noncollinear SHG proposed and realized for the first time by Krivoshchekov and
co-workers. 125 ’ 6 Here is the idea o f the method. The extension o f the region
in which cw beams interact noncollinearly is determined by the radii o f the
interacting beams and their convergence angle. In the case o f pulsed radiation,
however, this region can be limited due to the finite duration o f the pulses [see
6.8 . Advances in ihe fem tosecond pulse measurement technique 325
Fig. 6.33 (&)]. For initial Gaussian beams o f radius aQ and pulse duration , t q
the radius o f the SH beam propagating along the x-axis [in the plane o f Fig.
6.33 ( 6) ] is equal to
tan (7 / 2 ) ^ 2-1 1^2

« .= 1+
2 cos (7 / 2)
where 7 is the beam convergence angle and u is the group velocity o f the
fundamental wave in the nonlinear crystal. When the spatial dimensions o f
the measured pulse u t0 a0 tan (7 / 2) , the SH beam radius is determined
exclusively by the pulse duration: a2 = urQ/sin (7 / 2) . Under this condition,
the distribution o f the SH energy density in the cross-section along the x-axis is
determined by the second-order correlation intensity function B (x ) :
W 2u(x ) ~ B (x ) = J “ sin ( t / 2) ) 7o ~ sin ( ? / 2) ) d t '
where I Q(t) is the initial pulse intensity.

, The results o f theoretical studies o f noncollinear SHG by ultrashort optical
pulses and aspects o f the pulse duration measurements were published in Refs.
126-128. The pulse duration measurement technique considered here has a very
significant advantage: the measurement is successfully performed during a single
laser flash. In addition, this technique has a high temporal resolution (10-100 fs)
that can be easily varied by changing the beam convergence angle 7 and initial
beam radii.
Various practical systems for measurement o f the duration o f single ultrashort
pulses, based on noncollinear SHG technique, 129-142 have been constructed so
far, and the tem poral characteristics o f their nonlinear correlators studied. At
the same time, it should be pointed out that reconstruction o f the pulse shape
IQ(t) from the correlation intensity function B ( t ) meets with some difficulties.
In particular, to obtain information about the asymmetry o f the pulse, one has
to solve the so-called phase problem. A s we noted in Sec. 1.4, measurement o f
the convolution o f short pulses allows an accurate reconstruction of the pulse en
velope. In Refs. 143, 144 it was also shown that the pulse shape is reconstructed
in a unique way from the third-order intensity correlation function, which has
the following form
fi(3V i - Ti ) = j *o(*) I0(t + *i) I0(t + t2) dt.
Some experimental systems which allow one to measure the correlation function
($)
B (tj , t 2 ) were proposed in Refs. 144-146.
M e a s u r e m e n t o f in te n s ity a n d p h a s e as a f u n c t io n o f tim e
The development o f optical-fiber compressors producing the pulses tens o f fem

toseconds long pushed ahead the technique for measurement o f a temporal de
pendence o f intensity and phase in the picosecond duration range. 43 In the
noncollinear SHG experiments the intensity cross-correlation function
oo
* .0 -)= / W + r)d< (6.8.2)
— OO
o f the investigated (picosecond) and probing (femtosecond) pulses is registered.

In the limit, when the probing pulse duration t —*■ 0 , the cross-correlation
function B ( t ) describes the shape o f the investigated pulse.
FIG . 6.34. Experim ental arrangement fo r measurement o f tem poral dependence

of a phase o f picosecond pulses b y dynam ic interferometry: ( j ) fiber waveguide,
(2 ) grating, (3) rating com pressor prism , (4 ) variable optical delay line, (5) M a ch -
Zander interferometer, ( 6) F abry-P erot etalon, (7) correlator for measuring cross
correlation fun ction o f dynam ic interferogram and com pressed pulse. 94
A phase is measured by the method based on the analysis o f dynamic interfero-

grams. The experimental layout realizing this method is shown in Fig. 6.34. The
investigated pulse is coupled into a M ach-Zander interferometer one o f whose
branches contains a narrow-band spectral filter (the Fabry-Perot etalon). The
filter transmission bandwidth is chosen to be less than the reciprocal o f the pulse
duration so that it acts as a narrow-band filter shaping a reference pulse. The
interference o f the reference pulse with the investigated one propagating along
the other branch o f the interferometer forms a dynamic interferogram measured
by a cross-correlation procedure using the probing pulse compressed to 200 fs.
The double-frequency signal is generated in 200- pm-thick K D P crystal by the
noncollinear m ethod. Figure 6.35 shows a dynamic interferogram and the result
o f its interpretation in the form o f temporal dependence of phase and frequency.
In Ref. 95 an approach is worked out, based on the conversion o f phase
modulation to amplitude modulation due to the interaction with a two-level
6.8 . Advances m the fem tosecond pulse measurement technique 327
1.0 - I f to 60 - 6 f
s~ \ 1 >'
/ /
40
0
20
1.0 - t i h / * \ 2 0f v / ,
J \
80 ' 5v, cm"1
* V
0.1 -A I!lo
0 —
0.1 1 1 _ 1 -8 0 - / , , 2
-10 0 10 £,ps -4 0 t,ps
(a) (b)
FIG . 6.35. R econstruction o f tem poral dependence o f phase and frequency of
a picosecon d pulse from a dynam ic interferogram . (a) Intensity profile: ( 1) in
put pulse, ( 2) pulse at the output o f interferom eter, (3) difference o f intensities
o f input and output pulses; (6) result o f interferogram interpretation: (J) tem
poral dependence o f phase, (2) tem poral dependence o f frequency obtain ed by
differentiation o f the phase dependence. 94
medium under the conditions o f a single-photon resonance and on the subsequent

measurement o f the temporal dependence o f intensity using the cross-correlation
method. The scope o f this method is limited by the necessity o f operating at
the frequencies close to the resonance. T h e authors o f Ref. 96 demonstrated how
the iteration procedure, applied for reconstructing the temporal dependences of
intensity and phase, can use the information on intensity correlation function,
pulse spectrum, and correlation function o f the field.
An alternative variant with respect to dynamic interferometry is the measure-
97
ment o f amplitude and phase o f spectral components. The schematic arrange
ment is shown in Fig. 6.36. Its key element is a double-pass grating compressor.
A dividing plate sends a fraction o f radiation to the returning mirror M 2 ; this
channel is used for shaping the compressed pulse. The second channel also in
corporates the returning mirror in whose plane the spatial filters o f spectral
components made in the form of narrow slits are placed. In this channel the
pulse with duration rp ~ Aw 1 is formed, where Aw is the filter transmission
bandwidth. This pulse is m odulated by the difference frequency = u 1 — w2 ,
where Wj and w2 are the central transmission frequencies o f the filters. W hen
the spectral components have equal phases, the beat pulse is modulated by the
function cos Qt and in the case o f opposite phases by sin Qt (see Fig. 6.36). To
find the shape o f this pulse, the cross-correlation technique is used, with utiliza
tion o f the compressed pulse from the first channel. The authors o f Ref. 97 have
measured the phase o f spectral components o f the pulses after the dispersive
SPM under the conditions o f the intensive Raman frequency conversion.
A unique approach to the measurement o f temporal dependence o f intensity
and phase o f femtosecond pulses is realized by the authors o f Ref. 98. A pulse to
be measured is coupled into a Michelson interferometer with one o f its branches
containing a glass plate o f known dispersive properties. The cross-correlation
function o f the field o f the initial pulse and the pulse broadened due to propaga
tion through the plate is registered at the interferometer output. The details o f
FIG . 6.36. Measurement o f phase o f spectral com ponents o f picosecond pulse.

(a ) Schematic o f experim ental setup ( Cit 2 i gratings; , mirrors; S P j 2 ,
splitting plates; F , spatial filter o f spectral com ponents); (6) optical beat pulse
in the case o f equal-phase (to p ) and opposite-phase (b ottom ) spectral com ponents. 97
the nontrivial algorithm applied to reconstruct the temporal phase dependence

from the interferometric cross-correlation function are described in Ref. 98. As
an example o f practical utilization, we can refer to the study of temporal behav
ior o f the phase o f the femtosecond pulse ( r ~ 100 fs) generated by a dye laser
with an antiresonance ring in passive and hybrid mode locking regimes. The
chirp o f generated pulses is shown to be caused by the changes o f the refractive
index o f the saturable absorber (the resonance contribution) and by SPM in the
solvent. It should be noted that this technique places stringent requirements
upon the stability and reproducibility o f laser pulses.
The theoretical aspects o f the methods based on spatio-temporal modulation
o f a signal pulse due to its interaction with a short probing pulse propagating
at the right angle in a nonlinear medium are discussed in Ref. 99. The authors
o f Ref. 100 proposed to utilize the self-action o f an ultrashort pulse in a thin
semiconductor wedge for assessment o f the temporal intensity profile.
Spectral m ethods to study the stability

o f radiation parameters in quasi-cw lasers
An effective method o f studying pulse parameter fluctuations in a train emitted

by m ode-locked lasers has been developed by Von der L in de.101 His experimen
tal technique is based on the analysis o f spectra o f radiation power. A quasi-cw
laser directs a pulse train to a photodiode with a response time o f tens o f picosec
onds; a signal from a photodiode output is then coupled to a spectrum analyzer.
6.8 . Advances in the fem tosecond pulse measurement technique 329
The m ajor problem consists in interpretation o f the obtained spectra, i.e., in

identification o f individual contributions that the fluctuations o f pulse energy,
duration and repetition period make. As shown in Ref. 101, this problem is
quite solvable.
Let us consider a simple m odel o f m ode-locked laser radiation.101 In the
absence o f fluctuations, the output power can be represented as
— ^ ^ f i t + rnT) , m = ± 1 , ± 2 , ±3 , ... , (6.8.3)

m
where the function f ( t ) describes the temporal dependence o f the power o f a

single pulse and T is the repetition period. In the presence o f amplitude and
phase fluctuations, the power is written as
V (t ) = [1 + ^ ( 0 ] £ f ( t + m T + 8Tm(t) ) , (6.8.4)
m
where A (t) is a random function characterizing the relative power fluctuations

and 8Tm is the fluctuation o f repetition period. Restricting ourselves to the
case 6Tm/T <C 1 and |.A(i)| < 1 , we shall expand f ( t m + &Tm) in a Taylor
series and bring Eq. (6.8.4) to the form
V (t ) = [1 + A (t)]V 0(t) + V 0(t)T J (t) , (6.8.5)
where the random function J (t) = 5Tm (t)/ T at t = t m characterizes the rela
tive fluctuations o f the repetition period.
The correlation function o f the power B ^ calculated with allowance made
for statistical independence o f A (t) and J (t) can be rewritten as
B v (r ) = B Vo( t )[ 1 + B a ( t )] + T 2B^^( t )B j ( t ) , (6.8.6)
where, for example, B a ( t ) = (A (t)A (t + r )) and the angular brackets denote

time averaging. In the spectral domain, Eq. (6.8.6) yields the expression for
spectral power density
sv (u ) - sv ^(u) + Spo(w) ® s^(w ) + (uiT)2sv (w) <g> Sj ( w) , (6.8.7)
where ® denotes the convolution operation. Taking into account Eq. (6.8.3),
the spectral power density can be rewritten as
( 2 7T\ ^
Sp ( W ) = ( Y j 2
I ^ W)| I Z [ 5 (Wm ) + Syl(Wm ) + ( 27r m ) 2 s j ( W) ] : ( 6 '8 '8)
' ' m
where u)m — ui — ‘I ’w m jT . This formula is derived under the assumption that

the spectrum o f the function f ( t ) is substantially more narrow than the spectra
o f the functions A (t ) and J (t) and the convolution o f the spectra can therefore
be replaced by their product.
The spectral density o f random radiation power is shown in Fig. 6.37 for the
case o f a train o f the pulses with fluctuating parameters (6.8.4). In the absence
o f fluctuations the power spectrum is a superposition o f narrow peaks separated
by the frequency intervals wm+1 — = 2 tt/T . The presence o f amplitude
fluctuations leads to the appearance o f relatively broad pedestals whose height
h ~ m 2 [the last term in Eq. (6.8.8)]. From the considered example it is seen
that the analysis o f the spectral density o f random radiation power enables one to
estimate the contributions o f fluctuations o f different parameters. In particular,
one can easily see that the variance o f amplitude fluctuations is proportional to
the area limited by the broad pedestal in Fig. 6.37.
h s.
F IG . 6.37. Spectral pow er density o f quasi-cw pulse train with fluctuating am
plitude and repetition period. Narrow peaks following with the frequency inter
val 1 / T correspond to a deterministic signal, appearance o f broad pedestals is
caused by am plitude fluctuations and o f narrow pedestals by repetition period
fluctuations.
It should be mentioned that useful information can be obtained from the

simple measurements o f the energy fluctuations A W ,w o f the SH radiation.
These fluctuations are com posed o f the random variations o f the pulse energy
A W u at the fundamental frequency (assumed to occur at constant duration) and
o f the fluctuations o f duration A ( a s s u m e d to occur at constant energy).The
resulting expression takes the form
1/ 2
AW V {A t
(6.8.9)
4l l f ' + '
This implies that by measuring the level o f energy fluctuations at the fundamen
tal and doubled frequencies, one can evaluate the fluctuations o f duration.
In the experiments described in Ref. 101 (see Fig. 6.38) the stability o f
radiation parameters was investigated for different types o f lasers, such as an
actively m ode-locked argon laser, synchronously pumped dye laser, and CPM
laser. In particular, it is shown that the random “jitter” o f the argon laser
pump pulses with a typical standard deviation o f 20 ps and a correlation time o f
0.4 ps is transferred to the pulses o f a synchronously pum ped dye laser without
FIG . 6.38. Spectral density o f power em itted b y a synchronously pum ped dye
las('r. T h e spectrum is shown in the 5-M Hz band with the center at the frequency
ojj/2?r = 79.81 M H z corresponding to the repetition rate o f generated pulses.
noticeable changes. This is caused by the fact that the typical time taken to
reach a steady-state generation regime in a dye laser is equal to 1 /is which
is substantially less than the correlation time o f the fluctuations o f pump pulse
repetition period. The random energy variations o f dye laser pulses are primarily
associated not with the pumping but with intrinsic properties o f the dye laser
itself. All radiation parameters turned to be stable to a high degree in a ring
laser with passive mode locking.
In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the spectral analysis o f fluctua
tions in quasi-cw lasers makes it possible to identify the basic destabilizing factors
and optimize a femtosecond laser system. An example o f such an optimization
can be found in Ref. 102.
Conclusion
T h e new approaches in the physics and technology o f ultrashort pulse shaping, compression,
and am plification, as well as new m od e-lock in g techniques in lasers discussed in this b ook
have brought about results that cou ld hardly have been predicted in the beginning of the
80s. Laser pulses as short as 6 fs have revolutionized tim e-dom ain spectroscopy. In fact, it
has becom e possible to “freeze” any m om ent o f com plex processes o f energy transformation
in optically excited atom s, m olecules (including organic ones) and condensed media. It
has b ecom e possible to actually observe coherent interactions with biological molecules and
register the dynam ics o f elementary chem ical reactions in real time. A novel branch o f
chemistry, som etim es called “fem tochem istry” , has thus emerged.
Superhigh-intensity optical fields generated by table-top fem tosecond terawatt excim er
and solid-state system s make it possible to extend the m ethods o f optical physics to nonlinear
electron physics and nonlinear quantum electrodynam ics. From the technological point o f
view, all these achievements were realized as a result o f the shortening o f time scales by
approxim ately three to four orders o f m agnitude. A s we m entioned in the Foreword, this
breakthrough was in the offing for 25 years: by the late 60s optical pulses with durations o f
tens o f picoseconds and powers up to 0.1—1 G W h ad been generated.
B efore con cluding this b ook , it is natural to discuss the following question: what are the
prospects for further com pression and increase in intensity o f an electrom agnetic radiation
flash? N o doubt, each new success achieved along this road promises dram atic developm ents
in optical physics, chemistry, biophysics, a nd technology. W ith the awareness that making
predictions is rather precarious, we venture to give a brief outline o f the nearest prospects.
U ltrashort optical pulses; is there a limit to pulse compression?
In a certain sense, this limit has in fact been already obtained in the visible
range o f the optical spectrum. Indeed, Shank and co-w orkers1 obtained a 6-
fs transform-limited pulse under whose bell-shaped envelope only three optical
oscillations are contained. Bipolar infrared pulses produced by Auston et al.
by optica] rectification o f femtosecond laser pulses in a medium with quadratic
nonlinearity can also be regarded as ultimately short because their duration
equals only one optical oscillation period.
At the same time, it should be borne in mind that more or less symmetric
pulses at the optical carrier frequency are, generally speaking, by no means the
only type o f wave packet that can propagate in a material medium or in vacuum.
For example, in a strongly nonlinear medium and high-intensity optical field
generation o f optical shock waves is possible, with pulse rise times substantially
334 Conclusion
shorter than one femtosecond. Production o f pulses a few tenths o f a femtosecond

long is discussed in Ref. 3. At present, shock wavefronts much interest owing
to the success o f experiments which have been carried out on the generation
o f harmonics o f very high order under conditions o f multiphoton and tunnel
ionization. ’
The prospects o f generating optical video pulses with 1-fs rise time which can
propagate steadily in specially designed nonlinear media cannot be dismissed.
At the same time, the most obvious approach to pulse compression is to increase
the carrier frequency and transition to transform-limited subfemtosecond x-ray
pulses.
S u p e rin te n s e r a d ia tio n : fr o m te r a w a tt to p e ta w a tt p o w e rs
Pioneer work on femtosecond pulse amplification in broadband excimer ampli

fiers undertaken in the mid-80s initiated one o f the most promising branches
o f modern laser physics, the physics and technology o f superintense radiation.
The field strengths developed by the modern systems are o f the order o f 109-
1010 V /c m ; in the not too distant future it appears that strengths in the range
1011- 1012 V /c m will be available.
The technological foundation for investigating the physics of superstrong opti
cal fields has been provided by various femtosecond pulse amplification systems.
Together with excimer amplifiers producing femtosecond pulses with energies
exceeding 1 J despite low (1 m j/c m ) saturation energies, Nd-glass amplifiers
have also been successfully applied in the latest experiments. Compression o f
FM pulses turned out to be especially efficient in such systems. Current record
20 2
intensities o f about 10 W /c m have thus been generated. It should be noted
that before the advent o f femtosecond lasers such fields could be obtained only
by means o f the unique multikilojoule lasers designed for nuclear fusion research.
Also expanding is the research on amplification o f femtosecond pulses in
such new broadband laser materials as titanium-doped sapphire and alexan
drite. These materials can provide the generation o f high-intensity pulses with
durations shorter than 100 fs. In addition, the potential o f dye amplifiers for
production o f superintense fields has not yet been fully realized; ultimately short
(about 10 fs) flashes of superintense radiation is expected to be obtained using
such amplifiers.
Modern achievements and prospects for generation o f superintense optical
fields using one-channel femtosecond laser systems in the UV, optical and IR
ranges are summarized in Table 1, which comprises the data cited in Chap. 6
and in Refs. 6-8.
W ith good reason one can assert that these compression and multiplication
techniques have paved the way for overcoming the frontier, which seemed impos
sible not long ago, characterized by optical waves with one petawatt power and
22 23 2
10 - 1 0 W /c m intensity. The importance o f this result for optical physics,
chemistry, and technology can scarcely be exaggerated. O f special importance
are also the unique possibilities o f investigating the behavior o f atoms, molecules,
ions, and condensed media subjected to extremely strong optical fields for a very
short time.
Conclusion 335
T A B L E l. Generation o f high-intensity
optical fields by fem tosecond laser systems
Limiting Experimental Expected

Systems parameters achievements* values
T Ws T W I T W I
(fs) ( j / c m 2) (fs) (J) (W /c m 2) (fs) (J) (W /c m 2)
X eCl eximer 160 0.002 160 0.4 i o 17 160 10 i o 21

(A = 0.308 pm )
KrF eximer 70 0.002 80 1.5 i o 18 70 10 i o 22

(A = 0.24 pm )
Dye 10 0.001 20 5 x 10-4 i o 14 10 0.01 i o 17

(visible)
Broad band 10 1.0 100 0.05 i o 18 10 10 i o 24

solid state
(visible, IR )
N d-glass 600 1.0 700 8 1019 600 100 1023
co 2 60 0.4 2500 0.2 i o 16 100 1 1019

(A = 10.6 pm )
*T h e best results for each param eter are presented; it should be n oted that in real experi
m ents it is difficult to obtain these values simultaneously.
336 Conciusion
To get a clear view o f the current situation in this area, one can refer to vari-
uos conference proceedings, special issues o f journals, and monographs (see, e.g.,
Refs. 9-13). Here we shall confine ourselves to a brief discussion o f the problems
closely related to the principal subject o f this book, that is, the physics and tech
nology o f generation and shaping o f high-power short radiation pulses. The fact is
that atoms, molecules, and plasma subjected to superintense optical fields prove
to be effective sources o f high-power short flashes o f x-ray and microwave radia
tion and shock waves. Th e character o f conventional nonlinear-optical transfor
mations o f frequency and angular spectra in a transparent medium is changing
dramatically. Pumping by high-power femtosecond laser pulses underlies the
physics and technology o f table-top x-ray lasers.
Interaction o f optical radiation w ith m atter;

characteristic intensities
T o assess the importance o f modern femtosecond laser technology for the physics
o f the interaction o f radiation with matter, it is appropriate to recall some charac
teristic field values which define the role o f the fundamental interaction processes.
We shall express these values in terms of intensities in order to make comparison
with experimental values more convenient. O f special significance is
JTa = ee2/2ira^ » 1017 W /c m 2.
The characteristic “ atomic” unit o f intensity I , which is the intensity at

which the optical field strength equals the Coulom b field o f a proton E a at a
distance o f the order o f the Bohr radius aQ ,
E a = 5 x 109 V /cm .
For E > E , the discrete structure o f the atomic levels does not show and the
linear and nonlinear optical responses o f the matter are determined by electronic
transitions in the continuous spectrum. This means that the nonlinear optics of
atoms and molecules is being replaced by nonlinear electron physics.
The intensity I{ inducing tunnel ionization o f atoms. At this intensity an
atom gets ionized by electron tunneling during a time interval of the order o f an
optical oscillation period. For w/u>a I 14, 15
*t = (“ K ) 2 'a
where wa = W a/h and W is the electron binding energy o f the atom. At W ph
10 eV and hu> « 1 eV (the visible range o f the spectrum), It « 1014 W /c m 2.

The optica] avalanche break-down threshold Jbd. Generally, a condensed
medium, e.g., not too rarefied gas, gets ionized at optical intensities Ibd that
are lower than I and even I t . In this case the ionization is caused primarily
by the processes o f avalanche multiplication (due to collisions) o f free electrons
accumulating energy in the field o f the optical wave.
Conclusion 337
The avalanche break-down threshold Ihd in the gas is equal to (see Refs. 16
and 17)
7 ^ m e ; y a ( i + i / V oll) i iv cr
2 7 r e 2 r c o ll Tp N 0
Here r co ll„ is the characteristic 4“collision” time,’ N cr and Nn

U
are the criti-
cal (causing the break-down) and initial electron density, rp is the laser pulse
duration. Th e dependence o f 7bd on the pulse duration 7bd(rp) ~ l / r p is o f
special importance for the problems to be discussed below. In the field o f a pulse
with duration r m in
. for which I.b dA' tm ■ ) = Lt ’, the “ultimate” strength
in ' °
o f the
transparent medium, determined by tunnel ionization, is realized. Under these
conditions we can thus realize the ultimate capabilities o f non-resonant nonlinear
optics o f condensed media and relatively dense gases.
The intrinsic “relativistic” intensity / rel. In an optical field with field strength
E = E rei ..mojc/e
the energy o f electron oscillations becomes comparable with the electron rest
energy. Accordingly, the “relativistic” intensity
r 2 2 3 >a 2
JTrel = m lo c /4 x e
defines the boundary line o f the relativistic nonlinear optics o f the free electrons.
For frequencies corresponding to the visible range o f the optical spectrum, / re] «
1019 W /c m 2 .
U ltim ate possibilities o f nonresonant nonlinear optics

o f transparent media; tunable generators o f superintense radiation
The efficiency o f nonlinear interactions and self-actions o f optical waves grows

with optical field strength. How then, we may ask, can the capabilities offered
by the femtosecond technique o f superintense optical field generation be used
for the development o f highly efficient frequency multipliers, optical parametric
oscillators and other nonlinear-optics devices?
The key parameter here is the optical strength o f the medium. For nanosecond
laser pulses at u>/u>a <C 1 (if the multiphoton absorption is negligible), the
avalanche breakdown o f transparent crystals and glasses usually takes place at
7bd « 10-10 0 G W /c m ; there are some indications that this value may be
one or one and a half orders o f magnitude higher. Since for a true avalanche
breakdown 7bd ~ 1/ r , there is every reason to expect a substantial increase o f
the breakdown threshold in a field o f femtosecond pulses.
There are several publications which bear out this expectation. Downer and
18
co-workers have measured the breakdown intensity in air as a function o f pulse
duration in the interval from 1.5 ps to 100 fs and registered a rapid growth of
13 2
7bd with decrease o f rp up to 6 x 10 W / cm . Substantial increase o f the
avalanche breakdown threshold in a field o f femtosecond pulses is also reported
in Refs. 19-21.A rough estimate yields Ibd 1014 W /c m 2 for a 10-fs pulse.
338 Conclusion
Experimental data on tunnel ionization o f atoms in a field o f picosecond and

22
subpicosecond pulses confirm that this estimate is accurate enough. In par
ticular, experiments have shown that ionization o f noble gas atoms takes place
in the field o f a 1-ps pulse with wavelength A sa 1 p m due to the tunnel effect.
Note that for longer wavelengths the tunnel ionization mechanism prevails for
longer pulses as well. Quantitative data on the intrinsic tunnel intensity It agree
quite well with the theory based on the approach taken by K eldysh .14
2 2
For atoms o f xenon It — 100 T W /c m , argon 400 T W /c m and neon
2
1 P W /c m ; for the singly ionized atoms the value o f It is higher. The tunnel
effect occurs as soon as the sum o f the Coulomb potential and ponderomotive
potential o f the laser field frees an electron.
Such a great increase in the optical breakdown threshold can lead to cardinal
changes in the character o f self-actions and interactions in transparent media.
_ 11 2
Indeed, for the nonlinear index n2 = 10 cm /k W , the nonlinear contribution
to the refractive index becomes comparable with its unperturbed “linear” value
at the intensity I — 100 T W /c m 2 . Obviously, under these conditions the char
acter o f self-focusing, self-modulation, and spectral broadening will differ from
that observed for small linear perturbations. In Refs. 19 and 20, devoted to
studies o f spectral superbroadening of high-power femtosecond pulses propagat
ing in noble gases, the authors describe new self-action effects lying outside the
scope o f traditional nonlinear optics.
The efficiency o f parametric conversions and generation o f the higher har
monics and combination frequencies depends on the relationship between the
characteristic nonlinear length Lnl , that is, the length characteristic o f energy
transfer between the waves, the group delay length L gr and the length o f disper
sive spreading Ld . The condition for efficient conversion L nl < min (L gr , L d )
is easier to meet at higher Ibd since Ln] ~ 1 / E , in media with quadratic non-
linearity, Lnl = ( k x ^ E ) 1. For x ' 2^ = 10 8 esu and intensity 1 T W /c m 2 we
obtain the estimate i n, < 0 . 1 cm and the dispersive effects can therefore be
neglected for pulses with duration o f about 100 fs. Moreover, in the crystals
_7
with sufficiently large nonlinearity ( x — 10 esu ) an increase o f the optical
breakdown threshold up to Ibd ss 100 T W /c m can bring about some qualita
tive changes in the nonlinear interaction picture. In this case, the higher terms
in the polarization expansion (3.1.1) become comparable with, and even exceed,
the lower terms.
(2 )
Finally, if the breakdown threshold and nonlinearity x are s0 great that
the nonlinear length L n[ and phase mismatch A k , caused by natural dispersion
o f the nonlinear medium, satisfy the inequality L n] < ( A k )-1 , then a special
choice o f the phase matching conditions becomes redundant. Thus, we pass from
the classical optics o f weakly nonlinear media with strong dispersion to the optics
o f highly nonlinear media with low dispersion.
Parametric interactions (parametric amplification, generation o f harmonics
sum and difference frequencies) o f high-power femtosecond pulses in crystals
with quadratic nonlinearity can be used to extend the frequency spectrum o f
generators o f superstrong optical fields. O f special interest is the development o f
Conclusion 339
frequency-tunable sources o f high-intensity radiation. Parametric down-conver-

sion o f radiation emitted by a high-power femtosecond excimer XeCl laser system
was reported in Ref. 21. A lithium triborate (LiBg0 5 ; LBO) crystal serving
as the nonlinear medium possesses a broad transmission band, spanning the
23 24
wavelength range from 0.19 to 2.6 p m , and a high breakdown threshold.
Injection o f a short seed pulse into an LBO crystal pumped by X eCl laser ra
diation triggers high-power femtosecond pulses tunable over the visible and IR
ranges; substantial simultaneous compression o f the generated pulses can thus
be accomplished.
A key parameter defining the output energy characteristics of such a trans
ducer is the optical breakdown threshold of the lithium triborate crystal. At
Jbd « 1 T W /c m 2 and rp = 200 fs the limiting pumping energy density Wlim =
0.2 J /c m substantially exceeds the saturation energy in an excimer amplifier.
The conversion o f wide-aperture beams o f superintense radiation o f femtosecond
systems may call for the development o f multielement nonlinear transducers. It
should be recalled that such a problem has been already successfully solved by
the designers o f the high-power laser systems applied in controlled nuclear fusion
experiments (see, e.g., Ref. 25).
At intensities above 100 T W /c m the frequency o f superstrong radiation can
be converted only by using a nonlinear plasma response or nonlinear response o f
quasifree electrons. Is effective frequency conversion possible in such a situation?
This problem has been and is being actively discussed in numerous publications.
In particular, the authors o f Ref. 3 consider the nonlinear response of an atom
ionized by a strong field. High-order optical harmonic generation in plasma due
to tunnel ionization o f atoms is treated in Ref. 5. So-called quasiresonant pro
cesses in ions have been found to be promising for nonlinearity enhancement. 26
A novel approach to the creation o f a nonlinear medium intended for trans-
formation o f radiation with intensities 1-100 P W /c m is proposed in Ref. 27.
The medium consists o f highly anharmonic relativistic electrons produced in the
nonuniform potential o f an intense optical beam. In fact, such a system can be
considered as a relativistic atom with controlled anharmonicity. The authors o f
Ref. 27 have come to the conclusion that an electron channel-driven in an inter
ference laser field may turn out to be an almost perfect medium for nonlinear
transformation o f high-power ultrashort pulses.
Fem tosecond laser plasm a as an active m edium

for picosecond x-ray sources and table-top x-ray lasers
Exposure o f strongly absorbing semiconductor and metal targets to high-power

femtosecond pulses leads to the formation o f a unique excited medium, the fem
tosecond laser plasma.
At intensities I > 100 T W /c m the single ionization o f atoms takes place
during time intervals less than 100 fs. The resulting electron plasma has a density
23 —3
N o f about 10 cm . For femtosecond pulses, the plasma expansion can be
practically totally disregarded. Even at plasma temperature T ~ 300 eV the
expansion velocity is equal to ti ~ 1 A /fs , and therefore a bunch of laser plasma
340 Conclusion
formed near the target surface, and having a typical thickness o f 500 to 600 A
(depending on the depth to which the laser radiation penetrates into the target),
remains constant during the propagation o f the pulse. There are some estimates
indicating that the degree o f ionization caused by collisions grows so rapidly that
24 3
one can expect to obtain an electron density Ne o f about 10 cm . At the
considered intensities the fast and practically linear increase in energy o f the
electrons can raise the electron temperature up to 1 keV.
2S
These basic facts were first discovered by Falcone and Murnane , who
studied the femtosecond dynamics and kinetics o f the electron temperature and
demonstrated that femtosecond x-ray pulses can indeed be generated. Numerous
experiments on the excitation and diagnostics o f a dense femtosecond plasma in
semiconductor and metal targets conducted later 29-32 resulted in the discovery
o f previously unpredicted properties o f this novel state o f matter.
The parameters o f femtosecond laser plasma were experimentally evaluated by
measuring the target reflectance and absorptance at different excitation levels,
with energy flux density w varying from 1 to 10,000 J /c m , and by studying the
spectral and temporal characteristics o f the inherent x-radiation o f the plasma.
In Ref. 31 the optical reflectance o f a femtosecond plasma generated in a silicon
target is shown to increase with excitation level, reaching about 75% at w =
1 k J /cm . This fact agrees with calculated results based on the classical Drude
model o f the permittivity. It should be recalled that in a field o f nanosecond
pulses the reflectance o f the laser plasma diminishes with an increase o f the
excitation energy owing to the hydrodynam ic expansion o f the plasma.
Self-reflection and self-absorption o f high-power femtosecond pulses by alu
minum and copper targets were investigated in Refs. 30 and 32. The experi-
12 15 2
ments, which were carried out at intensities 10 - 1 0 W /c m , made it possible
to evaluate the electron temperature Tg , electron density Ne , and character
istic femtosecond plasma density gradients L . It was shown that L/X < 0.2
at I fa 1 P W /c m 2 , Te « 200 eV, and Ne/N^ fa 6-8, where N & is the atom
concentration. This implies that a plasma with large density gradients is gener
ated. The increase in intensity up to 1-10 P W /c m 2 leads to a fast growth of
the electron temperature and nonlinear mechanisms start to predominate in the
absorption and reflection o f laser radiation.
The properties o f femtosecond laser plasma listed above make it very promis
ing as a lasing medium for the new sources o f high-power short bursts o f x-
radiation, that is, picosecond and subpicosecond table-top x-ray lasers.
Incoherent sources o f ultrashort x-ray pulses
Incoherent sources o f x-radiation using bremsstrahlung, inherent and thermal

radiation o f laser plasma have attracted the attention o f many research groups.
Dense femtosecond laser plasma serves as a means for the further improvement
o f such sources.
31
Falcone and co-workers reported record values o f x-ray pulse durations
achieved by focusing o f high-power femtosecond laser radiation on the surface o f
a single crystal o f silicon. In particular, 160-fs pulses with a wavelength of 0.6 // m
and energy o f 5 mJ were focused on the silicon surface to produce intensities of
Conclusion 341
2
10 P W /c m . The duration o f the generated x-ray pulse was measured by means
o f a high-speed x-ray camera to be equal to about 1.5 ps. The x-radiation
spectrum extended to 1-keV energies. To reduce the target cooling time, one
33
can use thin films instead o f massive targets. In this case the pulse can be
shortened down to 500 fs.
The spectral and energy parameters o f ultrashort x-ray pulses obtained so far
have still not reached their ultimate values. The x-ray spectrum is noticeably
affected by the laser radiation wavelength chosen “to match” the target material.
Excimer femtosecond systems are preferably used to obtain x-ray pulses with
34 22 23 _3
energies o f about 1 keV. In a dense (10 - 10 cm ) femtosecond plasma
the electrons with energy about 1 keV are capable o f producing via bremsstrah-
lung bursts o f hard x-radiation o f extremely high intensity. According to the
data published in Refs. 35 and 36, the efficiency o f conversion o f laser radiation
into x-rays can be increased up to 10 and even 20%. In the visible and near
IR ranges, this efficiency can be improved by increasing the absorptivity o f the
periodically modulated surfaces (see also Sec. 1.9).
In assessing the prospects for x-ray pulse sources employing incoherent radia
tion from femtosecond laser plasma, one should take into account the exceptional
progress that has been achieved in the development o f optical devices in the soft r
37
x-ray range, primarily multilayer dielectric mirrors. The authors of Refs. 34
and 38 have shown that a subpicosecond source o f soft x-rays (A « 40-100 A ),
using the incoherent radiation o f a femtosecond laser plasma and equipped with
a spherical x-ray mirror, yielded intensities exceeding 1 T W /c m . Construction
o f such incoherent sources will clear the way for x-ray diagnostics o f transient
states and offer ample scope for the physics and technology o f the interaction o f
x-radiation with matter.
Femtosecond laser plasm a as a lasing m edium for x-ray lasers;

towards a table-top x-ray laser
Laser plasma serves as the lasing medium for the most advanced current sys
tems; 40 in the well-known 208-A x-ray laser operating in the Lawrence Liv
ermore Laboratory 41 the medium is o f “collisional” type while in the shemes
discussed in Refs. 42 and 43 it is of “recombination” type.
In a collisional laser the upper levels become populated as a result of collisions
o f the ions with high-energy (1 .5 keV) electrons; laser plasma is produced at the
focus o f one channel in the powerful Nova-Novetta installation, which generates
nanosecond pulses with energies exceeding 100 kJ. In recent experiments with
x-ray recombination lasers Nd-glass systems generating high-energy nanosecond
pulses were utilized. In both types precise control o f the degree o f ionization and
the distribution o f electron energy is o f paramount importance.
In a femtosecond laser plasma the above mentioned parameters are controlled
44
in a natural way. M ultiphoton or tunnel ionization allows one to obtain a
practically cold laser plasma with very high degree o f ionization. To form the
required electron energy distribution, above-threshold ionization can be used.
These ideas underlie the design o f table-top x-ray lasers excited by solid-state or
excimer femtosecond laser systems.
342 Conclusion
Specific calculations o f the x-radiation gain in a recombining femtosecond

plasma are given in Ref. 45.
Pico- and femtosecond pulses o f incoherent x-radiation, generated by fem
tosecond laser plasma, can be used to pump photoionization x-ray lasers. To
provide an insight into the requirements that the exciting laser system should
meet, we cite, following Ref. 39, data concerning a neon-ion photoionization
x-ray laser. Incoherent x-ray radiation from a femtosecond laser plasma excited
by 100-fs 10-J laser pulses are needed to bring about population inversion o f the
K - a transition in neon (at the wavelength 14.6 A ). Such pulses have not been
produced so far. It should be kept in mind, however, that when the photoion-
ization x-ray laser is put into operation, it will be possible to focus the obtained
10-A coherent radiation to produce intensities as high as 102° W /c m 2.
Nonlinear x-ray optics

46
The first experiment in this area was carried out in 1970. Eisenberger and
McCall observed a parametric x-ray luminescence in a crystal with quadratic
nonlinearity, excited by high-power radiation emitted by a rotating-anode x-ray
tube. The subsequent 20 years have been marked only by theoretical activity; in
particular, the methods o f summation and subtraction o f x-ray and laser quanta
have been discussed.
A t the present time, incoherent sources o f picosecond x-ray pulses render
the study o f various effects o f nonlinear x-ray optics quite feasible. Am ong the
first-priority experiments planned by various research groups are the harmon
ics generation, registration o f self-actions in multilayer x-ray structures,47' 48
and studies o f various four-photon processes. Specifically, when the four-photon
processes involve the fields o f a tunable laser, they can be utilized to develop a
tunable x-ray source.
H igh-power short pulses: state o f the art
The records o f the modern femtosecond technology are listed in Table 2. It

reflects the state o f the art achieved by the middle o f 1990 and is based on
publications discussed in detail in the various sections o f this book. Assessing
the future prospects, we emphasize once again the importance o f superiritense
fields generated using femtosecond laser systems. By now, the vast potential o f
such investigations has been in large measure appreciated both from the view
point o f fundamental physics and o f diverse applications. At the same time, it
should also be pointed out that in this field one has every reason to expect the
creation o f new ideas, to obtain previously unpredicted results,' and to develop
innovative applications. In fact, we are talking about a breakthrough into the
♦ • 22 24 2
area o f enormous optical intensities reaching 1 0 - 1 0 W /c m and, possibly, x-
20 2
ray intensities o f about 10 W /c m , that is, into a quite new area o f radiation
physics and the interaction o f radiation with matter.
Conclusion 343
TABLE 2 . P ic o - a n d fe m t o s e c o n d te c h n o lo g y : s ta t e -o f-t h e -a r t
Pulses Parameters
Parameters microwave optical incoherent acoustical o f acoustical
x-ray pulses
Duration 1 6 500 5 Duration

(Ps) (fs) (fs) (Ps)
Power
(now) io 3 i o 13 io 2 3 ■106 Pressure
(W ) (W ) (W ) (bar)
(projected) io 9 i o 15 io 6 3 - 109
(W ) (W ) (W ) (bar)
Intensity
(now) io 6 i o 19 10s io 5 Pressure
(W /c m 2) (W /c m 2) (W /c m 2) (b a r/A ) gradient
(projected) i o 11 i o 24 i o 12 io 7
(W /c m 2) (W /c m 2) (W /c m 2) (b a r/A )
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Index
aberration coherence
phase 220 spatial 65
tem poral 28, 53
tem poral 65
absorbtion 83 color-center laser 234, 246
nonlinear 85 com plex amplitude 27
acoustic pulse 191 com plex index o f refraction 85
acoustic specroscopy 191 com pression 28
active m od e locking 282 fem tosecond pulse 221, 306
adaptive optics 221 noise pulse 213
am plification com pression length 31, 64
param etric 224
com pression ratio 28, 33, 256
Ram an 240
compressor
amplifier
grating 205, 219
dye 307
prism 207, 219
exim er 312
correlation
neodym ium -glass 311
spatial 65
am plitude
tem poral 65
com plex 27
correlation time 63
am plitude fluctuation 262
correlator 322
anom alous dispersion 13, 62, 204
critical power 103, 204, 228
approxim ation
cross-phase m odulation (X P M ) 307
aberration-free 105
cu bic dispersion 23
fixed-channel 123
cubic nonlinearity 85
fixed-field 140, 168, 173
fixed-intensity 143 dare soliton 115, 223
first order o f dispersion theory 140t 150, 156 difference-frequency 158, 160
second order o f dispersion theory 148, 167 diffraction
third order o f dispersion theory 23 Fraunhofer 26
grating 48
biharm onic pum ping 177
transient 51
bipolar pulse 160, 333
diffraction length 22, 57
B loch equation 116
dispersion
bright soliton 233
anomalous 13, 62, 204
Brillouin precursor 19
cu bic 23
C A R S spectroscopy 176 group-velocity 20
Cherenkov radiation 46, 160 interferometer 53
chirp normal 13, 62
o f nonlinearity 241
linear 16, 50
3t>4 Index
dispersive param eter 61 giant pulse 147, 152

dispersive length 21, 57, 63 Gires-Tournois interferometer 52
dispersive m edium 21 grating 48, 75
dispersive relation 11, 116, 120 grating com pressor 205, 219
dispersive spreading 55, 148 grating diffraction 24
dispersive system 26 Green’ s function 24
D uffing equation 91 group delay 140, 167
dye amplifier 307 group velocity 13
dye laser 286 group-velocity dispersion 20
group-velocity m ism atch 138, 140, 152
eigenfunction 61
eigenvalue 61, 68 idler wave 151
eigenstate 68 index o f refraction 85
electrooptical m od u la tor 283 inertial nonlinearity 96
envelope 15 instability
excim er am plifier 312 m odulational 121, 150
spatial 122
Fano factor 69 tem poral 119, 212
far-field zone 22, 55, 64, 254 interferometer
fast nonlinearity 138 G ires-Tournois 52
fem tosecond laser 277 Mach—Zander 326
fem tosecond pulse com pression 221, 306 Michelson 328
filter 41 interferometer dispersion 53
filtering inverse scattering m ethod 230, 253
optical 42 IR Cherenkov radiation 46, 160
fixed chanel approxim ation 123
fixed intensity approxim ation 143 K err effect 97
fluctuation
am plitude 262 laser
phase 262 color-center 234, 246
dye 286
foca l length 34
fem tosecond 286
fo ca l plane 57
form factor 229 frequency-tunable 284
Ram an 249
Fourier analysis 39
soliton 246
Fourier optics 26
synchronously-pum ped 286, 295
Fourier syntehesis 39
N d:Y A G 280
Fraunhofer diffraction 26
table-top x-ray 339
frequency
length
difference 158, 160
com pression 31, 64
R abi 117
sum 156 diffraction 22, 57
dispersive 21, 57, 63
frequency doublling 146
focal 34
frequency m od u lation 154
nonlinear 114
frequency-tunable laser 284
self-phase m odulation 93
fun ction
w alk-off 140, 153, 156, 167
G reen’s 24
linear chirp 16, 50
responce 85
linear susceptibility 85
spatial-correlation 65
master oscillator 280
tem poral-correlation 65
m ethod
Gaussian pulse 16 inverse scattering 230, 253
generation o f moments 215, 259
difference-frequency 138 positional, of reconstructing 267
param etric 296
M ichelson interferometer 328
second harm onic (SH G ) 139, 322
m irror
sound 191
spectral continuum 102, 110 multiple-layer dielectric 46
Index 365
m od e locking precursor
active 282 Brillouin 19
h ybrid 293 Sommerfeld 18
passive 285 prism com pressor 207
m odulation pulse
cross-phase (X P M ) 307 acoustic 191
frequency 21, 154 bipolar 160, 333
phase 21 focusing 55
random 262 Gaussian 16
self-phase (S P M ) 87, 203, 208 giant 147, 152
m odulational instability 121, 123 noise 17, 62, 214
m otion integral 232 phase-m odulated (P M ) 16
m ultiple-layer dielectric m irror 46 super-Gaussian 16, 34, 231
m ultiple-tim e responce fu n ction 84 transform-limited 15
pulse duration measurement 326
near-field zone 22 pulse shape control 218, 220
neodym ium -glass amplifier 311 pulse shape reversed 37
noise pulse 17, 62, 214 pum ping wave 151
noise pulse com pression 213
nonlinear absorption 85 Q-switched laser 283
nonlinear index o f refraction 83 quasy-steady-state responce 85
nonlinear length 114 quasy-steady-state self-focusing 90
nonlinear polarization 84 quantum pulse 66, 127
nonlinear Schrodinger equation (N LS) 113, 229
n onlinear susceptibility 84 R abi frequency 117
n onlinear x-ray optics 342 Ram an gain 169
n orm al dispersion 13t 62 Ram an soliton laser 249
Ram an soliton 172
operator random m odulation 64, 123, 260
p h o to n annihilation 67 refraction
ph oton creation 67 index o f 59
optica l com pressor 298 com plex 85
optica l detection nonlinear 83
optica l filtering 42 resonant soliton 113, 115
optica l losses 239 responce
optica l sam pling oscilloscope 186 quasi-steady-state 84
optica l soliton 227 nonlinear 84
transient m olecular 173
param etric am plification 151 responce function 85
param etric generation 296 root-m ean-square duration 15
param etric interaction 150
param etric oscillator 297 scattering
param etric soliton stimulated Ram an (SRS) 165
paraxial approxim ation 103 second harmonic generation 139, 322
passive m o d e lockin g 285 self-action 87
phase 15 self-action o f random pulses 123
phase fluctuation 262 self-compression 87, 114, 236
phase m atching 159 self-focusing 87, 102
phase measurem ent 326 quasi-steady-state 103
phase m od u lation 21 transient 106
phase m od u la ted pulse 16 self-indused transparency 117
ph oton annihilation operator 128 self-phase m odulation (SP M ) 87, 203, 208
ph oton creation operator 128 self-phase m odulation length 93
polarisation self-steepening 98
nonlinear 84 shock wave 98
transient 191 signal wave 151
p ositional m ethod 267 single-m ode fiber 59
366 Index
slowly varying am plitude (SV A ) 12 w alk-of length 140, 153, 156, 167
soliton 113 wave
bright 233 idler 151
dark 233 pum ping 131
optical 227 signal 151
param etric 157 Stokes 176
Ram an 172 wave packet 11
resonant 113, 115 wave transience 149
Schrodinger 113 waveguide 59
soliton interaction 244 waveguide dispersion 62
soliton laser 246 W o o d anom aly 72, 74
soliton statistics 258
Som m erfeld precursor 18
sound generation 191
spatial coherence 65
spatial correlation fu n ction 65
spatial-tem poral analogy 14
spectral broadening 96, 100, 108, 204
spectral contonuum 102, 110
spectral w idth 15
spectrochronography 176, 180
spectron 37
spectroscopy
acou stic 191
C A R S 176
steady-state 177
transient 178, 183, 189
spectrum reconstruction 189
squeezed light 129
squeezing 129
steady-state spectroscopy 177
stim ulated Ram an scattering (SR S) 165
Stokes wave 176
slim frequency 156
super-G aussian pulse 16, 34, 231
superlntense radiation 334
superbroadening 108
susceptibility 85
synchronously-pum ped laser 286
tem poral aberration 28, 53

tem poral coherence 65
tem poral instability 119, 212
tim e focusin g 28
“ time” lens 33
total internal reflection (T IR ) 44
transform lim ited pulse 15
transient diffraction 51
transient frequency dou blin g 143
transient m olecular responce 173
transient polarization C A R S spectroscopy 191
transient spectroscopy 178, 183, 189
truncated equations 89
van C ittert-Z em ik e theorem 64
waist 58

Optics of Femtosecond Laser Pulses - Akhmanov, V.A. Vysloukh, A.S. Chirkin

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Optics of Femtosecond

American Institute o f Physics

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The English translation o f Optics o f Femtosecond Laser Pulses goes to press

from 10 to 1000 M W at a frequency o f about 1 THz. A new impetus has also

Moscow Strgei A. Akhmanov

o f experimental research o f various self-actions and interactions o f ultrashort

Preface to English edition

Compression o f PM optical pulses and focusing o f opti­

2. Self-action o f optical pulses: self-m odulation, self-

3. Parametric interactions and coherent scattering o f

3.7. Ultrashort optical pulses in coherent light scattering

4. Fast phase control; compression and shaping o f op­

5. O ptical solitons; picosecond and fem tosecond pulses

5.3. Experimental demonstration o f optical solitons 234

6. Femtosecond laser system s 277

Nonlinear filtering and compression o f pulses produced

T h e fem tosecond laser pulse technique as a new stage in the studies

Generation and shaping o f optical pulses: from intensity m odulation

FIG . 1.2. O ptical pulse generation techniques: (a) am plitude m od ulation in a

The phase-matching o f various broadband spectral components makes it pos­

= 7r c / I / , A w a ^ , then the combined field

V)(<pl t <p7, <pN ) = JJw n(<Pn) > «'„(»’„) = V2T,

T o simplify, the amplitudes are taken here to be equal, p y = p 2 — •••= pN = p ,

1.1. Linear propagation of short

Optics o f wave packets; the historical background

The various problems relating to propagation o f wave packets in a linear disper­

The propagation o f a plane wave packet in a linear isotropic dispersive medium

where E {i , z ) is an electric field strength and

is a linear electric induction in a homogeneous nonmagnetic medium without spa­

is the relative dielectric permittivity o f a medium at a frequency w . According

E (t, z ) = -l A ( t , *)e’'(< v - V ) + e x ., (1,1.8)

where k0 = u Q/ v , and v = c/n(u>0) is the phase velocity. Substituting

Neglecting the derivatives d™e0(u>)/dum in Eq. (1.1.9) is equivalent to ignoring

the parameter d3k2jdu>3 in the second-order approximation for which

still further. By using a moving coordinate system (z = z , rj = t — z/u) , it is

( £ - £ £ > * < ’ ■ *>= » <“ •“ >

The solution (1.1.15) satisfies the boundary condition A = A 0(t) at z = 0.

T h e spatio-tem poral analogy

Equation (1.1.14) is similar to the parabolic equation

( ^ +^ ) ' 4(’'' z) = a '

(where A ± = d 2/dx2 + d 2/dy2 is the transverse Laplacian) which is extensively

Equation (1.1.16) corresponds to the so-called quasioptic approximation which is

A Q(t) = p0(t)ei'p°ii\ (1.1.18)

* ™ = [f~2 - ( f ) 2]1 /2 , (1.1.19)

^ = W~1 J u ns0(w )d w , n= 1,2,3,..., (1.1.22a)

s0(w) = 2ir\A0(u))\2 = (27I-)-1 J A 0(t) e

Now let us pass to consideration o f specific optical pulses.

PoM ~ Pos e c h (.t /TQ) > (1.1.24)

Pott) = Po exP H 2/ 2ro)- (1.1.25)

For a Gaussian puke (1.1.25), K = 1 /2 . In all other cases, K > 1 /2 ; e.g.,

T,0A w 0 —2, — 4 In 2 , (1.1.26)

where A u 0 and A a r e the spectral widths at the levels corresponding to

¥>„(*) = - V 2/2 . (1-1.27)

6w(t) = w(t) — = d<p0(t)/dt ~ —a Qt , (1.1.28)

where a Q is the rate o f frequency variation.

= A u j l + K r 02) f 2 , r0A W0pm = 2[1 + . (1.1.29)

where m = I , 2 , 3 , . . . ; d = ar^’” . Such a pulse is typical for a semicon-

rrmsO = ? (ra) ro . «*("*) = (1.1.32)

For a Gaussian pulse <?(!) = l /\ /2 , whereas for a super-Gaussian pulse the

The function F ( t ) corresponds to a regular pulse that can be either transform-

where a is the variance o f the process.

1.2. Propagation of a steep-front

Compression o f PM optical pulses and focusing o f opti

4. Fast phase control; compression and shaping o f op

The phase-matching o f various broadband spectral components makes it pos

The various problems relating to propagation o f wave packets in a linear disper

is a linear electric induction in a homogeneous nonmagnetic medium without spa

rrmsO = ? (ra) ro . «(") = (1.1.32)

In this approximation the propagation o f an optical pulse is described by a par

FIG . 1.5. Transform ation o f a Gaussian pulse profile (a ) in a dispersive lin

■„».() = w { ( l - “ o V ) 2 + [1 + (/V o 3) 2] ( ^ d) Y /2 - (1-4-15)

where K ( Q , z) is the frequency transfer function, or simply, the transmis

In Ref. 28 the authors reported an almost fivefold compression in a single