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WEEK-2
According to Cline et al. (2006), "Reading is the process of decoding and
understanding written texts."

● This involves the translation of the symbols of a writing system into spoken words
that they represent.
● The effectiveness of this process is determined by several factors, including the
purpose of reading, the context in which the reading occurs, the nature of the text
being read, and the readers' strategies and knowledge.

Decoding involves three skills: phonological awareness, alphabetic knowledge, and

orthographic knowledge

1. Phonological awareness includes the ability to segment sounds, rhyme, and

identify syllables.
2. Alphabetic knowledge, or The Alphabetic Principle, which is the understanding
that letters are used to represent speech sounds.
3. Orthographic knowledge is the understanding of the writing system to represent
language this can include spelling, punctuation, and capitalization.

Reading is decoding and understanding written texts.

Purposes
● to be entertained Reader’s Schema
● to get information ● formal schema - knowledge of text
● to understand ideas or theories types, genres, structures
● to understand the author’s ● linguistic schema - knowledge
viewpoint about vocabulary and grammar)
● to support one’s view content schema - knowledge of the
content area of the text)
Context ● culture - set of beliefs, customs,
● set of circumstances (social, attitudes, etc.
cultural, political, historical) that
affect the meaning and Nature of the text
interpretation of a text ● structure
the when, where, and why of a text ● purpose (informative, persuasive,
argumentative)
● context
● audience
● academic or non-academic
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According to Day and Bamford (1998)

“Reading is meaning construction from a printed or written message.”
the reader connecting information from the written message with previous knowledge to
arrive at meaning and understanding.

According to Goodman (1967),

“Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game that involves interaction between thought and
language.”
Goodman argues that the object of reading is not to recognize letters and words, but to
make sense of print: to construct meaning.

According to Heilman (1967),

“Critical reading is the ability to arrive at the author’s main ideas.”

According to Betts (1957),

“Critical reading is done when the reader analyzes the material which he reads and
questions the validity of inferences drawn.”

According to Carter (1953)

“Critical reading emphasizes the higher through processes having to do with
selection-rejection of ideas, the relationships between ideas, and the organization of
information.”

Critical reading is an analytic activity. The reader rereads a text to identify patterns of
elements: information, values, assumptions, and language usage, throughout the discussion.
These elements are tied together in an interpretation, an assertion of an underlying meaning
of the text as a whole.

When you read critically…

● you analyze the circumstances of the publication of a piece of writing.
● Who wrote it?
● When and where it was published?
● Why it was written?

● you question how the author reaches his or her conclusions and on what
evidence these are based
● You evaluate any original research the author might have done, as well as
any other sources the author uses to support his or her points
● you compare and contrast this piece of writing with what you already know
about the topic.
● you consider whether it supports what others have written or whether it
presents a new opinion.
● you assess the strengths, weaknesses and general validity of a piece of
writing, based on your careful reading of it.
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Pre-reading Questions:
➔ Where was this text published? Was it published in a peer-reviewed academic
journal, or somewhere else? How can you tell? Why does it matter?
➔ When was this text published? Is the publication date important? Is the material still
relevant, or is it dated?
➔ Who wrote the text? What do we know about this person? What credentials might
this author have? What biases might he or she have?
➔ What is the author’s opinion of the topic being discussed? Why did the author write
this text? Who is the text intended for? What does the author want the reader to do
as a result of reading this text?

While-reading Questions:
➔ Is this a purely factual piece, or does the author present a personal opinion here?
How can you tell what is a fact and what is an opinion?
➔ Does the text present a convincing argument about the topic in question? Has the
author done empirical research, and if so, what conclusions are reached? Does the
research methodology justify the conclusions presented? Are charts and graphs
used? What information do they give?
➔ Who wrote the text? What do we know about this person? What credentials might
this author have? What biases might he or she have?
➔ What is the author’s opinion of the topic being discussed? Why did the author write
this text? Who is the text intended for? What does the author want the reader to do
as a result of reading this text?
➔ If the author is not presenting the results of his or her own empirical research, how
are the author’s points supported? Are there statistics? If so, where from? How about
quotations from others? If so, who is being quoted? Does the author rely on
anecdotes? If so, are these convincing? How effective is the author’s use of
supporting detail?
➔ How do you respond to a text that has no supporting evidence at all, but is simply a
well-written presentation of the author’s own opinion?
➔
Post-reading Questions:
➔ What is the larger context of this work? How does the text support or contradict other
opinions on this topic? Who might agree with the text? Who might disagree? What
should you do if a text presents an opinion that is very different from those presented
in other articles you have read on the same topic? Should you ignore it, or should
you consider it?
➔ How does the text compare with your own experiences and opinions? Does it support
your own experiences, or does it contradict them? Does the text contain information
(for example, about your home country) that you know to be incorrect?
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Reading comprehension is the ability to process text, understand its meaning, and to
integrate with what the reader already knows.

Improved writing skills

- Reading comprehension can help improve your writing skills—exposure to different
writing styles and ways of communicating ideas in various genres builds your
vocabulary. That exposure also leads you to develop your writing style and improve
your communication skills.

Developing critical thinking and analytical skills

- Another benefit of reading comprehension is that it can help to improve your critical
thinking skills. When trying to understand a text, you analyze and make sense of the
information you are reading. You can then apply that critical-thinking process to other
areas of your life.

Improved problem-solving skills

- Reading comprehension allows finding solutions to problems to come naturally.It also
encourages empathic listening, logical thinking, thinking flexibility, and persistence to
find solutions.

Increased empathy and understanding

- Improving reading comprehension can lead to increased empathy and
understanding, especially for children and adolescents. As they learn to read and
comprehend texts, they also develop their ability to see things from another person’s
perspective. That helps them become more tolerant and understanding of others,
even those who may be different.

Improving memory and recall

- Active involvement in reading comprehension helps you to remember better what you
read. That’s because your brain is actively processing the information as you read,
which allows you to embed it.

Enhancing concentration and focus

- Research shows that the simple act of understanding what you read can help to
improve your attention span. When you comprehend the material, your brain can
better filter distractions and focus on the task.
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WEEK-3

ACADEMIC TEXTS
● are written by experts or scholars in a particular field
● have undergone the peer-review process
● references are organized and compiled
● are considered as primary sources
1. RESEARCH PAPER - a paper that presents the author’s interpretation,
evaluation, or argument of a topic or issue
2. LAB REPORT - an account of an experiment and what was discovered
during the experiment.
3. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY- a list of citations to books, articles, and
documents followed by a brief descriptive and evaluative paragraph
QUESTION TO CONSIDER
1. Who wrote it? (an academic or a “layperson”?)
2. Who is it written for? (an academic audience or the general
public?)
3. Where is it published? (is it from an academic source? e.g. an
academic journal, or a university press)
4. Is it peer-reviewed?

PEER-REVIEW
● It is designed to assess the validity, quality, and often the originality of articles for
publication.
● Its ultimate purpose is to maintain the integrity of science by filtering out invalid or
poor-quality articles.

NON-ACADEMIC TEXTS
● Authorship is not limited to credentials or writing ability, therefore it can be written by
anyone
● Creativity is favored over credibility
● written for the general public
● references are not required
● are considered as secondary sources
● Most articles published in magazines, in newspapers and on websites are often not
academic.
● These might be accurate and might be useful.
● Since they are not reviewed, they might not be accurate or useful.
1. EDITORIAL- an article that presents the newspaper's opinion on an
issue.
2. BLOG POST - an informational website run by an individual, group, or
corporation that offers regularly updated content about a topic
3. BUSINESS LETTER - a professional and formal letter used as a
means of communication between business clients, employees, and
stakeholders
4. ESSAY - a piece of nonfiction writing that informs the reader about a
topic or argues a perspective
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AUTHOR’S CREDENTIALS
- the author’s qualifications to write with authority on a particular topic.
● What educational background does the author have?
● Has he or she published previously on this topic?
● Is the author considered an authority on the topic?

AUTHOR’S BIAS
- it is any opinion or prejudice that affects that author’s writing and prevents the author
from being completely neutral about the topic or issue about which he/she is writing.
● Did a particular company sponsor the research?
● Was the author paid to promote a particular point of view?
● Commercial websites may give readers a one-sided view of their product or
service.
● Only one side of the argument is presented.
● Generalizations are common. Sweeping statements are made without any
real support.
● Extreme statements are used; these are designed to have an emotional effect
on the reader.

AUTHOR’S STANCE
- the opinion, position, or point of view of the author.

AUDIENCE
● it refers to who the text is aimed at
○ Who was the text written for?
○ Was it written for an academic or a general audience?

AUTHOR’S PURPOSE
An academic article
● the reason why the text was written, the goal of the author
● An academic article
● to contribute to his or her field
● to add to the bank of knowledge available on a topic

A non-academic text:
■ to report on new information using language accessible to a general
audience
■ to persuade/convince the reader to adopt a certain belief or to act in a
certain way
■ to warn the reader about something
■ to give advice or suggest a course of action
■ to reassure the reader about something
■ to entertain or amuse the reader
■ to advertise a product or service
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WEEK-4

As you read, you will encounter statements that fall into one of these categories:

● This is a fact; I can’t argue with this.

● This could well be a fact, but I need to see some evidence.
● This is the opinion of the author or someone quoted by the author.

FACTS
● are pieces of information that no one can argue with.
● can be confirmed by numerous independent sources

● Questions to consider
● What evidence/s is/are the author giving me to make me believe this
statement?
● Could the author be biased in some way?
● Where did you find the information? Is the source reliable?

OPINIONS
● are the personal ideas of the author

● Opinion verbs
○ if the author thinks or believes
● Adjectives
○ if the author describes something as great, terrible, amazing, terrifying
or any adjectives expressing personal feelings
○ use of comparative and superlative terms such as better, more
interesting, not as good, the most important
○ use of comparative and superlative terms such as better, more
interesting, not as good, the most important

● Modal verbs
○ if the author states that something should or must happen

● The Author’s pieces of evidence

○ Determining textual evidence will allow readers to evaluate the author’s
argument better.
○ It will allow readers to validate the assertions of the author
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EVIDENCE
● Details provided by the author to support his/her claim.
● it must be a single fact or set of facts
● PRECISE-DESCRIPTIVE-FACTUAL
● An author can use the following as evidence:
1. Statistical Evidence
2. Testimonial Evidence
3. Anecdotal Evidence
4. Quotation
5. Visual Items

STATISTICAL EVIDENCE
● numerical data that came from reliable sources and are the product of research (e.g.,
large-scale scientific studies)
○ polls, census data, experiment results, crime statistics, surveys, economic
data

TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE
● statements that came from the judgment of experts and authorities
● direct interviews with experts
○ quotes from an expert’s book, paper, or other material
○ own’s specialized knowledge if one has the credentials or experience to
support it

ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE
● evidence based on individual accounts and narrative; they are not based on scientific
research
● information passed along by word-of-mouth
● casual observations of situations
● a report of an experience that is not objectively documented

Ask yourself:
○ To what extent are the anecdotes in the text representative of a larger group?
○ Can the examples of these people be generalized to a larger group?
○ Are they extreme cases, chosen specifically to support a dubious claim?

QUOTATIONS
● these are pieces of text copied directly from another source. The writer refers to
someone else’s writing or speech to support the argument.

Ask yourself:
● Who is being quoted?
● What do you know about this person?
● Are you sure this person said the quotation?
● What was the context in which the quotation was said?
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VISUAL ITEMS
● refers to photographs, illustrations, graphs, charts, tables, diagrams, and maps.

Ask yourself:
● What purpose does the visual support serve?
● Why was the picture chosen? What response does the author want to
elicit by using the picture?

WHEN NO EVIDENCE IS PRESENTED

● The author will attempt to convince the reader by creating empathy
● The author may choose to use “we” rather than “people”

● You and I have something in common; we both feel the same way about this
issue.”
● The author may describe hypothetical situations that appeal to the reader’s
emotions
● ‘Consider, for instance, what would happen to a young mother who had an
abortion: she would likely be forever plagued with guilt because of the
heinous nature of her action.”
● The author may oversimplify a complex topic.
● “School violence has gone up and academic performance has gone down
since video games featuring violence were introduced. Therefore, violent
video games should be banned, resulting in school improvement.”