Ciria 184

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flooring
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Screeds,
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and finishes
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Contents
List of figures ......................................................................................................................... 8

List of tables ......................................................................................................................... 10
Abbreviations ................................................................................................................ 12
1 I N T R O D U C T I O N .......................................................................................... 13
1.1 Purpose and scope ............................................................................................... 13
1.2 Terms and definitions ..........................................................................................13
1.3 Use of guide....................................................................................................... 20
2 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS OF FINISHED FLOOR ............ 22

2.1 Finished floor properties ..................................................................................... 23
2.1.1 Slip resistance ......................................................................................... 23
2.1.2 Abrasion resistance ................................................................................ 27
2.1.3 Impact resistance .................................................................................. 31
2.1.4 Chemical resistance................................................................................ 33
2.1.5 Thermal resistance................................................................................. 37
2.1.6 Levels and flatness ................................................................................ 39
2.1.7 Ease of cleaning. .................................................................................... 43
2.1.8 Electrostatic properties ......................................................................... 45
2.1.9 Acoustic properties .............................................................................. 47
2.1.10 Anti-taint properties ............................................................................ 49
2.1.11 Permeability .......................................................................................... 49
2.1.12 Flammability.......................................................................................... 52
2.1.13 Access to services ................................................................................. 54
2.1.14 Sports and recreational flooring – additional properties .................. 56
2.1.15 Appearance............................................................................................. 58
2.2 Traffic-related service conditions ..................................................................... 60
2.3 Flooring types ...................................................................................................... 62
2.3.1 Direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces ....................................... 62
2.3.2 Toppings and in-situ applied floorings ............................................... 63
2.3.3 Applied flexible floorings .................................................................. 72
2.3.4 Rigid tile applied floorings ................................................................ 78
2.3.5 Timber floorings ................................................................................... 84
3 FLOORING SYSTEMS................................................................................ 88
3.1 Factors affecting choice of flooring system ...................................................... 88
3.1.1 Structural bases .................................................................................... 89
3.1.2 Flooring.................................................................................................. 97
3.1.3 Service conditions and finished floor properties .............................. 99
3.1.4 Construction restrictions .................................................................... 106
3.1.5 Alternative systems............................................................................ 106
3.2 Selection of flooring systems. .......................................................................... 110
3.3 Relative costs .................................................................................................... 111
3.3.1 Definitions of categories of costs ...................................................... 111
3.3.2 Analysis of construction and future costs ........................................ 112
CIRIA Report 184 5

3.3.3 Analysis of effect of floor system on site
overhead costs .................................................................................... 113
4 STRUCTURAL BASES ............................................................................... 114

4.1 Direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces ..................................................... 114
4.1.1 Control of movement s ....................................................................... 115
4.1.2 Surface accuracy ............................................................................... 116
4.1.3 Surface quality.................................................................................... 117
4.1.4 Finishing processes ............................................................................ 119
4.1.5 Surface hardeners/sealers/dustproofer s ............................................ 126
4.2 Preparation of bases to receive flooring systems ........................................... 128
4.2.1 Timber structural bases ..................................................................... 128
4.2.2 Concrete structural bases .................................................................. 129
4.2.3 Existing bases or flooring ................................................................. 139
5 SCREEDS ....................................................................................................... 140

5.1 Cementitious screed s......................................................................................... 141

5.1.1 Cement/sand and fine concrete screeds
(including traditional and modified) ............................................... 143
5.1.2 No-fines screeds .................................................................................. 159
5.2 Anhydrite screeds (traditional hand-laid) ...................................................... 166
5.3 Flow-applied screeds (cement and anhydrite based) ..................................... 171
5.4 Smoothing compounds ..................................................................................... 177
5.5 Levelling compounds ...................................................................................... 181
5.6 Heated screeds ............................................................................................... 182
5.7 Bituminous/asphaltic screeds ......................................................................... 184
6 TOPPINGS AND IN-SITU APPLIED FLOORINGS............................. 188

6.1 High-strength concrete toppings (including granolithic) ............................ 188
6.2 Polymer-modified cementitious flooring ....................................................... 196
6.3 Flow-applied cementitious flooring ............................................................... 204
6.4 Asphaltic and bituminous floorings ............................................................... 208
6.4.1 Mastic asphalt flooring .................................................................... 208
6.4.2 Proprietary bituminous flooring ...................................................... 213
6.5 Resin flooring ................................................................................................... 216
6.6 In-situ terrazzo flooring .................................................................................. 225
6.7 Magnesium oxychloride flooring .................................................................... 234
7 APPLIED FLOORINGS............................................................................. 240

7.1 Flexible applied flooring ................................................................................. 240
7.1.1 Flexible sheet and tile ...................................................................... 241
7.1.2 Textile floorings ............................................................................... 247
7.2 Rigid tile applied flooring s ............................................................................. 250
7.2.1 Ceramics ............................................................................................ 251
7.2.2 Natural stone ...................................................................................... 259
7.2.3 Precast terrazzo ................................................................................. 264
7.2.4 Conglomerates .................................................................................... 270
7.2.5 Composition block ............................................................................. 274
7.3 Timber-based flooring ...................................................................................... 279
7.3.1 Block, mosaic and parquet ................................................................ 284
7.3.2 Board and strip .................................................................................. 285
6 CIRIA Report 184

7.3.3 Cork ..................................................................................................... 287
7.3.4 Surface treatments .............................................................................. 288
7.3.5 Testing ................................................................................................. 288
8 T E S T IN G ....................................................................................................... 289
8.1 Proof testing.. .................................................................................................... 290
8.1.1 Materials and components testing .................................................... 290
8.1.2 Constructional monitoring on site. .................................................... 301
8.2 Finished performance/acceptance testing ....................................................... 314
8.2.1 Slip resistance. .................................................................................... 314
8.2.2 Abrasion/impact resistance ............................................................... 316
8.2.3 Levels and flatnes s ............................................................................. 319
8.2.4 Electrostatic properties ..................................................................... 322
8.2.5 Bond testing ....................................................................................... 323
8.2.6 Inspection for appearance, cracking and
detachment ......................................................................................... 325
8.2.7 Sports floorings ................................................................................. 329
9 FAILURE, REPAIR AND REFURBISHMENT ................................. 332

9.1 Failure investigation s ..................................................................................... 332
9.2 Common types of failure and repair ............................................................. 333
9.2.1 Collapse of cement/sand screeds .................................................... 334
9.2.2 Delamination in no-fines screeds ................................................... 335
9.2.3 Cracking and detachment of high-strength
concrete toppings . ............................................................................. 336
9.2.4 Osmosis in resin floorings ............................................................... 338
9.2.5 Disruption of flexible floorings over cracks or joints .................... 339
9.2.6 Loss of adhesion of impervious flexible flooring through moisture
effects.................................................................................................. 342
9.2.7 Impact damage of adhesive-bedded ceramic tiling.. ........................ 344
9.2.8 Terrazzo tile grouted joint disruptions ........................................... 345
9.3 Refurbishment ................................................................................................. 347
9.3.1 Structural requirements .................................................................... 348
9.3.2 Moisture condition......... ................................................................... 348
9.3.3 Contamination and hazardous materials ........................................ 348
9.3.4 Physical condition of screeds and bases.. .......................................... 349
9.3.5 Site or time restrictions .................................................................... 350
10 CLEANING AND MAINTENANCE ....................................................... 351

10.1 Cementitious-based flooring. ........................................................................... 352
10.2 Polymer-modified cementitious toppings ....................................................... 352
10.3 Resin flooring .................................................................................................. 353
10.4 Flexible (resilient sheet and tile) flooring.. .................................................... 353
10.5 Textile flooring. ................................................................................................ 355
10.6 Rigid tile flooring ............................................................................................ 356
10.7 Timber-based flooring ..................................................................................... 356
10.8 Asphalt flooring ............................................................................................... 357
10.9 Magnesium oxychloride flooring (magnesite). .............................................. 358
11 HEALTH AND SAFETY ............................................................................ 359

11.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 359
11.2 The hazards ...................................................................................................... 361
ClRlA Report 184 7

11.2.1 Removal of existing flooring ................................................................ 361
11.2.2 Laying new flooring ............................................................................ 362
11.3 Spillage ....................................................................................................... 363
11.4 Waste disposal ............................................................................................... 364
11.5 Safety aspects in service .................................................................................. 364
Appendix 1 Selection of preferred flooring systems ................................... 365
Appendix 2 Examples of construction and future costs ............................. 395
Appendix 3 Construction and future costs ................................................... 399
Bibliography.................................................................................................... 404
List of figures
Fig. 1.1 Flow chart showing sequence of guide use ................................................ 21

Fig. 2.1 Typical synthetic anhydrite partial access floo r...................................... 55
Fig. 2.2 Flow-applied cementitious flooring ........................................................ 67
Fig. 2.3 In-situ terrazzo feature panel in terrazzo-tiled floor. . .............................. 68
Fig. 3.1 Examples of structural base types .......................................................... 90
Fig. 3.2 Typical joint sections in resin floorings ............................................... 100
Fig. 3.3 Cracks in joints between ceramic tiles, cracks through the
tile and bed, voidage beneath tiles. Risk of ingress of
aggressive liquids to structural base ...................................................... 101
Fig. 3.4 Sacrificial tile flooring and screed/bed over a chemically
resistant membrane.. ...............................................................................101
Fig. 3.5 Effect of base variations on thickness criteria. . ...................................... 103
Fig. 3.6 Wide buried trunking covered with thin screed. Risk of
initial cracking, loosening of screed over, and secondary
disruption under applied loads ............................................................. 104
Fig. 3.7 Surface flush trunking system. Can avoid the problem of
disruption of thin screed over buried trunking. ................................... 104
Fig. 3.8 Reinforcing mesh over conduit or pipes ............................................... 105
Fig. 3.9 Schematic diagram of ventilated screed or overslab. ............................ 109
Fig. 4.1 Typical metal arris protection to expansion joint in direct-
finished concrete floor ........................................................................... 116
Fig. 4.2 Vacuum dewatering process. ................................................................ 120
Fig. 4.3 Power trowel. Photo shows float disc fitted over
trowel blades. ....................................................................................... 122
Fig. 4.4 Multi-headed ride-on power trowel ....................................................... 122
Fig. 4.5 Low-speed power grinder ..................................................................... 124
Fig. 4.6 Monolithic high-strength concrete topping . ......................................... 124
Fig. 4.7 Mechanical surface preparation ............................................................ 137
Fig. 5.1 Bonded cement/sand screed. NBS rationalised design ......................... 145
Fig. 5.2 Cement/sand or fine concrete screed construction methods ................. 146
Fig. 5.3 Relationship between base tolerance, screed thickness, screed type and
construction type for cementitious screeds ............................................ 150
Fig. 5.4 ‘Snowball’ test for cement/sand screed workabilit y .............................. 155
8 CIRIA Report 184

Fig. 5.5 Cement/sand screed compaction ............................................................. 156
Fig. 5.6 Use of wet-levels .................................................................................... 157
Fig. 5.7 No-fines lightweight aggregate screed. .................................................. 160
Fig. 5.8 Consistency of no-fines basecoat mi x ...................................................... 164
Fig. 5.9 Flow-applied scree d................................................................................... 172
Fig. 6.1 High-strength concrete toppings .............................................................. 189
Fig. 6.2 Suspended bases subject to deflection. Control joints should be used over
rigid supports to reduce cracking risk. .................................................... 192
Fig. 6.3 Typical metal angle arris protection of expansion joint in polymer-
modified cementitious flooring subject to vehicular traffic. .................. 198
Fig. 6.4 Typical skirting details in synthetic resin flooring. ............................... 220
Fig. 6.5 Schematic diagram of failure by osmosis. .............................................. 225
Fig. 6.6 In-situ terrazzo/screed construction. ....................................................... 227
Fig. 6.7 In-situ terrazzo dividing strips.. ............................................................... 229
Fig. 7.1 Stress relief joints in ceramic tile flooring ............................................. 253
Fig. 7.2 Incorporation of preformed movement joint sections in semi-dry bed.
Bed day joints should coincide with preformed joint positions to avoid
crack risks.. ............................................................................................... 257
Fig. 7.3 Coordination of joints in structural base. Risk of cracking due to non-
orthogonal joint orientation .................................................................... 260
Fig. 7.4 Staining of granite flooring caused by leaching from sealant. ...... ........ 262
Fig. 7.5 Terrazzo tile grouted join ts....................................................................... 267
Fig. 7.6 Typical cement-based marble conglomerate tile. .................................. 271
Fig. 7.7 Shear plane in piece of conglomerate tile induced by large aggregate
size. ............................................................................................................ 272
Fig. 7.8 Filling of dovetail keyways in composition block .................................. 275
Fig. 7.9 Conversion of timber.. .............................................................................. 282
Fig. 8.1 Rebound hammer assessment of concrete substrate surface hardness. 305
Fig. 8.2 Pull-off test assessment of concrete surface tensile strength. ............... 305
Fig. 8.3 BRE screed soundness tester and depth gauge ..................................... 306
Fig. 8.4 Curling and lipping of cement/sand screed. ........................................... 309
Fig. 8.5 Schematic diagram of BS 8203 hygrometer test. ................................... 312
Fig. 8.6 TRL pendulum slip-resistance teste r....................................................... 314
Fig. 8.7 Tortus slip-resistance tester. .................................................................... 315
Fig. 8.8 Concrete abrasion tester. .......................................................................... 318
Fig. 8.9 The profilergraph for measurement of high-accuracy
floors.. ......................................................................................................... 320
Fig. 8.10 Schematic diagram of pull-off test to determine bond strength
to BS 8204 Part 3 Annex B2 ................................................................... 324
Fig. 8.11 Severe cracking and curling of high-strength concrete topping adjacent
to day joint. ............................................................................................... 327
Fig. 9.1 Collapse of cement/sand screed due to inadequate
soundness.................................................................................................... 334
Fig. 9.2 Void beneath severely curled section of over-thick high-
strength concrete topping. ....................................................................... 337
CIRIA Report 184 9

Fig. 9.3 Resin-bonded dowel anchorage of curled high-strength
concrete topping adjacent to cracks or joints ............................................. 337
Fig. 9.4 Mechanically anchored reinforcement provision for replacement of over-
thick high-strength concrete toppings........................................................ 338
Fig. 9.5 Failure of resin flooring due to osmosis................................................... 339
Fig. 9.6 Rippling of vinyl sheet over crack in screed............................................ 340
Fig. 9.7 Diagrams of mechanism leading to rippling of flooring over
curled screed.............................................................................................. 340
Fig. 9.8 Adhesion loss of rubber tiling caused by moisture in the
base............................................................................................................ 342
Fig. 9.9 Re-emulsification of adhesive beneath vinyl sheet caused
by moisture entrapment ............................................................................. 343
Fig. 9.10 Impact damage of ceramic floor tiling due to inadequate
bedding.......................................................................................................345
Fig. 9.11 Longitudinal joint cracking in terrazzo tile flooring, with some grout
loss...........................................................................................................346
List of tables
Table 1.1 Terms and definitions................................................................................ 15

Table 2.1 Property classification locations................................................................ 23
Table 2.2 Recommended limits for slip resistance value
(all types of flooring)................................................................................ 27
Table 2.3 CSTR 34 proposed limits for maximum wear depths in cementitious
surfaces...................................................................................................... 28
Table 2.4 Classification of abrasion test results in ceramic surfaces....................... 29
Table 2.5 Accuracy limits for various usage categories........................................... 41
Table 2.6 Classification system adopted for use with
tables in Section 2.3 ................................................................................ 42
Table 2.7 Classification for normal and high-accuracy floors.................................. 43
Table 2.8 Electrostatic flooring types........................................................................ 45
Table 2.9 Conversion factors for unusual vapour permeability units
to gm/MNs................................................................................................. 50
Table 2.10 Textile floorings – effects of ignition....................................................... 53
Table 2.11 Classification according to traffic type..................................................... 61
Table 2.12 Direct finished concrete wearing surfaces – suitability for
traffic related service conditions and specific finished
floor properties.......................................................................................... 63
Table 2.13 Toppings and in-situ applied floorings – cementitious
systems – suitability for traffic-related service conditions
and specific finished floor properties........................................................ 64
Table 2.14 Toppings and in-situ applied floorings – non-cementitious
systems – suitability for traffic-related service conditions
and specific finished floor properties........................................................ 70
Table 2.15 Applied flexible floorings – suitability for traffic-related
service conditions and specific finished floor properties.......................... 73
Table 2.16 Summary of properties ............................................................................. 75
10 CIRIA Report 184

Table 2.17 Rigid tile applied floorings – suitability for traffic-related
service conditions and specific finished floor properties.......................... 79
Table 2.18 Classification of ceramic tiles................................................................... 80
Table 2.19 Timber flooring – suitability for traffic-related service
conditions and specific finished floor properties ..................................... 85
Table 4.1 Summary of major specification requirements for production
of direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces .......................................... 118
Table 6.1 BS8204 guidelines for mastic asphalt flooring........................................ 211
Table 6.2 A general comparison of properties of synthetic resin
flooring systems ..................................................................................... 217
Table 6.3 CP204 flooring thickness requirements .................................................. 235
Table 6.4 CP204 guidance on resistance to chemical attack ................................. 237
Table 7.1 Moisture contents of flooring timber
(from BS 8201 : 1987)............................................................................ 280
Table 7.2 Suitable adhesives for bonded timber flooring ...................................... 284
Table 7.3 Maximum spans for tongued and grooved softwood board.................... 286
Table 7.4 Adhesives for cork.................................................................................. 287
Table 8.1 BS Code of Practice recommendations on measurement of
normal accuracy floors ........................................................................... 321
Table A1.1 Selection of preferred flooring systems – direct-finished
concrete wearing surfaces........................................................................ 366
Table A1.2 Selection of preferred flooring systems – cementitious
toppings and in-situ applied floorings..................................................... 366
Table A1.3 Selection of preferred flooring systems – non-cementitious
toppings and in-situ applied floorings..................................................... 367
Table A1.4 Selection of preferred flooring systems – applied flexible
floorings................................................................................................... 367
Table A1.5 Selection of preferred flooring systems – rigid tile applied
floorings................................................................................................... 368
Table A1.6 Selection of preferred flooring systems –timber floorings...................... 368
Table A2.1 Construction cost of applied floorings..................................................... 395
Table A2.2 Future costs of applied floorings............................................................. 396
Table A2.3 Payback periods........................................................................................ 397
CIRIA Report 184 11

Abbreviations
ASTM American Society for Testing of Materials

BCA British Cement Association
BRE Building Research Establishment
BS British Standard
BSI British Standards Institution
C & CA Cement and Concrete Association
CDM Construction Design and Management
CFA Contract Flooring Association
COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
CSTR Concrete Society Technical Report
dpm damp-proof membrane

FeRFA Federation for the Repair and Protection of Structures
FM free movement
GLC Greater London Council
MACEF Mastic Asphalt Council and Employers Federation
MICC Italian Metodo Centro Ceramics
NWP non-water permeable
PEI Porcelain Enamel Institute
pr EN provisional European Standard
SF super flat
RH Relative Humidity
SRV Slip resistance value
TRL Transport Research Laboratory
VNA very narrow aisle
WP water permeable
12 CIRIA Report 184

CIRIA
Core Programme Members
September 1998
Alfred McAlpine Construction Ltd Keller Foundations
AMEC Plc Kennedy and Donkin Environmental
Aspinwall & Co Limited Kvaerner Technology Ltd
BAA plc London Underground Limited
Bachy Soletanche Limited Miller Civil Engineering Ltd
Balfour Beatty Ltd Montgomery Watson Ltd
Binnie Black & Veatch Mott MacDonald Group Ltd
Cementitious Slag Makers Association National Power PLC

Charles Haswell and Partners Ltd Northumbrian Water Limited
Curtins Consulting Engineers plc North West Water Ltd
Dames & Moore Ove Arup Partnership
Davis Langdon & Everest Owen Williams Group
Department of the Environment, Posford Duvivier
Transport and the Regions Reid Crowther Consulting Limited
Dudley Engineering Consultancy Rendel Palmer & Tritton
Edmund Nuttall Limited Scottish Hydro-Electric plc
Galliford plc Scott Wilson
GIBB Ltd Sheffield Hallam University
Golder Associates (UK) Ltd South Bank University
Halcrow Group Limited Southern Water Services Ltd
Health & Safety Executive South West Water Services Ltd
Henry Boot & Sons PLC Tarmac Construction Ltd
HGB Higgs & Hill Taylor Woodrow Construction Holdings Ltd
Highways Agency, DETR Thames Water Utilities Ltd
HJT Consulting Engineers The Environment Agency
HR Wallingford Ltd Thorburn Colquhoun
Hyder Consulting Limited Union Railways Limited
IMC Consulting Engineers Ltd W ardell Armstrong
Institution of Civil Engineers WS Atkins Consultants Limited
John Laing Construction Ltd Yorkshire Water Services Limited

Summary
This report provides co-ordinated guidance for clients, designers, specifiers and
contractors on the selection and construction of internal flooring systems and floorings,
including their application to stairs and floors such as cold rooms or foundries. Factors
affecting the performance characteristics of the finished flooring are fully discussed,
and guidance is given on the suitability of the various types of flooring for achieving
the required performance characteristics.
Factors affecting the choice of flooring systems are discussed, including relative costs,
and guidance is given in tabular form for selecting the most suitable types of flooring
system for a given structural base/flooring type/traffic type combination.
Guidance is given in specification and workmanship aspects of screeds and floorings,

including the requirements for testing of materials and the finished flooring. Sections
are included on failure, repair and refurbishment. These include examples of typical
failures and remedies. Advice is given for cleaning and maintenance, and health and
safety requirements.
Gatfield, M J
Screeds, floorings and finishes – selection, construction and maintenance.
Construction Industry Research and Information Association
Report 184
© CIRIA 1998 ISBN 0 86017 496 4
Keywords
Screeds, floorings, flooring systems, selection, construction, testing, maintenance.
Reader interest Classification
Clients, architects, designers, Availability Unrestricted

specifiers, contractors.
Contents State-of-art report
Status Committee-guided
User Professionals concerned

with flooring
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Construction activities, particularly on building sites, have significant health and

safety implications. These can be the result of the activities themselves, or can
arise from the nature of the materials and chemicals used in construction. The
Report gives outline requirements for health and safety in Section 11. Readers
should also consult other specific published guidance relating to health and safety
in construction.
Published by CIRIA, 6 Storey’s Gate, Westminster, London SW1P 3AU
Printed by Multiplex Medway Ltd., Walderslade, Kent
2 CIRIA Report 184

Foreword
The project leading to this Report was instigated by CIRIA’s Programme Advisory
Committee I – Building Design and Materials, in response to a clearly identified
industrial need. It was carried out under contract by the Laing Technology Group Ltd,
and the report was written by M J Gatfield.
Research Team
M J Gatfield Principal researcher and report author – Laing
Technology Group Ltd
K Hutchinson Principal researcher – University of Reading
R G Cullum Researcher – Laing Technology Group Ltd
A C Griffiths Researcher – Laing Technology Group Ltd
Steering Group
The project was managed by CIRIA with advice from the following Project Steering
Group.
Mr P J McGee [Chairman] – AMEC Design and

Management Ltd
Mr G Barnbrook – Concrete Advisory Service
Mr A Brown – Sheppard Robson
Mr G Gregory-Cullen – Taywood Engineering Ltd
Mr R S Harbron – FOSROC International
Technology
Mr H H Hosker – Building Design Partnership
Mr D Mead – Scott Bader Co Ltd
MS J Millest – Sports Council Technical Unit
Mr D A Mostyn – David Mostyn Consultancy Ltd
Mr G M Parr – RESDEV Ltd
Mr P Pye – Building Research
Establishment
Mr A J Smith – Degussa Ltd
Mr S Taylor – Health and Safety Executive
Mr P P Woodhead – Department of the
Environment
Dr B W Staynes – CIRIA research manager
Funding
The project was funded by the Department of the Environment, Degussa Ltd, FOSROC
International Ltd, RESDEV Ltd, Scott Bader Co Ltd and CIRIA’s Core Programme.
CIRIA Report 184 3

Acknowledgements
Figures 2.2, 4.7 (middle and bottom), 8.1, 8.2, 8.6, 8.8 (top) by courtesy of
Fosroc International Ltd
Figure 2.3 by courtesy of National Federation of Terrazzo, Marble and Mosaic

Specialists.
Figures 4.3, 5.5 by courtesy of the British Cement Association.
Figures 4.4, 8.8 (bottom) by courtesy of the Concrete Society.
Figure 5.9 (bottom) by courtesy of Isocrete Group Sales Ltd.
Figure 8.9 by courtesy of Floor Surveys Ltd.

Figures 9.1, 9.5, 9.6, 9.8, 9.10, 9.11 by courtesy of Building Research Establishment
(Crown copyright).
4 CIRlA Report 184

1 Introduction
1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE
Objective
This report provides coordinated guidance for clients, designers, specifiers and
contractors on the selection and construction of internal flooring systems for specific
applications including stairs. The approach takes account of the type of structural base,
service conditions, performance requirements, and capital and maintenance costs.
Health and safety aspects of flooring during construction and in use assume a high
priority in any design. Outline requirements have been incorporated separately in

Section 11, to which full reference should always he made.
Background
Floor systems and floorings in any type of building, whether for domestic, commercial,
industrial, sport and leisure, or other use, must meet specific requirements. These may
be manifold, and will be dictated by the particular operating conditions within the
building throughout its service life. There is a wide range of flooring systems and
floorings that can provide the necessary physical, chemical and aesthetic requirements
for most situations. These variables in floor usage and materials lead to a large number
of potential floor system types. One common factor can be identified: if the flooring
fails in service or fails to provide the required attributes, then the usage of the building
as a whole is likely to be adversely affected. Failures in flooring therefore can result in
high costs accumulating from:
• failure investigations
• remedial works
• consequential costs for disruption of operations, loss of usage, lost production
• litigation
In comparison with other building components, flooring has historically had one of the
highest rates of failure. The types of failure have been many and varied. These can
usually be classified into two groups: physical breakdown of the flooring, and failure to
achieve the required attributes without physical breakdown. The more prevalent types
of failure include:
• collapse of screed
• cracking and debonding of screeds and concrete toppings

• cracking and disruption of terrazzo and other rigid tile finishes
• delamination between flooring system layers

• disruption of flooring due to moisture and osmosis
• damage caused by incorrect cleaning

• inadequate slip resistance
• difficulty in cleaning or achieving hygiene standards

• inadequate surface accuracy
• poor appearance
CIRIA Report 184 13

Investigation of such failures usually reveals that the cause may be attributable to more
than one factor. Design and specification are frequently implicated, as well as materials
quality and workmanship.
Specific requirements for the majority of flooring materials are detailed in relevant
British Standard Specifications and Codes of Practice, the National Building
Specification, trade associations and other specialist publications. Industry involvement
in producing and updating of these documents does tend to ensure that they take
account of past experience of acceptable and unacceptable performance. Although such
documents may be perceived as providing state-of-the-art guidance on flooring
materials and construction, in reality they tend to be disparate, and therefore do not
necessarily provide adequate overall guidance. Some of these documents are also
presented in a format that is not conducive to imparting a clear overall understanding
to the reader. Continuing occurrence of flooring failures is seen as an indication that
the existing documents alone are not providing the necessary information exchange.
There is therefore a need to provide clear, coordinated and concise guidance to all
parties concerned, from conceptual design through to specification, construction,

inspection and testing.
Scope
This Guide applies to internal flooring systems and floorings from the structural base
surface upwards, including stairs and floors, such as cold rooms or foundries, which
may be subject to operating outside normal temperature conditions. It does not include
the structural design of the base, although items essential to the flooring system are
included, such as the type and form of the base, surface regularity tolerances, surface
assessment and preparation, and direct finishing of concrete slabs. It does not include
external paving. Partial access floors, formed by in-situ screed over a void former, are
included. Full access or raised floors are not included.
A large number of proprietary systems are used in flooring. Generally, for each
material type the properties and application techniques will be similar, although
variations will exist between different manufacturer’s products and systems. It is only
possible, therefore, to provide guidance based on general principles related to the
material type. Manufacturers’ specific product information and recommendations will
remain an essential part of the design and construction process after initial selection of
a material type.
Capital and maintenance cost data is included in the Guide, based on a unit area of
500 m 2 of flooring. Materials and operations costs vary between manufacturers,
suppliers and contractors, and it has been necessary to base the analyses on typical
industry values. Relative costs between alternative suitable materials or systems may
also be subject to fluctuations. Accuracy of the analyses is therefore limited, and they
should be used for initial guidance only. For project specific assessment, the analysis
should be reviewed using current costings.
1.2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Terms and definitions relating to floorings and floor construction are given in BS 6100
Glossary of building and civil engineering terms, and in various other BS Codes of
Practice related to floors. In the context of this Guide, some of the standard
BS definitions are considered as not fully appropriate for the intended usage. For other
terms used, particularly those related to groups or sub-groups of materials, floorings or
flooring elements, standard BS definitions did not exist. In compiling the listing of
14 CIRIA Report 184

definitions, therefore, modification of BS definitions has been necessary, and further
definitions have been written specifically for this Guide.
The terms and definitions listing given in Table 1.1 relate to this Guide, and are
restricted to:
• terms where confusion commonly exists
• terms relating to groups or sub-groups of materials, floorings or flooring elements
• definitions modified from standard BS definitions
For clarity, details of groupings are given in Table 1.1 and, where appropriate, the
definition source is given along with detail of any modifications made.
Table 1.1 Terms and definitions
Term Definition Source Grouping
Anti-static flooring See Electrostatic flooring.

Applied flooring Preformed sheet or modular Flexible flooring, rigid tile,

flooring laid onto a timber-based flooring.
prepared substrate.
Basecoat The no-fines screed mix,

prior to laying of the
cement/sand surfacing mix.
Bleeding Separation of water from BS 6100

fresh concrete.
Cement/sand bed Cement/sand mix used for

in-situ bedding and
levelling of rigid tile
finishes over a substrate.
(Note: Cement/sand screeds
may comprise the same
materials. but are not
overlaid with a flooring
until after hardening.)
Composition block Mixture of cement, wood BS 5385 Pt 5

granules, mineral fillers,
pigments and water.
moulded under high
pressure, cured and then
saturated with linseed oil.
Concrete overslab Concrete of at least 100 mm

thickness, laid over a
structural base. sometimes
on a separating layer. May
be reinforced.
Conglomerate tile Rigid tile, cut from a cast

block of crushed rock
aggregate and either cement
or resin binder, with ground
and polished upper surface
Crystallisation See Vitrification.
Direct-finished base slab Concrete base slab that is BS 8204 Pt 2

suitably finished to serve
directly as a wearing
surface without the need for
an additional topping.
dpm Damp-proof membrane as
CIRIA Report 184 15


distinct from ‘surface-
applied’ dpm. See separate
definition.
Dry shake finish Mixture of pre-blended

selected aggregates and
cement broadcast over the
surface of an in-situ
concrete slab during
finishing, compacted in
with a power float and
power trowel to give
improved wearing
characteristics.
Electrostatic flooring Flooring that will dissipate Static dissipative

or conduct electrical Conductive
charges, static or otherwise. Super conductive
Fine concrete screed Screed consisting of BS 8204 Pt 1

concrete containing coarse
aggregate of maximum size
10 mm.
Flexible applied flooring Flexible or semi-flexible Linoleum, PVC,

preformed sheet or tile thermoplastic, vinylised
materials. thermoplastic, rubber,
carpet.
Floating construction Construction of a flooring

system over a layer of
sound or thermal insulation.
Floating screed Screed laid over sound or

thermal insulation.
Flooring Upper layer of a floor that BS 6100

provides a finished surface.
Flooring system The single or multi-layer

construction between the
structural base and the
upper surface of the
flooring.
Flow-applied Screed or flooring of semi-

liquid consistency, with
self-levelling and/or self-
smoothing properties,
applied either by hand or by
pump.
Fully bonded screed Screed laid onto a
mechanically prepared
substrate with the intention
of maximising potential
bond.
Granolithic In-situ flooring that consists BS 6100

of Portland cement and
Note: See Topping
aggregates selected to
provide a hard wearing
surface. (Note: Granolithic
is a traditional name for
high-strength concrete
toppings.)
16 CIRIA Report 184

Heated screed Screed incorporating

heating elements or pipes.
In-situ applied flooring Flooring that is cast in its Polymer-modified

final position. cementitious, flow-applied
cementitious, asphaltic and
bituminous, resins,
terrazzo, magnesium
oxychloride (magnesite).
Levelling compound Semi-liquid material BS 6100 Modified

applied to a substrate
intended to provide a level
surface when set. (Note.
BS 6100 – applied to a
structural floor or sub-
floor.)
Maintenance Works necessary to

maintain a flooring in a
satisfactory condition,
including replacement of
those types of flooring with
a known limited life span.
No-fines screed Screed comprising a

mixture of lightweight
Note: See Basecoat
coarse aggregate and
cement.
Osmosis Spontaneous flow of water

into an aqueous solution, or
from a more dilute solution
to a more concentrated one,
when the two are separated
by a semi-permeable
membrane.
Partial access floor Flooring system laid in-situ

over a void former,
permitting limited access to
services through surface
openings.
Partially bonded screed Screed laid onto a substrate

with only limited surface
preparation, giving an
expectation of only a
moderate degree of bond.
(Note: Not recommended
for uses other than housing-
type applications.)
Polymer-modified Mixture of cement, BS 8204 Pt 3

cementitious flooring aggregates, polymer
dispersion or re-dispersible
powder polymer and water
that hardens on curing.
CIRIA Report 184 17

Power floated finish Flat finely textured finish

applied to in-situ concrete
surface with a power float.
either to provide a hardened
surface for further
treatment, or as a
preliminary operation to
power trowelling.
(Note: BS 6100 definition
insufftciently detailed.)
Power-trowelled finish Smooth, dense finish

applied to in-situ concrete
surface with a power
trowel, to provide a wearing
surface. (Note: BS 6100
definition insufficiently
detailed.)
Refurbishment Works arising from the

need to either change the
usage of the floor or change
the type of flooring.
Repair Remedial work arising from

failures or defects in the
flooring.
Resin flooring In-situ flooring that consists Epoxy, polyurethane

of synthetic resin binder, polyester, methacrylate.
and may contain aggregates
and fillers.
Rigid tile applied flooring Rigid tiles fixed with a bed Natural stone, precast
or adhesive onto a prepared terrazzo, ceramic, cement-
substrate. and resin-based
conglomerate, composition
block.
Screed Layer of well-compacted Cement/sand, fine concrete,

material applied in-situ to a synthetic anhydrite,
structural base, or other lightweight, flow-applied
substrate, finished to a cementitious or anhydrite,
designated level. no-fines.
Screed soundness Property that is required of BS 8203

a screed material as laid to
withstand the crushing
effects of the imposed loads
and traffic in service.
Skip float Long-handled light metal

float used to correct the
irregularities left in the
surface of fresh in-situ
concrete by the compacting
beam.
18 CIRIA Report 184

Smoothing compound Semi-liquid material BS 6100 Modified

applied to a substrate
intended to provide a
smooth surface when set.
(Note: BS 6100 – applied to
a structural floor or sub-
floor.)
Soundness See Screed soundness.
Structural base A base providing the In-situ concrete, precast

structural function of the beam and pot, precast
floor, over which a flooring plank, precast/in-situ
or flooring system may be composite.
laid.
Substrate Surface over which an BS 6100 Modified

additional material is to be
laid. (Note: BS 6100 –
Surface to which a coating
material is to be applied.)
Surface-applied dpm Resin-based material laid

bonded onto the surface of a
screed or base to protect an
overlaid moisture-sensitive
flooring or adhesive from
excessive moisture in the
screed or base.
Surface hardener Proprietary liquid material

applied to cementitious
surfaces to improve surface
properties.
Terrazzo Mixture of marble or other BS 8204 Pt 4 Modified.

natural stone aggregates
with Portland cement,
incorporating colouring
pigments where required,
which is ground after
setting to expose the
aggregate and provide a
smooth hard-wearing
flooring. (Note: BS 8204
refers to hard-wearing
finish.)
Timber-based flooring Flooring of wood or wood- Woodblock, wood strip and

based materials. board, wood panel, cork,
chipboard, medium-density
fibreboard, plywood, resin
impregnated wood.
Topping Layer of high-strength BS 8204 Pt.2

concrete that serves as a
Note: See Granolithic
flooring and provides a
dense, abrasion-resistant
wearing surface on a
concrete base.
Unbonded screed Screed intentionally

separated from the substrate
by use of a membrane.
CIRIA Report 184 19

Underlay Sheet material placed

below loose-laid textile
floorings.
Underlayment Common term for

smoothing or levelling
compound used beneath
applied flexible floorings.
Vitrification Finishing and maintenance

process applied to terrazzo
Note: Also known as
flooring to impart improved
crystallisation
surface properties.
1.3 USE OF GUIDE
Sections 2–11 of the Guide are presented in the sequence:
• selection
• design
• specification and construction
• testing
• failure, repair and refurbishment

• cleaning and maintenance
• health and safety
Owing to their complex inter-relationships, it is not possible to totally isolate these

stages, and there is therefore inevitable overlap between the various sections of the
Guide. Use of individual sections in isolation is not recommended.
A flow chart showing the intended sequence of selection through to testing, and the
inter-relationships between the various elements, is given in Fig. 1. The major relevant
Guide section reference is given in the boxes in Fig. 1.
Appendix 1 lists preferred flooring systems for each structural base type and
traffic-related service category. Use of the selection information within this
Appendix without prior reference to the considerations of finished floor
properties, flooring type and flooring systems given in Sections 1, 2 and 3 is not
recommended.
20 CIRIA Report 184

START
CLIENT/DESIGNER
CONSULTATION TO
DEFINE FLOOR
USAGE(S)
2.1 2.2
FINISHED FLOOR TRAFFIC RELATED
PROPERTIES SERVICE
CONDITIONS
2.
PERFORMANCE
REQUIREMENTS OF
FINISHED FLOOR
SELECTION AND DESIGN

2.3 3.1
FLOORING TYPES STRUCTURAL BASE
& FLOORING SYSTEM

AND PROPERTIES
3.2 CONSIDERATIONS
SELECTION OF
SUITABLE FLOORING
SYSTEM OPTIONS
3.3
RELATIVE COSTS
OF OPTIONS
FINAL
FLOORING
SYSTEM
SELECTED
4 to 7
SPECIFICATION CONSTRUCTION TESTING

COMPONENT SPECIFICATION
4.1 4.2 5. 6. 7.
DIRECT STRUCTURAL BASE TOPPINGS AND APPLIED
PREPARATION
FINISHED SCREEDS IN SITU APPLIED FLOORINGS
TO RECEIVE
SLABS FLOORING FLOORINGS
8.
TESTING
9.
REPAIR AND
AFTER CARE
10.
REFURBISHMENT
CLEANING AND MAINTENANCE
NOTE: Numbers in boxes refer to relevant guide sections
Fig. 1.1 Flow chart showing sequence of Guide use.
CIRIA Report 184 21

2 Performance requirements of
finished floor
Satisfactory floor performance can only be assured by appropriate selection,

specification and construction of flooring and flooring systems. In most cases the
service conditions will be the major factor affecting choice of flooring type. In some
cases more than one type of flooring may have the necessary attributes for the service
conditions. Depending upon the flooring type, loading conditions, and type of
structural base, there may be a need to interpose screeds, overslabs, dpm, insulation,
etc. between the flooring and the structural base. These variables dictate that the floor
must be an integral part of the design process, and not a secondary consideration after
the design of the structure. Failure to achieve this commonly results either in limitation
in choice of flooring systems, or in the use of compromise solutions that involve

variation from recommended practice.
To ensure that this integral design approach is possible, full exchange of relevant
information is essential between designers and the client at the earliest possible stage.
This must include:
• description of floor usage
• details of type and weights of static loadings
• pedestrian traffic intensity
• wheeled traffic type, frequency, weight, wheel loading, wheel type and size
• risk of, and nature of impact loading
• frequency and materials type in spillage or wet process areas
• anti-slip or other safety requirements
• cleaning methods and materials used in spillage or process areas
• operating environment, e.g. temperature range, moisture range, thermal or
humidity cycling, chemical spillage type and frequency
• falls to be incorporated
• services to be incorporated in the flooring system
• underfloor heating and air conditioning requirements
• specific requirements for cleanliness, anti-taint, electrostatic, acoustic and thermal
insulation, aesthetics, qualities related to nature of activity, e.g. in sports halls
Finished floor properties and their relevance to serviceability are discussed in Section
2.1, and traffic-related service conditions are discussed and classified in Section 2.2.
Section 2.3 identifies the range of flooring material types and, in tabular form, relates
suitability of these types to required properties and to traffic-related service conditions.
A full list of the properties covered in this section, together with the locations of the
various classifications, is given in Table 2.1.
22 CIRIA Report 184

Table 2.1 Property classification locations.
Property Classifications Refer to

Traffic P1-P3, W1-W4 Section 2.2, p 61, Table 2.11
Slip resistance I,E Section 2.1.1, p. 26
Abrasion resistance P1-P3, W1-W4 Section 2.1.2, p. 30
Impact resistance IMP1-3 Section 2.1.3, p. 32
Indentation resistance IND1-3 Section 2.1.3, p. 33
Chemical resistance H, M, L Section 2.1.4, p. 37
Thermal resistance Temperature range, °C Section 2.1.5, p. 38
Levels and flatness SF1-3, SR1-3 Section 2.1.6, p. 43. Table 2.7
Ease of cleaning H, M, L Section 2.1.7, p. 45
Electrostatic ESD Section 2.1.8, p. 47
Acoustic SA, SI, U Section 2.1.9, p. 49
Anti-taint NT, T Section 2.1.10, p. 49

Permeability LVP, NWP, WP Section 2.1.11, pp. 50, 51
Flammability NF, LF, MF Section 2.1.12, p. 54
Access to services S, NS Section 2.1.13, p. 56
Sports/recreational P, NS Section 2.1.14, p. 57
Appearance A, S, U Section 2.1.15, p. 60
2.1 FINISHED FLOOR PROPERTIES
2.1.1 Slip resistance
For normal pedestrian traffic and low-speed wheeled traffic activities, most types of
internal flooring materials provide adequate slip resistance when they are level and
maintained in a clean, dry condition, and any sealers or polishes have been used
correctly. Most types of flooring will become slippery when in a wet condition. The risk
of slipping will also increase if the floor is ramped or laid to falls, or if the activity
carried out on the floor is other than normal pedestrian, e.g. sporting activities.
Hazardous areas, such as stairs where full shoe/floor contact is not achieved, or process
areas where spillage of oils, fats, etc. is possible, require particular attention. For many
types of flooring, some form of surface with enhanced slip resistance may be necessary
where the floor is other than in a level, clean and dry condition subject to normal
pedestrian activity. Areas typically requiring consideration for enhancement are:
• Floors laid to falls and ramps. The degree of enhancement should increase as
gradients become steeper.
• Floors subject to permanent or occasional wetting (other than during cleaning) e.g.
entrances not provided with adequate matting. The enhancement should provide a
surface texture to ensure adequate mechanical interaction between the sole/wheel
and the flooring.
• Floors subject to spillage of process materials that may induce slipping. The
enhancement should provide a surface texture to ensure adequate mechanical
interaction between the sole and the flooring. The degree of texture should increase
with increasing viscosity of the liquid contamination. For example, a micro-texture
CIRIA Report 184 23

may be adequate for aqueous solutions, but oil or fat spillage may require a macro-
texture.
• Stairs. A high slip resistance must be achieved to counteract the reduced
sole/flooring contact area.
• Areas adjacent to hazards such as machinery.
• Areas of acceleration/braking of self-propelled wheeled traffic.
• Floors subject to pedestrian activities other than walking. In some specialised
applications, such as sports floors, a high slip resistance may be essential to the
particular activity. Conversely, an upper limit may be necessary to avoid restriction
of foot movements that could lead to a risk of sprain injury and to reduce the risk
of friction bums in the event of a fall.
Enhancement of slip resistance
Slip resistance is a function of the coefficient of friction of the flooring surface, and its
dynamic interaction with the traffic contact area. The value of the dynamic coefficient
of friction is usually less than that of the static coefficient of friction, but it is more
critical. Slip resistance can be improved by modifying the flooring surface
characteristics to increase friction, and this is achieved by different techniques
depending upon the material type and installation method. These techniques fall into
three basic categories, which may be used independently or in combination:
1. Increase in the surface micro-texture by:
_
modification of trowel/float/grinding processes for in-situ and rigid tile
floorings
_
incorporation of silicon carbide grit within or on the surface of in-situ or
rigid tile floorings
_
granular material incorporated in the upper surface layer of applied flexible
floorings
2. Increase in the surface macro-texture by:
_ formation of a relief surface profile in rigid tile and applied flexible
floorings
_ formation of an irregular rough surface by shot blasting, tooling or heat
treatment of in-situ and rigid tile floorings
3. Slip-resistant inserts:
_
separate preformed inserts of highly slip-resistant materials set into in-situ
and rigid tile floorings, or set into stair nosing sections
There are proprietary liquid materials available that are claimed to enhance the slip
resistance of existing floorings. Suitability of such materials must be treated with
caution. They can be broadly split into two categories:
• Special slip-resisting polishes for use on various types of flooring. These materials
can significantly improve slip resistance in dry conditions, but are very much less
effective in wet conditions. The improvement may be short-lived, necessitating re-
treatment after as little as one or two weeks.
• Slip-resisting treatment for ceramic tiling. These materials are commonly based on
hydrofluoric acid, and etch the tile surface to slightly roughen the surface.
Although some improvement is achievable, the texture is only slight, and can
rapidly be worn smooth by subsequent traffic. Improvements can be lost in periods
as short as one week, depending upon traffic conditions. Repeated applications
may shorten the effective life of the flooring.
24 CIRIA Report 184

Owing to their potential short-lived effect, these materials should not be used in
preference to the techniques 1 _3 above in either new-build or refurbishment situations.
If slip-resistant polishes are to be used as part of a maintenance programme, the
effectiveness and longevity of the material should be subject to verification by slip-
resistance testing.
Cleaning
Cleaning and cleanliness of flooring is an important factor that must be considered in

conjunction with slip resistance (see Section 2.1.7). Flooring with a surface texture will
be more difficult to maintain in a clean condition than a smooth surface, difficulty
increasing proportionately to texture. If a textured floor is not maintained in a clean
condition, a build-up of dirt may ultimately negate the benefit of the texture.
Incorrect cleaning, particularly with regard to inadequate final rinsing, may leave a
scum deposit on the flooring surface, and this deposit may itself induce slipping.
Testing
Assessment of slip resistance has historically been made using various test methods,
ranging from simple measurement of static coefficient of friction through to dynamic
resistance. Since resistance to slipping is a function of the dynamic interaction between
flooring and the foot, then some form of dynamic assessment is considered as the most
appropriate method in most circumstances. Recent BS Codes of Practice, BS 8204 Parts
3,4 and 5, include dynamic testing for slip-resistance value (SRV) using the TRL
pendulum slip-resistance tester. This apparatus measures the decelerating effect of a
flooring surface on a dynamic applied sliding load, and is equally suitable for
laboratory and on-site testing. It is applicable to both smooth and textured surfaces, and
can be used to determine SRV for both wet and dry surfaces as appropriate to the
particular condition of floor usage. It is likely that this test will ultimately be adopted
by BSI for assessment of all types of flooring.
The pendulum test was developed in the 1960s for testing road surfaces for the slip
resistance of vehicle tyres but has also been widely used for testing flooring materials.
Some authorities have cast doubt on its suitability for testing hard floor surfaces such as
ceramic tiles and another test, the Tortus test, was developed by British Ceramic
Research Ltd in the 1970s, specifically for this purpose. This test is referred to in draft
International Standard IS0 10545-17 for testing the dynamic coefficient of friction, i.e.
slip resistance, of ceramic floor tiles. Some authorities warn that the Tortus test may
give an overestimate of slip resistance when used on a wet flooring surface. Caution is
needed in comparing the results of the pendulum and Tortus tests as they can give
conflicting indications.
The German DIN standard ramp test is also referred to in the draft IS0 referred to
above.
The test result achieved by the pendulum test method can be influenced by the type of
material used in the test apparatus slider. BS 8204 Parts 3,4 and 5 (polymer-modified
cementitious surfaces, terrazzo and mastic asphalt respectively) utilise a rubber slider
for wet measurement, and a hard rubber or leather slider for dry measurement. BS 8204
Part 5 also permits the use of a special rubber slider produced by the Rubber and
Plastics Research Association (RAPRA) for dry measurements. This material is
referred to as 4S rubber. For other types of flooring, alternative types of slider may be
appropriate. In special circumstances it may be appropriate to select a slider
manufactured from another type of material, e.g. to reflect the properties of a particular
CIRIA Report 184 25

footwear type. Where precise details of test parameters are not specified in authoritative
documents, such as British Standards, advice should be sought from a specialist. Slip-
resistance testing should be entrusted to an experienced test authority.
Preformed flooring materials that are to be laid as a finished surface with no further
treatment should be selected on the basis of SRV as determined at manufacture.
The measurement of SRV on in-situ floorings, or preformed materials subject to further

treatment on site such as grinding, polishing or sealing, should be made after
completion of installation.
For both testing on site and at manufacture, the test regime must take account of
whether the floor is to be used in a wet or dry condition.
The GLC, in their Bulletin No. 43 March 1971, quantified slip resistance as
determined by the TRL pendulum tester with specified rubber slider, as summarised
below:
• 19 or below _ Dangerous _ requires immediate remedial action.
• 20_39 _ Marginal _ consider remedial action as soon as reasonably possible.

• 40 _ 74 _ Satisfactory.
• 75 and above _ Excellent.
Taking into account the GLC assessment, and current guidance given by BSI and other
authorities, recommended limits for slip-resistance value as determined by the TRL
pendulum tester are given in Table 2.2. (See Tortus test values below for hard flooring
such as ceramic tiles.) Details of the test method, and test plan recommendations, are
given in Section 8.
For hard flooring such as ceramic floor tiles British Ceramic Research Ltd recommends
use of the Tortus test, and advises that friction values of less than 0.2 are dangerous
and below 0.4 unsatisfactory.
Classification
For the purposes of the tables in Section 2.3 of this Guide the following classifications
have been adopted:
I _ Inherently slip resistant. Enhancement unlikely to be necessary
for wet or dry conditions, provided floor is level.
E _ Enhancement desirable for all situations other than for a dry
level floor.
Note: Enhancement for ramps, stairs, and other special areas may still
be appropriate for floorings classified I.
26 CIRIA Report 184

Table 2.2 Recommended limits for slip-resistance value
(all types of flooring).
Service SRV( 1 ) Preferred local

enhancement
Level floor 40 minimum Micro- or macro-texture in

wet areas
Ramps/gradients 40 minimu m(2) Macro-texture or non-slip

inserts
Stairs _ tread 40 minimum Micro- or macro-texture

_ nosing 60 minimum Non-slip insert
Floors subject to 40 minimu m( 3 ) Macro-texture

spillage of liquids
other than water
Multi-use sports 60 _ 140 ( 4 )

flooring
(1) Determined wet or dry as appropriate to normal service condition and using
appropriate slider using TRL pendulum test.
(2) Increase to 60 for gradients steeper than 1:80.
(3) Values down to 33 may be acceptable if special non-slip footwear is worn

by all who normally use the floor.
(4) Flooring for specific sports may require a substantially different range
(Bibliography 13. 30).
2.1.2 Abrasion resistance
The useful life of a floor and thus its resistance to wear or abrasion is dependent on a
whole range of factors:
• type of floorcovering
• thickness of wear layer
• type and density of traffic
• type of maintenance
• level of maintenance
The current methods for testing abrasion resistance are each limited to a defined range
of flooring materials.
Measurement of abrasion _ cementitious surfaces
Researchers into the measurement of abrasion resistance of a concrete surface have

determined that any equipment developed to measure this abrasion should have the
following fundamental characteristics:
1. It must be able to simulate the conditions to which floors are subjected in their
working environment.
2. It must be sensitive enough to distinguish between floors that the user knows, from
experience and observation, to have different abrasion-resistant qualities.
3. It must be portable so that it can be used on site as well as in the laboratory.
CIRIA Report 184 27

4. It must be able to provide repeatable and reproducible results.
(i) Repeatability is a measure of the variability of obtaining repeated results on
the same apparatus.
(ii) Reproducibility is a measure of the variability of obtaining single results with
several items of the same apparatus using identical test material.
5. In addition, any apparatus should be easy to use and relatively inexpensive to
operate.
The Cement and Concrete Association (C&CA) developed a rolling-wheel abrasion

testing machine that meets all the above requirements except 4(ii).
Research workers at Aston University duplicated the C&CA machine, and were able to
achieve reproducible results between it and the C&CA machine.
The Aston machine consists of a rotating plate carrying three case-hardened steel
wheels. These wear a circular groove in the concrete surface, and the depth of the
groove provides a measure of abrasion resistance.
The rotating plate can accept three different abrasion heads:

• rolling wheels
• revolving pads
• dressing wheels
so that the effect of different modes of wear can be assessed.
The abrasion test equipment can be readily used on site. Although the test procedure
could be classified as ‘destructive’, the depth of groove formed during the course of the
test is so small that it does not impair the performance of the floor. The abrasion test
apparatus does not as yet form part of a British Standard test on concrete.
The most important conclusion from a field trial carried out by Aston was that the
accelerated abrasion machine using rolling wheels provided valuable information
regarding the wearing qualities of concrete floor slabs in various industrial
environments. Further, a performance criterion was proposed for assessing the quality
of concrete floor slabs in terms of their abrasion resistance. Details of this method of
abrasion resistance testing are included in Concrete Society Technical Report 34
(Bibliography 24). Table 2.3 summarises proposed limiting depths of wear for this
accelerated abrasion test, related to BS 8204 : Part 2 classifications of abrasion
resistance.
Table 2.3 CSTR 34 proposed limits for maximum wear depths in cementitious
surfaces.
BS 8204 Part 2 Equivalent traffic-related Duty Maximum wear

classification service condition depth
(refer to Table 2.11, p. 61) (mm)
Special W4 Severe abrasion 0.05

ARI W3 Very high abrasion 0.1
AR2 W2 High abrasion 0.2
AR3 W1 Moderate abrasion 0.4
28 CIRIA Report 184

Measurement of abrasion _ ceramic tiling
BS 6431 : Part 20 : 1984 (EN 154) defines methods of test for determining the
resistance to surface abrasion of all glazed ceramic tiles used for flooring.
The test results are classified in BS 6431 according to the testing regime adopted,
whether
1. Wet abrasion test to the USA Porcelain Enamel Institute (PEI) method.
or
2. Dry abrasion test to the Italian Metodo Centro Ceramico (MCC) method
(see Table 2.4).
Table 2.4 Classification of abrasion test results in

ceramic surfaces.
Test Class
Wet abrasion test (PEI method)
Abrasion stage; failure visible at

(revolutions)
150 I
300, 450 or 600 II
750, 900, 1200 or 1500 III
> 1500 IV
Dry abrasion test (MCC method)
Abrasion stage; failure not visible at

(revolutions)
500 I
1000 II
1500 III
5000 IV
Measurement of abrasion _ resilient flooring
The abrasion resistance of a wide range of resilient flooring can be measured in the
laboratory using the Tabor Abraser.
The characteristic rub-wear action of the Abraser is produced by the contact of the test
sample, turning on a vertical axis, against the sliding rotation of two abrading wheels.
The abrasion resistance can be expressed in terms of

Weight loss: the loss in weight in milligrams, determined at a specified
number of cycles.
Wear cycles: the number of cycles of abrasion required to wear the sample
through to a required depth.
The procedure is given in ASTM D4060-84 Abrasion resistance of organic coatings by

the Tabor Abraser. For abrasion resistance testing of sports flooring, reference should
be made to BS 7044 Section 2.3 and IS0 5470.
CIRIA Report 184 29

Measurement of abrasion – textile flooring
At present the industry uses a method of test covered by BS Handbook 11 : 1974 :

Section 4 Abrasion resistance of carpets.
This test procedure has been withdrawn, but will continue to be used until a draft
European Standard is accepted.
Under the present method of test the sample of carpet is abraded continuously until it is
worn away.
Comparisons are made with known standards that have been developed over the years
and are based on a known service life.
Classification
In the absence of a universal test for abrasion resistance, and since exposure to abrasion
is very closely related to traffic type, the designations used in Section 2.2 ‘Traffic-
related service conditions’ are adopted for classifying suitability for abrasion resistance
in the tables in Section 2.3.
Other considerations relating to abrasion resistance
Cementitious surfaces
The abrasion resistance of a concrete slab in an industrial environment may be defined

as the ability of a concrete surface to resist wear by a variety of factors such as rubbing,
rolling, scratching and sliding.
It has been determined that in the majority of industrial environments a satisfactory

degree of abrasion resistance can be achieved with repeated power trowelling in
conjunction with effective curing. Repeated power trowelling is effective because it
recompacts the surface of the concrete and reduces its pore volume by bringing
particles in the surface matrix into closer contact and allowing evaporative water to
come immediately to the surface. Repeated trowelling may however lead to polishing of
the surface, reducing slip resistance.
In a ‘heavy’ industrial environment some modification of the surface is required prior

to or after power trowelling and curing. This can include the application of a sprinkled
specially prepared hard aggregate, a high-strength topping, or a penetrating in-surface
seal.
Ceramic tiling
Unglazed vitrified and fully vitrified tiles complying with BS 6431 : Part 2 or Part 6
meet the requirements for severe conditions of wear. Some glazed vitrified and fully
vitrified tiles complying with BS 6431 : Part 2 or Part 6 that are not yet cleared for
abrasion resistance according to BS 6431 : Part 20 may be suitable for high-density
pedestrian traffic.
Other glazed floor tiles and mosaics are unsuitable for severe conditions of wear even
though they may have a high abrasion resistance classification.
30 CIRIA Report 184

Resilient/textile flooring
One of the more important properties considered when choosing a resilient floor
covering is resistance to wear (abrasion resistance). Wear is likely to be higher where
pedestrians are liable to turn, near counters and at openings such as doors. Wear is
likely when grit is present.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to BS 3261 : Part 1 1973 : Type A is available as a fully

flexible sheet or tile, and finds extensive use in, for example, hospital corridors and
wash rooms. In hospitals it is normal for light trolleys and trucks to traverse the
corridors. The PVC provides a very high level of wear resistance to fairly high levels of
foot traffic as well as electrically operated wheeled vehicles, which can generate high
traction forces.
Similarly, linoleum has excellent wear qualities and is again finding increasing use in
areas of heavy foot trafficking.
Studded rubber tiles are already used extensively in bus and railway concourses, and
can be particularly useful for guiding blind or partially sighted persons.
2.1.3 Impact resistance
Dynamic loads
Most types of flooring can be damaged by the dynamic impact of heavy weights being
dropped. The nature and degree to which the floor finish will be damaged will depend
on many factors, such as the momentum and contact area of the object dropped and the
ability of the floor finish to absorb energy. The softer and more resilient materials will
be less affected by impact than weak, brittle materials.
The true service conditions to which floor finishes are exposed should not be
underestimated. Heavily laden barrows with hard wheels will bounce when wheeled
along irregular surfaces and will introduce high impact loads.
Stiletto heels if in good condition can make indentations that may recover, but nails
protruding from worn heels will cut the majority of soft flooring.
The soundness of the sub-floor can affect the impact resistance of thin flooring
materials. A severe impact may result in a deep indentation in the floor as a result of
breakdown of the sub-floor but leave the floor finish comparatively undamaged. An
indication of damage to the sub-floor is where the depth of the indentation is greater
than the thickness of the floor finish. The strength of the sub-floor in the case of
cement-based screeds can be determined by results from the BRE screed tester as in
BS 8204 Part 1. The impact resistance of brittle floor finishes such as ceramic tiles may
be significantly reduced when laid on compressible substrates such as plywood. For
hard floorings, impact resistance can be improved by increased thickness.
Ceramic floor tiles are relatively brittle materials and liable to be damaged by objects
being dropped on them but BS 6431 : Part 1 : 1983 does not include an impact test.
The strength of the tiles are assessed by a modulus of rupture test given in
BS 6431 : Part 12 : 1983.
Impact tests for timber are given in BS 373 : 1957 and for chipboard in
BS 5669 : Part 1 : 1989. Guidance for the selection of timber species that are suitable
CIRIA Report 184 31

for a variety of service conditions relating to impact and wear resistance is given in
BS 8201 : 1987 and BS 1187 : 1959.
Impact tests for sports surfaces are given in BS 7044 Section 2.3 and pr EN1517
Determination of resistance of artificial sports surfaces to impact.
An impact test for semi-flexible floor tiles is given in BS 3260 : 1969 Appendix E.
Classification
In the absence of a common test method, the impact resistance of flooring materials has
the following designations in the tables in Section 2.3.
IMP 1 _ Good resistance to impact
IMP 2 _ Moderately resistant to impact
IMP 3 _ Vulnerable to impact
Indentation
Applied flexible flooring materials will in general be vulnerable to indentation by static

heavy loads. The indentation may gradually reduce when the load is removed, but
permanent compression-set or deformation may occur. Damage to the flooring material
can be minimised by avoiding point loads and ensuring that the load is spread over as
large an area as possible. The amount of damage to the flooring material will be
increased if any underlying screed or underlayment is defective.
Heavy static loads would be expected in warehouses or industrial situations, but filing
cabinets and storage cupboards can also place heavy static loads on the flooring of
offices.
The following lists indentation laboratory tests that are referred to as compression-set,
residual indentation or indentation tests.
• BS 1711 : 1975 Specification for solid rubber flooring
• BS 3260 : 1969 Specification for semi-flexible PVC floor tiles, appendix C
• BS 3261 : Part 1 : 1973 Specification for unbacked flexible PVC flooring,
Appendix F.
• BS 4098 : 1975 Determination of thickness, compression and recovery
characteristics
• BS 6826 : 1987 Linoleum and cork carpet sheet and tiles
• BS 7044 : Section 2.3 1990 Artificial sports surfaces. Methods for determining
durability.
• pr EN 1516 Surfaces for sports areas. Determination of resistance of artificial
sports surfaces to indentation
There is little consistency in the above compression-set tests, and the results should not
be directly compared.
32 CIRIA Report 184

Classification
The resistance to indentation of flooring materials has the following designations in the
tables in Section 2.3.
IND 1 _ Resistant to indentation
IND 2 _ Moderately resistant to indentation
IND 3 _ Prone to indentation
2.1.4 Chemical resistance
Chemical resistance describes the ability of flooring materials to withstand the effects
of spillage of a range of substances and corrosive atmospheres.
In non-industrial premises including hospitals, photographic processing rooms,

educational and commercial premises, any spillage is generally accidental and
therefore restricted. When selecting the flooring it is assumed that good housekeeping
would ensure short duration contact. Where spills are thought likely to be frequent and
occur in the same place, it may be prudent to make special provision in identified high-
risk locations.
In industrial premises where chemical substances are used in manufacturing processes,

the selection of flooring should assume that the extent of spillage is considered extreme
and contact may be prolonged. In such applications each floor area will require
individual consideration, including a detailed knowledge of the potential contaminant,
the chemical composition, concentration, contact duration and possible frequency of
contact before the flooring material can be chosen for its ability to withstand the
process chemicals in question.
Non-industrial premises
In the non-industrial premises referred to above, the floorings range from the
cementitious terrazzo types to the resilient rubber, PVC and linoleum. Carpets based on
wool and/or synthetic tibres would also be considered but are less likely in areas where
chemical spillage is possible.
As a result of the very extensive range of chemicals, reference is made only to

substances belonging to basic categories together with their effect on the various
floorings.
Oil/grease
Oil or grease spillage will have a direct, detrimental effect on slip resistance.
Rubber, asphalt and thermoplastic tiles are adversely affected by prolonged contact.
Vinyl floorings complying with BS 3261 : Part 1 : 1973 Specification for unbacked
flexible PVC flooring have a level of resistance to various substances including mineral
and vegetable oil.
Cement-based floorings are resistant to the effects of oil and grease but may show
staining.
CIRIA Report 184 33

Acids
The majority of floorings except cement-based flooring will withstand the occasional
spillage of acids, both dilute and concentrated. Prolonged contact with the concentrated
acids such as sulphuric and nitric will have a corrosive action. Certain coloured
floorings can be affected by staining due to a reaction between acid and pigment. All
concentrations of acids will have a detrimental effect on cement-based flooring.
Alkalis
Alkali contamination for a very limited period generally causes little or no damage.
Calcium aluminate cement is however attacked by caustic alkalis, even in dilute
solutions. Alkalis can have a bleaching effect on some pigments used in flexible
flooring, in particular PVC and linoleum.
Highly alkaline solutions must not be used for cleaning, in particular plasticised PVC
flooring, as they can cause loss of plasticiser and hence increased shrinkage.
Solvents
Most organic solvents will have some detrimental effect on flexible flooring such as
rubber, PVC and linoleum. Cementitious floors other than polymer-modified materials
are not expected to be affected beyond possible staining.
Most solvents evaporate quickly, but if certain solvents such as ketones and chlorinated
hydrocarbons are left in contact with the resilient flooring, long-term damage can take
place.
Industrial premises
Floorings based on Portland cement, e.g. power-trowelled, granolithic, terrazzo, should

not be used in potentially acidic environments but would find use in those areas where
resistance to wear and impact was more important.
Typical floorings that are resistant to a wide range of chemicals and are used
extensively in industrial premises include:
(a) ceramic products (vitrified and fully vitrified tiles) used in conjunction with
specialist chemically resistant bedding and grouting
(b) synthetic resin flooring based on:
epoxy resins
methyl methacrylate resins
polyurethane resins
polyester resins
(See Section 6.5 for detail specification and laying aspects of synthetic resin floorings.)
Chemically resistant bedding/grouting
The chemical conditions will dictate the resin system or systems, and the appropriate
choice is then to fully bed and joint the tiles or paver directly onto the membrane
covered substrate.
34 CIRIA Report 184

The high cost of the chemical-resistant resins used for jointing the tile or paver
sometimes dictates the use of a cement or modified cement-based tile bed. The jointing
resin must be compatible with the cement bed to be effective: for instance, furane resin
cements are acid catalysed, and contact with the alkaline cement will neutralise the
catalyst and results in a partly set interface.
The following resin mortars are commonly used.
Epoxy resin mortars
Epoxy resin formulations are widely used for bedding and jointing tile and pavers in
the hygiene industries such as dairies, breweries, pharmaceuticals and general food and
meat processing. Most epoxy resins have low installation odour except when hardened
with phenolic amine and provided they are solvent-free. Chemical resistance is good
except for oxidising chemicals such as nitric acid and sodium hypochlorite.
Polyester resin mortars
Polyester resin mortars are preferred to epoxy resin only in areas of attack by oxidising
chemicals such as nitric acid. The styrene odours from polyester resins are
objectionable where taint is likely.
Furane resin mortars
These are the most widely used resin mortar in chemical environments. They have
excellent resistance to all acids (except oxidising), alkalis and solvents. Furane is an
excellent fully bedding and jointing system, and although it has an odour this is not
objectionable.
Polyurethane mortars
Polyurethane mortars are not commonly used as the material has a tendency to
slump, and adhesion to vitrified or semi-vitrified tiles without priming is inadequate.
Latex mortars
Latex cement mortars are not recommended in many chemical environments.
Synthetic resin floorings
Resin floorings include:
epoxy
methyl methacrylate
polyester
polyurethane
Many of the above resin floorings will have, in varying degrees, the following
attributes:
• versatility of application
• excellent adhesion to a wide range of substrates
• resistance to a wide range of chemicals
• adequate degree of solvent resistance except to ketones and chlorinated solvents
• excellent physical properties
CIRIA Report 184 35

• low shrinkage on curing unless containing solvents or water
• low installation odour
Epoxy resin systems
A wide range of epoxy resin formulations are used as coatings, toppings, sealers and
primers, and have many of the above attributes. Specific requirements are achieved by
careful selection of hardener system and tillers.
In the food industry, solvent-free and diluent-free systems are normally essential to
avoid tainting of foodstuffs in manufacture.
Methyl methacrylate systems
Methyl methacrylate formulations are available as trowel-applied and self-levelling

industrial-grade flooring for those areas where resistance to a range of corrosive
chemicals is required. The system has the advantage that it can be steam cleaned.
Owing to the volatility of the methacrylate monomer and its ability to cause foodstuff
contamination, suitable precautions should be taken if laid in operational food factories.
They are not resistant to ketones, aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated solvents.
Polyester resin systems
Compared with epoxy resins, these offer improved resistance to oxidising chemicals,
bleaches and solvents. Polyester resins as floor toppings, however, are beset with
difficulties relating to shrinkage, lack of resilience, and installation odour problems
from the styrene component.
This characteristic styrene odour has been one of the practical limitations on
development and application of polyester resin floor toppings, particularly in foodstuff
installations, dairies, breweries, chocolate factories – some of the largest areas for resin
floorings.
Polyurethane resin systems
Polyurethane resin flooring offers chemical resistance equivalent to epoxy resin, with
the added advantage of an inherent elasticity that can be created in epoxy resins only
with the loss of chemical resistance.
On the negative side, polyurethanes are sensitive to moisture in the uncured state,
requiring closer attention to site conditions, substrate preparation and general
application.
Polyurethane floorings are widely used in hygiene industries, and their generally
smooth surface is easily cleaned.
36 CIRIA Report 184

Classification
The chemical resistance of flooring materials has the following designations in the
H High chemical resistance
M Medium chemical resistance
L Low chemical resistance
2.1.5 T h e rm a l re s is ta n ce
Thermal conductivity
The flow of heat through a material is measured in terms of its thermal conductivity,
which is the reciprocal of thermal resistivity: the higher the thermal conductivity value,
the higher the rate at which heat will flow through the material. The U value of a floor
is a calculated value of heat flow through all materials present, which also takes surface
effects into account.
Heat loss is of concern in most buildings, but there are specialist applications such as
cold stores where heat gain is important. Heat loss through ground floors can be
reduced by providing a horizontal layer of a thermal insulation material below the
finished floor surface. Heat loss may also be reduced by fitting a suitable thermal
insulant vertically around the perimeter of the building to a depth of 1 m below ground
level.
The U value of ground floors specified in the Building Regulations 1991 Approved
Document Ll for England and Wales and the Building Standards (Scotland)
Regulations 1990, and the Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1990, is
0.45 W/ m2 K.
The U value calculation for ground floors also takes the area of the floor into
consideration. Ground floors of small buildings may require thermal insulation to
achieve the required average U value, but ground floors in large buildings may achieve
this value without the need for additional insulating material by virtue of their low
perimeter-to-area ratio. Thin flooring materials are unlikely to have a significant effect
on the total heat flow through a complete floor structure. Thick flooring materials of
low thermal conductivity may be sufficient to achieve the required U value in
borderline cases.
Reference should be made to BRE Digest 145 for further information regarding heat
loss through ground floors and a method for calculating U values.
The measurement of thermal conductivity is given in BS 874 Methods for determining

thermal insulating properties with definitions of thermal insulating terms.
Flooring materials laid over screeds containing heating elements should ideally have a
high thermal conductivity value. To reduce heat loss to the structural base, insulation is
provided below the screed containing heating elements. Floors finished with high
thermal conductivity materials may feel cold when walked upon barefoot.
CIRIA Report 184 37

Service temperature
The other thermal effect that may need to be considered is the resistance of the flooring
to low and high temperatures. Examples of flooring likely to encounter extremes of
temperature are those used in cold stores or foundries. Many types of flooring possess
thermo-plastic properties and will harden at low temperatures and soften at high
temperatures. Most PVC-based flooring systems have a maximum continuous operating
temperature of 27 °C. Exceeding this temperature will cause the flooring to soften and
easily indent, and may result in breakdown of the adhesive. Certain types of linoleum
have greater resistance to temperature, but the adhesive will limit the maximum service
temperature. The temperature of rubber flooring should also not greatly exceed 27 °C.
Most resilient flooring materials are suitable for use over underfloor heating systems,
but a control thermostat should be incorporated into the floor to ensure that the
maximum temperatures recommended by the flooring and adhesive manufacturers are
not exceeded.
Resilient floorings should be conditioned and laid under warm conditions. According
to BS 8203 : 1987, linoleum and most PVC floor finishes should be stored for 24 hours
at a temperature of not less than 18 °C, and the laying area should be maintained at not
less than 18 °C during installation. The minimum storage and laying area temperature
for rubber floor finishes is 15 °C. The flooring materials will be too hard below this
temperature, and may crack. See Section 7.1 for further information.
Of the four grades of mastic asphalt that are available, grade 1 has the highest
temperature resistance but should not be exposed to temperatures in excess of
25-30 °C. All the grades are rather brittle and should not be exposed to temperatures
lower than 5 °C or used in unheated buildings. They should not be laid in air
temperatures less than 10 °C.
Most timber species possess good resistance to heat transfer but have limited resistance
to withstand permanent high temperatures. Low relative humidities are often associated
with temperatures above ambient, and the moisture content of timber exposed to such
conditions will fall to an extremely low level. In order to prevent excessive movement
of a timber floor where moderately high service temperatures are anticipated, it is
important that the timber is kiln-dried to an appropriate moisture content prior to
installation.
Ceramic tile flooring, and cementitious flooring such as terrazzo or direct-finished

concrete, all have good resistance to low and high temperatures.
The thermal movement of floor systems exposed to periodic high temperatures must be
taken into account by ensuring that an adequate number of joints have been provided,
and that each joint is capable of withstanding the expected movement.
Certain cleaning systems may involve the use of hot water or steam. It is advisable that
only flooring materials resistant to moderately high temperatures are used when such
cleaning methods may be employed regularly. Other flooring materials, such as carpets,
do not necessarily need to have resistance to such high temperatures if they are cleaned
with steam or hot water only rarely.
Classification
For the purposes of classification in the tables given in Section 2.3, the typical extreme
ranges of service temperatures are given in °C. Actual ranges, particularly for
38 CIRIA Report 184

proprietary materials, may vary from the values given. In all cases, where temperatures
outside the range 5-25 °C are expected, confirmation of suitability must be sought from
the manufacturers. The classification refers to the flooring material capacity only.
Further precautions for other components of the flooring system, and for
accommodating thermal movements, may be necessary. Refer to the following sections
for further guidance on movement accommodation.
Consideration should also be given to the rate of application of extremes of

temperature. For example, cryogenic spillage or molten metal spillage may induce
extremely rapid localised thermal stresses, sufftcient to cause disruption in otherwise
suitable flooring. Where such risks exist, specialist advice should be sought.
2.1.6 Levels and flatness
Formation of floorings that are totally true to level or datum, or which are totally
without any deviations in surface flatness or regularity, is impossible owing to the
nature of flooring materials and construction processes. On the other hand, excessive
deviations in these properties must be avoided to prevent direct and indirect
impairment of floor serviceability. Direct impairment includes immediate problems
such as trip hazards to pedestrians, excessive sway or wear and tear on wheeled traffic,
difficulty in installation of specialised equipment on floors, ponding in wet areas, and
aesthetic effects at skirtings. Indirect impairment includes longer-term problems such
as accelerated degradation of the flooring due to increased wear and impact at high
spots or lipped joints. There is therefore a need to control these inevitable deviations to
within limits that will secure adequate serviceability. It must be borne in mind,
however, that insistence on high accuracy will result in higher construction costs.
Accuracy of the flooring surface can be split into three elements:
• departure from specified datum

• surface flatness or regularity
• lipping at joints
Methods of specifying and measuring the accuracy of floors have historically varied
considerably. Grid level surveys have traditionally been used to define and measure
deviation from a specified datum. Flatness has commonly been defined and measured
on the basis of deviation from a straightedge either laid level or laid on the flooring
surface. In practice very few floors were actually subject to more than just a cursory
assessment. In more recent years, the advent of very narrow aisle warehouses, hover
transport, and other specialised operations has led to the development of specialised
techniques for construction of high accuracy or ‘superflat’ flooring. This in turn has led
to the development of specification for flatness in terms of differences in elevation or
slope over distances related to the wheel base or wheel track of the intended vehicular
traffic. Sophisticated electronic equipment has been developed to assess compliance for
these types of floor. Although such equipment is now available, simpler and more
traditional methods are still considered as appropriate for the majority of normal
accuracy floors.
In considering the accuracy required of the finished flooring surface, it is essential to

also consider the accuracy of the underlying construction since in many cases this will
limit the achievable accuracy of the finished flooring. For example, for thin applied or
in-situ floorings such as adhesive fixed ceramic tiling or resin toppings, there is
insufficient thickness to permit inaccuracies in the substrate to be corrected. Correction
will be possible only where the flooring thickness permits, such as in the case of
concrete toppings, or where a thick-bed fixing system is used, such as in the case of
CIRIA Report 184 39

rigid tiling on semi-dry bed. Even then, the degree of correction may be limited by the
permissible deviation in flooring or bedding thickness. Further guidance on the
relationship between accuracy of the substrate and the finished floor is given in the
following sections of this Guide.
For the purposes of selection, specification and measurement of acceptable surface

deviations, the flooring should initially be classified as either high accuracy or normal
accuracy. High accuracy will typically be appropriate for very narrow aisle (VNA)
warehousing or where hover transport is to be used. It may also be necessary for some
sports activities involving rolling of balls (see Section 2.1.14). Normal accuracy is
appropriate to all other floor usages.
High-accuracy floors
The classification of high-accuracy floors is discussed in detail in Section 7 of Concrete

Society Technical Report No. 34 Concrete industrial groundfloors (Bibliography 24).
Accuracy is defined in terms of four basic properties:

I Difference in elevation over 300 mm _ Any wheel-track in defined movement
areas.
II Difference in slope over 600 mm _ Any wheel-track in defined movement or free
movement areas.
III Difference in elevation across wheel-track _ Any line at right angles to the wheel-
track. Lines to be at 300 mm centres. (Wheel-tracks up to 1.5 m IIIa, over
1.5 m IIIb.)
IV Difference in elevation of points on a 3-m grid _ free movement areas.
These properties are subject to allowable limits for 95% and 100% of the floor area, the
magnitude of the limit being varied for a range of usage categories. These requirements
are summarised in Table 2.5.
The production of flooring to the superflat category of accuracy cannot be achieved

without some corrective grinding, a process that may have a significant cost
implication. Although superflat flooring may appeal to many users, the additional costs
of production are rarely justifiable unless usage warrants the extreme accuracy.
Measurement
The complexity of the accuracy requirements for these high-accuracy floors defies
effective compliance assessment by normal measurement techniques. Hence alternative
types of equipment have been developed to allow satisfactory and efficient
measurement. These are based on electronic inclinometers, which can directly measure
differences in elevation to an accuracy of better than ±0.1 mm. They are linked into an
electronic data logger to store information for subsequent computer processing. Print-
outs are produced that indicate areas of floor that are outside the specification. Similar
electronic equipment is also available for assessment of normal accuracy floors.
40 CIRIA Report 184

Table 2.5 Accuracy limits for various usage categories.
Allowable limits (mm)
Category and usage Property 95% 100%

SF (SUPERFLAT). *
VNA warehouses requiring Defined movement I 0.75 1.00
min. clearance between " II 1.00 1.50
fixed and moving pallets, " IIIa 1.50 2.50
max. throughputs, max. " IIIb 2.00 3.00
truck speed, max permitted " 2.00 3.00
height.
1. *
VNA warehouses where the Defined movement I 1.50 2.50
racking height varies " II 2.50 3.50
between 8 m and 13 m. Top- " IIIa 2.50 3.50
guided trucks between 13 m " IIIb 3.00 4.50

and 20 m.
2. *
VNA warehouse where the Defined movement I 2.50 4.00
racking height is less than " II 3.25 5.00
8 m. Automatically guided " IIIa 3.50 5.00
vehicles " IIb 4.00 6.00
3. Free movement areas in:
FM1. Hover transport and Free movement II - 2.5
areas of special consideration. " IV 3.0 4.5
FM2. Wide-aisle warehouses Free movement II - 3.5
_ automatically guided ‘‘ IV 5.5 8.0
transfer vehicles _ transfer aisles.
FM3. Wide-aisle Free movement II - 5.0
warehouses using counter- " IV 5.5 8.0
balanced trucks.
Manufacturing facility-
general warehousing for
block stacking.
* Tolerance of level to datum plane. Categories SF and 1 ± 10 mm
Category 2 ± 15 mm.
Assessment for compliance of high-accuracy floors using such equipment is a

specialised activity, and should be entrusted to a specialist contractor. The operation
should normally be carried out as soon as possible after finishing the concrete surface,
usually the following day. This enables areas of non-compliance to be rapidly corrected
by selective grinding.
Normal-accuracy floors
Classifications for tolerances on level and surface regularity are given in the various
British Standards for floorings and screeds and bases to receive floorings. There are,
however, some differences in the basis of specification and assessment of surface
regularity or flatness. Deviation under a 2-m straightedge is used for rigid tile applied
floorings and underlying substrates. Deviation under a 3-m straightedge is used in all
other cases.
CIRIA Report 184 41

It is essential in all cases to ensure that the flatness and level specified for the substrate
to which the flooring is to be applied are fully compatible with the flatness and level
required of the finished floor. Except in the case of rigid tiles applied with a semi-dry
bed, this will normally require the same tolerance specification for both substrate and
finished floor.
Departure from datum
For large areas for normal purposes, ± 15 mm from datum will be found to be
satisfactory. Greater accuracy may be required in small rooms, along the line of
partition walls, in the vicinity of door openings, and where specialised equipment is to
be installed on the floor.
See Section 2.1.14 for requirements for sports floors. Measurement is by level survey.
Flatness or surface regularity

British Standard Specifications have generally adopted the classification for surface
regularity of screeds, bases and floorings of.
SR1 High standard _ Special floors, special warehouse floors
SR2 Normal standard _ Normal commercial and industrial floors
SR3 Utility standard _ Other floors where surface regularity is not critical
As noted previously, however, the use of different-length straightedges, and differences

between methods of using straightedges (i.e. laid either in contact with the floor, or on
3 mm feet either end), result in some anomalies within this classification system. For
example:
BS 8203 (Bibliography 17)

Base to receive SR3 = 10 mm under 3-m straightedge laid in contact
flexible flooring with surface.
BS 5385 Part 3 (Bibliography 7)
Base to receive SR3 = 10 mm under 2-m straightedge laid in contact
ceramic tiling with surface.
BS 5385 Part 3 (Bibliography 7)
Ceramic tiling laid To achieve ±3 mm under 2-m straightedge
on SR3 base. supported on 3 mm feet.
For the purpose of classification in the tables of Section 2.3 of this Guide, which permit
direct comparison of achievable accuracy of different floorings, the system in Table 2.6
has been adopted:
Table 2.6 Classification system adopted for use with tables in

Section 2.3.
Class Maximum departure from the Application

underside of a 3-m straightedge
resting in contact with the floor
SR1 3mm High standard
SR2 5mm Normal standard
SR3 10 mm Utility standard
42 CIRIA Report 184

Measurement: Assessment for compliance of flatness for normal-accuracy floors should
be by use of a 3-m straightedge laid in contact with the flooring, and checking gaps
beneath with a slip gauge. Full details of test methods and sampling rates are given in
Section 8. It should be noted that the achievable accuracy in rigid tile flooring, where
subsequent grinding is not part of the normal laying process, may be limited by the
dimensional tolerances of the flooring units. It may also be impractical to accurately
assess the surface regularity of floorings with textured or profiled surfaces.
Lipping at joints
For in-situ applied floorings, direct-finished concrete base slabs, and substrates to
receive thin floorings, there should be no abrupt change in level at joints for SR1. For
SR2 and SR3 there should be no change in height across the joint greater than 2 mm.
Thus thin floorings such as sheet vinyl will require the application of a levelling
material or localised grinding where applied to a SR2 or SR3 substrate. For any
flooring subject to grinding or sanding after laying, there should be no noticeable
change in level upon completion. For rigid tile floorings, such as natural stone or
ceramic tile, the maximum deviation between tile surfaces either side of the joint,
including movement joints, should be 1 mm for joints less than 6 mm wide, and 2 mm
for joints greater than 6 mm wide.
Where floorings are to be subject to solid-wheeled traffic, these limits on lipping at

joints may be reduced to lower the risk of impact damage.
Classification _ normal and high accuracy
For the purposes of the tables in Section 2.3 of this Guide, levels and flatness for both
normal- and high-accuracy finished floors have been combined and classified in order
of decreasing accuracy (in Table 2.7). Note that the high accuracy category 3 can
approximate to the normal accuracy class SRI. The classification given in the tables
represents the best accuracy possible for each type of flooring.
2.1.7 Ease of cleaning
The work needed to maintain a floor in a clean condition without affecting its
performance characteristics will vary according to a number of factors. A plain light-
coloured carpet will need, for example, more frequent cleaning than a patterned dark
carpet of the same type even though the degree of soiling may be the same.
Furthermore the floor of a hospital or food preparation area will require a higher
standard of cleaning than the floor of most factories.
Table 2.7 Classification for normal and high-accuracy floors.
Classification Usage
SF Superflat. VNA. Max rack height. Max output.
1 VNA warehouses. Rack height 8-l3 m.
2 VNA warehouses. Rack height <8 m.
3 Free movement areas. Narrow, wide aisle warehouses. Hover
transport.
SR1 High standard
SR2 Normal standard.
SR3 Utility standard.
CIRIA Report 184 43

The absence of adequate cleaning may result in permanent staining or additional wear
or loss of a required property such as slip resistance.
The majority of soiling occurs as a result of dirt being carried into a building underfoot,
but marks made by the wheels of trucks/trolleys can also be a serious problem. It is
possible to minimise soiling being carried into the building by providing dirt- and grit-
retaining mats at entrances. Alternatively, a dirt walk-off zone should be created,
which can be calculated by the amount of people using the building, e.g. a large
departmental store should have at least five paces before walking on the decorative
floor. The colour of the flooring near entrances should, where possible, match the
expected soiling type.
The success of routine maintenance can largely depend on correct pre-treatment of the
flooring. It is important that the pre-treatment is applied shortly after laying, but
making sure the flooring is protected in the meantime. The manufacturer of the
flooring should be consulted for precise instructions for pre-treatment but for PVC,
rubber and linoleum floors the surface is normally initially cleaned and rinsed with
clean water, and two thin coats of an emulsion polish should be applied in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions.
Some proprietary timber floor systems have a factory-applied surface coating and do
not require further pre-treatment. Bare timber surfaces should be sanded, vacuum
cleaned to remove dust, and a clear sealer applied in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.
Seals and polishes, unless specifically manufactured as static control products, should
not be applied to static controlled or electrically conductive flooring because they will
prevent the dissipation of static electricity. Seals and polishes should not be applied to
stone flooring. Seals and polishes may also affect the properties of safety or sports
flooring. Contact should be made with the flooring manufacturer for further
information.
Suitable methods for cleaning sheet and tile materials such as cork, linoleum, plastic
(PVC) and rubber are given in BS 6263 : Part 2.
Smooth floorings such as terrazzo might appear to be easily cleaned, but dirt can lodge
in joints or fine cracks and give light-coloured floors a dirty appearance.
The materials normally used for cleaning sheet and tiled floorings are aqueous
detergent solutions that range from being neutral through to strongly alkaline. For
general-purpose cleaning, preference should be given to neutral detergents. Pine gel
cleaners are available, but continuous use may cause damage to PVC floors in the long
term and adversely affect protective films. Timber floors should not be frequently wet-
cleaned unless the amount of water can be kept to an absolute minimum.
Details of cleaning methods are given in Section 10, but it is important that the
flooring is able to resist the cleaning process that will be used. For example, food
manufacturing areas require exceptional cleanliness, and aggressive cleaning methods
may be adopted, such as steam or high-pressure water jetting. The designer should
ensure that the flooring and all other ancillary products such as grouting and jointing
materials should be able to survive frequent cleaning of this kind.
Smooth floorings will be easier to clean than rough materials, but a smooth material
that is absorbent may be stained with spilt liquids such as oils, fuels, beverages etc.
Consideration should be given to coating absorbent cementitious floors in areas where
44 CIRIA Report 184

the spillage of liquids may be anticipated. Smooth non-absorbent flooring materials are
likely to be suitable in areas where a high standard of cleanliness is required. It is likely
that floors with raised surfaces to enhance slip resistance will need more frequent
cleaning.
Most types of carpet are inherently at risk of staining by spillage of liquids, but a
degree of stain resistance can be obtained by treatment with a water-repellent material.
One type of carpet with good water repellence and stain resistance is the high-density
flocked synthetic fibre materials.
Classification
The resistance to staining of floorings has the following designations in the tables in
Section 2.3.
H – Inherently resistant to most stains and can be cleaned to a high
standard.
M – Can be cleaned to a high standard but liable to be stained by liquids.

L – Difficult to clean and liable to be stained by liquids.
2.1.8 Electrostatic properties
A range of floorings are manufactured to control, within specified limits, electrostatic

discharges (ESD) where they may cause electronic component or systems failure, fire
or explosions.
Electrostatic flooring can be divided up as shown in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8 Electrostatic flooring types.
1. Static dissipative (also commonly referred to as antistatic)
Used in the electronics industry where static-sensitive devices are manufactured and
assembled. Used in areas of computer installation and electronics data storage.
Standards: BS CECC 00015/l. (Resistance to ground

7.5 x 10 5 to 1 x 10 7 ohms.)
BS 2050 (5 x 10 4 to 1 x 10 6
ohms). Note that BS 2050 is out of date
and impractical on site.
2. Conductive
Used in manufacturing areas (e.g. thin film processing), operating theatres and in
some sectors of the electronics industry where the lower resistance levels are
acceptable.
4 6
Standards: ASTM F150 as interpreted by NFPA 99 (2.5 x 10 to 1 x 10 ohms).
6
DIN 51953 (max. 1 x 10 ohms).
6
BS 5783 (max. 1 x 10 ohms).
DoH HTM 2 (5 x 10 4 to 2 x 10 6ohms).
3. Super conductive, conductive plus or fully conductive
Primarily used in the armaments and explosives industries. The average resistance
must be less than 5 x 10 4 ohms. This type of installation has insufficient resistance to
protect a person from electric shock from a short circuit on a 240/250 volt main.
Special precautions are included in the electrical circuit to prevent this possibility.
Standards: NATO Standard Stanag 4147.
CIRIA Report 184 45

The sub-floor construction will influence the choice of floor finish. Where the sub-floor
is suitable for a rigid type of flooring, terrazzo tiling is often used. The hydraulically
pressed, precast terrazzo tiles are preferred because generally they have more stable
electrical properties than in-situ terrazzo floors.
Ceramic tiling is an alternative to terrazzo precast tiles.
Static control vinyl type flooring is preferred where a flexible type of flooring is
required.
Vinyl has the advantage over rubber and linoleum of greater resistance to staining
fluids and solvents.
Control of static electricity is necessary in interior situations where flammable or

potentially explosive materials are in use, e.g. anaesthetics in operating theatres and
anaesthetising rooms, and flammable liquids, gases and fine powders in industrial
processes. In order to prevent build-up of electrostatic charges in such cases, and to

ensure safe discharge of static electricity from personnel and equipment, floors in such
areas must be able to dissipate this static. This can be assessed by measuring body
voltage decay and body voltage generation on the floor surface. The electrical
resistance of the conductive floor, however, should not be too low or the risk of electric
shock associated with equipment connected with mains electricity may be seriously
increased. All floors, therefore, that require electrostatic discharge properties should
comply with the limits laid down in Table 2.8.
For textile flooring, a Draft for Development DD68 : 1980 describes a method for the
determination of static electrical propensity of textile floor coverings of all types. In the
test, the body voltage generated is measured when a person wearing standardised
footwear walks on the textile floor covering under controlled atmospheric conditions.
Construction for electrostatic conditions (see also Section 3.1.3 Electrostatic

properties).
Sub-floors next to the ground must contain an effective dpm prior to the laying of any
static control floorings. Rising moisture vapour can have a detrimental effect on the
static control properties of the flooring.
Terrazzo tiles should be manufactured to comply with BS 4131. Floors should be laid
in accordance with British Standard Code of Practice 5385 : Part 5 : 1990. Anti-static
precautions are given in Clause 13 of BS 5385 : Part 4 : 1992.
Ceramic tiles should be laid in accordance with British Standard Code of

Practice 5385 : Part 4 : 1992.
Vinyl tiles and sheet should be laid in accordance with British Standard Code of
Practice 8203 : 1987.
Ceramic and terrazzo tiles should be bedded either in a cement : sand mortar
incorporating acetylene carbon black or in an electrically conductive adhesive. The
Health Technical Memorandum No.2 Anti-static precautions: Flooring in
anaesthetising areas (1977) refers to the incorporation of electrically conducting wire
netting over the sub-floor as an additional measure.
Movement joints should be avoided if possible as sealants are poor conductors of

electricity. If they cannot be avoided they should be limited in width to a maximum of
46 CIRIA Report 184

6 mm, to ensure that any objects placed on the floor have a substantial area in contact
with the tiles to ensure dissipation of any static charge.
Static control vinyl flooring is laid in an electrically conductive adhesive. It retains the
properties of the fully flexible BS 3261 Type A vinyls, and is generally available in
sheet and large-size tiles. Joints can be welded to create an impervious surface, and can
be used in conjunction with set-in vinyl skirtings to give a watertight finish.
Maintenance
It is important that the maintenance of static control floors should not impair their
electrostatic properties. The manufacturer’s maintenance recommendations must be
followed, as the use of polishes and surface coatings can affect the electrical properties
of static control floorings.
Testing
It is recommended that floors that are required to have electrostatic properties are
checked periodically: for example, at half-yearly intervals using the test method
described in Appendix A in BS 5385 : Part 4 : 1992.
Classification
The types of flooring that can be provided with the ability to discharge electrostatic
build-up have been given the designation of ESD in the tables in Section 2.3.
ESD Electro Static Discharge.
2.1.9 Acoustic properties
The transmission of sound through flooring systems in certain situations is controlled

by the Building Regulations 1991 Approved Document for England and Wales. Any
floor or stair that separates a dwelling from another dwelling shall resist the
transmission of both airborne and impact sound. Similar requirements are given in the
Building Standards for Scotland and Northern Ireland.
Airborne sound such as speech, or noise from radios and televisions, can be controlled
2
by flooring materials having a high mass (expressed in kg/m ). Materials able to
control airborne sound transmission are called acoustic insulators and work by
reflecting sound away from the surface. Dense concrete is a satisfactory material for
preventing the passage of airborne sound but must be constructed without direct air
paths through the floor. Timber floors must include a floating walking surface laid over
a resilient layer. Floor coverings are unlikely to have sufficient surface mass to provide
any significant reduction in the transmission of airborne sound.
Impact sound transmission is dependent on a combination of the density of the flooring

materials and separation by a resilient layer. Floorings of sufficient thickness and
resilience can have a dramatic effect on preventing impact sound transmission.
Alternatively the resilient layer should be included within the thickness of the floor.
Flanking sound transmission can result in floors’ failing to achieve their potential
sound insulation. This occurs by sound travelling vertically through adjoining walls.
Flanking transmission can be reduced by using concrete blocks or bricks having a high
surface mass and ensuring that in cavity wall construction the floor system, where
appropriate, extends to the outer face of the inner leaf.
CIRIA Report 184 47

The Building Regulations 1991 Approved Document E describes three types of floor for
new buildings that have satisfactory resistance to both airborne and impact sound
transmission:
• Floor type 1 – A concrete base having a surface mass of 365 kg/m 2
(all layers of floor and soffit included) constructed from the

following:
A solid concrete slab (in-situ)
B solid concrete slab with permanent shuttering
C concrete beams with infilling blocks
D concrete planks (solid or hollow)
The concrete base must be covered with a resilient material, or material with a
resilient base, with an overall uncompressed thickness of at least 4.5 mm. A floor
covering will also be suitable having a weighted impact sound improvement (∆Lw )
of not less than 17 dB as calculated in Annex A to BS 5821 : Part 2. Floorings that

may be suitable are thick carpets, rubber sheeting with foam backing, and backed
vinyl sheeting. Test certification from an independent laboratory may be required.
• Floor type 2 – The concrete base as described in floor type 1 but with a
timber raft or cement/sand screed laid over a resilient layer
of mineral fibre, pre-compressed expanded polystyrene or
closed-cell polyethylene foam.
• Floor type 3 – This floor type includes the following three different
constructions, all using timber joists:
A A multi-layer floor comprising boards and resilient material laid over joists.
Mineral wool material laid over a two-layer plasterboard ceiling.
B Single floating flooring layer on resilient strips fixed over the joists. A rock
fibre blanket material is laid over a two-layer plasterboard ceiling.
C Single floating flooring layer over resilient strips fixed over the joists. A
pugging material is laid over the ceiling, which comprises a thick layer of
dense plaster or two layers of plasterboard over a single layer of plasterboard.
The Building Regulations 1991 Approved Document E should be consulted for precise
details of the above constructions.
It is possible to use other forms of construction between party floors, but test results
must be made available to demonstrate compliance with the requirements for airborne
and impact sound given in Table 2, Section 3 of the Building Regulations 1991
Approved Document E. The tests are defined in BS 5821 : Parts 1 and 2.
The choice of flooring material can affect the acoustic performance inside a building.
This would be important in concert halls, theatres etc., although the floor should not be
considered in isolation from the walls and ceilings. Airborne-sound insulants such as
dense concrete reflect sound back into the room, causing reverberation and echo. A soft
flooring material such as carpet will act as a sound absorber and help to deaden noise
and make speech and music clearer.
48 CIRIA Report 184

Classification
Floorings have been classified into sound-absorbing materials or sound insulation

materials. Their effectiveness is designated in the tables in Section 2.3 as follows:
SA Sound absorbing -may have a significant benefit in reducing impact sound

transmission.
SI Sound insulating – may have a significant benefit in reducing airborne sound
transmission.
U Unlikely to have a significant effect on either impact or airborne sound
transmission.
2.1.10 Anti-taint properties
This particular property is important in respect of the chemically curing multi-

component floorings and primers when they are used where food is prepared and
stored. These floorings include epoxies, polyesters and polyurethanes, and methacrylate
types.
A certificate of test for taint testing for flooring can be obtained from the Leatherhead
Food Research Association. This certificate and a technical report are issued after the
properly applied and cured flooring has been tested for the risk of transferring taint into
foods stored in close proximity and proved to be acceptable. For work carried out in
occupied premises, the potential for taint to be imparted by primers or by the curing
resins must be considered.
The test is carried out according to the sensory evaluation principles described in
BS 5929 : Part 1 : 1992 and ISO 6658.
Classification
Floorings are classified in the tables in Section 2.3 as follows:

N
NoTn - t a i n t i n g
T Liable to taint
2.1.11 Permeability
Permeability, in the context of flooring materials, is generally restricted to the

transmission of water vapour or liquid, methane gas or radon through a unit area of the
floor materials under specified test conditions. The downward permeability of flooring
materials is important where liquids are intentionally contained or where accidental
spillage of liquids may occur.
It is important to differentiate between permeability of a material to water vapour or

gases and permeability to water or other liquids. Materials that are impermeable to
liquid water are not necessarily impermeable to water vapour or gases.
Water vapour
Permeability to water vapour is an important consideration for floorings where they are
applied over recently laid concrete or screeded subfloors. Most applied flexible
floorings must not be laid in new buildings until the sub-floor has reached the level of
dryness given in Section 4.2 but some residual moisture may still be present. Vapour-
CIRIA Report 184 49

permeable materials will allow the sub-floor to continue drying until an air-dry
condition is reached. Applied flexible floorings that have a low vapour permeability
may trap moisture, and are more likely to suffer breakdown of the adhesive if laid
before the subfloor has dried down to an appropriate level.
Unbacked carpets have a high vapour permeability, but this will be greatly reduced
when backing materials such as foam rubber or bitumen are present.
Testing
A laboratory method of test for vapour permeability that can be used for floorings is
given in BS 3177 : 1959. A sample of the test material is sealed over an aluminium cup
containing a desiccant. The aluminium cup is placed in a humid environment and
weighed regularly. The vapour permeability of the test material is calculated from the
increase in weight of the desiccant. Vapour permeability and its reciprocal, vapour
resistivity, are quoted in a variety of units. Table 2.9 gives conversion factors.
Classification
Materials having a low vapour permeability have been given the following designation
in the tables in Section 2.3.
LVP Low-permeability materials – below 5 x 10 -3 gm/MNs
Table 2.9 Conversion factors for unusual vapour permeability units

to gm/MNs.
Unit as originally expressed Multiplication factor

2 8
g/(cm .s.mbar) 1 x 10
2 -2
g/(m .24h.mmHg) (Metric perm) 9.681 x 10
1b/(ft 2 .h.atm) 1.339 x 10

2
gr/(ft .h.mb) 1.937
gr/(ft 2 .h.inHg) (perm) 5.719 x 10 -2
-3
Temperature (75% r.h.; 25 °C) 4.874 x 10
g/(m2 .24h) (BS 3177)
-3
Tropical (90% RH; 38 °C) 1.942 x 10
g/(m2 .24h) (BS 3177)
-4
mg/(N.h) 2.78 x 10
Definition of units used in Table 2.9

atm – standard atmospheres m – metres
cm – centimetres mb – millibars
ft – feet mbar – millibars
g – grams mg – milligrams
gr – grains mm Hg – conventional millimetres
mercury
h – hours N – newtons
in Hg – inches mercury s – seconds
lb – pounds
50 CIRIA Report 184

Liquids
The permeability of a flooring to water or other liquids is important where equipment is

liable to leak or overflow. A brewery is an example where a variety of liquids may be
expected to reach the flooring material. Concrete topped with polymer materials
forming an impermeable layer is often used in such circumstances.
Ceramic tiles are fairly impermeable materials, but joints filled with conventional
cement-based grouting are liable to allow the penetration of liquids. Joint leakage can
be minimised by using epoxide-resin-based grout materials.
Most vinyl, linoleum and rubber flexible flooring materials are fairly impermeable to
liquids, but will also be vulnerable to leakage through the joints.
Unbacked carpets are likely to be permeable to liquids, and timber will allow liquids to
seep between the joints.
Classification
The liquid water permeability of flooring materials has the following designations in
the tables in Section 2.3.
NWP Non-water permeable
WP Water permeable
Methane
Methane is formed from the biological degradation of organic waste in landfills or

building materials under slabs etc. It is a colourless, odourless, hydrocarbon gas.
Methane and associated gases may also be potentially flammable, toxic and/or
asphyxiant, and it is increasingly recognised that the presence of methane is a problem
that affects the utilisation, reclamation and redevelopment of landfill sites and their
surroundings.
Emission of methane also occurs from sites near disused mines. Significant emissions
have been detected from old coal mines in Yorkshire, South Wales, and the North East.
The passage of gases is assisted if the pressure inside the property is lower than that
underground. This effectively sucks the gases into the building. In such circumstances
the permeability of the ground floor construction is of concern.
Prevention of methane ingress
In order to prevent the passage of the gases through the floor two main approaches are
employed. The main method is to fit an airtight and therefore substantially methane-
proof barrier across the whole site of the building. The barrier is used independently or
in conjunction with improved ventilation.
The barrier must be imperforate and sealed at:

• all joints within the barrier
• around the perimeter of the barrier
• around all services penetrations.
In suspended floors extra air bricks can be used to aid ventilation, which can be further
improved with the use of an extractor fan. In solid floors depressurisation pipes can be
CIRIA Report 184 51

employed leading from the sub-floor to outlets either directly out into the atmosphere,
or to a sump dug outside the building, which can if desired be fitted with a fan.
More detailed accounts of the methods described can be found in the ‘Interim
Guidance’ of part C2 of the Building Regulations, and in the Building Research
Report 212 Construction of new buildings on gas-contaminated land. Further
information is available in CIRIA Report 149 Protecting development from
methane, 1995.
All the sheet barriers must be applied to dry, smooth, dust-free surfaces that are free
from cavities or protrusions. All surfaces should preferably be treated with a primer
before applying any of the products.
Sheets laid adjacent to each other should have an overlap of at least 100 mm in general.
However, the manufacturer’s instructions should be consulted for detailed procedure for
overlapping.
The major problems associated with the sheet products are puncturing and damaging of
the membrane, thereby losing the integrity of the seal.
Radon
Radon is the common name for the isotope radon-222. Radon is a colourless, odourless
gas formed by the progressive decay of uranium-238.
Uranium-238 is present in soils in varying concentrations between 1 and 30 parts

per million, and occurs naturally in granite rock. Therefore radon emissions are linked
with geographical locations with high uranium content in the soil. Areas that are
particularly affected are found in Devon and Cornwall, Somerset, Derbyshire,
Northamptonshire, and the highlands of Scotland.
Radon-222 will further decay (with the release of an alpha particle) to form ‘daughter’
isotopes polonium-218 and polonium-214. Both these isotopes can be inhaled in fine
aerosol form, when they site in the lungs as alpha particle emitters. Alpha particles are
helium nuclei (He 22+), which carry excess energy. Irradiation of the lungs by alpha
particles results in lung tissue damage, which has been strongly correlated with lung
cancer. It is officially estimated that 2500 deaths per annum are due to radon
emissions.
Radiation is commonly measured in becquerels:

1 becquerel (Bq) = one nuclear transformation/second.
The current limit for radon radiation is set at 200 Bq/ m3
Prevention of radon ingress
Methods of preventing radon ingress are similar to those for resisting methane gas.
Methane gas can however migrate more easily through bitumen materials than radon
gas; bitumen membranes are only suitable as radon gas barriers. Most sheet materials
used to resist both methane and radon gases have polymer and aluminium interlayers.
Further detail is given in BRE Research Reports 211 and 250.
2.1.12 Flammability
Unlike wall and ceiling finishes the flammability of flooring is not usually controlled
by Building Regulations in the UK. This is because, in general, floorings are
52 CIRIA Report 184

considered less critical in the spread of fire. Exceptional circumstances may however
require consideration of the flammability of the flooring: for example, fire escape
routes, stair coverings – areas where licensing authorities consider there is a high risk
to life.
Many manufacturers of flexible flooring provide information in their technical

literature on the level of flammability of their particular floorings.
For example, flexible PVC sheet and tiles conforming to BS 8203 : 1987 Installation of
sheet and tile flooring are often assessed by one of the following test procedures.
1. BS 476 : Part 6: 1989 Method of test for fire propagation
2. BS 476 : Part 7: 1987 Method of test for classification of surface spread of flame
In general, flexible PVC only attains Class 2 under BS 476 : Part 7. Specially
formulated ‘safety’ PVC floorings can attain a class ‘O’ rating under BS 476 : Part 6
and are suitable for fire escapes. Other ‘safety’ floorings that can only attain Class 1
under BS 476 : Part 7 may also be acceptable for fire escapes.
Special studded rubber floorings can attain Class 1.
Linoleum is tested according to ASTM – E648 : 1978 Critical radiant flux of flooring
systems using a radiant heat energy source. A lower limit of critical radiant flux
(W/cm 2) is specified as 0.50 for institutional buildings and 0.25 for commercial and
public buildings.
Assessment of the behaviour of textile floor coverings tested in accordance with

BS 4790 deals with the ease with which the textile flooring would ignite under
practical conditions: e.g. when a hot coal, burning cigarette or similar small source of
ignition is dropped on it. This is sometimes referred to as the ‘hot metal nut method’.
Other methods of test, such as the radiant panel test described in ASTM-E648 : 1978,
may be used to assess the performance of textile floorings in a fire situation.
The assessment and labelling of textile floorings tested to BS 4790 is covered in

BS 5287 : 1988. The radius of the effects of ignition and the information to be given on
the label are shown in Table 2.10.
Table 2.10 Textile floorings – effects of ignition.
Test results and labelling for contract use
Radius of affected area* Information to be given on the label

(mm)
up to 35 When tested according to the appropriate method* of
BS 4790 this floor covering has a low radius (up to
355 mm) of effects of ignition.
Over 35 up to 75 When tested according to the appropriate method* of
BS 4790 this floor covering has a medium radius
(over 35 mm up to 75 mm) of effects of ignition.
Over 75 When tested according to the appropriate method* of
BS 4790 this floor covering has a high radius (over 75 mm)
of effects of ignition.
* Specimen mounting method 1, 2 or 3 of BS 4790, that is:

method 1 : loose-laid;
method 2 : fully adhered;
method 3 : loose-laid with underlay
CIRIA Report 184 53

Classification
For the purposes of classification of flooring material suitability, the following

designation has been used in the tables in Section 2.3.
NF Non-flammable
LF Low flammability
MF Medium flammability
2.1.13 Access to services
Traditionally, services such as water/heating pipes, electrical conduits, and ducting

with surface-mounted openings have been incorporated in flooring systems by simply
fixing them within the depth of a screed. While such systems are still a valid solution to
routeing of services in many cases, particularly for domestic or some office situations,
they can promote problems in screeds and overlaid flooring. Correct forms of
construction to avoid such problems is included in the following sections of this Guide.
In recent years, the advent of computerised systems has led to a greater need for
routeing of cabling beneath flooring to provide access to individual workstations, and
to a need for future access to make changes to systems. For total flexibility, it would be
usual to adopt full access flooring, which can provide void depths from 50 mm up to
over 1.0 m. Full access or raised flooring systems are outside the scope of this Guide.
(Guidance on specification requirements and construction should be sought from the
PSA PF2 PS/SPU Platform floor Performance Specification and from manufacturers’
data.)
In situations where traditional service ducting is inadequate but full access is not
warranted, such as may be the case for some offices or retail areas, the use of a ‘partial
access floor’ can be considered.
Partial access floors
These systems comprise a flow-applied screed material laid in-situ over a void former.
Access chambers and cable outlet boxes are either pre-positioned before screeding or
fixed into post-cut holes. Further access holes can be cut where necessary for any future
cabling requirements.
Being a continuous in-situ surface, these systems may be finished with a range of sheet
or tile floorings, from carpet or vinyl through to ceramic or stone tiling, while the
choice of floorings for full access floors is limited to modular systems. Partial access
flooring systems currently available are limited to two basic proprietary systems:
• Synthetic anhydrite screed/PVC cellular mould (see Fig. 2.1). This type has been
in use in the UK for a number of years, and can provide cavity heights of
40_130 mm. Nominal screed thickness is typically 30 mm.
• Cementitious screed/rigid pedestal/mesh. Usage to date has been limited to
Germany and Scandinavia, although it is actually available in the UK. Cavity
height can be varied by varying the pedestal height.
Both systems are suitable for typical office-type usage.
54 CIRIA Report 184

Fig. 2.1 Typical synthetic anhydrite partial access floor.

Top – void former laid ready for screeding.
Bottom – schematic diagram of screeded floor.
CIRIA Report 184 55

Classification
For the purposes of classification of flooring material suitability for use in conjunction
with partial access floor systems, the following designations have been used in the
S Suitable for up to traffic-related service condition P2. (See Section 2.2)
NS Not suitable.
2.1.14 Sports and recreational flooring – additional properties
Sporting activities demand specific additional characteristics from the flooring, over
and above those necessary for normal, non-sporting activities. These additional
characteristics will be dictated by the particular type of sport, and may vary
considerably between different sports.
For multi-use sports halls, which are commonly also used for non-sporting activities, it
may not normally be possible to provide a flooring that is ideal for all of the sports for
which it is to be used. Thus a compromise may be required that will provide reasonable
attributes for the range of intended sports usages.
The Sports Council and British Standards Institution have developed detailed guidance
on the properties, classification, specification and testing of sports floors.
(Bibliography 13,30). BS 7044 Part I Table 2 relates required performance
characteristics to individual sporting activities, and indicates the type of surface or
surfaces that are suitable for both indoor and outdoor activities. BS 7044 Part 4 covers
specification requirements for multi-sports use, again for both indoor and outdoor
activities. Properties considered for indoor use are:
• Ball/surface interaction – rebound resilience (wet and dry)

velocity change of a rolling ball
• Person/surface – traction coefficient (wet and dry)
interaction – slip resistance (wet and dry)
– peak deceleration (i.e. shock absorbency)
• Durability abrasion resistance
– fatigue resistance
– spike resistance
– resistance to indentation
• Environmental – resistance to ozone
resistance – resistance to air ageing
– critical radiant flux (flammability)
• Miscellaneous – colour transfer
seam strength
Table 6 of BS 7044 Part 4 provides a comprehensive test schedule for both laboratory
and installed testing. Test methods are fully referred to in BS 7044 Part 4, and are
incorporated in BS 7044 Parts 2.1–2.5.
The Sports Council document further discusses other important aspects of floors
specifically for indoor sports halls, and advises on suitable flooring material types.
Differentiation is made between ‘area elastic’ and ‘point elastic’ floors. Area elastic
refers to floor systems in which a stiff surface is supported in a manner that permits
56 CIRIA Report 184

deflection of a large area, which will provide shock reduction in the event of a heavy
impact. Such floors are also known as sprung or semi-sprung. Point elastic refers to
flooring where deformation on impact is limited to the area immediately surrounding
the point of impact, as would be the case for rubber or plastics floorings fixed to a rigid
substrate. Such floors provide a degree of comfort underfoot, but little reduction in body
impact stresses. Combinations of materials may be used to form flooring systems that
provide both point and area elastic attributes.
Types of flooring included by the Sports Council as being available/offered for sports
hall floor surfaces are:
• Timber – wood strip
• Composition – composition block
– in-situ seamless composition
• Sheet flooring – rubbers
– plastics
– linoleum
– cork
• In-situ polymeric – plastics foam (poured polyurethane)
– resin-bound shredded rubber sheet, coated in-situ
with polyurethane
• Textiles – heavy woven fabrics, felts, flock, velour
– fibre-bonded, needle-punched and fine-pile carpets
– knitted woven or tufted carpets
This comprehensive list includes materials suitable for multi-use and for dedicated
areas for specialist activities.
Full guidance on selection and suitability of floorings and floor systems for individual
sports, or for ranges of sports in multi-use halls, should be sought from the Sports
Council Handbook of Sports and Recreational Building Design, 2nd Edition, Volume
2, BS 7044, and from manufacturers of proprietary systems. Test methods and test
scheduling should be in accordance with BS 7044 Part 4.
Classification
For the purposes of classification of flooring material suitability for sports applications,
the following designations have been used in the tables in Section 2.3.
P Potentially suitable for some sports. Refer to Sports Council, BS 7044, specialist
manufacturers, for further guidance.
NS Not suitable.
Sub-floors
Details of the substrate requirements should be sought from the manufacturers of the
specialist sports flooring systems. Some may require screeds, a high-quality finish to
the structural floor, or particular methods of sub-floor construction. The major
attributes required of the subfloor are:
• Moisture condition low enough to accept the flooring system within the project
timescale
• Deviation from datum not greater than ± 6 mm at any point
• Difference in level between adjacent points on 3-m grid no greater than 6 mm
CIRIA Report 184 57

• Surface regularity:
– max 6 mm under a 3-m straightedge laid on the
surface in any position.
– max 3 mm under a 300-mm straightedge laid on the
surface in any position
– 2 mm max. deviation in level at joints
• Greater surface accuracy, or profiled surfaces, may be necessary for some sports.
Details of constructional accuracy and accommodation of drying times of substrates are

given in Sections 4 and 5 of this Guide.
2.1.15 Appearance
Appearance is a property that is difficult to specify fully since it is largely a matter of

personal preference. The range of flooring materials available covers a wide spectrum
of appearances from plain grey concrete floors selected primarily for their serviceability
attributes, through to intricately patterned natural stone floors where serviceability,

although being important, may not be the primary factor affecting selection. Despite
the conceptual differences in these examples of the extremes, there will still be a
general expectation that the concrete floor should be of good appearance, even if this is
not of paramount importance.
There is therefore a need to consider the visual aspects of flooring in relation to both
what is actually required in terms of appearance, and what is achievable with the
material that is most suited for other performance requirements. It should be borne in
mind that high-gloss surfaces may be subconsciously associated by the user with a risk
of slipping.
Concrete flooring
In-situ concrete flooring, including direct-finish wearing surfaces and high-strength

concrete toppings, is one area in which argument frequently arises over appearance.
The most common complaints are non-uniformity of colour and texture, and cracking.
The latter is a problem that can be dealt with by good design and workmanship. Colour
and texture, however, are a function of a number of factors including:
• variations in concrete mix proportions and workability
• ambient temperature and humidity at time of laying
• ambient temperature and humidity during curing and subsequent drying.
• type and efficiency of curing method.

• age of concrete at finishing, which will be influenced by ambient conditions
• variations in finishing process
Since some of these factors are difficult or impossible to control, some variation in
texture and, in particular, colour is almost inevitable. Where such a flooring is
required, it is essential that the client or designer should allow a degree of variation in
appearance. If appearance assumes a high priority in this type of flooring, then it will
be necessary to allow for sample areas to be laid under site conditions to provide a
measure of agreed acceptability.
Natural materials flooring
Natural materials, such as stone or timber, will inevitably be subject to inherent

variations in both quality and appearance. When they are used as flooring materials,
58 CIRIA Report 184

such variations will affect the uniformity of appearance. In some cases this may be a
desirable feature, although typically some form of control will be necessary to limit
variations to within acceptable boundaries. This control can only be effected through a
system of initial selection and approval of the extremes of acceptable appearance of
individual units, which should be held as comparative samples for the duration of the
contract. This selection and approval should normally be made by the architect, and
precautions should be taken to ensure an adequate supply of the agreed quality for the
complete contract. Following initial selection, sample areas of flooring should be laid,
including joint details and any required patterns, for approval and subsequent
comparative assessment for the remainder of the flooring contract. Such sample areas
should be complete with any subsequently applied surface treatments, and viewed as far
as is possible under similar lighting conditions. Sample areas should not generally be
smaller in area than 3 m x 3 m.
For natural materials, insistence on onerous limits of acceptable variations may limit
the choice of potential sources, and may result in increased construction costs.
Manufactured materials flooring
Manufactured materials can be broadly split into two categories.

• In-situ applied, including – proprietary cementitious systems
– asphaltic and bituminous systems
– resins
– in-situ terrazzo
– magnesium oxychloride (magnesite)
• Preformed applied, – flexible sheet and tile carpet, vinyls, linoleum,
including rubber
- rigid tile terrazzo, ceramics, conglomerates,
composition block.
reconstituted timber products
For both of these categories, the manufacturing processes should be capable of

providing adequate control of appearance variations. In the case of in-situ applied
materials, however, finished appearance may be significantly affected by application
techniques and workmanship. Selection on the basis of small works-prepared samples
should be made only with caution. Final selection should be based either on trial areas
or on inspection of previous usages. In the case of preformed materials, initial selection
based on manufacturers’ samples is generally satisfactory, although for rigid tiles of
terrazzo and conglomerate, variations in appearance can exist. These variations are
typically size and distribution of aggregate. The selection process should therefore
include identification of samples for acceptable limits of variation.
For both in-situ and preformed materials, sample areas of flooring should be laid as for
natural materials above, for approval of appearance and to act as a reference for the
remainder of the flooring.
Testing
Physical testing does not normally form part of the appearance acceptance criteria for
flooring. Appearance is controlled, therefore, primarily by:
• selection of initial samples
CIRIA Report 184 59

• defining limits of acceptable variation, represented by samples of the average and
extremes
• establishing an approved sample area of flooring, including detail of joints and

patterns
• comparison of materials supplied with approved samples
• comparison of flooring laid with approved sample area
The comparison should normally include a visual assessment of variability of colour,

texture, and distribution of aggregate, veining, or other surface features as appropriate,
and an assessment of workmanship aspects in the finished floor including formation
and line of joints and filling of grouted tile joints.
For some specialised uses, restriction of other appearance-related factors such as gloss
or light reflectance may be critical to flooring performance. For example, the Sports
Council recommends that for indoor multi-sports floors, a reflectance value of 40%
should be achieved, and the surface should be matt or low gloss to avoid glare or
reflection that may cause distraction or confusion to the player. Where such properties
are required, acceptance parameters must be established at an early stage of the design
and selection process, and allowance made for appropriate physical testing on sample
areas.
Classification
For the purposes of classification in the tables in Section 2.3, the following group
references have been used to indicate the typical upper limit of appearance capability
for each material type. These classifications are notional only, and a degree of overlap
between classes and materials may be appropriate in some cases.
A Architectural. Where the appearance of the flooring is of paramount importance,
such as in reception and mall areas in prestige developments. Typically formed of
natural stone, terrazzo, ceramic tile, sometimes incorporating complex patterning.
S Standard. Where the appearance of the flooring must be good, without significant
variations in colour and texture, and is of equal importance to other performance
requirements. Typically applied flexible and rigid floorings, timber-based floorings
and in-situ applied floorings including terrazzo, resins, magnesite.
U Utility. Where the appearance of the flooring is required to be good, but is of
secondary importance to other performance requirements. Variations in colour and
texture may be acceptable. Typically plain cementitious wearing surfaces.
2.2 TRAFFIC-RELATED SERVICE CONDITIONS
Section 2.1 has provided guidance on specific finished floor properties. The other
major factor to be considered in the selection process is the more general classification
of service conditions in terms of traffic type and intensity. In view of the extreme
variability in floor usages, the classification in this Guide is general only, and is related
to typical traffic intensities and loadings.
Wheeled traffic
By far the most damaging type of wheeled traffic is that fitted with steel wheels or
castors. These induce a high degree of abrasive action on the flooring surface, and can
impose high impact, particularly on joints in the flooring system.
60 CIRIA Report 184

Solid rubber or plastics wheels impose a moderate degree of abrasion, and some risk of
impact at joints. The risk of impact will increase as wheel diameter reduces, speed
increases, or load per wheel increases.
Pneumatic-tyred wheels impose a moderate to low risk of abrasion and impact.
Rubber-tyred traffic will impose a risk of marking of the flooring, giving rise to
difficulties in cleaning. In frequently trafficked areas, a build-up of rubber deposits may
adversely affect slip resistance. Regular cleaning to remove such deposits may be
necessary.
Pedestrian traffic
The damaging effect of pedestrian traffic is related primarily to traffic frequency: thus
heavier-duty flooring would be necessary in public areas, as compared with areas of
restricted access such as offices and housing. Other factors, however, must be taken
into account. It is common for primarily pedestrian areas to be subject to wheeled

traffic. For example, a typical shopping mall may be subject to plastics-wheeled
shopping trolleys, relatively heavy cleaning machines, and occasional vehicular traffic
either for access or for display. Similarly, multi-use sports flooring may be subject to
vehicular access for exhibitions, etc. In such cases, these occasional usages may over-
ride the requirements for pedestrian traffic, thus necessitating a heavier-duty flooring
than would be necessary for purely pedestrian traffic.
Classification
For the purposes of classification in the tables in Section 2.3, traffic-related service
conditions have been referenced (Table 2.11), in order of increasing potential
damaging effect:
Table 2.11 Classification according to traffic type.
Classification Traffic type Typical floor usage
P1 Light pedestrian Housing
P2 Moderate pedestrian, occasional Offices, hospital wards, schools, shops.

light trolleys etc.
P3 Intense pedestrian, Public areas, hospital streets, shopping

frequent light trolleys malls, multi-use sports halls
occasional vehicular traffic
W1 Pneumatic wheeled Light-duty industrial and commercial
W2 Solid rubber/plastics Medium-duty industrial and wheeled

commercial. Roller skating. Bleacher
seating
W3 Steel-wheeled Heavy-duty industrial and commercial,

workshops
W4 Steel-wheeled and severe Very heavy-duty engineering

impact from workshops, etc.
heavy plant, etc.
CIRIA Report 184 61

2.3 FLOORING TYPES
There are a wide range of flooring types including natural and manufactured materials,
proprietary and non-proprietary products, hard and soft surfaces, and in-situ and
preformed materials. Selection must ensure that the flooring material has the necessary
attributes to provide both satisfactory performance under the anticipated traffic-related
service conditions and the required specific finished floor properties.
This sub-section gives background data on the groups of flooring types available.
Guidance is given in tabular form (Tables 2.12-2.19) on the suitability of each flooring
type for providing the specific finished floor properties covered in Section 2.1 and for
providing satisfactory serviceability under the traffic-related conditions covered in
Section 2.2.
References to relevant documents are given in each section. Where proprietary

materials or systems are to be selected, reference must also be made to manufacturers’
data. Advice relating to specifications and construction of these various types of

flooring is given in Sections 4–7.
2.3.1 Direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces

(Bibliography 1–3, 19, 24) (Table 2.12)
Concrete slabs finished directly provide a wearing surface suitable for many
commercial and industrial applications, ranging from light to very heavy-duty
warehouses, workshops, etc. The slabs may be ground-bearing, suspended, overslabs, or
an integral structural topping in composite construction. A major advantage of direct-
finished slabs is the rapid and relatively trouble-free construction, combined with good
impact and abrasion resistance. These properties can be varied to suit differing service
conditions by selective use of concrete grade and finishing processes and, for the
heaviest-duty usages, by use of a dry shake finish or a monolithically laid high-strength
concrete topping.
For light and medium duty, concrete grade should be typically C40 or C50 to BS 5328
respectively finished either by power trowelling, or by power floating followed by early-
age grinding after hardening. For heavy-duty floors, a concrete grade of C60 or greater
can be used in conjunction with power trowelling, although this very high-strength mix
would normally be laid as a 12-20 mm monolithic topping on a slab of C35 grade
concrete. For very heavy-duty service involving severe abrasion and impact, proprietary
mixes and dry shake finishes are necessary. These products normally incorporate a
selected high-strength natural or metallic aggregate. Dry shake finish materials are
broadcast over the concrete surface and trowelled in during the finishing process.
The use of concrete grades C50 and above for the full slab thickness can give practical
construction problems with shrinkage control and rapid setting. For such reasons, it
would be more common to use a monolithic topping, a dry shake finish, or a separate
bonded high-strength concrete topping for heavy-duty service conditions.
For heavy-duty flooring, coarse aggregate must be of a selected quality in compliance

with Table 2 of BS 882.
62 CIRIA Report 184

Table 2.12 Direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces - suitability for traffic-related
service conditions and specific finished floor properties.
Trowelled or early- Trowelled C60(1) Special

age grinding or high-strength proprietary
monolithic topping mixes or dry
shake finishes
C40 (1) C50 (1)
Traffic-related W1 W2 W3 W4
service conditions –
highest classification
from 2.2
Slip resistance l(2) 1(2) 1(2) 1(2)

(Section 2.1.1)
Abrasion resistance W1 W2 W3 W4
(Section 2.1.2)
Impact resistance IMP2 IMP1 IMP1 IMP1

(Section 2.1.3) IND1 IND1 IND1 IND1
Chemical resistance L-M L-M L-M L-M

(Section 2.1.4)
Thermal resistance -50 -50 -50 -50

(Section 2.1.5) +200 +200 +200 +200
Levels and flatness up to up to up to up to

(Section 2.1.6) SF SF SF SF
Ease of cleaning M M M M
(Section 2.1.7)
Electrostatic ESD ESD ESD ESD

(Section 2.1.8)
Acoustic SI SI SI SI
(Section 2.1.9)
Anti-taint NT NT NT NT
(Section 2.1.10)
Permeability NWP NWP NWP NWP

(Section 2.1.11)
Flammability NF NF NF NF
(Section 2.1.12)
Access to services NS NS NS NS
(Section 2.1.13)
Sports/recreational NS NS NS NS
(Section 2.1.14)
Appearance U U U U
(Section 2.1.15)
(1)
Characteristic strength grade to BS5328
(2)
Very highly polished power-trowelled surfaces may induce slipperiness when wet.
2.3.2 Toppings and in-situ applied floorings
This group of floorings includes all materials that are formed in-situ on a prepared
substrate to provide a finished floor surface. The group can be broadly split into
cementitious systems, in which hardening is provided by hydration of the cement, and
non-cementitious systems. In the latter group, some resin systems may incorporate
cement as a minor component.
CIRIA Report 184 63

A. Cementitious systems (Table 2.13)
High-strength concrete (including granolithic) toppings: (Bibliography 1,19).
High-strength concrete toppings provide a wearing surface suitable for many

commercial and industrial applications. Their main attributes are good abrasion and
impact resistance, properties that may be varied by selection of special high-strength
natural or metallic aggregates. Traditionally, these toppings have been referred to as
granolithic, a generic name implying a granite aggregate. In fact, although a good-
quality aggregate is essential, hard limestones, basalt and other aggregate types can be
equally satisfactory. Coarse aggregates must comply with BS882 Table 2 . Traditional
mix proportions are 1:3 cement:total aggregate.
Table 2.13 Toppings and in-situ applied floorings – cementitious systems – suitability for traffic-related
service conditions and specific finished floor properties.
High-strength Polymer-modified Flow-applied In-situ terrazzo

concrete (including cementitious cementitious

granolithic) systems systems
Traffic-related service W3 (1) W3 (2) W3 (2) P3

conditions – highest
classification from 2.2
Slip resistance (Section 2.1.1) 1(3) 1(3) 1(5) E
Abrasion resistance W3 W3 W3 P3
(Section 2.1.2)
Impact resistance IMP1 IMP2 IMP2 IMP2

Chemical resistance L-M M L-M L-M

(Section 2.1.4)
Thermal resistance -50 -10 -10 -10

(Section 2.1.5) +200 +50 +50 +50

(Section 2.1.6) 3/SR1 3/SRl 3/SRl ( 4 ) SR1
Ease of cleaning M M M H
(Section 2.1.7)s
Electrostatic (Section 2.1.8) ESD ESD ESD ESD
Acoustic (Section 2.1.9) SI U U S1
Anti-taint (Section 2.1.10) NT NT (6) NT (6) NT
Permeability (Section 2.1.11) NWP NWP NWP NWP
Flammability (Section 2.1.12) NF NF NF NF
(Section 2.1.13)
Sports/recreational NS NS NS NS
(Section 2.1.14)
Appearance (Section 2.1.15) U U(7) U(7) A+S
(1) W4 with selected aggregates.
(2) W4 with inclusion of selected aggregates – consult with manufacturer
(3) Very highly polished power-trowelled surfaces may induce slipperiness when wet
(4) Subject to accuracy of substrate
(5) Dependent upon formulation – consult with manufacturer
(6) Polymers used in formulation or primers may taint – check with manufacturers
(7) May be pigmented to improve appearance.
64 CIRIA Report 184

Concrete toppings must be laid fully bonded on a hardened and fully prepared concrete
substrate. Although termed as fully bonded, such separate construction will always
comprise some risk of detachment from the structural base and of associated cracking
and curling, defects that can significantly detract from the intended serviceability.
These risks will be increased by adoption of incorrect design details, the most common
being exceeding the recommended thickness range of 20–40 mm. Although attention to
detailing and workmanship can minimise these risks, preference should be given to
direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces, which may incorporate monolithic high-
strength toppings or dry shake finishes for the heaviest of duties (see Section 2.3.1).
For direct-finished suspended floors, deflection may give problems in achieving
flatness or level tolerances. In such cases, a separate bonded topping may be preferable.
The common practice of laying unbonded high-strength concrete toppings of

60–75 mm thickness is now deprecated because of inadequate performance. Where full
bonding to the substrate is not possible, such as over a dpm or over precast concrete
units, an isolated overslab design should be adopted. This would be reinforced and
designed as a ground-bearing slab of at least 100 mm thickness.
For situations such as plant rooms, where a concrete wearing surface is desirable but is
subject to only light or infrequent traffic after construction, a direct-finished slab is first
choice. If a topping must be used, consideration can be given to downgrading the
topping strength from the traditional 1:3 mix to a C40 or C50 grade 10 mm max.
aggregate size concrete. This can provide benefits by reducing drying shrinkage
induced defects such as cracking and detachment. Protection from heavy impact and
abrasion may be necessary during plant installation.
Polymer-modified cementitious systems (Bibliography 20, 28)
Polymer-modified cementitious flooring is a mixture of cement, aggregates, water and

polymer, which is laid fully bonded to a concrete substrate to provide a wearing
surface. Mix proportions, aggregate size, and thickness are varied to provide flooring
suitable for light- to heavy-duty usage in industrial and commercial situations.
These proprietary systems are based on various types of polymers, and may be supplied
in the following forms:
• One-pack materials, comprising pre-blended cement, aggregates and powdered
polymer. Require only the addition of water on site.
• Two-pack materials, comprising pre-blended cement, aggregates and additives.
Require the addition of a liquid polymer, and sometimes water, on site.
• Site-batched mixes, comprising cement, aggregates, liquid polymer and water, all
gauged and mixed on site.
Re-dispersible powdered polymers used in one-pack materials usually comprise vinyl

acetate/ethylene or vinyl acetate/versatate. Liquid polymers used in two-pack or site-
batched materials are generally based on styrene butadiene (SBR), acrylics, or styrene
acrylics.
As these are proprietary materials, conformity to manufacturers’ recommendations is

essential. Deviation from specified proportions of materials may adversely affect the
performance of the finished floor. In this context, use of one- or two-pack materials
may be preferable to remove the risks associated with variability of site-gauging
operations.
CIRIA Report 184 65

By comparison with unmodified concrete toppings, well-constructed polymer-modified
materials may offer the following benefits:
• More reliable bond to the substrate.
• Reduced permeability, giving improved resistance to many chemicals.
• Increased toughness, durability, flexural and tensile strength, and resistance to
abrasion and dusting.
• Greater resistance to cracking
• Can be thinner and still provide adequate performance.
Flow-applied cementitious systems
These proprietary systems, developed largely in Europe, comprise a pre-blended

mixture of cement, fine aggregates, fillers and special admixtures, which are mixed
with water on site and flow applied via a mixer/pump unit (see Fig. 2.2). The material
is laid fully bonded onto a prepared and primed substrate at thicknesses in the range
4–15 mm to provide a wearing surface suitable for industrial-type applications. Self-

smoothing properties provide a flat surface free from major significant irregularities. At
the higher end of the thickness range, the material will exhibit a degree of self-
levelling.
The material is suitable in both new-build and refurbishment situations. Where the
substrate is too irregular to allow usage within the recommended thickness range, some
manufacturers have compatible materials of a lower grade that can be applied as an
initial levelling coat up to 50 mm in thickness, followed by the higher-grade wearing
layer. For particularly heavy-duty usage, some manufacturers incorporate a selected
hard aggregate to improve impact and wear resistance.
The smooth surface produced by these systems generally provides adequate slip
resistance when dry. For wet conditions, it may be necessary to apply an additional
surface coating of epoxy resin incorporating a non-slip grit. Confirmation on the need
for this should be sought from the manufacturers. The heavier-duty systems
incorporating selected aggregate receive a surface texture in the laying process, and
require no further treatment for slip resistance.
As these are proprietary systems, conformity to manufacturers’ recommendations is

essential. The basis of supply may vary, depending upon the manufacturer, from
material supply only to application by approved or licensed contractor.
The benefits of these types of materials are similar to those given for polymer-modified
cementitious materials. The pump application method can provide a further benefit in
the rate of placement, up to 1000 m2 per day being feasible in some cases.
66 CIRIA Report 184

Fig. 2.2 Flow-applied cementitious flooring.

Top – mixer/pump unit
Bottom left – placement pipe
Bottom right – floor-laying in progress
67
CIRIA Report 184
Fig. 2.3 In-situ terrazzo feature panel in terrazzo-tiled floor.
In-situ terrazzo (Bibliography 21)
In-situ terrazzo consists of a mixture of pigmented cement and marble aggregate laid
directly over a newly laid screed. On hardening, the surface is ground to expose the
marble aggregate and provide a decorative finish (see Fig. 2.3). The high shrinkage
potential of the terrazzo mix necessitates dividing the flooring into small areas of up to
1 m2 using metal or plastic strips to control the risk of cracking.
Traditional uses for in-situ terrazzo, such as operating theatres, retail store flooring,
and reception areas, have largely been taken over by the use of precast terrazzo tiles
(see Section 2.3.4). It is, however, still widely used in conjunction with precast tiles for
forming edge panels and coving, and is still used to a limited extent for highly
decorative flooring in prestige developments. Laying of in-situ terrazzo is a highly
skilled operation, which should be entrusted only to specialist contractors.
Other cementitious systems
There is a proprietary cementitious system available that does not fit fully into any of
the previous classifications. It is based on special cements, fillers and super-plasticisers
and, by use of ultra-fine particle technology, provides compressive strengths in the
range 100–180 N/mm 2. The high strength and density can provide enhanced
performance in some of the more onerous service conditions. These materials are in the
form of flowing mortars with steel fibre reinforcement at thicknesses of 5–8 mm, or
stiffer mortars for hand or mechanical application at thicknesses up to 25 mm, with
68 CIRIA Report 184

steel fibre reinforcement sometimes incorporated. The system is normally laid fully
bonded to a concrete substrate, although a mesh-reinforced version is available for use
where bond cannot readily be achieved.
Claimed advantages are:
• highly resistant to abrasion and impact

• enhanced resistance to chemical attack
• resistant to extremes of high and low temperatures
• hygienic surface
• can be laid on damp substrates
B. Non-cementitious systems (Table 2.14)
Asphaltic/bituminous
Floorings of asphaltic/bituminous materials can be split into two sub-groups: mastic

asphalt, and proprietary materials.
Mastic asphalt (Bibliography 22)
Mastic asphalt may be used either to provide a screed to receive an applied flooring
(see Section 5.7) or to provide a direct wearing surface. It is a mixture of asphaltic
binder and graded aggregates that is hot-applied, and hardens on cooling to provide a
jointless flooring that is impervious to moisture in liquid or vapour form, dustless,
odourless, and easily cleaned. Addition of pigments can provide a limited range of
colours, and the surface can be finished either matt or polished, matt being preferable
for adequate slip resistance in wet conditions.
Resistance to traffic and loading conditions is dependent upon composition, greater

loadings requiring larger sizes of aggregate and hence increased thickness. For the
heaviest applications, such as factories and loading docks, thicknesses in the range
25–50 mm are typical.
Proprietary bituminous
A seamless black flooring is produced from a mixture of polymer-modified bitumen

emulsion, cement, sand, and granite aggregate. The nature of the material enables any
cracking that may develop to ‘self-heal’. Typical uses include distribution warehouses
and exhibition halls. Although suitable as a flooring over structural concrete bases, it is
commonly used in ground-bearing situations laid directly over a dry, lean concrete
base.
Resin floorings (Bibliography 27)
There is a wide choice of proprietary resin flooring systems available for providing the
necessary attributes required in many industrial and commercial applications,
including:
• chemical and petroleum industries
• food, brewing and soft drinks industries
• warehousing and storage areas
• engineering workshops
• hospitals and laboratories
CIRIA Report 184 69

• kitchens and cold stores
• showrooms
Table 2.14 Toppings and in-situ applied floorings – non-cementitious systems – suitability for traffic-
related service conditions and specific finished floor properties.
Mastic asphalt Proprietary Epoxy, polyester, Magnesium

bituminous polyurethane, oxycbloride
methacrylate resins
Traffic-related service W4 (4) W2 W4(3) W3
conditions- highest
classification from
Section 2.2
Slip resistance E E E E
(Section 2.1.1)
Abrasion resistance w4(4) W2 W4(3) W3
(Section 2.1.2)
Impact resistance IMP2 IMP2 IMP1 ( 3 ) IMP2

(Section 2.1.3) IND2 IND2 IND1 ( 3 ) IND2
Chemical resistance L L-M M-H ( 1 ) L-M
(Section 2.1.4)
Thermal resistance +5 –20 –25 –50
(Section 2.1.5) +30 +60 +60(3) +200
(Section 2.1.6) SR1 3/SR1 3/SR1(2) SR1
Ease of cleaning H H H M
(Section 2.1.7)
Electrostatic N/A N/A ESD ( 3 ) ESD
(Section 2.1.8)
Acoustic SI SI U SI
(Section 2.1.9)
(3)
Anti-taint T T T + NT N/A
(Section 2.1.10)
Permeability LVP LVP LVP WP
(Section 2.1.11)
Flammability LF LF L-MF NF
(Section 2.1.12)
(Section 2.1.13)
Sports/recreational P P Some resins may form NS
(Section 2.1.14) part of proprietary
sports floor systems
Appearance U U U+S U+S
(Section 2.1.15)
(1)
Full details of chemical resistance – see 6.5
(2)
Greater accuracy may be achieved on high-accuracy bases
(3)
Dependent upon formulation – see 6.5
(4)
Dependent upon grade of mastic asphalt – see 6.4.1.
N/A Not applicable
70 ClRlA Report 184

The four major generic resin types used in these types of flooring are:
• epoxy
• polyester
• polyurethane
• methacrylate
These may be formulated into flow-applied systems typically 2–5 mm thick, or into
heavily filled trowel applied systems at 5–12 mm thick for heavier-duty usage.
A cement/water component is introduced into some of the systems, notably those
formulated from polyester and polyurethane resins. Epoxy and polyurethanes are
available as coatings applied 0.1–0.5 mm thick in two or three coats.
The major attributes claimed for resin floorings are chemical resistance, hygiene, and
resistance to abrasion and impact. These properties, however, vary between generic
resin types, and between the various different formulations. It is critical, therefore, that
where a resin floor system is required, all aspects of service conditions are taken into
account during the selection process. In many situations, such as floors in breweries,
creameries, or chemical plants, it may be extremely difficult to identity all potential
contaminants that will come into contact with the flooring material. Failure to acquire
full information commonly leads to adoption of inappropriate systems.
In view of the complex nature of selection of resin systems, full data on service
limitations is given in Section 6.5 of this Guide. The suitability classifications given in
Table 2.14 are an outline guide only for the generic resin types, and must be used in
conjunction with Section 6.5 and with confirmation of full suitability from materials
manufacturers.
Magnesium oxychloride (magnesite)
Magnesium oxychloride flooring is a mixture of calcined magnesite and various fillers,

gauged with magnesium chloride solution. Laid at thicknesses from 12 mm to 50 mm,
it can provide flooring in a variety of colours or mottled effects suitable for domestic,
commercial or industrial uses. Application is by a limited number of specialist
contractors.
Magnesite is not suitable for use in conditions of permanent dampness or high

humidity. Structural bases in contact with the ground must be effectively protected by a
dpm. Migration of chlorides from the magnesite into concrete under damp conditions
can promote corrosion of reinforcement. Other metalwork, such as partitions or
services ducts and conduits, in contact with magnesite are liable to corrode, and must
be isolated by not less than 25 mm of untracked dense concrete, or protected by a
bitumen or coal tar coating.
Magnesium oxychloride flooring was included in CP204 Part 2 1970 In-situ floor
finishes until the document was withdrawn in 1994. Although now no longer included
within BS Codes of Practice, the information included in CP204 is still considered as
relevant, subject to confirmation by suppliers of the proprietary systems.
CIRIA Report 184 71

2.3.3 Applied flexible floorings (Table 2.15)
Thermoplastic and vinyl flooring
Vinylised thermoplastic tiles
Vinylised tiles are included in the category of BS 2592, and represent the lowest cost in
plastics flooring of contract quality. They are now installed mainly in housing.
Vinylised tiles have a degree of tolerance to the presence of rising damp, and can be
applied to existing solid ground floors where there is no damp-proof membrane or its
efftciency is doubtful, provided the base has a relative humidity, as measured by a
hygrometer, of 75% or less.
This tile is available in 300 x 300 mm sizes and generally 2.0 and 2.5 mm thicknesses
in a range of colours. The tiles are usually applied using bitumen emulsion or bitumen
solution adhesive.
Semi-flexible PVC tiles
These are manufactured to BS 3260 Semi-flexible PVC tiles. They provide an excellent
overall performance in those areas where they are laid, e.g. in schools, office buildings,
residential and recreational areas.
The tiles have good resistance to dilute alkalis, acids and, unlike thermoplastic tiles, to
grease and oil.
The tiles also have a degree of tolerance to rising damp from solid concrete floors.
Application is carried out using a bitumen emulsion or solution adhesive.
Backed flexible PVC – felt to BS 5085 : Part 1
The jute backing is proofed against rot in the event of surface water ingress. Backed
flexible PVC provides a dense, hard wearing surface finish with resilience and a high
degree of insulation against impact transmitted sound.
Seam joints can be welded by various techniques to provide an overall impervious

finish.
This flooring is available in roll form only, generally 2 m wide and a nominal 3 mm
thickness, and is fixed using styrene-butadiene rubber or acrylic emulsion adhesives.
The felt-backed vinyl floorings must not be applied over ground concrete floors unless
an efficient damp-proof membrane is incorporated.
Sub-floors must be dry, i.e. with a relative humidity as measured by a hygrometer of

75% maximum, prior to application of floor covering. Where this is not possible,
surface-applied damp-proof membranes can be employed. Refer to Section 3,
‘Alternative methods and materials’.
Backed flexible PVC – cellular PVC to BS 5085 : Part 2
This product has all the wear characteristics of an unbacked vinyl sheet to BS 3261
Type A with the advantages of a foam backing to provide resilience and a high degree
of insulation against impact-transmitted sound.
72 CIRIA Report 184

Table 2.15 Applied flexible floorings – suitability for traffic-related service conditions and specific finished floor properties.
Thermoplastic semi- Backed/unbacked Heterogeneous PVC Linoleum Rubber Carpet

flexible PVC tiles flexible PVC
Safety Static
CIRIA Report 184

Traffic-related service conditions – P1 P3 P3 P2 P2 P3 P2
highest classification from Section 2.2
Slip resistance (Section 2.1.1) E E I E E E I
Abrasion resistance (Section 2.1.2) P1 P3 P3 P2 P2 P3 P2
Impact resistance (Section 2.1.3) IMP3 IMP2 IMP2 IMP2 IMP2 IMPl IMP2
IND2 IND3 IND2 IND3 IND2 IND2 IND3
Chemical resistance (Section 2.1.4) L-M L-M L-M L-M L L-M L
Thermal resistance (Section 2.1.5) +5 –5 –20 +5 +5 +5 +5
+27(2) +27(2) +27(2) +27(2) +27 (2) +27(2) +30
(1) (1)
Levels and flatness (Section 2.1.6) up to SR1 (1) up to SR1 (1) up to SR1 up to SR1 up to SR1 (1) up to SR1 (1) up to SR1 (1)
Ease of cleaning (Section 2.1.7) H H H H H H M-L
Electrostatic (Section 2.1.8) N/A ESD ESD ESD ESD N/A ESD
(4) (4)
Acoustic (Section 2.1.9) U U U U U U SA
Anti-taint (Section 2.1.10) N/A NT NT N/A N/A N/A N/A
Permeability (Section 2.1.11) WP(5) LVP LVP LVP LVP LVP WP ( 3 )
Flammability (Section 2.1.12) LF LF LF LF L-MF LF L-MF

Access to services (Section 2.1.13) N/A S S NS S S S
Sports/recreational (Section 2.1.14) NS P P N/A P P P
Appearance (Section 2.1.15) S S S S S S S+A
(1) Subject to accuracy of the substrate
(2) Limited by adhesive
(3) Backing may reduce water permeability
(4) May be SA if 3 mm thick or backed
(5) Via joints
73
N/A Not applicable
It is manufactured in roll form only of varying widths and from 2.5 mm to 4.5 mm
thickness, and is applied using styrene-butadiene rubber or acrylic emulsion adhesives.
Foam-backed vinyl floorings must not be applied to concrete sub-floors unless an

efficient damp-proof membrane has been applied. Concrete sub-floors must be dry, i.e.
having a relative humidity as measured by a hygrometer of 75% maximum prior to
application of the flooring.
Unbacked flexible PVC to BS 3261 Type A
These are fully flexible products available, in roll and tile form, in thicknesses from
1.5 mm to 3.0 mm. Application is normally carried out using styrene-butadiene rubber
or acrylic emulsion adhesives.
These floorings are quiet, and have good resilience and the ability to stand up to heavy
point loading with excellent recovery from indentation. Resistance to wear and the
effects of many chemicals is high.
These flexible vinyls are used in areas that require frequent washing in order to
maintain high standards of hygiene, such as in hospitals.
The continuous sheet can be heat-welded at the seams and to vinyl skirtings to provide
a jointless, watertight finish.
As with all vinyl-type floor coverings they should not be applied to concrete sub-floors
unless an efficient damp-proof membrane has been incorporated. The concrete sub-
floor must be dry, i.e. having a relative humidity of 75% maximum.
Unbacked flexible PVC to BS 3261 Type B
These products are available in tile form only, and are less flexible than those in Type
A above. They combine the many advantages of the fully flexible Type A products with
the application suitability of products conforming to BS 3260. They can be installed
using bitumen adhesives on concrete subfloors where no damp-proof membrane exists
provided the base has a relative humidity of 75% or less.
Heterogeneous vinyl floorings
These floorings will generally comply with the standards laid down to BS 3261 type A
with the addition of other materials:
Safety floorings
The provision of hard aggregates i.e. silicon carbide, in the surface to improve slip-
resistance. Refer to Section 2.1.1.
Static control
Static control vinyl flooring retains all the properties of flexible vinyls to BS 3261
Type A and is generally available in sheet and large tile sizes. Refer to Section 2.1.8 for
more details.
74 CIRIA Report 184

Table 2.16 Summary of properties.
Flooring type Tolerance to Normally Chemical resistance to

rising damp welded
dilute dilute oils/grease
acids alkalis
Vinylised thermoplastic Yes No Yes Yes Yes

tiles
Semi-flexible PVC tiles Yes No Yes Yes Yes
Backed flexible PVC – No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Felt
Backed flexible PVC – No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Cellular PVC
Unbacked flexible PVC No Yes Yes Yes Yes
to BS3261 Type A
Unbacked flexible PVC Yes No Yes Yes Yes
to BS3261 Type B
Heterogeneous vinyl No Yes Yes Yes Yes
including safety and
static control flooring
Linoleum
Linoleum can be classified under two main types: standard linoleum to BS 6826 and
toughened linoleum.
Standard linoleum
This material is manufactured from oxidised drying oils, fillers and pigments in sheet
or tile form. Comprehensive colour ranges are available in both plain and marbled
sheet on a jute hessian backing.
Adhesive types normally recommended for fixing linoleum are gum spirit and lignin
paste.
It has excellent dimensional stability, and resistance to wear and ageing, with good
resistance to the effects of common chemicals.
Toughened linoleum
Toughened linoleum is available in sheet and tile form and with a specially formed top
composition giving high resistance to point loading and the effect of castors. It shows a
very high resistance to the effects of burning cigarette ends as compared with vinyl-
based flooring.
Adhesive types normally used include gum spirit and acrylic emulsion.
Rubber flooring
Rubber floorings are manufactured from natural and synthetic rubbers.
Rubber flooring complying with BS 1711 : 1975 is available in a variety of colours,

with either a plain or marbled effect, in sheet or tile form.
CIRIA Report 184 75

In addition to the smooth-surfaced rubber flooring, ribbed or studded rubber in tile
form is available where slip resistance is required.
Rubber flooring is fixed to the sub-floor by means of the recommended contact

adhesive. An alternative adhesive is a chemically curing two-component epoxy or
polyurethane.
Rubber floors can be very flexible, and can be laid over suitably prepared suspended
timber sub-floors.
Carpets
Carpets are produced by a wide range of manufacturing processes, including traditional

weaving and tufting.
Woven carpets
There are two main weaving methods in this category: Wilton and Axminster.
1. Wilton weaving produces a high-density material with the backing and pile closely
interwoven. Normal cut-pile Wilton is woven in the form of loops, which are cut
after weaving.
Characteristics of Wilton carpets are:
• can be very durable
• superior stain resistance
• strong backing
• very good dimensional stability
• clear pattern definition
• can be manufactured with a wide variety of pile fibres and blends, but 80%
wool 20% nylon yarn mix predominate
• wide quality range
Wilton cannot compete with the lowest end of the price/quality scale because the
basic weaving costs are high.
2. Axminster is a cut-pile carpet in which only the threads used to make the design
are drawn into the body of the carpet and cut to length. This creates a lighter and
less durable and thus cheaper alternative to Wilton.
Woven carpet, including Axminster and Wilton, is more expensive to manufacture than
other carpet types.
Woven carpets are most commonly installed on a separate underlay and fitted to
tackless gripper battens around the perimeter of the area.
Tufted carpets
In the manufacture of these carpets the yarn is adhered to or pushed through a rubber-
or bitumen-based material rather than woven together. Most use higher levels of
synthetic fibres, while the patterns are frequently printed on rather than formed from
threads of different colours.
76 CIRIA Report 184

Tufted carpets are up to a sixth of the cost of woven carpets and as a result have
become widely used in the contracting field.
These products can be installed either on a separate underlay and fitted to tackless
gripper battens around the perimeter of the area, or adhesive-fixed to the sub-floor if a
rubber or PVC secondary backing is incorporated. Where carpets are fully stuck, an
underlayment may be recommended to assist subsequent replacement.
Carpet tiles
Carpet tiles are generally available in 500 x 500 mm size, and can be woven, fusion-
bonded, tufted or needle punch. A wide range of fibres is used including wool and most
synthetic fibres depending on service conditions Carpet tiles are available that require
all-over adhesive bonding and also for loose laying.
The loose-lay type of tile dominates the market owing to the many advantages it
affords:
• ease of application
• replacement of damaged/worn tiles
• access to underfloor services
• alternating tiles to afford equal wear
Loose-lay tiles are provided with a backing of sufficient weight, composition and
stability to allow the tiles to lie flat on the floor and restrict lateral movement caused by
pedestrian traffic.
In large areas where the tiles are likely to be subjected to castored furniture or heavy
turning trafftc, the tiles will need to be fixed to restrict movement. Methods of fixing
include overall or spot adhesion or double-sided tape.
Carpet tiles are often provided with an impermeable backing, and therefore should only
be laid on a concrete sub-floor in direct contact with the ground when an effective
damp-proof membrane has been incorporated.
Flocked carpet
Electrically charged fibres are projected onto a binder film on a non-woven glass tissue
in an electrostatic field, where they align themselves parallel to the electric lines of
force. The fibres become permanently bonded when this film is dried. A closed-cell
PVC foam backing completes the carpet construction.
The carpet is installed using conventional floor-covering adhesives, e.g. acrylic

emulsion.
Flocked floor coverings are mainly used in heavy-duty areas such as offices, shops,
hospital wards, geriatric units and canteens as a result of:
• virtually impervious surface
• resistance to spillage and wet cleaning
• high level of durability
• softness under foot
• insulation
CIRIA Report 184 77

Fibre-bonded carpets and tiles
Products based on nylon fibres have proved vulnerable to moisture movement in

service. Products based on a significant proportion of polypropylene fibre with a
bitumen, PVC or polypropylene backing are preferred.
Polypropylene does not absorb water; it therefore does not become stained, and remains
dimensionally stable.
A range of polypropylene-based products is now widely used, beginning with the

interceptor matting used in departmental stores and public buildings to protect the
expensive carpets. Schools, colleges and offices use the products as the prime floor
covering because of the many advantages the products have.
• low installed cost

• exceptional wearing characteristics
• moisture resistance
• high heat and sound insulation
• low propensity to electrostatic build-up
2.3.4 Rigid tile applied floorings (Table 2.17)
This group of flooring includes the preformed rigid type materials available in tile or
slab formats, which can be fixed to a prepared substrate with a bed or adhesive to
provide a wearing surface. The group can be split into five general categories:
• ceramics
• natural stone
• terrazzo (precast)
• conglomerates
• composition block
Although there are similarities between these categories in format, fixing methods, and
end-usage in some cases, the difference in material types warrants separate discussion
and classification.
Ceramics (Bibliography 7, 8)
The term ‘ceramic tile’ covers a wide variety of qualities, ranging from thin, glazed
tiles suitable for domestic usage through to thicker, fully vitrified tiles suitable for
heavy traffic in industrial situations. It also normally encompasses mosaics, which may
be formed of ceramics, glass or marble. Recommendations for general usage and
construction of ceramic tile and mosaics floorings are given in BS 5385 Part 3.
BS 5385 Part 4 provides extensive guidance on restrictions for tiling in specific
conditions that warrant precautions additional to those given in BS 5385 Part 3. The
particular conditions covered in BS 5385 Part 4 are:
• conditions to be resisted
– movement
– traffic
–loads
– wet and damp conditions
- chemical attack
78 CIRIA Report 184

Table 2.17 Rigid tile applied floorings – suitability for traffic-related service conditions and specific finished
floor properties.
Ceramic tile Natural stone Terrazzo Conglomerate Composition

tile block
(1)
Traffic-related service conditions W1 P3 P3 P2 P3
highest classification from
Section 2.2
Slip resistance (Section 2.1.1) E E E E E

(1,2)
Abrasion resistance (Section 2.1.2) W1 P3 P3 P2 P3
(6)
Impact resistance (Section 2.1.3) IMP2 IMP2 IMP2 IMP2 IMP2
IND1 IND1 IND1 IND1 IND2
(3)
Chemical resistance H L–M L–M L–M L–M
(Section 2.1.4)
Thermal resistance (Section 2.1.5) –50(3) –10 –10 –10 –10
(3)
+150 +50 +50 +50 +50
Levels and flatness (Section 2.1.6) up to up to up to up to up to

SR2 SR2 SR1 SR2 SR1
Ease of cleaning (Section 2.1.7) H H–M H H H–M
(4)
Electrostatic (Section 2.1.8) ESD
(4)
N/A ESD N/A N/A
Acoustic (Section 2.1.9) U SI SI U U
Anti-taint (Section 2.1.10) NT NT NT NT NT
Permeability (Section 2.1.11) NWP NWP(7) NWP NWP NWP
Flammability (Section 2.1.12) NF NF NF NF NF
(5)
Access to services (Section 2.1.13) S
(5)
S (5)
NS S NS
Sports/recreational NS P NS NS P
(Section 2.1.14)
Appearance (Section 2.1.15) A+S A A+S A S
(1) Up to W3 may be achieved by selection of the denser and thicker type of tile. Consult with manufacturers
(2) Unglazed fully vitrified tiles only for W1–W3.
(3) Subject to suitable bedding and jointing materials
(4) Specially manufactured conductive tile

(5) Adhesive-bedded tiling. Most suited to thinner types of stone and conglomerate tile
(6) IMPI with denser thicker type of tile
(7) Subject to type of stone

N/A Not applicable
– thermal effects
– contamination from radioactivity
• conditions to be achieved
– sterile conditions
– thermal insulation
– sound insulation
– electrostatic dissipation
CIRIA Report 184 79

Ceramic tiles used in the UK may originate from almost anywhere in the world,
although the largest source of supply is from within Europe. The quality of European
tiles is subject to control through a series of European Standards (EN) that cover
classification, specification and testing. The UK version of this standard is BS 6431
Parts l–22. Most tile manufacturers or suppliers will offer useful guidance on the
suitability of their ranges of tiles for particular service conditions. It is nevertheless an
essential part of the selection process to ensure that any proposed tiles are within the
parameters of the appropriate parts of BS 6431 or the equivalent EN parts.
Within BS 6431 Part 1, tiles are classified by the method of manufacture, which may be
either extruded or dust-pressed, and their water absorption. Parts 2–9 are specification
requirements for the various classifications, and Parts 10–23 cover test methods and
sampling. The essential information is summarised in Table 2.18.
Table 2.18 Classification of ceramic tiles
Classification Water Extruded A Dust-pressed B

group absorption (BS6431 spec). (BS6431 spec).
I <3% AI (Part2) BI (Part 6)

Iia 3-6% AIIa (Part 3) BIIa (Part 7)
Iib 6-10% AIIb (Part 4) BIIb (Part 8)
III > 10% AIIIb (Part 5) BIII (Part 9)
Some of these classification groups are utilised in BS 5385 Part 4 Table 2 to indicate
suitability for specific service conditions. The absence of some groups, notably BIIa, is
a reflection of availability rather than suitability.
In addition to these classifications, reference is commonly made to fully vitrified tiles.

This is defined in BS 6431 Part 6 as a tile having a water absorption value of less than
0.5%, and is therefore a sub-classification within BI.
Selection of tiles for particular usages should be based on the recommendations of

BS 5385 Parts 3 and 4, on manufacturers’ data, and on evidence of past satisfactory
service. General principles of selection can be related to the basic tile properties:
• Water absorption: Lower water absorption values represent higher density and
integral strength, and increased resistance to loading,
impact, abrasion, chemical attack, and staining. Fully
vitrified tiles will provide the greatest resistance.
• Thickness: Increased thickness provides greater resistance to heavy
loading and impact.
• Tile surface: Profiled surfaces will be vulnerable to impact from hard-
rimmed wheeled traffic.
• Dimensions: Finished accuracy of floor, with regard to flatness and
lipping at tile joints, assumes increasing importance with
increasing loading and impact. Dust-pressed tiles are
generally inherently more dimensionally accurate than
extruded tiles.
• Surface finish: Glazed-finish tiles are unsuitable for severe conditions of
wear and abrasion.
• Tile edges: Cushion-edge shape tiles should be used in wheeled traffic
areas, in combination with completely filled grouted joints.
• Mosaics: Limited to light/moderate traffic conditions.
80 CIRIA Report 184

Natural stone (Bibliography 9)
Natural stone suitable for use as flooring units is classified in BS 5385 Part 5 by
generic type, and for each type the range of surface finishes is given:
• Granite: Polished, eggshell, honed, fine rubbed, fine axed, dolly
pointed, bush hammered, flame textured, air abrasive
blasted or tooled.
• Marble, travertine Polished, eggshell, honed or gritted.
and hard limestone:
• Slate: Fine rubbed, sawn, riven or flame textured.
• Quartzite: Riven
• Limestone: Fine rubbed, sawn or tooled
• Sandstone: Fine rubbed, sawn, tooled or riven
The flooring units produced from these types of stone may be large-format tiles or
slabs of up to 50 mm thickness for cement/sand bed fixing, through to smaller-format

tiles of 10–15 mm thickness for adhesive fixing. All will be manufactured by initial
sawing or cleaving from selected lumps of stone followed by mechanical grinding,
polishing or other finishing processes prior to cutting to the required module size.
Properties
Although these generic types of stone may be generally classified as suitable for use as
flooring, there are large differences in their basic properties, which may influence
serviceability aspects, notably abrasion and impact resistance and appearance. These
differences exist between and within generic types, and even within single sources of a
particular material. Such variations are inevitable with naturally occurring materials,
and can be maintained within acceptable limits only by a controlled selection process.
Of the various stone types, only slate is subject to any form of quality assessment within
British Standards, and this relates to suitability for use as sills and copings in
conditions of air pollution. The onus is thus currently with the specifier to ensure that
the stone selected can provide the necessary attributes. Ultimately, European Standards
will publish guidance on appropriate methods of test and specification, but this is not
expected for some years.
Test values are commonly reported by stone suppliers, these typically being for
compressive and flexural strength, density, water absorption, and abrasion. The test
methods vary between ASTM standards and other country-specific standards. Results
are thus frequently not comparable between sources. Such test methods may also be
used for assessment or limitation of quality variation. There are, however, no
comprehensive guidelines for limiting values. Suitability is thus more commonly based
on evidence of satisfactory past usage in comparable service conditions.
Appearance
The selection of stone is frequently based on appearance. While this property may be
paramount in some circumstances, it should not be regarded as the only factor to the
detriment of other properties. It is also essential to allow a degree of variation in
appearance. As it is a natural material variations will occur, such as shade of colour or
natural inclusions such as fissures or shells. Strict limitation of permissible appearance
deviation commonly results in a high level of rejection and hence increased costs.
CIRIA Report 184 81

Highly polished stone surfaces will be prone to scratching or dulling under abrasive
conditions, which may result in a patchy appearance. Honed or matt finishes are
therefore preferable in heavily trafficked areas. Where polished surfaces are required,
they should be protected by entrance matting to reduce the ingress of dirt and grit.
Some types of porous limestone and marble contain organic materials, which may be
leached to the surface by soluble alkalis from the cement/sand bedding to form a brown
stain. The risk of such staining can be checked by comparatively simple methods, such
as controlled treatment with sodium carbonate solution.
Terrazzo tile (Bibliography 9)
Terrazzo tile consists of a mixture of pigmented cement and marble aggregate facing
mix, precast into a tile format onto an ordinary concrete backing. Tiles are normally
supplied with the surface ground and honed, ready for final grinding and polishing
after laying. Typical sizes are 300 x 300 x 28 mm up to 500 or 600 mm square at
40-mm thickness. Calibrated thickness tiles are also available at 19 mm thick. Typical
usages range from domestic through to heavy pedestrian shopping malls, hospital
operating theatres and retail stores. Tiles are available with harder non-marble
aggregates for heavy-duty usage.
Tile quality is covered by BS 4131 Specification for terrazzo tiles. The major properties
limited by BS 4131 are:
• dimensional tolerances
• minimum facing mix layer (wear layer of 6 mm)
• maximum water absorption
• transverse strength
Selection of tiles complying with BS 4131 assures a minimum quality. It does not,
however, ensure suitability for all usages. The large range of aggregate types and
sources used can impart different wearing characteristics. For example, a tile suitable
for operating theatres may not be resistant to the impact damage imparted by stiletto
heels in public areas of concentrated pedestrian traffic. Manufacturers of tiles should be
consulted as to suitability for particular usages and, as with natural stone, evidence of
satisfactory past usage should be sought.
A proportion of tiles used in the UK are imported, notably from Italy. Quality may vary
considerably, particularly with regard to the thickness of the facing layer. Although
they generally comply with the minimum 6 mm, this wear layer of UK-manufactured
tiles is commonly 10–12 mm, giving a potentially greater serviceable life with repeated
re-grinding. Compliance of imported tiles with BS 4131 does not therefore necessarily
imply equivalent quality to UK manufactured tiles. Again, evidence of past usage
should be sought.
The surface quality of terrazzo tiles is commonly enhanced after laying by application
of a chemical surface hardener (silico-fluoride or similar). Such materials must be used
to the manufacturer’s recommendations and only with prior approval of the tile
manufacturer. It should be noted that their effect on abrasion resistance is likely to be
small for tiles of high initial quality.
A process known as ‘vitrification’ or ‘crystallisation’ is also increasingly used on

terrazzo surfaces. By applying a chemical solution followed by mechanical steel wool
buffing, a thin surface coating is formed that gives a highly polished but slip-resistant
surface that, it is claimed, also improves abrasion resistance. Despite such claims,
82 CIRIA Report 184

treated floors do suffer from scratching, particularly in heavily trafficked areas. With
some darker colours, this scratching can give a patchy appearance, necessitating
regular re-treatment. Other disadvantages are that the high gloss may highlight
imperfections in initial grinding and polishing, and may also be subconsciously
associated by the user with a risk of slipping.
Conglomerate tile
Conglomerate tile, sometimes referred to as agglomerate, is manufactured from crushed

rock concrete (commonly marble aggregate), in which the binder may be Portland
cement, epoxy resin or polyester resin. Most types are aimed at reproducing a natural
stone appearance, commonly marble or granite. For smaller aggregate types, such as
used for ‘artificial granite’, the concrete may be cast in thin slabs, followed by
grinding, polishing, and cutting to module sizes. The main production method, which
is necessary for larger aggregate sizes, is to cast the concrete in large blocks, and
subsequently saw it into slices followed by grinding, polishing and sizing in a similar
manner to natural stone.
The tiles are normally supplied finished, needing no further grinding on site, and are
supplied to accurately calibrated thicknesses to facilitate laying in either adhesive or
mortar beds. Thickness can vary between a few millimetres for some resin-based
materials up to 15–20 mm for cement-based tiles. The reduced thickness, compared
with that of natural stone, will put greater reliance on solid bedding to achieve
resistance to heavy loading.
Tiles are largely imported, notably from Italy. In common with natural stone, there is
no British Standard specification for defining performance criteria. Selection should
therefore be on the same basis as for stone, with evidence of past performance in
similar service conditions being crucial. For tiles incorporating small aggregate sizes,
the wearing characteristics of the flooring will be influenced by the inherent strength of
the combined aggregate and binder surface, as is the case with terrazzo tile. For tiles
incorporating larger aggregate sizes (up to 100 or 150 mm is common) the stone type
will be the dominant factor affecting performance. Since the stone used is largely that
which is unsuitable for, or off-cuts from, natural stone production, its quality may not
always be as good as the natural stone tile equivalent. Crushing to smaller aggregate
sizes tends to reduce flaws or fissures in the natural rock, and can be beneficial to the
quality of the finished product. Cleanliness of aggregate at mixing is also crucial to
quality. A dust coating can be detrimental to bond between aggregate and the binder,
particularly with resins. Poor bond may result in a reduced inherent tile strength,
plucking-out of shallow aggregate particles, and a weak rim around aggregate particles
that may subsequently become dirt filled and mar appearance. An indication of the
occurrence of such potential defects may be gained by inspection of existing
installations.
Composition block (Bibliography 9)
Composition blocks are proprietary materials, normally comprising a mixture of

cement, wood granules, mineral fillers, pigments and water, which is moulded under
pressure, cured, and then saturated with linseed oil. The blocks are commonly oblong,
but square or other geometric shapes are available. After installation, the tiles are
grouted, sanded smooth and level, and treated with a proprietary surface sealer.
CIRIA Report 184 83

A major usage for composition block is for sports halls, gymnasia, etc. While the
surface is not ideal for prolonged use for some sports, owing to its rigidity when it is
solidly bedded , it is adequate for many multi-sports uses and provides reasonable
resistance to wear for non-sporting activities. However, it can be provided mounted on
a sprung flooring system that meets the requirements of BS 7044 Part 4 for shock
absorbency.
2.3.5 Timber floorings (Table 2.19)
General
There are a large number of timber species that are suitable for flooring, many of which
will provide a hard-wearing and decorative surface. It is important, however, that
timber floors are correctly designed and constructed so that they are protected against
dampness, which may otherwise lead to dimensional movement and decay. Dampness
may arise from contact with groundwater or vapour and residual moisture from
concrete or screeds. It is also important that the timber is installed at the correct
moisture content and under similar atmospheric conditions to those expected in service.
Guidance to the choice of timbers species suitable for a given situation is given in
BS 8201 : 1987. The categories are as follows:
• timber suitable for floors for heavy pedestrian traffic
• timber suitable for floors for normal pedestrian traffic
• timber suitable for floors for light pedestrian traffic
• timbers suitable for decorative floors
• timbers suitable for heavy-duty industrial floors
• timbers suitable for light duty industrial floors
• timbers suitable for floors with high resistance to chemical and acids.
• timbers suitable for floors with small movement
• timbers suitable for gymnasium floors
• timbers suitable for ballroom floors
• timbers suitable for roller skating rink floors
The choice of timber should also take into account the environmental impact of using
such a species. Guidance on environmental considerations is given in CIRIA
publications SP97 and SP98.
Quarter-sawn timber will have a reduced movement potential and be less likely to ‘cup’
in the event of moisture content changes as compared with plain sawn stock, but is
much more expensive and not readily available. Quarter-sawn timber will also wear
more evenly and be less likely to splinter as a result of raised grain
Some timbers are sensitive to light and may change colour after installation.
Timber floors may be soiled, and will be difficult to maintain in an attractive

appearance in industrial or other dirty environments. They are not suited for use in wet
areas owing to associated risk of movement and decay.
84 CIRIA Report 184

Table 2.19 Timber flooring – suitability for traffic-related service conditions and specific finished floor
properties.
Wood block Wood board and Parquet and wood Cork

strip mosaic
Traffic-related service conditions W2(1) P2 ( 1 ) P2(1) P1

– highest classification from
Section 2.2
Slip resistance (Section 2.1.1) E E E E
Abrasion resistance W2 P2 P2 P1
(Section 2.1.2)
Impact resistance IMP1 ( 1 ) IMP2 ( 1 ) IMP2(1) IMP3

Chemical resistance M–H ( 1 , 2 ) N/A N/A N/A

(Section 2.1.4)
Thermal resistance –20 –20 –20 –20

(Section 2.1.5) +27 +27 +27 +27
Levels and flatness SR2 SR2 SR2 SR2

(Section 2.1.6)
Ease of cleaning M M M M
(Section 2.1.7)
Electrostatic (Section 2.1.8) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Acoustic (Section 2.1.9) U (4)

U (4) U(4) SA
(3) (3)
Anti-taint (Section 2.1.10) T T (3)
T T(3)
Permeability (Section 2.1.11) WP WP WP WP
Flammability (Section 2.1.12) MF MF MF MF
Access to services S S S S
(Section 2.1.13)
Sports/recreational P P P NS
(Section 2.1.14)
Appearance (Section 2.1.15) A+S A+S A+S S
(1)
Dependent upon timber species. Refer to BS 8201
(2)
Should not be used where frequent contamination or wet spillage is likely
(3)
Dependent on species
(4)
Proprietary acoustic timber floors are available
N/A Not applicable
Preservation of bearers
If the timber bearers are likely to be exposed to temporary dampness they should be
preservative pre-treated in accordance with the recommendations given in BS 5268 :
Part 5.
Movement
A degree of movement should be anticipated with all types of timber floor as a result of
moisture content changes. The amount of movement can be minimised by placing strict
CIRIA Report 184 85

controls on, the moisture content of the timber, and by using a species known to have a
small movement value. The provision for movement can be one or more of the
following methods;
• expansion gap around the perimeter of the floor.
• a gap between each component of the floor wearing layer.
• boards or strips used in narrow widths (movement is dissipated at more frequent
joints between narrow strips).
Surface treatment
Most timber floors require sanding and the application of a surface treatment to
facilitate cleaning and maintain an acceptable appearance
Wood block
The blocks may be softwood or hardwood. They should be between 200 mm and
500 mm long, the width not greater than 90 mm and the thickness not less than
20 mm. The blocks should be laid interlocked together and firmly bonded to a base,
normally of concrete overlaid with a screed. It is possible for the floor to be of a
floating construction, but the blocks must be supported on a rigid base constructed
using joints or battens sufficiently stiff to prevent deformation under point loads.
The base to receive the blocks must be adequately flat, clean and primed where
necessary. The adhesive is normally a bitumen emulsion material.
In certain circumstances smaller blocks may be laid on their end grain (e.g. where
sound or impact absorption is required).
Wood board and strip
The timber may be hardwood or softwood spanning across bearers and the width of
each board greater than 100 mm. The width of strip is less than 100 mm. The bearers
may be joists or battens mechanically fixed on top of, or within the thickness of, a
screed. It is important that the bearers are level.
Proprietary systems are available to provide acoustic flooring and sprung or semi-
sprung flooring for dance floors or sports halls.
The boards and strips may be square edge or tongue-and-groove. They should be nailed
to each bearer they intersect. Tongue-and-groove boards or strips should be secret-
nailed. All header joints should be supported on bearers.
Timber panel
The panels are usually plywood, blockboard, flooring-grade particleboard or hardboard.

Timber panels are square edged or tongue-and-groove and fixed to joists or over battens
fixed on top of, or within the thickness of, a screed. The battens or joists must be level.
Timber panels are not normally used as a wearing surface and should be overlaid with
a flooring material. Timber panels are often used as part of floating floors to support
the wearing surface. In the event that temporary dampness may occur, panels with
improved resistance to moisture should be used. i.e.:
86 CIRIA Report 184

• wood particleboard Grade C4 or C5 to BS 5669 : Part 2 : 1989 or CTB – V313
(French Standard NF B5 1-263-1979)
• plywood to BS 6566 : Part 8 : 1985 type WBP and composed of durable veneers,
e.g. BS 6566 : Part 7 : 1985 Class M or H
Proprietary systems are available to provide acoustic flooring and sprung or semi-
sprung flooring for dance floors or sports halls.
Cork
Tiles are cut from blocks composed of granular cork and binders that have been
compressed and heated. The tiles are available in a variety of thicknesses and densities.
The most hard-wearing grades have the higher density and the greater thickness. The
tiles would be suitable for libraries, schools and offices but not heavy industrial use.
The grades normally available are summarised as:
Density Domestic 385-445 kg/ m 3
Heavy domestic 450-495 kg/ m 3
Contract 450-495 kg/ m 3
Heavy contract +500 kg/ m3
Thickness Domestic Min. 3 mm
Heavy domestic Min. 3 mm
Contract Min. 4.80 mm
Heavy contract Min. 8 mm
Cork tiles have fairly good sound-absorbing qualities, and will help to prevent impact
sound through suspended floors and reduce sound reverberation in large rooms and
halls.
The tiles are available pre-finished with an acrylated urethane surface coating, or can
be finished on site with 3 coats of polyurethane or oleo-resinous lacquer. Uncoated cork
will become dirty and impossible to keep clean in trafficked areas. The surface finish
will need to be re-coated periodically. Cork will, however, be vulnerable to impact
damage and indentation by heavy static loads.
CIRIA Report 184 87

3 Flooring systems
A flooring system is defined as a single or multi-layer construction between the

structural base and the upper surface of the flooring. In its simplest form, it may be a
carpet or tile fixed direct to a structural base. More complicated systems may require a
damp-proof membrane (dpm) or isolating membrane, insulation or cushioning, screed
or overslab, or levelling materials to be laid on the structural base prior to fixing the
flooring. The function of these intermediate layers of material between the flooring and
the structural base may be many and varied, and will normally include a combination
of the following:
• to provide adhesion
• to provide separation
• to reduce sound or thermal transmission
• to prevent passage of liquids or vapours
• to eliminate deviations in surface flatness and level
• to provide stress relief between the base and flooring
• to impart properties such as stiffness or resilience to the finished floor
The contents of this section are:

• 3.1 Factors affecting choice of flooring system
• 3.1.1 Structural bases
• 3.1.2 Flooring
• 3.1.3 Service conditions and finished floor properties
• 3.1.4 Construction restrictions
• 3.1.5 Alternative systems
• 3.2 Selection of flooring systems
• 3.3 Relative costs
3.3.1 Definitions of categories of costs
3.3.2 Analysis of construction and future costs
3.3.3 Analysis of effect of floor system on site overhead costs
3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF FLOORING SYSTEM
There are many factors affecting the choice of a flooring system. These factors are
considered in the following format.
• 3.1.1 Structural bases
– type
– deflection
– thermal or moisture movements
– surface accuracy
– moisture condition
88 CIRIA Report 184

• 3.1.2 Flooring
– fixing methods
– movement potential and flexibility/rigidity
– moisture sensitivity
• 3.1.3 Service conditions and finished floor properties
– traffic, loading, impact
– chemical resistance
– thermal resistance/insulation
– acoustic properties
– surface accuracy
– electrostatic properties
– services
– heated floors
– qualities for sports activities

• 3.1.4 Construction restrictions
• 3.1.5 Alternative systems

– isolated screeds
– rapid-drying/curing screeds
– flow-applied materials
– surface-applied dpm
– ventilated screeds
– floorings laid direct on power-trowelled concrete bases.
In some situations, these various factors may limit the choice of flooring system to only
one or two options. In others, several options may be appropriate. When presented with
a choice of options, account should be taken not only of the cost implications but also of
the construction and workmanship aspects. As a general rule, the greater the number of
layers or interfaces in a flooring system, the greater is the risk of workmanship
affecting finished quality, assuming of course that the initial design was satisfactory.
The purpose of this section is to consider these various factors and their effect on
flooring system options, to outline the types of flooring systems that may be adopted,
and to discuss where specialised or proprietary materials may be utilised to modify the
systems to advantage. Section 3.2 provides guidance on the most appropriate type of
flooring system or systems to use for each type of structural base and flooring.
3.1.1 Structural bases
Type
The structural base over which a flooring or flooring system is to be laid will be in one
of the following categories (see Fig. 3.1):
A. Ground-bearing in-situ concrete, including:

• reinforced
• unreinforced
• pre-stressed
B. Ground-bearing lean-mix concrete (sometimes used as a structural base for

proprietary bituminous floorings)
CIRIA Report 184 89

Type A. Ground–bearing in situ concrete
unreinforced/reinforced/
prestressed
slip membrane
in situ concrete
formation level
sub-base
subgrade
Type B. Ground–bearing lean mix concrete
lean mix concrete separating layer

sub-base or existing base formation level
subgrade
Type C. Suspended in situ concrete
Type D. Suspended composite concrete

in situ structural concrete topping
in situ concrete
permanent metal decking prestressed precast concrete units
in situ concrete
hollow pot units
Fig. 3.1 Examples of structural base types.
ClRlA Report 184

90
Type E. Suspended precast concrete
precast block
grout infill
precast prestressed planks

prestressed beam
Type F. Suspended timber joist

Timber joist and floor board deck Timber joist and panel deck
Type G. In situ concrete overslab
min 100mm concrete

over slab, reinforced
where necessary
slip membrane/
isolation membrane
existing concrete
structural base
(various type)
Type H. Partial access flooring system
partial access
flooring system
access for services
structural base
CIRIA Report 184 91

C. Suspended in-situ concrete, including:
• reinforced
• prestressed
D. Suspended composite concrete, including:

• permanent metal decking/in-situ concrete
• prestressed precast concrete unit/in-situ structural concrete topping
• hollow pot/in-situ concrete
E. Suspended precast concrete, including:
• prestressed planks
• prestressed beam and block
F. Suspended timber joist, including:

• floor boarding deck

• timber panel deck
Other bases that, although not strictly structural, should be treated as such when
considering an overlaid flooring system, include:
G. In-situ concrete overslabs over any other type of concrete structural base.
H. Partial access flooring system
Although primarily designed for structural needs, the effect of bases on overlaid
flooring is sometimes overlooked. Ideally, the flooring should be taken into account at
the structural design stage to ensure adequate serviceability of the base/flooring
combination. Clearly, in refurbishment situations, ideal designs may not be possible.
Limitations imposed by the structural base on flooring and flooring systems options are
largely related to vertical deflection, moisture and thermal movements, accuracy and
moisture condition.
Deflection
Ground-bearing slabs, correctly designed and constructed, will not normally be subject
to vertical deflection to an extent that would impair performance of an overlaid
flooring.
Suspended structural bases will, however, generally be subject to deflections both

during construction and in use. The potential effects of this on flooring will depend
upon the magnitude of displacement and the inherent rigidity of the completed floor.
Large deflections post-construction will alter the achieved accuracy of surface levels. In
such cases, unless pre-cambers can be accurately and reliably used to offset deflections,
there would be a need to allow for a levelling material or a flooring system of suitable
thickness range to reinstate surface accuracy. For this reason, direct-finished concrete
wearing surfaces may present surface accuracy problems in all but the most rigidly
designed suspended slabs. Where fine-tolerance concrete wearing surfaces are required
on suspended bases that are expected to have significant initial deflection, allowance
should be made for either a separate bonded concrete topping or a direct-finished
concrete overslab.
92 CIRIA Report 184

After initial deflection, further displacements may occur through changes in live loads
throughout the life of the building. Such flexible bases are more commonly associated
with the composite and precast types of suspended floor. Where such continued
movements are likely, then unless the flooring system is isolated from the base, stresses
will be transferred to the flooring. Where the flooring is rigid, or insufficiently flexible
to accommodate these stresses, disruption is likely to occur, which may lead to eventual
failure. Avoidance of disruption can be achieved by isolating the flooring system from
the base, in which case the flooring system must be of adequate thickness to withstand
the imposed traffic loadings in this unbonded condition.
The degree to which suspended structural bases will deflect will be dependent upon the
structural design, spans, etc. and can only therefore be accurately quantified for
individual cases. As a general guide, allowance should be made for isolation between
suspended structural bases and the flooring system, where the flooring material is to be
rigid, unless the structural design indicates a minimal deflection of the floor during
normal usage.
A secondary effect of deflection is the stress imposed in the flooring system at positions
of rigid support, such as beams. In cases where deflection is sufficient to warrant
isolation, then rigid floorings should be provided with a flexible joint over rigid support
locations.
Thermal or moisture movements
Concrete structural bases undergo lateral dimensional changes through the effects of
drying shrinkage and/or temperature changes. in-situ concrete will normally initially
contract through loss of heat of hydration in the first few days, and will also contract in
the short and medium term through drying shrinkage. The early movements may be
sufficiently large to cause distress in an overlaid bonded flooring system. This is
recognised in some BS Codes of Practice, and a drying period is normally
recommended prior to bonding of flooring or flooring systems onto immature concrete.
For bases to receive rigid applied tiling, such as ceramics, terrazzo or natural stone,
BS 5385 recommends a drying period of six weeks for the structural base prior to either
laying bonded screeds or bonding the flooring direct. For other types of flooring fixed
direct, or for bonded screeds for other types of flooring, the drying period may vary.
Where periods are defined in relevant codes, these are given in the appropriate parts of
Sections 5-7.
These early movements create stresses within the structural base that are normally
controlled by design to limit base cracking. In ground-bearing slabs, this control may
be achieved by incorporating a series of expansion/contraction/stress relief movement
joints. In suspended slabs of in-situ or composite construction, control may be in the
form of limited bay sizes between construction joints, or by controlling crack width
with higher levels of reinforcement. In some cases, stress relief may be given by the
flexibility of the supporting structure. In precast concrete floors, stress relief will occur
at some of the junctions between units. Positions of stress relief will therefore generally
be at a designed movement joint, an incidental crack or, in some cases, a construction
joint.
Later age movements, either during the construction period or when the building is in
use, will occur through continued drying, but more significantly in the longer term,
through thermal changes. Thermal changes may be due to initial heating up as the
building is commissioned, or through controlled or uncontrolled cycled temperatures
such as seasonal changes in unheated warehouses, daily or weekly changes in heated
buildings, sporadic changes in floors in atrium areas. Suspended floors tend to be
CIRIA Report 184 93

subject to larger thermal changes. In all cases, except perhaps pre-stressed floors where
crack movement is restricted, movements through thermal changes will be
concentrated at movement joints. Such movements can cause distress to an overlaid
bonded flooring system, especially when the flooring is rigid. Typical examples are
reflected cracks through terrazzo or stone tiling, and localised hogging or arching of
thin bonded resin floorings.
This risk of disruption to the flooring by long-term movements must be considered

when designing the flooring system. In most cases, the degree of expected movement
can be calculated from knowledge of the design and likely temperature ranges. For
further guidance see CIRIA Technical Note 107 Design for movement in buildings.
Where the predicted movement is insignificant, then further precautions may not be
necessary. Where significant movement is expected, and movement joints are
incorporated, then similar movement provision must be provided in the flooring
system, especially in a bonded flooring system. Where movement is likely to result in
random cracks, or be at construction joints, consideration should be given to isolating
the flooring system from the base. For most types of flooring, an isolated system will
require a thicker overall depth of construction.
Surface accuracy
The accuracy of surface level and flatness to which a structural base can be constructed
is limited by the type of base, setting-out accuracy, and workmanship. This achievable
accuracy must be considered in relation to both the accuracy required of the completed
flooring, and the thickness of the flooring system. For example, if the flooring system is
to be thin, such as direct-laid flexible sheet or tile, direct adhesive-bedded rigid tile, or
a resin flooring, then the achieved accuracy of the slab must be the same as that
required for the finished floor. Failure to achieve this will result in a flooring outside
the required tolerances, greater material usage, or costly remedial measures. Where the
flooring system is to be thick, such as floorings laid on sand/cement screeds or semi-dry
bedded rigid tile, then the system will have a greater capacity to correct deviations in
the structural base. Nevertheless, there must still be a restriction on achieved accuracy
of the base, since many systems are limited by upper and lower recommended
thicknesses. For example, separate bonded high-strength concrete toppings should be
within the range 25–40 mm thick. Serviceability may be impaired if these limits are
exceeded.
It is therefore of great importance to ensure at design stage that the accuracy of the
base, the accuracy of the finished floor, and any restrictions on thickness of the layers
within a flooring system are compatible. It is equally important, during the construction
process, to continually survey early for achievement of accuracy to enable remedial
measures to be taken.
The structural base, for practical reasons, is frequently laid to a common level. Beware
of changes in thickness of adjacent flooring systems. Designing for a nominal depth
between structural base level and finished floor level, into which various floorings must
fit, can lead to the use of incorrect thicknesses for flooring systems. Use of such
nominal ‘finishing zones’ is best avoided.
Ground-bearing structural bases can generally be constructed to within tolerances that

are suitable to receive the thinnest types of flooring system. Suspended in-situ and
composite concrete bases may also be similarly accurately constructed, but accuracy can
be subsequently affected by deflections. Suspended precast concrete bases, by virtue of
pre-cambers and steps between units, cannot generally be constructed to sufficient
accuracy to receive the thinnest types of flooring system without interposing a screed.
94 CIRIA Report 184

Moisture condition
Concrete structural bases will always contain moisture. The moisture may be present
simply from the original water content of the concrete, from subsequent following
operations or, in the case of ground-bearing slabs, from groundwater. Of these, only the
latter is avoidable. As a general rule, ground-bearing slabs should be protected against
groundwater capillary rise either by a full dpm system beneath the slab when below or
near water-table level, or by a polyethylene sheet separating layer when significantly
above water table level. (Refer to BS 8102 and CP 102 Codes of Practice for protection
of structures against water from the ground.)
The other two sources of moisture are of limited supply, and in the longer term
moisture content will reduce by evaporation. (Movements induced by moisture loss are
considered previously in this section.) Ultimately, concrete will continue drying over a
period of time until it reaches equilibrium with ambient conditions. It will never
become totally dry. Except in the case of direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces, a
flooring will be applied to the base at some time during this continuing drying process.
The residual moisture, if sufficiently high, may have a significant effect on overlaid
flooring materials or systems, notably those that are impervious or contain moisture-
sensitive elements. Specific precautions for limitation or control and measurement of
residual moisture content are governed by the flooring material type, and are given in
subsequent sections. The information within this section outlines the potential effect of
residual moisture on flooring and the influence of the structural base.
Floorings that are readily permeable to moisture vapour, such as concrete toppings,
ceramic, stone, terrazzo, and composition block, will allow drying of the base to
continue, albeit at a reduced rate. In general, these will not be prone to any adverse
effects of moisture.
Timber floorings in general are moisture sensitive, and will undergo significant
dimensional changes if allowed to become damp, and may suffer fungal attack. There is
therefore a requirement either to limit the moisture content of the base, or to provide a
physical barrier to suppress moisture permeating from the base into the timber.
Impermeable or very low-permeability floorings, such as resins and flexible sheet or tile
materials, are generally attached to a substrate with an adhesive and/or a primer. Once
the flooring is laid, the moisture gradient in the base may be modified and, depending
upon temperatures above and below the base, the moisture content and vapour pressure
at the interface may be increased. These can have a direct effect on adhesion or
integrity of the interface bond and result in delamination and disruption of the flooring.
The risks are lower, but still present, where the flooring is a flexible tile type material
that will permit a limited degree of continued drying through tile joints.
Residual moisture also plays a part in the phenomenon of osmosis in resin floorings
(see Section 9.1). Where the substrate surface can act as a semi-permeable membrane,
and contamination is present at the surface, as may be produced by acid etching,
residual moisture in the base can migrate to the interface and create sufficient pressure
to cause blisters in the flooring.
All of the above potential effects of moisture apply when the flooring material is fixed
direct to the structural base. They equally apply to the situation where a floor screed or
other permeable element of a flooring system is interposed between the flooring and the
base, unless it is isolated from the base by an effective damp-proof membrane. It is a
common misconception that the laying of a rapid-drying screed material on a damp
base eliminates moisture problems. For floorings or flooring systems that may be
CIRIA Report 184 95

adversely affected by moisture, it is necessary to impose a limitation on the moisture
condition in the base. For most of these floorings, the limiting value is 75% relative
humidity (RH) as determined by the method given in BS 8203 Appendix A, although
manufacturers of some proprietary floorings specify alternative criteria, such as
moisture content determined by electrical resistance measurement or by extraction of
samples. In such cases, the manufacturer’s directions should be followed.
The BS 8203 75% RH limit is currently the subject of considerable debate within the
industry as to its validity. This stems from:
• practical application of the test
• questionable accuracy and repeatability of equipment and method
• validity of procedure for thick constructions
• validity of the 75% specified value (original development work suggested 80%,
which was reduced to 75% to allow for attainable accuracy)
• greater emphasis on quality assurance, hence greater experience of use of the test
method
• reported satisfactory flooring at values above 75% RH
• inability to achieve 75% RH, in some cases, over extended drying periods
While there may currently be a question mark over the validity of the test method and
limiting value, considerable further research and trials would be necessary prior to any
major change in either test method or relaxation of the current 75% RH criterion. For
the time being, use of limits in excess of 75% RH should be regarded as a risk
situation, unless specifically permitted by the manufacturers of proprietary materials.
The ability to achieve an adequate state of dryness within a structural base, including
any directly overlaid screed, will depend upon a number of factors including:
• ambient temperature, humidity and ventilation
• programme time available for drying
• base type, thicknesses and surface finish
The initial water content of the concrete mix may also have a bearing on the rate of
drying. The effect of water-reducing admixtures and vacuum dewatering may be
limited since these also produce a reduced concrete porosity.
All of these factors may be critical, and are inter-related. Low humidity and good
ventilation are necessary in combination with reasonably high temperatures for
optimum drying conditions. Programme time is normally a fixed element, to which
extension may impose cost penalties. Scope for variation is therefore limited. As the
overall base thickness increases, the overall drying time will become disproportionately
longer. The use of finishing techniques such as power trowelling impart a dense and
relatively impervious surface, which can reduce the potential drying rate of the base.
Bases that are in contact with the ground, or otherwise sealed by an impervious
material on the underside, such as in-situ concrete in permanent metal decking, can
only dry from the upper face and will therefore have extended drying times.
Conversely, suspended slabs other than in metal decking should yield shorter drying
times. Precast concrete, or precast composite floors, will potentially have the shortest
drying times.
Accurate prediction of drying times is nevertheless virtually impossible with current

knowledge. There is an industry rule of thumb on drying of ‘one month per inch
depth’. BS 8203 suggests one day per millimetre for the first 50 mm, followed by an
96 CIRIA Report 184

increasing time for each millimetre above this thickness. In practice, such rules tend to
be very unreliable, except perhaps in the case of nominal 50 mm thick screeds laid over
a damp-proof membrane (dpm) and subjected to ideal ambient conditions.
In situations where moisture-sensitive floorings are to be laid, either directly over or

with an interposed direct-fixed screed, on a base incorporating in-situ concrete, due
regard should be given to the possibility that the required moisture condition may not
be achieved. This situation may be resolved by:
1. selecting a flooring that is less moisture sensitive, or
2. designing a flooring system that effectively isolates the flooring from the base (e.g.
a screed over a dpm) and thus is totally independent of base moisture condition, or
3. making an allowance for the use of a surface-applied dpm system on top of the
base or on a direct-laid screed, in the event that the correct moisture condition is
not achieved, or
4. using a moisture-resistant bonding agent for bonding of screeds.
Option 2 will increase the construction thickness, and may not be suitable for some
types of flooring such as resins. The use of debonded systems may increase the
vulnerability of some types of flooring to damage in heavy traffic situations. Option 3
will have a significant cost factor for both material and surface preparation and must
therefore be considered at design stage. Option 4 may comprise resin or polymer
bonding agents. These must be subject to proof of suitability in the existing moisture
condition.
3.1.2 Flooring
When considering flooring systems, compatibility between the structural base, the
flooring and any intermediate layers is crucial. Influences of the structural base have
been discussed above. For the flooring, the major influences are the method of fixing,
the movement potential, rigidity/flexibility, and moisture sensitivity.
Fixing methods
The method of fixing the flooring to a substrate can vary from loose lay, primers, thin
adhesive layers or beds, through to thicker cement/sand mortar or semi-dry beds. For
some proprietary floorings, such as sprung floors or in-situ resin sports floors, the
‘flooring’ may comprise a number of successive layers.
For some types of flooring, the normal method or methods of fixing may well provide a
complete flooring system with regard to compatibility with the base without the need
for additional layers of screed or other materials. For example, semi-dry bed fixing of
terrazzo or stone tiling would provide satisfactory surface accuracy on most types of
concrete base. With the addition of a separating layer it would provide the separation
necessary to accommodate movements within suspended slabs or immature concrete
bases.
Conversely, for many types of flooring the normal methods of fixing will not provide
the necessary attributes, and an additional layer or layers of material may well be
required to provide a flooring system with full compatibility. For example, a flexible
sheet flooring fixed with an adhesive has insufficient thickness to correct deviations in
the surface accuracy of a base. In this case a screed must be interposed to provide the
necessary accuracy. If the flooring is moisture sensitive and the base insufficiently dry,
then the flooring system would also need to include a moisture barrier. This barrier
may limit the type and construction method of the screed.
CIRIA Report 184 97

Fixing methods that provide a strong rigid bond to a substrate will not readily
accommodate significant lateral movements within a structural base. For example,
rigid tiling fixed with a cement-based adhesive or with a fully bonded cement/sand bed
may suffer debonding stresses or reflective cracking over joints or cracks if the base is
subject to thermal or moisture movements. The flooring system in this case would need
to be modified either by total isolation on a thick screed or by providing stress relief in
the flooring aligned with points of maximum stress in the base.
Movement potential and flexibility/rigidity
The ability of a flooring to resist damage from dimensional changes, either by inherent
characteristics or by transmission from a structural base, is related to its inherent
flexibility. Flexible floorings, such as carpet, vinyl, linoleum, rubber and cork, by virtue
of their high resilience, do not normally require any additional consideration other than
correct fixing to an adequately designed substrate.
Floorings with slight flexibility, by virtue of either their resilience or their relatively
thin section, such as resins and some polymer-modified or flow-applied cementitious
materials are always laid fully bonded to a substrate. When used within their individual
service limitations, their resilience is sufficient to prevent their own temperature or
moisture-induced movements causing general disruption. They may not, however, be
resistant to localised high stresses transferred from the base through moisture or
thermal effects, such as may occur at cracks or joints. Reflective cracking or arching
may result. In this case, the flooring system should be designed either to eliminate
localised stresses, or to focus them at movement joints brought through to the flooring
surface.
The lack of flexibility of the more rigid types of flooring, such as concrete toppings,
rigid tiling and in-situ terrazzo, results in movement stresses under the effects of
inherent thermal and moisture changes. Whether the flooring is laid as bonded
construction or as part of a thick unbonded flooring system, these stresses can be
sufficient to cause disruption unless they are limited. This stress relief is normally
provided in the form of movement joints through the flooring plus any bed, in
combination with a limitation in the distance between joints. Details of these
requirements are given in the relevant parts of Sections 6 and 7. Consideration of
movement of the flooring system alone, however, is insufficient where it is to be of
bonded construction since localised stresses within the base may be transferred to the
flooring. This is most likely to occur at cracks or joints in the base that have the
potential for movement. There is therefore a need to minimise random cracking in the
base or interposed screed, and to allow for movement joints in the flooring to coincide
with any joints subject to movement in the base or screed. Failure to do this will give a
high risk of reflective cracking. For in-situ floorings, this may be readily achieved. For
rigid tiled floors, full coordination of joint positions from the base to the finished floor
surface will require a high degree of planning and construction accuracy. Rigid tiled
floors with ornate patterning, feature panels, varying tile sizes, and where tiles are laid
diagonally to joints in the base, can all present particular problems when designing to
this coordinated joint concept. In some cases, total isolation from the base may be the
preferred solution.
Moisture sensitivity
The problems of moisture within a base and/or screed, and its effect on impermeable
types of flooring, have been discussed previously in this section. Specific precautions
for the various types of flooring materials are given in the relevant parts of Sections 6
and 7. The types of flooring include:
98 CIRIA Report 184

• vinyl, linoleum, rubber, cork, carpet
• some resins (typically epoxy, polyurethane, methacrylate)
Moisture entrapped during construction and from other sources should also be
considered in respect of the potential effect on other types of flooring or elements of a
flooring system.
Timber flooring or timber elements within a flooring system may undergo significant
dimensional changes through the effects of moisture. Bases to receive timber should, in
general, incorporate an effective moisture barrier.
Synthetic anhydrite screeds may be subject to degradation if exposed to long-term

moisture. Constructional moisture does not generally pose a problem, but where such
screeds are used on a ground-bearing slab, an effective dpm should be installed, or the
screed laid on a separating moisture barrier such as polyethylene sheet. Synthetic
anhydrite screeds should not be used in wet service conditions where moisture can gain
direct access to the screed.
Loose-laid permeable carpet or carpet tiles may not require the substrate to be to the
same moisture condition (75% RH) as for impermeable bonded carpets. Nevertheless,
laying on excessively damp substrate may induce rotting and/or unpleasant odours.
3.1.3 Service conditions and finished floor properties
This section illustrates how service conditions and finished floor properties will
influence the choice of a suitable flooring system. In many cases, these will also have a
significant limiting effect on the selection of screeds and other intermediate layers
within the flooring system.
Traffic, loading, impact
As traffic intensity, loading and impact increase, there is an increasing need for the
flooring system to be inherently sound and free from detachment or voidage between
layers. The optimum flooring system is therefore one that has the least number of
interfaces, all having intimate bond.
The introduction of separating layers, which may be necessary for other reasons, or the
use of partially or nominally bonded screeds all represent a risk of the possibility of
deflection under heavy loading or impact. Such deflections can induce significant
disruption and shorten the life of the flooring system.
Where unbonded or floating construction is essential, then the flooring system should
be thicker to provide the necessary resistance to traffic and impact. Reinforced concrete
overslabs or tine concrete screeds of up to 100 mm thickness may be used in many
cases to provide an isolated ‘sub-floor’ to receive the flooring.
Chemical resistance
Where chemical resistance is an essential requirement, the risk of aggressive materials’

penetrating the elements of construction beneath the flooring and causing degradation
must be considered.
For seamless floorings, such as in-situ resins, the risk of penetration will be low. The
greatest risk will be at joints that may be required to facilitate laying or to
CIRIA Report 184 99

accommodate structural base movements, or at junctions with other floorings. Correct
detailing and selection of appropriate types of joint sections or sealants is crucial
(see Fig. 3.2). Manufacturers and installers of proprietary floorings provide standard
details for joints. These commonly include installation of grooves to form a ‘tuck-in’
for the resin at all joints, or junctions with coving and gullies, etc. Where possible,
joints should be positioned in the least vulnerable areas and falls should be formed to
direct spillage away from the joints.
resin flooring sealant back–up strip sealant resin flooring
falls falls
fine
concrete
structural screed
concrete
structural
concrete
flooring turned joint filler
into rebate flooring turned stainless steel angle
Expansion joint into rebate anchored to base
Expansion joint – vehicular traffic
resin flooring/coving
falls
F l o o r t o wal l j oi nt
Fig. 3.2 Typical joint sections in resin floorings.
The other major type of chemically resistant flooring is ceramic tiling. Since there are a
large number of joints, the risk of penetration will be potentially high. Special types of
chemically resistant jointing grout and bedding materials are used to provide a
continuous barrier to penetration, which, given good workmanship, can be very
effective. Movement joints through the tiling may comprise a high risk of penetration
but, with careful detailing, selection of materials, and good workmanship, risks can be
minimised. The design of the flooring system must be aimed at eliminating the risk of
uncontrolled cracking, which could reflect through the tiling and allow penetration to
the screed and/or structural base (see Fig. 3.3). The introduction of stress relief joints in
screeds, and ful1 coordination with joints in the tiling is crucial to control random
cracking. In some situations, even a small risk of penetration into the structural base
may not be acceptable. This is most likely to be related to suspended concrete slabs. In
these cases, the common practice is to totally isolate the flooring from the base with a
chemically resistant sheet membrane and lay the tiling on a thicker screed or concrete
overslab. This unbonded construction will have a higher potential movement, which
may lead to a higher longer-term risk of penetration into the screed or overslab. The
designer may opt to either fully control these movements by introduction of
reinforcement and joints, hence increasing the potential life of the flooring system, or
100 CIRIA Report 184

cracks in
screed/bed/tile cracks in grouted joints
screed or
cement/
sand bed
structural base
voidage beneath tiles
Fig. 3.3 Cracks in joints between ceramic tiles, cracks through the tile and bed,
voidage beneath tiles. Risk of ingress of aggressive liquids to structural
base.
ceramic tile flooring
unbonded screed/bed
chemically resistant
membrane
structural base
Fig. 3.4 Sacrificial tile flooring and screed/bed over a chemically resistant
membrane.
to use a simpler construction and treat the flooring system as a sacrificial layer (see Fig.
3.4).
Thermal resistance/insulation
Where a flooring is to be subject to significant changes in temperature during service,

such as may be experienced in cold stores or foundries, both the temperature and
stresses due to dimensional changes will be transferred from the flooring into the
underlying construction. It is essential that any materials, notably adhesives, primers,
etc., are not materially affected by the temperature during the life of the flooring, and
that any differential stresses will not cause interface bond failure. The larger potential
dimensional changes, as compared with normal operating temperature, should be
allowed for in the provision of movement and stress relief joints through the flooring
system. This may comprise wider joints or closer spacings. Joint materials, such as
sealants, must also be checked for resistance to, and for movement capacity within, the
appropriate ranges.
Thermally insulated floors will generally be of floating construction, incorporating a

layer of extruded polystyrene board or similar type of insulation. No-fines lightweight
aggregate screeds, although of greater thermal efficiency than normal screeds, are not
usually used solely for their insulating value. Where the flooring is of floating
construction, the resistance of the flooring system to heavy loading and impact may be
reduced by the resilience of the insulation, and by any gaps beneath the insulation. The
system must be designed, therefore, to maintain adequate resistance to traffic. The
CIRIA Report 184 101

structural base should be sufficiently flat to support the insulation without underlying
gaps that will not close under the weight of an applied screed. This may require the use
of thin levelling screeds or, in light traffic areas, a dry sand bed. The floating screed
thickness should be sufficient to resist the applied loadings. Traditional minimum
screed thicknesses for floating construction are 75 mm (65 mm for domestic usage) for
cement/sand screeds and 40 mm for synthetic anhydrite. Thicknesses for proprietary
screeds may be less. In the case of cement/sand, light mesh reinforcement (D49 or
D98) should be provided at mid-depth to provide continuity at cracks or joints. The
traditional use of chicken wire laid on the insulation is generally ineffective. In the case
of loadings greater than moderate pedestrian (Section 2.2, Classification P2), the use of
a 100 mm concrete overslab is preferable.
Acoustic properties
For the reduction of impact sound transmission, floating construction may be adopted.
The considerations for maintaining adequate resistance to loadings are as for floating
construction over thermal insulation. Some relaxation in the need for a levelling
material over inaccuracies in the base may be permitted since the flexible insulation
sheets used will conform more readily to base inaccuracies. Sharp protrusions in the
base, such as major steps between precast units, may cause sound bridges, and should
be locally levelled before laying the insulation.
For effective reduction in sound transmission, the flooring must also be isolated from
the walls or any protruding columns, plinths etc. The insulating material must be
returned upwards to the flooring surface around all such perimeters and abutments.
Surface accuracy
The surface accuracy required in a finished floor will be dictated by its required
performance, whereas the surface accuracy of a structural base may be limited by the
type of construction. The flooring system must bridge any discrepancy between the two.
Most flooring systems are subject to maximum and minimum thickness limitations.
Use outside these limitations to correct level or surface accuracy discrepancies can
jeopardise both performance and cost-effectiveness.
The most common failing with regard to this aspect is the use of cement/sand screeds
and concrete toppings, either too thin or too thick. For example, an unbonded
traditional cement/sand screed should be subject to a minimum thickness of 50 mm. To
achieve this minimum in practice, the design thickness must be increased by the total
deviation permitted for the structural base. Thus, if the base is specified to an accuracy
of 10 mm under a 3-mm straightedge, the design screed thickness must be at least
60 mm (see Fig. 3.5).
Where a material is subject to both minimum and maximum thicknesses, then the
design must take into account both requirements. In many cases, this restriction on
thickness range will impose limitations on the initial accuracy of the base. For
example, a traditional bonded high-strength concrete topping should have a minimum
thickness of 20 mm and, to minimise the risk of subsequent debonding, a recommended
maximum thickness of 40 mm. Thus the concrete topping would have a nominal
thickness of 30 mm, and the structural base accuracy would have to be not more than
± 10 mm in relation to a selected datum (see Fig. 3.5).

minimum screed
screed thickness 50mm
base tolerances
to be additional
to minimum
screed thickness
base concrete
Unbonded cement/sand screed – minimum thickness 50mm
20
40
base tolerances
to be limited to
allow correct
topping thickness
base concrete
Bonded high strength concrete topping – minimum thickness 20mm

maximum thickness 40mm
Fig. 3.5 Effect of base variations on thickness criteria.
This relationship between base and floor accuracies and thickness limitations can only
be fully coordinated at design stage. Failure to achieve coordination will result in
compromise situations during construction, which may lead ultimately to inadequate
serviceability of the system, or disclaimers on warranties, or claims for extra materials.
Electrostatic properties
Where electrostatic discharge (ESD) properties are required, selection of suitable

flooring materials alone is insufficient. The complete floor system installation must be
designed to provide ESD, requiring the use of modified materials. Depending upon the
type of floor, these may include conductive adhesives for flexible flooring, conductive
cement-based adhesives, and the inclusion of acetylene carbon black in screeds or
mortar beds. In some cases, a wire mesh may be required in the bedding. This is a
highly specialised requirement, and detailed guidance should be sought from a
specialist.
Services
Where services are to be run within the flooring system, excluding those beneath
partial access flooring, special attention must be paid to their potential for inducing
defects. Risks to serviceability may arise from several factors:
• An increase in flooring or flooring system thickness simply to accommodate
services may result in exceeding a maximum recommended thickness. For
example, bonded screeds or concrete toppings incorporating pipes or conduits must
be thicker than 40 mm, giving a greater risk of debonding.
• Inclusion of conduits or buried trunking in cementitious screeds or toppings will
commonly induce cracking, even where reinforcement is provided. In toppings,

appearance will be affected, and longer-term degradation is likely. Applied rigid
flooring on screeds may suffer reflective cracks.
• Wide buried trunking with a nominal screed covering will not provide adequate
resistance to applied loading, unless of very rigid construction, or unless the screed
over the top is specifically modified to resist the loadings (see Fig. 3.6).
• Multiple runs of pipes or conduits can create difficulties in achieving adequate
compaction of traditional screeds, resulting in localised unsoundness.
• Crossing of services may result in significant thickness reductions.
LOAD
secondary cracking initial cracking
screed
base concrete
Fig. 3.6 Wide buried trunking covered with thin screed. Risk of initial cracking,
loosening of screed over, and secondary disruption under applied loads.
Where possible, services should be routed elsewhere, or buried in the structural base.
Where this is not feasible, precautions against the above risks will be necessary.
In many cases, particularly for pedestrian areas with flexible floorings, surface flush
trunking may be used to eliminate the risks (see Fig. 3.7). Correct usage of
reinforcement over conduits in screeds can control cracking to within acceptable limits
for flexible floorings (see Fig. 3.8).
timber/metal surface flush cover

to receive flooring
screed
base concrete
Fig. 3.7 Surface flush trunking system. Can avoid the problem of disruption of thin
screed over buried trunking.

incorrect position – risk of poor
compaction around conduit/pipe
Correct position mid–depth of

screed over conduit/pipe
Allows good screed compaction
Fig. 3.8 Reinforcing mesh over conduit or pipes.
Heated floors
The common types of heated screed are discussed in Section 5. Heated screeds have
historically had a reputation for poor serviceability. The major problems stem from the
difficulties in achieving good compaction of traditional screed materials around the
network of pipes or heating elements, and from the larger thermal movement potential.
Problems may also arise in many cases where the manufacturer or supplier of the
system, although giving precise guidance on the mechanical side of heating system
installation, fails to provide sufficient information on screeding materials, laying,
movement provision and suitability of overlaid floorings.
As a general rule, heated floors are best avoided. Where they are necessary, usage
should be limited to pedestrian traffic (up to Section 2.2., Classification P3). The
design of the flooring system must address the particular problems outlined above. To
improve the compaction of the screed around the pipes or elements, a change from a
semi-dry consistency material to a more fluid material, such as high-workability
concrete or a flowing synthetic anhydrite, is advantageous. The anhydrite option will
also have benefits in the reduction in the risk of shrinkage cracking and curling. When
the screed is cementitious, reinforcement should be incorporated to control the risk of,
and potential movement of, cracks. Bay sizes are normally limited to a maximum of
40 m2, in combination with a maximum overall dimension of 8 m, as recommended by
DIN 18560 (Bibliography 26). In practice, bay sizes will also be influenced by the
heating circuit layout. Because of the greater realisation of movements of heated
screeds, any day joint or crack is likely to undergo continued movements, cycling with
the heating system. These may be apparent even where continuity of reinforcement is
provided. There is therefore a need to fully coordinate joints through to the flooring
surface. Where the flooring is rigid, such as ceramic or stone tiling, the joint section or
sealant must be capable of accommodating both expansion and contraction, and must
be sufficiently flexible to prevent localised stresses on the tile edges. Use of a hard
sealant may cause disruption of the tiling. Where the flooring is a flexible sheet or tile,
it is common practice to ignore any joints in the screed. This can, however, result in
disruption of the flooring immediately over the joints. Continuity of the joint through to
the surface is recommended.
The maximum movement of heated screeds normally takes place at perimeters, which
must always be provided with a soft isolating joint continued through the flooring.
Movement will also take place at perimeters longitudinally on the screed edge, which
may cause distortion or debonding of flexible sheet coverings attached to both floor and
wall. Separation should be provided.

Qualities for sports activities
Flooring systems for sports floors may comprise the same elements as for other types of
flooring, with the addition of a special type or grade of flooring at the surface. In such
cases, design of the flooring system will be subject to the same considerations as for
normal floors. The major exception to this is where the surface material, in
combination with the underlying construction, is intended to impart specific properties
such as area or point elastic behaviour. For these proprietary systems, guidance on
design of the flooring system should be sought from the manufacturer of the flooring
material.
3.1.4 Construction restrictions
Programming and timing of construction are assuming an increasing priority in the

industry, with clients requiring shorter building programmes, and imposing cost
penalties for delays beyond the target completion date. Rapid forms of erecting
structural elements of buildings are becoming the norm, but these can be of diminished
benefit unless the finishing elements can keep pace. For flooring, the major restrictions
imposed by programming and timing, are related to:
• the shortage of time available for drying out of moisture from structural bases or
screeds
• changes in the rate of laying of floorings compared with traditional methods
• delays in preceding works (e.g. mechanical and electrical services installation)

shortening or interfering with the time available for installation of some types of
flooring
• the difficulties and costs associated with providing and maintaining protection of
finished floorings or screeds from following works, where laid early in the
programme
These restrictions, and associated costs, will normally be contract specific, and are best
dealt with on an individual basis. The most critical aspect is coordinated programming,
which must include the sensitive matter of flooring. Liaison between user, specifier,
specialist and contractor is crucial.
There are both existing and relatively new materials and techniques that can be of
potential benefits in easing imposed restrictions. To be fully effective they must be
considered at design stage, and may also be subject to their own limitations. Most are
likely to have an increased materials cost.
3.1.5 Alternative systems
Isolated screeds
Floor screeds isolated from the structural base may be used to eliminate the drying
period associated with concrete bases, and those of in-situ construction in particular. By
laying over a liquid-applied or sheet dpm material, only the drying time of the screed
need be taken into account, thus reducing the time required before laying moisture-
sensitive floorings.
Cement/sand or fine concrete screeds laid in this manner would traditionally be

regarded as unbonded, requiring a 50 mm minimum thickness. There would be an
attendant risk of increased cracking and curling, which can reduce performance under
heavy traffic conditions. Bonded cement/sand or fine concrete screeds can be isolated

from moisture in the base by the use of a liquid-applied surface dpm, usually of epoxide
resin, blinded with grit to provide the necessary key.
Synthetic anhydrite screeds, either trowel- or flow-applied, directly over a polyethylene

separating layer are effectively isolated from moisture in the structural base. The
minimum thickness is normally 25 mm. The moisture movement characteristics of the
anhydrite largely eliminate the risks of cracking and curling. The drying rates of
ordinary cement/sand and synthetic anhydrite are similar for equivalent thicknesses:
thus the drying time for anhydrite at normal thickness can be less than that of an
isolated 50 mm cement/sand screed. The method of moisture measurement prior to
laying moisture-sensitive floorings is the same as for cement/sand, i.e. BS 8203
hygrometer method.
Rapid-drying/curing screeds
There are numerous proprietary rapid-drying and curing screed systems available,
which may be suitable for ready-mixed supply and/or for site mixing, and are based on
special cements, admixtures or pre-blended bagged materials. Thicknesses can range
from traditional down to a few millimetres for flow-applied systems. The rapid drying
and curing properties are achieved by a variety of admixtures, polymers and special
cements. For most products the reduced drying times are a function of the lower initial
water content induced by admixtures. Some products, notably those with claimed
drying times of 24–48 hours, rely on the free water permanently combining with the
special cements.
The reduced water contents can have additional benefits in reduced drying shrinkage,
and increased strength and resistance to abrasion.
While the potential advantages over traditional screeds are all valid, transfer of the
advantages to the site situation requires an understanding of their limitations:
• For moisture-sensitive floorings, the rapid-drying screed must be either laid on a
base that is already at a satisfactory moisture content, or isolated from a damp
base.
• Except for products that chemically combine excess water, the drying rate will be
greatly influenced by ambient temperature, humidity and ventilation, as for normal
screeds.
• Isolated unbonded screeds may still suffer cracking and curling, although to a
lesser extent than normal screeds.
• Semi-dry-consistency screeds may not realise the potential improved strength
unless compacted to the same degree as normal semi-dry cement/sand.
• Improved abrasion resistance may not be achieved unless a closed surface is
achieved and curing is fully effective.
• Abrasion under site traffic may also still take place, requiring either protection or
subsequent repair.
Where doubt exists over suitability, it is advisable to base judgement on evidence of

past usage or on laying and assessment of representative sample areas.
Flow-applied materials
Substantial increases in the rate of laying flooring or floor screeds can be achieved by
the use of flow application. Rates in excess of 1000 m2 per day can be achieved,
allowing shorter programme times for flooring, and/or delaying flooring operations

until later in the construction programme. Since material costs are high, and inherent
thicknesses low, it is a prerequisite that bases are constructed to a higher degree of
accuracy. It is also essential to programme for large areas to be available to the flooring
contractor for the necessary preparation and laying period, which is typically 2–3 days
per area. Restrictions in available areas of adequate size will increase costs
significantly. Cost-effectiveness may also be reduced if available areas are in small
compartments in widespread locations.
Flow-applied screeds may be of cementitious or synthetic anhydrite composition. With

the exception of anhydrite at 25 mm or greater thickness over a separating layer, the
screeds must be bonded to the base. The dense nature of these screeds, and their
bonding primers, may delay the drying of a damp base. Where the flooring is to be
moisture sensitive, the base should preferably be already at a moisture condition
suitable for the flooring, prior to laying the screed. If the programme does not permit
adequate time for drying, a surface-applied dpm system, compatible with the flow-
applied material, can be used to bond the screed to the base and provide moisture
control.
Surface-applied dpm
These proprietary materials, comprising epoxy resin, epoxy pitch, or polyurethane resin
formulations, can be applied to the surfaces of screeds or structural bases that are
insufficiently dry to receive a moisture-sensitive flooring. They may be one- or two-coat
systems, depending upon the residual moisture condition in the substrate. Most require
a subsequent layer of at least 3 mm of a smoothing compound to provide absorbency for
the adhesive used for fixing the flooring material.
The costs of preparation, materials, and application are relatively high, but in situations
where either net savings may be made, or penalties can occur through programme
reduction or overrun, they can be cost-effective.
Ventilated screeds
Proprietary plastics formed-sheet materials are available that create an air space
between base and flooring while maintaining regular point contact with the base to
provide adequate support (see Fig. 3.9). These systems can provide:
• full isolation from the structural base
• protection against moisture rise
• below-floor drainage, such as may be required in basements
• forced ventilation for radon or methane protection
Floorings laid direct on power-trowelled concrete bases
It has been common practice in recent years to adopt the concept of finishing in-situ
concrete bases by power trowelling, to receive a thin flooring laid direct. The major
perceived advantages of such a system are the elimination of screeds, accuracy,
resistance to site traffic, and reduction in construction time. There are, however, some
potential pitfalls that, depending upon the type of flooring, may far outweigh the
potential advantages.
Fine tolerances are normally required where thin flooring is to be laid direct.
Achievement of specified accuracy is crucial. Surveys should be done early to check
accuracy and enable correction if necessary.

preformed plastics sheet
screed or overslab
base concrete
Void beneath screed/overslab provides for drainage/ventilation. Special edge details

and/or extraction equipment can be obtained to increase ventilation.
Fig. 3.9 Schematic diagram of ventilated screed or overslab.
For rigid tiled floorings fixed with a thin adhesive, such as ceramic tiles, the accuracy
of the base is critical. Any shortfall in achieved accuracy may result in the need for
extensive corrective action in the form of grinding and/or levelling materials. Although
this would normally be the liability of the concreting contractor, remedial works
commonly arise at the floor-laying stage, creating problems over split responsibilities.
For thin in-situ applied floorings, such as resins, the power-trowelled surface may be a
significant disadvantage for two reasons. First, the substrate will usually require some
form of surface preparation such as grit blasting prior to laying the flooring, thus
largely removing the surface, and negating the need for achieving a trowelled surface
in the first place. Second, the dense impervious surface may delay drying of the
substrate, which can create delays in applying some types of resin.
For thin applied flexible floorings, such as vinyl, minor marks in the substrate surface
may show through the flooring, even where general accuracy is satisfactory. This may
lead to the need for application of a smoothing compound. The dense impervious
power-trowelled finish commonly does not pr ovide adequate absorbency for efficient
drying of most types of adhesive, again leading to the need for a smoothing compound.
Where inaccuracies in the substrate are present, notably at joints, and grinding is
necessary, or where damage to the surface has occurred, a smoothing or levelling
compound may again be necessary. In these cases the merits of providing a power-
trowelled substrate may be negligible. Since most of the thin flexible floorings are
moisture sensitive, the effect of the power-trowelled surface on delays to drying must
also be considered. In situations where adequate drying has not been achieved, and a
surface-applied dpm system is adopted, the surface preparation commonly includes
gritblasting or planing. Again, in this case the merits of providing a power-trowelled
finish are greatly reduced.
Power-trowelled bases, although tempting, and sometimes successful, should not be

used without consideration of the above limitations. Alternative systems may include

accurately laid skip-floated or power-floated concrete bases, used in combination with
overall application of thin levelling screeds where applied flexible floorings are to be
laid.
3.2 SELECTION OF FLOORING SYSTEMS
The previous parts of this section have outlined the influences of structural bases,
flooring types, service conditions, finished floor properties, and construction
restrictions on the selection of flooring systems. The roles and limitations of alternative
methods and materials have been considered. The remaining information that is
necessary to ensure correct selection is a knowledge of the normal methods of fixing
floorings, and of any service limitations of the combined system. These aspects are
covered by the information provided in tabular form in Appendix 1, which indicates the
preferred flooring systems for combinations of structural base and flooring. Preference
has been given to the simplest and most practical types of flooring system for a given
combination of base, flooring and service conditions. Flooring systems not included
may be suitable, but may comprise increased risks or may unnecessarily complicate
construction. Guidance is also included on the upper limit of traffic-related service
condition for each system using the classification categories defined in Section 2.2.
The traffic type classifications indicated in Appendix 1 are offered as a general

indication of the maximum safe use of the selected system, and include limitations of
the flooring and the flooring system: for example, traffic type classification W2
indicates suitability for P1 (light pedestrian) up to and including W2 (solid
rubber/plastic wheeled). For some floorings, such as proprietary resins or mastic
asphalt, the range of performance is large, being determined by the individual material
formulation and the applied thickness. Confirmation of suitability should always be
obtained from individual material manufacturers. In many cases the maximum safe use
of a flooring will be limited by the flooring system: for example, natural stone
adhesive-bedded on a bonded screed is suitable for traffic type classification P3, but use
of an unbonded screed reduces the traffic type classification to P2.
The structural base type references adopted in Appendix 1 are as given at the beginning
of Section 3.1.1 (i.e. A–H).
The preferred flooring system references are as follows, and include proprietary rapid-
hardening/drying screed materials where appropriate.
1. Direct-finished concrete wearing surface
2. Flooring laid direct on structural base
a. loose laid or mechanically anchored, as appropriate to material type
b. bonded with adhesive/primer/bonding slurry as appropriate
c. with bonded cement/sand bed
d. with unbonded cement/sand bed
e. with bonded semi-dry bed
f. with unbonded semi-dry bed
3. Flooring laid* on screed bonded to structural base, including:
a. flow-applied screed
b. cement/sand or tine concrete screed
c. no-fines screed

4. Flooring laid* on screed de-bonded from structural base by either a dpm or a
separating layer
a . cement/sand or fine concrete screed
b. synthetic anhydrite screed
c . no-fines screed
d. bituminous/asphaltic screed
5. Flooring laid* on floating screed over sound or thermal insulation
a . cement/sand or fine concrete screed
c. no-fines screed
6. Flooring laid* on floating timber/insulation laminate boarding
7. Flooring laid as part of proprietary system for specialised activities, including
a. sports flooring
* laid by methods 2 ab as appropriate for flooring type.
3.3 RELATIVE COSTS
3.3.1 Definitions of categories of costs
The total cost, to a building owner/operator, of a floor and finish system will consist of
the following elements:
1 . Construction cost. This is incurred by the owner/operator in the form of the price
charged by the constructor for construction of the flooring system. This price will
consist of the constructor’s costs of the labour, material and direct plant required
for the work, with an addition and market adjustment for the constructor’s general
overhead costs and profit.
2. Site overhead cost. This is incurred by the owner/operator in the form of part of
the price charged by the general/management contractor for the service of
managing, maintaining and operating the site and providing the facilities for
power and transportation for all the work operations required for the project of
which the flooring forms part. An addition to these costs will be made for the
general/management contractor’s general overhead costs and profit.
3. Future costs. These are the maintenance costs incurred by the owner/operator of
the building, after construction and commissioning, in respect of the requirements
of the flooring for:
– cleaning
– repair
– replacement with same finish, at the end of its life cycle.
Certain other costs, in connection with the construction and maintenance of a floor
system, may be incurred by the building owner operator; they are variable, and their
amount is determined largely by the particular circumstances of the project and the
requirements of the parties. Therefore these costs are excluded from the costs and
prices given in this section. Generally the amount of these costs will not be determined
by the type of flooring system. Examples of such variable and excluded costs are design
fees charged for construction and maintenance work, and specialist commissioning
work required to a completed floor system for the building owner’s particular
operational requirements.
ClRlA Report 184 111

3.3.2 Analysis of construction and future costs
1. Base data
Appendix 3 gives the base data that can be used to build up unit rate prices of floor
systems, for guidance in selection, and to analyse their relative levels of construction
and future costs. The data consist of unit ( m2) rate prices for the defined items of the
construction components and cleaning, repair and maintenance. These prices are model
rate prices, which represent an aggregate of a statistical sample of prices tendered since
1985 and adjusted for inflation and market conditions to represent tender prices in
1995 (second quarter). They are applicable for work executed in the UK. The new,
construction work prices are applicable for work executed in a package of not less than
£ 100 000 total value and on a project of not less than £3 million. The provision of site
general facilities (3.3.1.2, above) for execution of the flooring work is excluded from
the prices. An allowance of 3% is included for the constructor’s adjustment for general
overhead costs and profits, and market conditions.
2. Construction and future costs guidance for selection
Appendix 2 gives indicative un it ( m 2) prices of construction costs (Table A2.1) and

future costs (Table A2.2) of nine different floorings, which have been selected to
illustrate the relative costs of floors with function- and performance-distinct qualities.
The unit construction prices are for complete flooring systems including any base
treatment and screed construction as well as the applied flooring. Similar base
treatments and screed constructions have been used for the different applied floorings,
except where this is not appropriate for particular applied floorings.
The unit future costs consist of the projected total cost, at current prices, of the
specified cleaning, repair and replacement required by the system over a future 30-year
period, discounted to their equivalent net present value (NPV) at a rate of 8% per year.
The costs are derived from the base data given in Appendix 3 and defined in 3.3.2.1,
above.
The appropriate percentage rate to discount future costs to a present value is dependent
on the circumstances of the party incurring the costs, and on general economic and
financial factors. The relevant circumstances include the party’s cost of borrowing and
the rate of return required on capital investment. The general economic and financial
factors are the prospective level of rates of interest and rates of cost/price inflation,
during the period in which the costs are incurred.
The rate of 8% has been used in the calculations based upon an appraisal of the
economic conditions at the date of writing.
The rate prices and the cost data given here are intended as guidance in the selection of
alternative floor systems by illustrating the relative costs of alternative systems at the
date of writing. They cannot be regarded as prices that can be used for professional
valuation or commercial purposes, nor as costs that can be applied in all operational or
project circumstances.
3. Selection of optimum balance between initial and future costs
The optimum balance between the initial (construction) cost and the future
maintenance (cleaning, repair and replacement) cost of different flooring systems will

depend upon the financial budgeting requirements of the developer, owner, and
operator, and on the nature of the project as well as on the appearance and functional
requirements of the floor.
One total cost appraisal method with general applicability is the investment appraisal
method consisting of the calculation of the period in which an amount of capital
investment is paid back in revenue. This technique can be applied to the appraisal of
the total cost of a building component by the classification of an increased expenditure
on initial cost, which produces a reduction in future costs, as a revenue-producing
capital investment. The capital investment, in the form of increased construction cost,
can be appraised in terms of the duration (payback period) in which it is recouped by
revenue production, in the form of reduced maintenance cost.
Example 3 in Appendix 2 illustrates this technique by giving the calculation of the

payback period of four flooring systems against a model system with a stipulated initial
and future cost profile. The systems illustrated have been selected on the basis of their
range of varying differential between initial and future costs. The total investment cost
(additional construction cost) and the annual future revenue (reduction in cleaning,
repair and replacement costs) have been calculated from the base unit cost data given in
Appendix 3 and defined in 3.3.2.1 above for a quantity of 500 m2 of the given system.
The revenue used to determine the payback period for each system is the equivalent
annual cost of the present value of the total future cost of the system. This produces a
payback period that is nominal rather than actual, but is meaningful for the relative
worth of the investment amounts in the alternative floor systems.
3.3.3 Analysis of effect of floor system on site overhead costs
The construction operation requirements of a floor system will affect the programme
and progress of the construction project of which they form part, and thus will affect
the amount of the cost of the site overheads as defined in 3.3.1.2 above.
The particular construction operation requirement of the floor system that will have an
identifiable and quantifiable effect on site overhead costs is the time requirements and
constraints of the flooring operations, which affects the critical path of the project
programme.
The precise effect of the system’s time requirement on site overhead costs will depend
entirely on the particular nature of the whole project and its specific programme and
facility requirements. It can thus be quantified only with respect to defined projects.
Example 4 in Appendix 2 illustrates the cost effects of the selection of different floor
systems, with varying time constraints, on a cost-defined project. Also shown in these
case studies are the other categories of cost, i.e. initial construction cost (3.3.1.1) and
future cost (3.3.1.3), for these systems that will have an effect on site overhead cost.
Thus this case study gives an appraisal of the total cost effect of certain selected
systems in a defined construction situation.
The programme time requirements of a floor system are a cost factor in the selection of
a particular system, and consideration should be given to this factor at the appropriate
project stage.

4 Structural bases
The various types of structural base and their potential influences on overlaid floorings
and flooring systems have been discussed in Section 3. This section concentrates on
construction aspects of:
• direct finishing of in-situ concrete bases to provide a wearing surface, including
the use of high-strength monolithic toppings, dry shake materials, surface
hardeners, sealers and dustproofers
• the preparation of new and existing structural bases to receive a flooring or
flooring system
The contents of this section are as follows:

• 4.1 Direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces

4.1.1 Control of movements
4.1.2 Surface accuracy
4.1.3 Surface quality
4.1.4 Finishing processes
4.1.5 Surface hardeners/sealers/dustproofers
• 4.2 Preparation of bases to receive flooring systems
4.2.1 Timber structural bases
4.2.2 Concrete structural bases
4.2.3 Existing bases or flooring
4.1 DIRECT-FINISHED CONCRETE WEARING SURFACES
Direct finishing of concrete to provide a wearing surface is mostly used in ground-

bearing slab situations. It can, however, also be required for suspended slab situations.
The design, construction and finishing of in-situ ground-bearing slabs are
comprehensively covered in the specialist documents referred to the Bibliography
(1–3, 19 and 24), and full reference should be made to these documents.
For suspended slabs, although the structural design may be different, the requirements
for materials and finishing of the surface will be essentially the same as for ground-
bearing slabs. Particular consideration must be given, however, to behavioural
differences of suspended slabs that may affect the serviceability of the finished wearing
surface.
• Cracking must be eliminated or controlled to within acceptable limits. The normal
structural limitation of 0.3 mm maximum crack width will not normally contribute
to degradation under wheeled traffic.
• Cracks or open joints may lead to passage of liquids through to any space below.
• Deflection must be controlled to maintain the required tolerances in surface level
and flatness.
• Any movement joints must be capable of providing adequate load transfer without
significant deflection or loss of level.
114 ClRlA Report 184

Where the type of suspended construction does not permit control of these factors, or in
the case of precast plank or beam and block bases, the use of a reinforced concrete
overslab designed as a ground-bearing slab can be an appropriate method of achieving
the required properties. Where this method is used the structural base must be designed
to withstand the additional dead loading. Additional deflection of the base and overslab
must also be considered.
The essential elements influencing the performance of a direct-finished concrete

surface are the control of movements, surface accuracy, and surface quality.
4.1.1 Control of movements
Since no additional flooring or flooring system is to be added subsequently, it is

essential that both thermal and moisture movements are controlled to a degree whereby
any resultant cracking will not adversely affect serviceability. Cracking in excess of
0.3 mm may promote gradual degradation under the effects of wheeled traffic or, if left
unsealed, under the effects of cyclic movement. Cracks may also be regarded as
unacceptable because of appearance or hygiene aspects. Control of cracking is achieved
either by providing sufficient reinforcement to distribute movements to a series of
closely spaced fine cracks, or by introducing a combination of free movement joints
and/or induced joints with a nominal level of reinforcement. Full detail of the design
for movement accommodation in structural bases is outside the scope of this Guide.
The form of joint at the surface, however, can have a significant effect on the
serviceability of direct wearing surfaces.
The performance of a joint under wheeled traffic is largely dependent upon the type of
wheel (pneumatic, plastics or steel), level across the joint, and the joint width. Steps in
level will induce greater impact and abrasion stresses local to the joint. The arrises of
wider joints will be prone to greater impact, particularly for smaller-diameter hard
wheels. Joints formed by finishing the concrete against formwork or previously cast
slabs usually have a small step in level that, unless subsequently ground flat or
positioned in untrafficked areas, may lead to premature degradation. Induced joints,
formed either by crack inducers or by saw cutting, provide level continuity and are less
prone to damage. The surface width of joints, particularly at free movement or
expansion joints, is a function of the movement expected and of the movement capacity
of any required sealant. Although minimising the number of movement joints is
advantageous since it also minimises the potential localised damage areas, designs with
very few full movement joints can result in large potential movements at the joints that
are provided. This may present a problem to providing a satisfactory fully sealed joint.
Heavy wheel loads demand the use of a more rigid type of sealant, which in turn
requires a wider sealant groove to provide adequate movement capacity. Wider joints
will impose a greater risk of impact damage. Where the design results in the need for
movement joints with surface widths in excess of 10 mm, and the joints are subject to
hard-wheeled traffic, consideration should be given to the provision of metal arris
inserts (see Fig. 4.1).
As part of the workmanship aspect of the finishing process, formation of induced sawn
joints may be critical. The primary movements in a slab during the first few days are
thermal, and it is these that the induced joints are initially relieving. The time of peak
thermal strain will vary, depending upon slab depth, concrete grade and ambient
temperature amongst other factors. Sawing of induced joints at the earliest possible
time after finishing is the only positive method of avoiding random cracking. This time
will usually be within the first 24 hours. Once a crack has formed in lieu of a sawn
joint, it will act as an induced joint without the benefit of a sealant groove or
predictable resistance to traffic. Repairs to such cracks may be costly and unsightly. It

seal ant m et al angl e arri s prot ect i on
anchor
j oi nt fi l l er
Fig. 4.1 Typical metal arris protection to expansion joint in direct-finished concrete
floor.
is essential that sawing of induced joints is regarded as an equally important part of the
overall finishing process.
4.1.2 Surface accuracy
The significance of levels and flatness in relation to serviceability has been discussed in
Section 2.1.6, along with measurement and classification. For direct-finished concrete
wearing surfaces the specified accuracy must be achieved through the wet finishing
process, with as little as possible subsequent corrective action. Section 7 of Concrete
Society Technical Report No. 34 (Bibliography 24) contains information relating to
flatness specification, measurement and construction techniques.
Direct finishing of in-situ concrete by power floating/trowelling or floating/early-age

grinding is a skilled operation that, in combination with normal methods of
construction, can produce flooring of sufftcient surface accuracy for general industrial
usage. Where higher degrees of accuracy are required, better than classification 3/SR1
as defined in Section 2.1.6, then the method of construction and the degree of control
and supervision play an increasingly important role. The major limitation to finished
accuracy is the initial levelling of the concrete prior to the finishing process, and is
related to the accuracy of setting out of side forms and the distance between forms. To
produce the most accurate floors (SF classification) it may be necessary to restrict bay
width to 2 m, use side forms with adjustable top rails, and use highway screed
straightedges during the finishing process in both longitudinal and transverse
directions of the slab surface. Even then there would be an expectation for some
subsequent corrective grinding. This type of operation requires a highly skilled
construction team with constant and effective checking and supervision: this, in
combination with an increased construction period, will inevitably result in higher
costs.
The advent of specialised equipment such as triangulated air-powered screeds of up to

25 m length, laser-controlled compaction/levelling plant and rotating striker tubes has
led to a general tendency towards construction in wider bays or large areas. It is a
common misconception that these new techniques produce improved accuracy. In
reality, although improved output can be achieved, accuracy is limited and is largely
dependent upon the skill of the construction team.

The relationship between construction method and achievable accuracy is highly
operator dependent, and where high accuracies are required it is recommended that
only specialist contractors are used. Past evidence of production of satisfactory floors
should be sought. The following provides a general guide to achievable accuracy with
appropriate levels of controls and supervision:
Construction type Flatness classification*
Long strip, 2–3 m wide bays Up to SF
Long strip, 4.5–6 m wide bays Up to 2
Long strip, 6–20 m wide bays Up to 2
Large-area manual placement Up to 3/SR1
Large-area mechanised placement Up to 2
Typical suspended construction Up to 3/SR1
*As classified in Section 2.1.6

Another major factor that may affect finished surface accuracy is the consistency of
concrete quality. The timing of finishing of concrete by hand- or power-trowelling is
dependent upon the rate of stiffening of the concrete, which is related to heat evolution,
hydration and evaporation. Variations in concrete workability and cement content can
lead to differences in stiffening times or differences in settlement through the effects of
bleeding. Unless these variations are maintained within minimal limits, the finishing
process cannot be properly controlled, which may lead to variations in surface
accuracy, texture and appearance.
4.1.3 Surface quality
The structural design of the base will require the concrete to be of a certain
characteristic strength, typically C30 to C40 grades to BS 5328. For providing adequate
resistance to traffic-related impact and abrasion, the surface quality required commonly
exceeds that provided by the structural concrete grade. Enhancement of surface quality
is therefore necessary. Enhancement may be achieved by a combination of finishing
techniques, increased concrete grade, selected quality aggregates, monolithic high-
strength concrete topping, or dry shake applications. The appropriate combination will
be dependent upon the actual service conditions. For some of the heaviest-duty floors
adequate serviceability may be achieved either by increasing the structural concrete
grade to up to BS 5328 C60, or by using monolithic toppings or dry shake materials.
Where such an option exists, the relative costs will clearly be a major factor in final
selection. The option of simply increasing the grade of the structural concrete requires
particular consideration of the following factors:
• High cement contents associated with BS 5328 grades C50 to C60 can induce
higher early thermal stresses, creating greater difficulties in control of early
cracking.
• High cement contents may lead to more rapid stiffening of the concrete, causing
difficulties in control of the finishing process, particularly in hot weather.
• Specification of high grades of concrete may impose restrictions on local
aggregate/concrete supply.
Full specification of concrete and aggregate quality, and finishing processes required
for production of concrete wearing surfaces, are given in BS 8204 Part 2
(Bibliography 19). The major specification requirements for providing direct-finished
concrete wearing surfaces suitable for traffic-related service conditions, as defined in
Section 2.2, are summarised in Table 4.1.

118
Table 4.1 Summary of major specification requirements for production of direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces.
Traffic-related service Concrete grade Minimum Aggregate limitations Finishing process

condition (Section 2.2) (N/mm 2 ) cement
(kg/m 3 )
W1 C40 325 Fine aggregate to BS 882 Trowelled twice or early age

Coarse aggregate to BS 882 grinding
or BS 1047
W2 C50 400 Fine aggregate to BS 882 Trowelled at least twice or early

Coarse aggregate to BS 882 age grinding
or BS 1047
W3 C60 475 Natural sand to BS 882 Trowelled at least twice

Grade M
Coarse aggregate to
BS 882 (1)
or C35 300 Fine aggregate to BS 882 Addition of monolithic high-

Coarse aggregate to BS 882 strength concrete topping 12–
or BS 1047 20 mm thick. 10 mm max. agg.
size. Aggregate requirements as for
W3 C60 grade (see Section 4.1.4).
Trowelled at least twice
W4 C40 325 Natural sand to BS 882 Addition of proprietary dry shake

Grade M Coarse aggregate finish comprising selected natural
to BS 882 (1) or metallic aggregates (see Section
4.1.4). Trowelled at least twice
CIRIA Report 184
(1)
Maximum aggregate impact value 25%
Minimum 10% fines value 150 kN
Maximum flakiness index 35

The finishing processes and materials indicated in Table 4.1 cover the full range of
traffic-related service conditions. There are, however, other proprietary materials that
may be utilised during the laying and finishing processes to enhance the quality of the
finished surface. Combinations of micro-silica and superplasticisers in the concrete mix
increase compressive strength and reduce the porosity of the concrete matrix. These
may result in an improvement in impact and abrasion resistance. Steel fibres in the
concrete mix, which may be used for improvement of flexural strength and/or reduction
of slab thickness, may also be beneficial to the surface under conditions of impact and
abrasion. (Plastics fibres incorporated in the mix at proportions appropriate to modify
unhardened properties are unlikely to have a significant effect on abrasion or impact.)
These proprietary materials, while having a potential benefit, will also have a
significant cost implication. Their cost-effectiveness can be judged only on an
individual contract basis.
4.1.4 Finishing processes

Hand trowelling
Following the initial levelling and floating operation, the concrete surface must be left
until bleeding has stopped. Steel trowelling should be started when the concrete surface
begins to stiffen. Two or more passes of the trowel are normally required, with an hour
or more between passes to allow further moisture to evaporate. The repeated action of
the trowel compacts the top surface of the matrix to form a dense and relatively
impervious surface. The timing of the process is crucial, and will vary depending upon
the concrete mix and ambient conditions. Up to 10 or 12 hours may elapse between
placing and final trowelling in some cases. Addition of either cement or water to the
surface to assist trowelling will produce surfaces that may scale, dust, craze or have low
wear resistance. Hand trowelling is a skilled operation, and should only be entrusted to
those with the necessary skills.
Although excellent results can be obtained by hand trowelling, it should not normally
be considered for use on other than small areas of flooring.
Vacuum dewatering
Prior to the start of power floating and power trowelling, there is a need to wait for
bleeding to cease and for the concrete to begin to stiffen. This initial delay, which may
be several hours in cold weather, can be avoided by use of the vacuum dewatering
process (see Fig. 4.2). Immediately after compaction and levelling, the surface of the
concrete is covered by a flexible filter and suction mat, which is connected to a vacuum
generator. An 80–90% vacuum is applied for approximately 3–5 minutes per 25 mm
slab depth. This process removes a proportion of the free water from the concrete,
leaving it stiff enough to commence the power floating/trowelling immediately. Apart
from the time benefit, the reduction in water content can improve strength and wear
resistance of the concrete.
There are some limitations as follows:

• The removal of water can result in a settlement of the concrete, which may be
up to 2 mm for a typical slab depth. Unless allowed for when setting out
formwork and placing, this may result in a gradual change in level between
bays, and a tendency to steps in level at longitudinal joints.

Fig. 4.2 Vacuum dewatering process.

Top – Positioning of filter mat and dewatering mat.
Bottom – Dewatering in progress.

• The capacity of the equipment is limited to a size that suits traditional long-strip
construction in bays of up to 5 or 6 m width.
• The effectiveness of dewatering may be reduced for mixes with a high cement
content.
Power floating and power trowelling
These two terms are commonly confused within the industry. A power trowel is fitted
with steel blades, and simulates hand trowelling to provide a smooth, dense wearing
surface. Power floating is carried out using the same equipment but fitted with a
circular steel pan (see Fig. 4.3), and is used either as a preliminary operation to power
trowelling or to provide a hardened surface suitable for further treatment. It does not
provide a direct wearing surface. (See definitions, Section 1.2.)
Power floating must not be commenced until the surface moisture has evaporated and
the concrete is stiff enough to take the machine weight, otherwise a weak surface and
poor levels may result. The purpose of power floating is to regulate and close the
surface. This may also be achieved in long strip construction by use of a skip float.
Following floating, the concrete is left for a further period of evaporation before power
trowelling is started. Passes of the power trowel are repeated, with time delays between
passes to allow further evaporation and stiffening, and the angle of the trowel blades is
gradually increased until a hard, dense surface is achieved. In wide-bay or large-area
construction multi-headed ride-on trowels may be necessary to ensure that finishing
can keep pace with placement rate (see Fig. 4.4). Regardless of the scale of
operations, it is crucial that the coordination of placement and finishing is kept
strictly under control to prevent the risk of areas of slab not receiving the
appropriate degree of finishing, or to prevent finishing too early or too late.
Experienced programming is essential to maintain adequate control over
placement operations.
To provide a serviceable flooring, technique and timing are critical, and the finishing
operations are best entrusted to a specialist contractor. As with hand trowelling, neither
cement nor water should be added to the surface to assist finishing. Particular problem
areas include.
• Over-run of cement paste onto adjacent completed bays, which may subsequently
delaminate in use. Edge cleanliness during finishing is essential to prevent this
problem, and to avoid loss of levels.
• Power trowelling too early can create a hard skin over concrete which still has a
capacity for bleeding. Bleed water becomes entrapped beneath the skin, causing
blisters on the surface. In the hardened state, the lamination and voidage beneath
the blister can cause failure in service.
• Power trowelling too late can cause smearing of cement paste over the top of
already trowelled surfaces. These thin layers may subsequently delaminate in
service. Late finishing can also result in irregular surface accuracy, with high spots
becoming very polished and dark in colour compared with low spots. This may
adversely affect both accuracy and uniformity of appearance and surface texture.
• Although unlikely to be used for internal flooring, power trowelling of air-
entrained concrete can induce delamination of the dense surface layer.

Fig. 4.3 Power trowel. Photo shows float disc fitted over trowel blades.
Fig. 4.4 Multi-headed ride-on power trowel.

Power grinding
Power grinding may be used to remove the immediate weaker surface of floated
concrete to provide a hard wearing surface suitable for up to medium-duty usage
(Section 2.2 classification W2). The concrete must first be regulated by initial skip float
finishing, while the concrete is still workable, to provide a uniform surface within the
specified accuracy tolerances, and free from sudden irregularities. The grinding process
may not, for example, remove ridges of more than 1 mm left by the float. Dry or wet
grinding processes can be used.
The traditional dry grinding process uses a low-speed machine fitted with carborundum
blocks (see Fig. 4.5). Timing of the operation is dependent upon concrete grade and
ambient conditions, but it must be done when the concrete is strong enough to prevent
fine aggregate from being plucked from the surface. If left too late, grinding becomes
very slow and less effective. Typical timing is between 2 and 7 days after casting. The
process provides a ‘glasspaper’ texture surface, with good slip resistance. Variations in
appearance and texture may occur.
Wet grinding techniques use high-speed grinders, as used for terrazzo flooring, fitted
with silicone carbide or diamond-impregnated heads. These may be used to remove a
similar depth as in dry grinding or, where a decorative effect is required, to grind
deeper to expose the coarse aggregate. Where this ‘terrazzo-like’ appearance is
required, selected aggregates and pigments may be used. Uniformity of appearance is
unlikely to be achieved when using normal structural grade concretes.
Since the surface is to be removed, spray-applied curing materials are inappropriate.

Curing should be by covering with plastics sheet, which must be replaced after
grinding to allow curing to continue for the full period.
Monolithic high-strength concrete toppings
Monolithic construction (i.e. laid while the base concrete is still plastic) is the only
method of construction of concrete topping that eliminates the risk of subsequent
debonding (see Fig. 4.6). The topping acts structurally as part of the base concrete, and
so limitations on bay sizes and the control of cracking are exactly as for the structural
base. The overall thickness of an in-situ structural concrete base or overslab should not
be less than 100 mm where a monolithic topping is used. At reduced slab thicknesses,
the topping may induce curling of the slab.
The materials used in the topping are limited by BS 8204 Part 2 (Bibliography 19), and
should be approximately 1:1:2 proportions by mass of cement : natural sand : coarse
aggregate. Natural sand is specified to avoid the high water contents associated with
the use of crushed rock fines, which may lead to high shrinkage and reduced inherent
durability. Coarse aggregate must be of 10 mm maximum size and of selected quality to
BS 882 (see Table 4.1). Traditionally, granite aggregates are used, although hard
limestones, basalt, and other rock types may be equally suitable. It is essential to resist
the use of the traditional ‘all-in’ crushed rock granolithic aggregates.

Fig. 4.5 Low-speed power grinder.
1 5 ± 5m m hi gh st rengt h concret e t oppi ng,

p l a ced wi t hi n 3hrs of t he base concret e.
100m m
m i ni m um
st ruct ural base

concret e or oversl ab
Fig. 4.6 Monolithic high-strength concrete topping.
The monolithic topping is restricted to a thickness range of 15 ± 5 mm, requiring the

base concrete to be accurately finished to level using a notched beam or vibrating
screed. Placement of the topping mix must then be within a 3 hour period, but should
not be before any bleed water from the base has been removed. The relatively small
quantities of topping mix normally dictate the use of site production. This site-batching
operation must be closely controlled to ensure consistent and adequate quality. A high
level of supervision and coordination is also required to ensure that placement rates of
the two different concretes are commensurate.

The placement, spreading and levelling of the relatively thin topping are a skilled
manual operation, which should normally be entrusted to a specialist contractor with
proven skills and control. Final levelling and compaction should be by use of a
vibrating beam, and the workability of the topping mix should be related to the
efficiency of the compaction equipment. Workability should be as low as possible but
consistent with achieving full compaction and preventing ‘tearing’ under the action of
the compacting/finishing equipment.
Placement of the topping layer, without causing disruption to the base, necessitates
manual spreading, working from a board spanning the bay. This makes the process
unsuitable for wide-bay or large-area construction.
Vacuum dewatering has been used on slabs with a monolithic topping, with some
success. The rate of dewatering may be extended, however, by the higher cement
content of the topping mix.
Following initial levelling, the topping should be finished by hand or power trowelling.
Power grinding techniques are unsuitable.
Dry shake finishes
Special hard natural, metallic or synthetic aggregates may be applied to the plastic
concrete surface to provide an upgrade in resistance to abrasion and impact. The
aggregates are normally pre-blended with cement, and broadcast over the surface soon
after initial compaction at rates in the range l–5 kg/ m 2. Application has traditionally
been manually. Mechanised application is now possible by recently developed
equipment. The aggregates are then compacted in by the following power floating and
trowelling operations. These proprietary systems are highly specialised, and must be
entrusted only to specialist contractors with the necessary skills and proven control
systems.
The grade of base concrete should not normally be less than C40. Below this, the
serviceability may be reduced, particularly with respect to impact resistance. Although
capable of providing suitability for the highest duties (up to W4), these finishes are
increasingly being used for less onerous service conditions. Since they are largely
proprietary materials, confirmation of service limitations must be sought from
manufacturers.
The correct use of dry shake materials can provide a greater uniformity in colour and
appearance than power-trowelled structural concrete. Conversely, incorrect use can
induce serious variations in colour.
Crazing, in the form of very fine closely spaced ‘map pattern’ cracks, can occur in
some cases. These are normally of minimal depth with no adverse effect on
serviceability.

Curing
The correct curing of direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces is of paramount

importance to ensure that the full performance characteristics are achieved. Failure to
cure properly may lead to reduced resistance to abrasion and impact, and may increase
the risk of plastic cracking and dusting of the surface. Curing should commence
immediately after final finishing of the surface, and should continue for at least 7 days.
The method of curing may vary, depending upon the particular method of finishing, on
any limitations on finished appearance, and on any requirements for subsequent surface
hardeners or sealers.
Plastics sheeting laid direct on the surface as soon as the concrete is stiff enough to
resist marking is the most effective method, provided that there are no gaps and the
edges are well held down. Since there is no residue after removal, this method will not
adversely affect any subsequent applications of hardeners or sealers. It may, however,
produce a patchiness in appearance unless it is laid completely flat. Air gaps beneath
wrinkles in the sheet can affect curing to an extent that may give a permanent colour
shade variation. Where uniformity of appearance is crucial, consideration should be
given to the use of a spray-applied curing membrane.
Proprietary spray-on curing agents are normally either a resin in solvent material or a
water-borne material. The resin-based products form a skin over the concrete surface,
and tend to provide a more efficient barrier to moisture loss than the water-based
products. Neither, however, is 100% effective, and in practice their efficiency can be
greatly influenced by the method of application. If they are used, the application
method and, more importantly, the rate of coverage must be as recommended by the
manufacturer for them to have maximum benefit. Unless strictly controlled, these
materials are commonly applied far too sparingly.
The membrane left by the resin-based types is intended to eventually degrade or wear
away. This may take a considerable time, and they should not therefore be used where a
subsequent hardener or sealer application is required. The water-based products are
usually claimed to have no effect on subsequent applications. While this may be the
case, their use can lead to disagreements over compatibility with other materials. As a
general rule, where subsequent applications are required, spray-applied curing
materials should be avoided, unless they are part of a proven proprietary curing/sealing
system.
Proprietary materials are available that combine curing with sealing. These may be a
single application immediately after finishing, or a two-stage application, the second
being applied after hardening. Manufacturers’ recommendations on timing and
application rates must be followed. Confirmation should be sought that the intended
material will not adversely affect slip resistance.
4.1.5 Surface hardeners/sealers/dustproofers
There are a number of proprietary materials available that can be applied to the
hardened concrete surface to induce improvements in hardness/wear resistance, and to
effect sealing and suppress dusting. Used in appropriate circumstances, these materials
can be of benefit, but their effectiveness and limitations must be kept in perspective.
They are not a substitute for achieving good-quality concrete surfaces.
Direct-finished concrete and high-strength concrete toppings, laid, finished and cured
correctly, will provide a hard, durable and reasonably dust-free flooring that, for many
purposes, will require no further treatment. Where total dust suppression and very high

standards of hygiene are required, application of these types of material is unlikely to
provide the correct long-term solution. Where the initial quality of the concrete flooring
is poor, again they are unlikely to provide the correct answer. In situations where some
improvement of a good-quality floor is desirable then they may be of benefit, but they
should not simply be used as a matter of course without due consideration to
effectiveness.
For all types of surface hardener, sealer and dustproofer confirmation should be sought
that the intended material will not adversely affect slip resistance. Health and safety
aspects during and after application must also be checked.
Chemical surface hardeners
Aqueous solutions of sodium silicate, or magnesium or zinc silico-fluoride, are used to

increase wear resistance and prevent dusting. Resistance to mild chemical attack is also
claimed to be improved. These materials are absorbed into the concrete surface,
assisted by added surfactants, and react with the free lime in the concrete to form a
hard crystalline structure within the upper few millimetres of concrete. The floor
surface must be clean and dry at the time of application, requiring a drying period of at
least 14 days after initial curing. Two or three saturation applications by mop, brush or
spray are necessary at 24-hourly intervals, and all excess material must be removed
immediately after treatment to prevent surface disfiguration.
Since the solution must be absorbed into the concrete surface for the reaction to take
place, their effectiveness will clearly be related to the absorption characteristics of the
concrete. Where a dense, low-porosity surface has been produced by power trowelling,
effectiveness will be reduced. They are therefore self-limiting to a certain extent.
Effectiveness on floors finished by early-age grinding is likely to be greater than on
floors with a power-trowelled finish. Use on old, low-cement-content concrete floors is
commonly less effective owing to the loss of free lime by carbonation.
If such hardeners are used correctly, dust suppression can be readily achieved, but is
unlikely to be total. The surface hardening effect can induce improvements in measured
abrasion resistance compared with untreated concrete, in the order of 20% reduction in
the measured value, but are significantly less effective than the resin-based in-surface
seals. Costs of chemical surface hardeners are low.
In-surface sealers
Solutions of resins in solvents are available for providing a similar range of benefits as
chemical surface hardeners. These are normally based on acrylic, epoxy or
polyurethane resins, which polymerise within the top few millimetres of the concrete
surface. They are not therefore dependent upon the free lime content. Again, absorption
into the concrete surface is critical, and effectiveness will be dependent upon the
surface porosity and moisture condition. Some manufacturers have developed systems
with a low molecular size resin to improve absorption into particularly dense surfaces,
such as those produced by power trowelling.
By comparison with chemical surface hardeners, the resin systems are costly. They can,
however, provide reductions of up to 80% in measured abrasion resistance value.
Application is normally by brush or spray, and may require more than one coat. The
surface colour may be slightly darkened by the treatment, and over-application may
impart a slight sheen to the surface.

Surface coatings and paints
There is a wide range of proprietary coating and paint systems that may be applied to
concrete flooring to form an on-surface seal. These are based on a variety of resin types,
may be up to 500 µm thickness, and may be clear or coloured. The major differences
between these products and the in-surface seals and chemical hardeners are that they
are totally reliant on adhesion to the concrete surface, and their thickness will not
provide longer-term resistance to abrasion and impact. Ultimately, they are prone to
gradual erosion, necessitating remedial maintenance. In the short term, they can
provide an effective dust barrier, impermeability and appearance enhancement.
Application is normally by spray, brush or roller, and surface preparation is critical to

ensure good adhesion and prevent flaking. Adhesion may be achieved by mechanical
key and/or penetrating primers, the mechanical key commonly being a light gritblast
treatment. Where these materials are to be used, it is essential that the preparation
required is established prior to concrete finishing to ensure full compatibility.
The use of surface coatings and paints should not generally be adopted, except in very
light usage or infrequently trafficked areas, unless provision is made for frequent
remedial maintenance.
4.2 PREPARATION OF BASES TO RECEIVE FLOORING SYSTEMS
Apart from its structural function, the base must also provide the correct relationship
with the flooring or flooring system to ensure that the designed serviceability is
achieved. It is therefore an essential part of design and construction to ensure that the
preparation of the base provides those attributes required for following construction. In
the case of existing bases, it is essential that a full assessment is made as to its
suitability to receive the subsequent construction. For some existing bases it may not be
possible to adopt the same flooring construction as for new, purpose-built bases. In
these situations modifications to flooring or flooring systems, or limitation of service
conditions, may be necessary.
This section discusses in general terms the various aspects of assessment and
preparation of new and existing bases to receive separating layers, dpm systems,
insulation, screeds, toppings and floorings. Reference should also be made to Section 3,
which identifies the principal properties of the various types of structural base. Detailed
requirements for surface preparation related to specific types of screed or flooring are
given in the appropriate parts of Sections 5–7.
4.2.1 Timber structural bases
The principal factors which must be considered for preparation of timber joist and
board/sheet bases are rigidity, continuity between boards or sheets, and moisture.
Rigidity
Timber bases most commonly, but not exclusively, may require to have flexible
floorings. Where rigid finishes such as ceramic tile or natural stone are required, which
should normally only be for domestic or similar usage, or for composition blocks, the
base must be sufficiently rigid to prevent disruption caused by deflection. BS 5385
Parts 3 and 5 advises that new bases should be designed to be as rigid as possible, and
should be fitted with plain noggings levelled between the joists at 300 mm centres, and

that the surface to receive the tiling should be exterior-grade plywood sheets of
minimum thickness 15 mm screwed to both joists and noggings at 300 mm centres,
with all joints between sheets supported. The underside and edges of sheets must be
sealed against moisture ingress before fixing. For existing bases, modifications should
be made to upgrade the base to the same requirements as for new bases. Ceramic or
stone tiles are fixed direct to the upper untreated surface of the plywood with an
adhesive bed.
Continuity
The surfacing material of the structural timber base must provide adequate continuity
between joints to prevent disruption of the flooring material. For bonded rigid
floorings, such as ceramic or stone tiling, continuity is provided by the fixing of sheets
as described in the previous section ‘Rigidity’. For flexible applied floorings, new
construction should provide continuity, preferably by using glued tongue and groove
joints on timber sheet edges, with joints between sheets staggered. Square or cut edges,
where unavoidable, must be supported by joists or noggings. Sheeting should be fixed

at 200–300 mm along each joint. For existing bases where plain-edged or tongued-and-
grooved floorboards have been nailed to joists, a fabricated underlay is essential for
providing continuity. The underlay should be sheeting of plywood, chipboard or
hardboard, as described in clause 16 of BS 8203 (Bibliography 17). Uneven
floorboarding must be planed or sanded level, or levelled with a smoothing compound
prior to fixing the fabricated underlay.
Moisture
Timber structural bases must be protected from moisture to prevent both excessive
movements and fungal attack. The application of a near-impervious type of flooring
over a timber structural base can increase moisture-related problems by restricting free
evaporation of moisture from below. In new construction, correct design of the base
with regard to damp-proofing and below-floor ventilation will provide adequate
protection. For existing bases, it is essential to check that below-floor ventilation is
adequate, and that effective damp-proof courses are correctly located.
Where there is a risk of water seepage from above, as may be the case in tiled areas
subject to spillage or frequent washing (e.g. kitchens, bathrooms etc.), the timber
boarding or fabricated underlay must be of a moisture-resistant grade.
4.2.2 Concrete structural bases
Unlike timber bases, which have a restricted usage in terms of the types of flooring that
can be applied, concrete bases may be used to receive any of the types of flooring or
flooring system. The required preparation of the concrete substrate will be dependent
upon the type of concrete surface, and on the material that is to be placed immediately
over it. In new construction the concrete grade should not be less than C30, and the
degree of preparation may be minimised by correct selection and specification of the
concrete surface and finishing techniques. For existing concrete bases that have no
overlaid floorings, or which have had existing floorings removed, assessment of the
necessary preparation can be made only by comparison of the existing base surface with
that required for new construction, and appropriate modifications made to the
preparation methods. In some situations it may be desirable to leave an existing
flooring in place, and overlay with the new flooring or flooring system.
In all cases where existing bases are to be refurbished, it is important to consider not
only the suitability of the base surface, but also the complete base construction and its

ability to cope with the new usage. It is also essential to fully assess hazards related to
removal of existing floorings. Particular attention must be paid to:
• Load-bearing capacity, both for any increase in the weight or frequency of traffic,
and with respect to any additional dead load imposed by the new flooring system.
• The influence of increased deflections due to the new usage or flooring system.
• The presence or effectiveness of any damp-proofing system. This may be
particularly pertinent where a permeable flooring is to be replaced with an
impermeable or moisture-sensitive flooring.
• The presence of existing flooring materials that may present health and safety
hazards, such as vinyl/asbestos tiling. Special precautions for removal and disposal
will be required, in compliance with the latest regulations (see Section 11).
• The presence of existing contaminants or poor-quality materials that may
jeopardise serviceability of the new flooring.
• The risk of damage to bases through techniques used to remove or partially remove
existing floorings.
Since older constructions may vary extensively, these considerations can generally only
be assessed on an individual basis. Full investigations will be necessary prior to
formulating full remedial proposals. In some cases, carefully monitored load testing
over a short period can provide useful information relating to load-bearing capacity and
deflections.
The nature of the preparation required for new and existing concrete bases will depend
upon the interface relationship between the base and flooring, and the material that is
in direct contact with the base. These are summarised as:
• unbonded
– separating layers
– sheet dpm
– insulation
• bonded
– liquid-applied dpm
– adhesives
– screeds, toppings, cement/sand beds
For each of these interface relationships or materials the following aspects of the base
finishing or preparation must be considered:
• surface accuracy/texture
• moisture condition
• surface strength/integrity
• contamination
It should be noted that both surface accuracy and moisture condition have been
discussed in Section 3 with regard to their compatibility with flooring system thickness
and effect on moisture-sensitive floorings. For these general aspects, reference should
be made to Section 3, and for more detailed information relating to specific flooring
materials, reference should be made to the appropriate parts of Sections 5–7.

Separating layers
The use of separating layers may be required under screeds, semi-dry beds or
overslabs for provision of independent movement of the flooring system in relation to
the base.
Surface accuracy/texture
To enable this movement to take place freely, it is essential that the base substrate is
smooth enough to prevent physical restraint to movements. Such smoothness is in
addition to level and flatness tolerances that may be imposed for other purposes. For
new in-situ concrete bases the surface should be finished manually by wood float or
skip float, or by power floating. Power trowelling is not necessary. Tamped or heavily
textured surfaces should not be used.
For irregular existing or precast bases, a levelling screed should be installed to provide
a smooth surface to receive the separating layer. Immediately prior to installation of the
separating layer, the base surface must be swept clean of all detritus.
Moisture condition
Provided that the separating layer material used is resistant to moisture, the flooring
system will be independent of the moisture in the base.
Surface strength/integrity
Isolated construction on a separating layer will, within design limitations, act as an

independent flooring, and will be largely unaffected by the surface strength and
integrity of the base. It is nevertheless necessary to investigate and remedy any major
cracked or loose areas in the base prior to laying the separating layer. Particular
attention should be paid to potential movements and deflections at joints in precast
bases, which may reflect through an isolated flooring system.
Contamination
Liquid contamination of the base surface should always be checked to determine

whether the nature of the contaminant may adversely affect the integrity of either the
structural base or the separating layer, and should be removed where necessary. The
longer-term risk of eventual migration to and effect on the flooring material should be
assessed. Physical contaminants, such as plaster or mortar droppings, must be removed.
Sheet damp-proof membranes (dpm)
Proprietary sheet dpm systems may be used beneath screeds, semi-dry beds or
overslabs to prevent water or other liquids from migrating either upwards or
downwards. They may be either loose laid or self-adhered to the substrate, but will in
any case provide unbonded construction of the overlaid flooring system. The
assessment and preparation of bases is the same as for separating layers, but subject to
any other limitations imposed by the manufacturers. In the case of self-adhesive dpm
materials, the use of a primer is normally necessary.

Insulation
Insulation may be required beneath screeds or overslabs for thermal or acoustic

purposes, and may be either a rigid-type board material, such as expanded or extruded
polystyrene, or flexible and/or compressible material such as expanded polyether foam
or mineral wool quilt.
For rigid board materials, the accuracy of the base must be such as to provide
continuous support. Voids left beneath boards may reduce the resistance of overlaid
floorings to impact loadings. In-situ concrete floors finished to normal levels of
accuracy (up to SR3) would not normally require surface preparation, other than
removal of plaster or mortar droppings and sweeping away of detritus. Precast floors
will normally require the application of a levelling screed to provide adequate accuracy.
In domestic or similar applications a thin layer of fine, dry sand may be used for
levelling. Flexible insulation materials will more readily conform to the base surface
profile under the weight of applied screeds, and the accuracy of the base is less
important. However, abrupt steps, such as between precast units, must be eliminated by
localised levelling to prevent possible point contact, which may induce tensile stresses
under load or reduce sound insulation properties. For very uneven floors consideration
must also be given to the possibility of variations resulting in screeds below the
recommended thickness. In such cases it is not usually practical or advisable to remove
high spots from the surface, and they will normally require an increase in finished floor
level, or the use of a modified screed material with a lower minimum thickness.
The surface texture of the base should ideally be a float-type finish. Power trowelling of
in-situ concrete is not warranted. The use of heavy tamped in-situ or heavily textured
precast units should be avoided.
Moisture condition
Polyethylene or similar sheeting is normally interposed between the insulation and the
screed to prevent moisture from being drawn from the screed during laying. The
combined effect of insulation and sheeting negates the need for consideration of
moisture in the base. The moisture condition of the screed must, however, be taken into
account prior to laying of moisture-sensitive floorings.
Floating construction will act as an independent flooring, and will largely be unaffected
by the surface strength and integrity of the base. It is nevertheless necessary to
investigate any major cracked or loose areas in the base prior to laying the insulation
Contamination
Liquid contamination of the base surface should always be checked to determine

whether the nature of the contaminant may adversely affect the integrity of either the
base or the insulating material, and should be removed where necessary. The longer-
term risk of eventual migration to, and effect on, the flooring material should be
assessed.

Liquid-applied damp-proof membrane (dpm)
Proprietary liquid-applied dpm materials may be used on bases either to provide a

barrier to moisture rise in ground-bearing slabs, or to suppress the effect of construction
moisture in the base on applied moisture-sensitive finishes. Where used to prevent
moisture rise, the materials are typically hot- or cold-applied bitumen or pitch-based
products, which will remain relatively soft. Overlaid screeds or overslabs are necessary
but will not generally form a good bond to the treated surface.
Liquid dpm materials may contain substances or give off vapours that may be
hazardous to health. Particular attention must be given to the manufacturer’s
advice on handling, application and ventilation.
Materials used to suppress construction moisture are normally referred to as ‘surface-

applied dpm’ systems, and are commonly of epoxy, epoxy-pitch, or polyurethane resin
formulations. These were generally applied to the surface of screeds prior to the fixing
of moisture-sensitive flooring. They are however increasingly being used direct on

concrete bases, either to receive the flooring material, or to receive a screed.
Preparation of the surface-applied dpm for subsequent bonded layers will be dependent
upon the type of flooring and/or screed to be applied. Advice on appropriate forms of
preparation should be sought from the manufacturer of the dpm and flooring.
Typically, sand or grit blinding may be necessary for screed applications. Primers may
be necessary where levelling or smoothing compounds are to be applied.
The flatness and level accuracy of the base is largely irrelevant to the use of these
materials, although it must be maintained to ensure thickness and accuracy
compatibility with the overlaid flooring system. The surface texture, however, is very
important. To achieve a uniform, complete and effective coating requires the surface
texture to be reasonably smooth and flat. The use of tamped finishes, which are
commonly specified for liquid-applied dpms, can lead to drainage of the material to the
hollows, leaving a minimal coating on the peaks. Subsequent traffic may remove the
coating from the peaks, leaving an imperfect membrane. Where rough or irregular
surfaces are to be coated, an initial application of a water-resistant smoothing or
levelling compound is recommended. In new in-situ concrete construction the slab
should be float finished. Power trowelling is not necessary, and in the case of the
surface-applied dpms may increase the need for surface preparation prior to
application.
For the bitumen- or pitch-based materials a high degree of bond is not usually required
since they form a flexible membrane, and are always covered with a screed or overslab.
Preparation of the floated finish, other than general sweeping, is not normally
necessary, subject to the manufacturer’s recommendations. For the surface-applied dpm
systems, a high degree of bond is essential. Preparation should be subject to the
manufacturer’s recommendations, and will normally be light gritblasting to clean the
surface. In cases where very dense power-trowelled surfaces have been produced, heavy
gritblasting or surface planing may be necessary to provide an improved key. In all
cases, vacuum cleaning is necessary to remove all dust from the prepared surface.
Moisture condition
The moisture condition of the slab at the time of application is important. For the
bitumen or pitch membranes, the concrete surface must be dry. For the surface-applied
dpm systems, again the surface must be dry, but the moisture condition in the slab must

also be known since this will affect the number of coats required for full protection of
moisture-sensitive floorings. Manufacturers’ advice should always be followed. In most
cases one-coat application will be necessary for base moisture condition of up to 80–
85% RH, as measured by the hygrometer test to BS 8203. Above this, two coats may be
necessary. There is therefore a need to monitor the moisture in the base as part of the
preparation process.
The surface strength and integrity of the base may have a significant effect on liquid
dpm systems. Loose areas or cracks that are subject to movements may result in
discontinuities in the membrane, and should be repaired prior to application. Weak,
friable surfaces may not provide a satisfactory bond with the surface-applied systems,
although in new construction this will largely be avoided by the use of the correct
concrete grade, and finishing and curing techniques.
Contamination
The removal of all surface contamination is essential to the performance of liquid-

applied dpm systems. In the case of liquid contaminants that may have been absorbed
into the concrete surface, their nature must be identified and checked for compatibility
with the membrane.
Adhesives
Proprietary adhesives may be used to fix floorings direct to a structural concrete base.
The range of floorings that may be fixed by adhesives includes applied flexible and
rigid tile, and some types of timber-based products. Adhesives vary considerably in
material type, depending upon the flooring to be fixed, and full compliance with the
manufacturer’s recommended preparation procedures is essential.
Adhesives are very thin layers and, perhaps with the exception of thin- or thick-bed
cement or resin-based types (3–6 mm thick) used for fixing rigid tile floorings, permit
no adjustment to surface accuracy during laying of the flooring. It is therefore
necessary that the structural concrete base is finished to the same accuracy tolerances as
required for the finished floor surface. This will normally limit their use to in-situ
concrete bases only, precast bases requiring the addition of a screed. Where in-situ
bases have not been provided with the necessary accuracy, application of levelling or
smoothing compounds, in combination with selective surface removal by grinding,
planing or scabbling may be required (see Sections 5.4 and 5.5).
Achievement of the correct surface texture is essential where adhesive fixing is used.
Irregular or rough textures, such as those produced by tamping, are unsuitable. For
thin- or thick-bed adhesives, the slightly coarse texture produced by floating or early-
age grinding is satisfactory. Power-trowelled surfaces are also adequate, but
unnecessary. For thinner adhesive types, used for fixing thin, flexible floorings, the
same textures are equally suitable, but any imperfections such as slight ridges left by
the float or trowel may show through thinner types of flooring. Early-age grinding is
therefore preferable, although application of a smoothing compound can provide
satisfactory results. Dense power-trowelled surfaces may not provide adequate
absorption characteristics for many of the adhesive types used for fixing flexible sheet
or tile flooring. Where such surfaces exist, a 3-mm-thick smoothing compound should
be used, or an adhesive selected that is suitable for use on low-porosity surfaces.

In all cases it is advisable to obtain agreement of the manufacturer or supplier of the
adhesive on the correct form of surface preparation. In many cases it is beneficial to
exclude any misunderstandings by arranging for the manufacturer to visit the site to
approve the surface preparation.
Moisture condition
Cement-based adhesives, and the flooring materials fixed with them, are normally
permeable and not moisture sensitive. They are therefore not subject to any influence
from residual moisture in the base, although compliance with the recommended six-
week drying period is necessary to allow part of the shrinkage to take place. Other
types of adhesive, notably those used to fix impervious or moisture-sensitive floorings,
may be subject to limitation of the base moisture condition at the time of laying. Advice
on appropriate moisture levels must always be sought from the manufacturers of both
the flooring material and the adhesive. Preparation for these situations will normally
require hygrometer test monitoring of the base (see Sections 3 and 8.1.2). Surface-
applied dpm systems may be used to avoid extended drying times.
Since the adhesives form a fully bonded construction between the base and the flooring,
and such floorings are relatively thin, it is essential that the surface strength and
integrity of the base are satisfactory to ensure long-term adhesion and avoidance of
disruption. Preparation of the base must include repair of any loose areas. Cracking of
the base must be investigated to determine its cause and the likelihood of further
movement. This is particularly pertinent if the flooring is to be rigid, since the bonded
construction may permit reflective cracking. Subject to the findings of the
investigation, cracking should normally be repaired to prevent or limit further
movements. The surface strength provided by a correctly laid, finished and cured
concrete of at least C30 grade will provide an adequate substrate for adhesive fixing.
Existing slab surfaces with weak or friable surfaces should not generally be considered
as suitable for direct adhesive fixing without remedial measures. Remedial techniques
will vary, depending upon individual circumstances, but may include the addition of
unbonded screeds or overslabs, or primer-bonded proprietary thin screeds.
Contamination
Physical surface contamination such as plaster or mortar droppings must be removed

from the surface. Spray-applied curing membranes, notably those based on resins, can
act as a barrier to adhesion, and should not be used unless full compatibility has been
checked with the membrane and adhesive manufacturer, or has been determined by
trial. Where unsuitable types have been used, these must be removed by mechanical
means such as gritblasting or planing, which may lead to the need for a smoothing
compound application to reinstate surface texture. For existing slabs, information
relating to curing methods or materials and surface hardeners or sealers may not be
known, and adhesion trials may be warranted. Other types of surface contaminant,
particularly spilled liquids such as oils, diesel etc., must be checked for potential effect
both on adhesion and on the longer-term risk of incompatibility with the adhesive or
flooring. For example, oils may migrate from the base through the adhesive and cause
staining in PVC floorings. As a general rule, all such surface contamination must be
removed prior to floor laying.

Screeds, toppings, cement/sand beds
Where laid fully bonded onto a concrete structural base, the achievement of full bond is
usually critical to the long-term performance of screeds, toppings and cement/sand
beds. The method of achieving this bond may vary significantly depending upon the
type of material, its thickness, and the base conditions, and for proprietary materials
the method may vary between manufacturers. The information contained in this section
is generalised only, and full references should be made to the appropriate parts of
Sections 5–7, and to manufacturers’ data for proprietary materials.
Some of these floorings or screeds may be laid other than fully bonded direct to the
base, i.e. over a separating layer, dpm or insulation, in which case surface preparation
should be in accordance with the appropriate preceding parts of this section. Some
types of cement/sand screed or bed may be laid ‘partially’ or ‘nominally’ bonded to the
base. This form of construction can impose a limit on service conditions. Details of
such limitations are given in the appropriate parts of Sections 5 and 7.
The surface accuracy of the structural base must be compatible with the thickness
limitations of the overlaid flooring or screed. For thin floorings, such as flow-applied
resins, the accuracy of the base must be the same as that required for the finished floor
for both technical and economic considerations. Bases of precast units are therefore
unlikely to prove satisfactory for direct laying unless provided with an accurately
finished in-situ concrete screed or overslab. Correction of poor accuracy is normally
limited to mechanical removal of high spots by grinding or planing. The use of thin
levelling materials to fill out low spots is not recommended without prior approval
from the manufacturer of the thin flooring system. Normal cement-based smoothing or
levelling compounds may not provide adequate bond or durability for resin flooring.
For thicker toppings, floorings, screeds and beds, some correction of base accuracy will
be possible, but will be limited by any upper and lower limits of thickness for the
applied material, again for both technical and economic considerations. Assessment
and preparation must allow for corrective removal of high spots that infringe the
minimum thickness limitations. Corrective filling of low spots should be avoided
wherever possible, because of problems of feather edging and achieving bond between
the repair and the overlaid material. For normal variations in accuracy, most toppings,
floorings, screeds and beds will tolerate some increase in thickness above the
maximum. Where gross variations exist, remedial methods will be totally dependent
upon individual circumstances.
Where partially or nominally bonded cement/sand screeds or beds are to be laid, it is

common to provide the base with a rough or heavy tamped texture. Production of such
a texture can bring a weak laitance to the surface, which will reduce the chances of
achieving a bond. The resulting detached screed or bed, on subsequent shrinkage, may
suffer increased cracking or curling due to the heavy base texture. Tamped finishes
should be avoided, and floating or early-age grinding used in preference. For light-duty
usage, such as housing, removal of laitance by brushing while the concrete is still
plastic is a satisfactory method of achieving a nominal bond. For all of these cases the
base substrate preparation should include sweeping, dampening down, and applying a
cement slurry before laying the screed or bed.

Fig. 4.7 Mechanical surface preparation.

Top – Scabbler
Middle – Planer/scarifier
Bottom – Captive gritblaster

For fully bonded construction, where achievement and maintenance of maximum bond
are essential to the performance of the flooring, correct surface texture is crucial. For
cement/sand screeds and beds, high-strength concrete and polymer-modified toppings,
and in-situ terrazzo, an exposed aggregate substrate is the optimum, on which the
material is laid after vacuum cleaning, soaking and application of a cement slurry or
polymer-modified bonding agent. This exposed aggregate condition may be achieved
on in-situ concrete by first producing a flat float-type finish, and subsequently
gritblasting, planing, or scabbling after hardening (see Fig. 4.7). Power-trowelled or
tamped finishes increase the difficulty in achieving the correct surface. In the case of
precast unit floors, this type of surface cannot normally be produced, unless applied at
works. On-site gritblasting may be used in conjunction with polymer-modified bonding
agents, but will not normally provide a reliable full bond. Precast beam and block floors
cannot be prepared mechanically, and should be regarded as providing only a partial
bond. For thinner types of flooring or screed, such as resins, flow-applied screeds and
cementitious toppings, the movement stresses imposed by the flooring or screed are less
than those imposed by the thicker types of screed and topping. Although lateral stress
at the interface is reduced, a high degree of bond is still required to ensure adequate
resistance to other stresses imposed in service. The bond with these types of proprietary
materials is normally provided by a primer system that partially penetrates the substrate
surface. The primer may be a separately applied material or, particularly in the case of
resins, the priming action may be provided by the flooring material itself. For priming
to be fully effective, the manufacturer’s recommendations on preparation must be
followed. This will normally require that the surface is very clean, with some degree of
absorbency and a slight texture. For most resins and flow-applied cementitious
toppings, gritblasting will be required to ensure complete cleanliness and correct
surface texture. Flow-applied screeds do not normally require gritblasting unless the
surface is very dense, such as power-trowelled finishes. Finishing of the concrete base
should therefore be by floating. Power trowelling or tamping should be avoided.
Moisture condition
Cement-based screeds of all types are permeable, and are not subject to influence from
residual moisture in the structural base. Compliance with the recommended six-week
drying period of the base is nevertheless necessary for fully bonded construction. They
will not, however, protect an overlaid moisture-sensitive flooring from either their own
moisture or that in the base. Where moisture-sensitive floorings are to be subsequently
applied, bonded construction may extend the overall drying time, or increase the need
to use a surface-applied dpm system.
Some types of resin-based toppings are sensitive to moisture in the structural base, in
terms both of its initial effect on priming and bond efficiency, and its effect on the
longer-term risk of osmosis and vapour pressure causing disruption. Manufacturers’
recommendations on moisture condition must always be sought and adhered to. This
will normally require the substrate to be in a surface-dry condition, with a residual RH
value of 75% or less measured in accordance with the BS 8203 hygrometer method.
Some manufacturers specify other test methods, such as electrical resistivity or
moisture content derived from removed samples. It is important to establish an agreed
test method and regime prior to the start of monitoring on site.
The surface strength and integrity of the base are critical to all bonded construction.
The surface strength provided by a correctly laid, finished and cured C30 grade
concrete will provide an adequate substrate for all types of screed. For cement- and
resin-based toppings higher grades will normally be required, subject to service

conditions. Preparation of the base must include repair of any loose areas to a method
that provides the same quality surface as the parent concrete. Cracking must be
assessed for the likelihood of further movement, and repaired to prevent or restrict such
movement if applicable.
Contamination
Physical contamination on the surface, such as mortar or plaster droppings, must be

removed. The use of spray-applied curing membranes must be given careful
consideration as to their potential effect on subsequent bond. Where mechanical surface
removal is to form part of the preparation procedure, resin-based spray-applied
membranes can be used. Water-based types that impregnate the concrete surface should
only be used subject to confirmation of compatibility. For existing slabs, information
relating to curing methods or the use of surface hardeners or sealers may not be known,
and adhesion trials may be warranted. Assessment and preparation must include
allowance for removal of other types of contaminant such as spilled oils and diesel,
which may adversely affect bond or constitute a risk of incompatibility with the
flooring.
4.2.3 Existing bases or flooring
It is not possible to offer full guidance on preparation procedures to be adopted when

dealing with existing bases or flooring, since the number of combinations of conditions
is almost infinite. In all such situations, unless the recommendations of Section 4.2.2
can be achieved, there may be a risk of unsatisfactory or reduced performance, and it is
recommended that specialist advice is sought to analyse the various options available.
This will invariably involve extensive investigation of the existing floor. Further
guidance on the approach to refurbishment is given in Section 9.3.

5 Screeds
A screed is defined as a layer of well-compacted material applied in-situ to a structural

base, or other substrate, finished to a designated level. It may be needed for a variety of
reasons, including:
• to provide a smooth, flat surface at the correct level to receive a flooring
• to provide a ‘finishing zone’ in which different types of flooring may be
accommodated on a common level structural base
• to provide falls
• to accommodate services
• to cover and protect thermal and sound insulation
• to cover and protect a dpm system
• to accommodate underfloor heating
Although some types of screed may be resistant to direct abrasion, this is not
normally a fundamental requirement of a screed, i.e. it should not be designed to
provide a direct wearing surface.
It is important to recognise differences in terminology that commonly exist both

within the UK and worldwide, and can cause considerable confusion. There is a
tendency for toppings, which do provide a direct wearing surface, to be referred to
as screeds. This is particularly the case in Europe, and it is possible that future
European Standards will adopt the term ‘screed’ to define both screeds and
toppings (but called ‘levelling screed’ and ‘wearing screed"). It is essential,
therefore, that information relating to screeds fully conveys the intended end
usage. In this Guide, the term ‘screed’ does not relate to wearing surfaces.
As well as fulfilling the above functions, the screed must be capable of providing:
• satisfactory strength and integrity for resistance to the service loading and traffic
conditions, in combination with the overlaid flooring, at its designed thickness and
construction method (bonded, unbonded, floating)
• suitability for the designed relationship with the base (bonded, unbonded, floating)
at the intended thickness
• a thickness range compatible with the designed or actual level and flatness
variations in the base
• compatibility with fixing methods and materials of overlaid floorings
• the correct moisture condition at the time of laying moisture-sensitive floorings, or
compatibility with surface-applied dpm systems used to provide a barrier to
moisture
There are several different categories of screeding material, each with its own
individual merits and limitations, including cement/sand, fine concrete, synthetic
anhydrite, lightweight, flow-applied cementitious or anhydrite, and no-fines. There are
also numerous proprietary screeds, modified screeds and screed additives, which can be
beneficial in many circumstances. This section of the Guide gives information on the
correct usage of the various types of screed. Reference is made to other appropriate
authoritative documents, such as British Standards, where these exist. Type of screed
not covered by such documents tend to be proprietary materials, and the guidance

offered should be regarded as typical only. In all cases where proprietary screeds or
additives are used, the manufacturer’s recommendations must be followed.
Historically, screeds have been the source of numerous failures. These have been
largely, but not totally, related to inadequate soundness, cracking and curling of
traditional semi-dry cement/sand screeds. In recent years, and notably in fast-track
construction or where large areas of the same thickness of flooring are required, or in
situations where relatively high traffic loadings exist, there has been a tendency to
move away from the use of screeds in favour of in-situ concrete bases prepared to
receive a flooring direct. Although this can be of significant benefit, and can be wholly
satisfactory, the concept must be carefully designed and executed to avoid the use of
some form of screed completely. The major factors preventing satisfactory results are:
• failure to achieve the necessary surface tolerances
• failure to allow for adequate drying, or protection against moisture from the base,
when moisture-sensitive floorings are used
• specification of, and achievement of, the wrong type of surface texture – typically,
dense power-trowelled finishes being used that can delay drying, and which may
not be compatible with applied adhesives
• inadequate allowance for protection against site traffic and/or contamination
All of these factors may lead to the need for a subsequent application of a smoothing or
levelling material, which in practice is a thin screed. A surface-applied damp-proof
membrane may also be required for moisture-sensitive floorings.
The advent of proprietary flow-applied screeds that can be installed rapidly, late in the
contract, with short drying times, can provide a viable option part-way between
traditional screeding and the ‘no-screed’ concept. Allowance may be necessary,
however, for the use of surface-applied damp-proof membranes, depending upon drying
time available for the structural concrete base. Guidance on the preparation of bases to
receive floorings direct is included in Section 4.2.
Since there are major differences in materials and construction concepts between the
various types of screed, it is necessary to divide this section accordingly. Screeds are
covered in this section as follows.
• 5.1 Cementitious screeds
5.1.1 Cement/sand and fine concrete screeds (including traditional and
modified)
5.1.2 No-fines screeds
• 5.2 Anhydrite screeds (traditional hand-laid)
• 5.3 Flow-applied screeds (cement and anhydrite based)
• 5.4 Smoothing compounds
• 5.5 Levelling compounds
• 5.6 Heated screeds
• 5.7 Bituminous/asphaltic screeds
5.1 CEMENTITIOUS SCREEDS
This group of screeds represents the most widely used and more traditional types of
materials that have attracted so many problems in the past. The reasons for the
problems have normally been associated with combinations of poor workmanship, poor
design, and a general lack of understanding of the materials being used. This situation
has not been helped by the various guidance documents available, which can be
difficult to read, give conflicting advice, and generally fall short of adequately covering

all of the important aspects. The various British Standard Codes of Practice for
floorings currently include separate advice on screeds, related to the type of flooring. In
future revisions it is intended that a single Code of Practice, BS 8204 Part 1, will
provide guidance for design and construction of screeds, and that each of the flooring
Codes will refer to the appropriate type of screed from BS 8204 Part 1. When
completed, these revisions should reduce some of the existing confusion.
To overcome many of the problems associated with the use of traditional cementitious
screeds, it is necessary to improve the knowledge of the materials used and their
limitations. The following general guidelines should always be borne in mind:
• The ‘semi-dry’ or ‘earth-moist’ consistency of the screed mix is necessary to
enable the screed to be finished to the required level of surface accuracy. At this
consistency, good compaction of the mix is critical to ensure adequate soundness,
and this soundness should always be verified by in-situ testing.
• Fine concrete, commonly used for screeds in excess of 50 mm thickness, can ease
compaction and reduce shrinkage potential. Used at semi-dry consistency, only a
small proportion of coarse aggregate can be incorporated in the mix, otherwise a

closed finish will be unattainable. Used as a workable concrete, the achievable
surface accuracy may be adversely affected, usually necessitating subsequent use of
a levelling or smoothing material where thin floorings are to be laid.
• Even with correct specification and the highest standards of workmanship, bonded
screeds cannot be guaranteed to be totally free from some localised debonding.
• Unbonded, floating, and over-thick bonded screeds are prone to curling,
hollowness and cracking.
• Thin flexible floorings or isolated floorings can tolerate a degree of curling,
hollowness and cracking in the screed.
• Traditionally laid screeds in large areas will crack.
• Rigid bonded floorings laid over curled, hollow or cracked screed will be at risk of
damage.
• The risk of failure of the flooring, due to curling, hollowness or cracking of the
screed, increases with increasing traffic loading.
• The use of proprietary screeds or additives may reduce but not totally eliminate the
inherent risks of cracking, debonding, curling and hollowness.
• The use of proprietary screeds, additives and bonding agents is not a substitute for
adequate design and workmanship.
• For no-fines screeds, the relatively thin layer of cement/sand surfacing
(10–20 mm) is the correct design value. Increased thickness is not necessary, and
may jeopardise serviceability.
The following guidance in Section 5.1.1 supplements information contained within

relevant BS Codes of Practice and other authoritative documents, and relates primarily
to non-proprietary materials.
Guidance on the potential benefits of using proprietary modified screeds is given at the
beginning of Section 5.1.1 to allow these benefits to be considered in relation to the
subsequent information on normal screeds.

5.1.1 Cement/sand and fine concrete screeds (including traditional
and modified)
Relevant documents
Document Bibliography Use

BS 8000 Part 9 14 Workmanship
BS 8203 17 Screeds for flexible flooring
BS 8204 Part 1 18 Screeds for rigid in-situ flooring
BS 5385 Part 3 7 Screeds for rigid tiling
BCA 48.046 4 Workmanship
BCA 48.057 5 Testing
BRE IP 11/84 23 Testing
NBS M10 29 Specification
Proprietary modified screeds
Modified screeds of cement/sand or fine concrete may be divided into four basic
categories: water-reduced; polymer-modified; based on special cements; containing
plastic fibres.
Water-reduced
The addition of a water-reducing or plasticising admixture reduces the water content of

the mix, and can give benefits of increased strength and soundness, earlier and
improved resistance to site traffic, reduced drying shrinkage, and a reduced drying-out
period. The admixture may be added to the mix as either a liquid or a powder, and may
be as part of a site-batched or retarded ready-mixed supply. The improved strength,
soundness and resistance to site traffic will only be realised if compaction, finishing
and curing are of a high standard. The reduced shrinkage potential can reduce the risks
of cracking, debonding and curling, as compared with normal screeds. They can
therefore be beneficial in situations where these risks may be high, such as unbonded or
floating screeds, or where over-thick bonded screeds are necessary. The reduced drying
periods will only be realised in situations where the screed is separated from a damp
base, or where the base is already dry. As with normal screeds, the actual drying period
will be significantly affected by ambient conditions after the initial curing period.
Polymer-modified
The addition of synthetic polymers based on polyvinyl acetate (PVA), styrene butadiene
latex (SBR), acrylics, and other co-polymers can provide benefits similar to those given
by the addition of water-reducing admixtures. Polymers can also impart a degree of
resilience that assists in the relief of stresses, and enables screeds to be laid thinner
than normal with a reduced risk of cracking de-bonding. PVA materials are water
sensitive, and should not be used in conditions where permanent dampness is expected.
Polymers are normally used as part of a site-batching operation, although some types
may be suitable for use in retarded ready-mixed supplied screed. The use of polymer-
modified screeds may reduce the need for curing.

Special cements
The use of special cements based on blends of Portland cement, calcium aluminate
cement, powdered polymers and admixtures can provide modified screeds with rapid
setting and rapid drying characteristics. These may be supplied as a bagged cement for
gauging on site with aggregates, or as a pre-blended bagged material requiring only the
addition of water. Typical properties include setting at 3 hours and adequate moisture
condition to receive a moisture-sensitive flooring at 24–48 hours. Construction
thicknesses and types are generally the same as for normal screeds. The rapid setting
properties limit the use to site-batched operations, which must be well organised to
allow for the very limited ‘pot-life’. The rapid-drying properties are independent of
ambient conditions, but the screed must be either isolated from damp bases, or limited
to use on bases that are already dry. Since the majority of the free water within these
types of modified screed remains chemically combined, the drying shrinkage potential
of the material is reduced. They are, however, subject to some risk of cracking and
curling if left exposed to drying for extended periods.
Plastic fibres
Plastic fibres, most commonly based on polypropylene of various lengths and types, are
available for incorporation into screed mixes. Fibre manufacturers and suppliers claim
benefits including improved resistance to shrinkage cracking, equivalence to light steel
mesh without the difficulty of maintaining its position, and improvements in abrasion
and impact resistance. Fibres may be used in site-mixed or ready-mixed screeds, or can
be incorporated in some pre-blended proprietary screed systems. They may be used in
combination with the water-reduced, polymer-modified and special cement screeds
described in the preceding paragraphs. The specifier should be satisfied that the
claimed property improvements from the use of fibres are necessary and, in common
with the other types of proprietary system, be aware that the use of such systems is not
a panacea for poor design or workmanship.
The basis of supply of these various types of modified screed varies between
manufacturers. Some are simply materials that may be purchased and added by any
contractor, some are available only through a ready-mixed supply, and others are
available only through appointed or approved contractors. The degree of warranty and
liability can therefore vary considerably, depending upon the material selected. It is
essential that the designer makes due allowance for any modifications required as
compared with normal screeds, by reference to the material manufacturer’s data.
Design criteria
There are criteria that should be considered at design stage and are critical to
performance of the finished floor, but are commonly overlooked or ignored:
• variations in base accuracy
• relationship with the base
• relationship with the flooring
• service limitations
• moisture condition limitations
Variations in base accuracy
The variation in the thickness of a screed will usually be dependent upon the accuracy
of the structural base. Where base variations are such that minimum or maximum

recommended screed thicknesses are infringed, risks of inadequate screed performance
can arise. The specification of tolerances for the base should therefore be coordinated
with the limitations imposed by the screed. For example, BS 8204 Part 1 recommends a
minimum thickness of 25 mm for bonded screeds, and suggests that screeds thicker
than 40 mm have an increasing risk of debonding. To comply fully with these limits
the nominal screed thickness must be 32.5 mm, and the level of the base must have
maximum tolerances of ±7.5 mm, yet the BS suggests a tolerance of ±15 mm. The
National Building Specification has rationalised these figures and adopted a nominal
screed thickness of 35 mm (min 25 mm, max 45 mm), which requires a base tolerance
of ±10 mm. This approach has been used widely, and works satisfactorily (see Fig. 5.1).
nominal screed
screed min 25mm screed max. 45mm thickness 35mm
±10mm base
t ol erance
b a s e concret e
Fig. 5.1 Bonded cement/sand screed. NBS rationalised design.
Base tolerances are less critical for thicker screeds, but should be limited to avoid the
possibility of infringing minimum recommended thicknesses. For example, the
minimum recommended thickness for an unbonded screed is 50 mm. If the ±15 mm
base tolerance suggested by the BS is adopted, then a nominal screed thickness of
65 mm (min 50 mm, max 80 mm) should be specified.
Where the type of base construction is of limited inherent accuracy, such as may be the
case for suspended slabs with large deflections or cambers or precast units with
cambers, then it may be necessary to select a thicker type of screed construction.
Proprietary screeds or additives can be used to produce thinner construction depths, or

to reduce the shrinkage potential of thicker screeds, and can be beneficial in resolving
the compatibility of thickness limitations/base tolerances.
Relationship with the base
For all types of normal or modified cement/sand or fine concrete screeds, there are four
basic methods of construction (see Fig. 5.2).
• fully bonded
• partially bonded
• unbonded
• floating
(Monolithic construction has been used in the past, but is no longer widely used, and is
therefore not included in this Guide.)

mechanically prepared
base concrete substrate
25–40m m
cem ent / sand
screed on
sl urry grout
base concrete
Fu l l y b o n d e d
cement/sand screed
base concret e prepared by
brushi ng pri or t o hardeni ng
m i n 50m m
cem ent / sand

screed on
sl urry grout
base concret e
P art i al l y bonded
cem ent / sand screed
Dom est i c housi ng onl y
base concrete with floated

finish overlaid with
separating layer or dpm
m i n. 50m m cem ent / sand

or preferabl y fi ne concret e screed
separat i ng l ayer or dpm
rei nforcem ent (i f speci fi ed)

base concentrate
Unbonded cement/sand
or fine concrete screed
D 4 9 or D98 rei nforci ng

m e sh at m i d–dept h of screed
m i ni m um 75m m
(65m m perm i t t ed for dom est i c)
fi ne concret e screed
separat i ng l ayer
i nsul at i on l ayer
base concret e wi t h fl oat ed fi ni sh
base concrete
Floating fine concrete screed
Fig. 5.2 Cement/sand or fine concrete screed construction methods.

• Fully bonded
Fully bonded construction has the least risk of cracking, curling and hollowness, and is
therefore preferable where heavy-duty usage or a rigid flooring is required. The
hardened base concrete must be prepared by mechanical methods to maximise bond.
There is always an attendant risk that the drying shrinkage potential of the screed may
result in subsequent debonding, even with the highest standards of workmanship. The
risk is related to the stresses imposed at the screed/base interface during the drying of
the screed, which increase with increasing screed thickness. Since the degree of bond to
the base is limited, there is a limit in thickness above which failure risks increase. With
normal cement/sand screeds this limit is usually taken as 40 mm, as suggested by
BS 8204 Part 1. The reduced shrinkage potential associated with proprietary modified
screeds or additives can reduce the risk of debonding or allow thicknesses greater than
40 mm to be used. Alternatively, the use of a fine concrete screed, either semi-dry or of
workable concrete consistency, has been specified and used successfully for fully
bonded screeds up to 75 mm thick.
• Partially bonded
Partially bonded construction is permitted by BS 8203 for use where a high degree of
bond is not required, such as in housing. The surface preparation was traditionally
slurry grout bonding direct on a tamped finish base concrete, although BS 8203
recommends removal of surface laitance by brushing prior to hardening of the base.
This method should normally only be considered as suitable in domestic housing where
the flooring is to be flexible sheet such as vinyl or carpet. The minimum thickness is
not given in BS 8203. Since there is a high risk of subsequent debonding, it is strongly
recommended that the screed should be treated as unbonded construction with a
minimum thickness of 50 mm.
Partially bonded construction is commonly used in situations other than domestic

housing. This may arise through preparation cost restrictions or through inability
to prepare precast unit surfaces adequately. Serviceability may be seriously
affected. Screeds less than 50 mm thick can suffer severe detachment, curling and
impact cracking, and should not be used. Partially bonded screeds more than
50 mm thick should be regarded as unbonded, and limited to service conditions
appropriate to unbonded screeds. In this special case, fine concrete mixes are
preferred.
• Unbonded
Unbonded construction is used where a bond to the base is not possible, such as when
the base is contaminated or has an overlaid dpm, or where a separating layer is
interposed to provide isolation of the flooring system from the base (excluding floating
screeds). Unbonded screeds should be of a minimum thickness of 50 mm. Curling and
hollowness are likely to occur with this form of construction at joints, cracks and
perimeters, and unless minimised may adversely affect the serviceability of the screed
and overlaid flooring. The reduced shrinkage potential of fine concrete screed and
proprietary screeds or additives can be beneficial in reducing these risks. Increased
thickness can improve the resistance of curled screed to imposed loads, but can also
increase the degree of curling. Differential curling at cracks or joints under imposed
loading can be damaging to floorings, and can be minimised by the inclusion of steel
fabric reinforcement at mid-depth of the screed. This mesh must be fully continuous
within screed bays and across screed day joints.
• Floating
Floating construction is used where thermal or acoustic insulation is interposed
between the base and the screed. The minimum thickness should be 75 mm, although

65 mm is normally considered satisfactory for domestic housing. This additional
thickness, as compared with unbonded screeds, is necessary to provide the resistance to
applied loadings since the insulation will not provide the same degree of support to the
screed as a rigid base. The risks of curling, and the benefits of fine concrete screed or
proprietary screeds and additives, are as for unbonded screeds.
Traditionally, a light galvanised wire mesh (‘chicken wire’) is incorporated in floating

screeds, normally laid direct on the insulation. This is not likely to provide a significant
improvement in screed serviceability. Where reinforcement is required, as should
normally be the case, it should be a D49 or D98 mesh to BS 4483 positioned at mid-
depth of the screed, and continuous across day joints. This will provide some resistance
to cracking, and continuity at cracks that do occur or at formed joints. Reinforcement
should be omitted only where some risk of disruption of the flooring at cracks or joints
is acceptable. This risk will be highest with rigid-type floorings. Some proprietary and
flow-applied screeds offer considerable benefits, and can be laid thinner with better
compaction.
Relationship with the flooring
Where the flooring is to be bonded to the screed, the potential for screed movements to
adversely affect the flooring should be considered. Cracking and curling of the screed
may result in disruption of some types of flooring.
It is common practice to lay screeds in large areas or long strips, and allow them to
crack as they dry out. The reasoning behind this is that a crack is less likely to show
through a thin flooring than a formed joint. While this may be a valid approach for
some flexible floorings, and is generally supported by BS Codes of Practice, it is too
simplistic in many cases since such cracks tend to remain live unless subject to
remedial works. Such cracks will have a potential for reflecting through rigid floorings,
such as ceramic or stone tiling. They may also develop curling, which if sufficient to
deflect under applied loads may again result in disruption of a rigid flooring. In such
cases it would be better to control movements to predetermined positions in the screed,
by forming day joints or trowel-cut joints, which can be coordinated with movement
joints in the flooring. Even where such joints are provided, there may still be some risk
of random cracking between joints, which may reflect through a rigid flooring, notably
with unbonded or floating screeds. Provision of a D49 or D98 mesh at mid-depth of the
screed in conjunction with coordinated movement joints can minimise the risks of such
random cracking.
Where curling occurs adjacent to cracks in screeds that are to be covered with a flexible
flooring, disruption may still occur despite the flexibility of the flooring. If curling is
severe, which may be the case particularly for unbonded or floating screeds, application
of an impervious sheet flooring, such as vinyl, can promote redistribution of moisture
in the screed, which results in uncurling. The slight closure of the crack or joint can
cause a ripple in the flooring, which will look unsightly and may be subject to rupture
under applied traffic loadings.
In all cases where there is a potential for movements in the screed to disrupt flooring,
forethought is required at design stage either to control the movement to an acceptable
level for the flooring, or to allow the movement to take place randomly, and effect
repairs prior to laying of the flooring.

Summary of base accuracy and relationship with base and flooring
The major design criteria related to base tolerance, screed thickness and
construction methods for cement/sand, fine concrete and no-fines screeds (no-fines
screeds are covered in Section 5.1.2.) have been rationalised and simplified and
presented in Fig. 5.3. Account has been taken of the common requirements to
construct screeds outside BS recommended thicknesses, and of success of past
satisfactory usage. In Fig. 5.3 the thickness ranges shown take into account the
effect of the required base tolerance on either recommended minimum or
maximum screed thickness, and thus indicate the nominal thickness to be
specified. The data in Fig. 5.3 are based on satisfactory application by a large
group of architectural practices over a number of years.
It is increasingly common for very thick screeds to be required, such as in ancillary

areas in buildings where raised access floors are installed. Restrictions are sometimes
placed on loadings from screed. Some designers have adopted the use of cement/sand
screeds laid over side-bedded lightweight concrete blockwork or over polystyrene void
formers. Although this form of construction can be satisfactory, problems may arise
through:
• reflective cracking at blockwork joints
• debonding from the relatively weak block substrate
• cracking and curling of unbonded or detached bonded screeds
If this form of construction is used, it is strongly recommended that the overlaid

cement/sand screed should be designed as unbonded or floating as appropriate, and the
relevant potential shortcomings of unbonded or floating screeds taken into account.
The preferred construction where great thicknesses are required is to use a no-fines
screed (refer to Section 5.1.2).
Service limitations
Normal cement/sand screeds laid well-compacted to a high standard of workmanship

are capable of providing adequate serviceability under a wide range of service
conditions. Suitability for a particular service condition will be primarily dependent
upon the soundness of the screed and on the type, thickness and rigidity of the flooring.
BS Codes of Practice categorise according to measured soundness, and relate these to
types of use. These vary depending upon the type of flooring to be laid, and reference
should be made to the relevant flooring Codes of Practice.
The descriptions given in the Codes are, however, open to interpretation: for example,
BS 8203 suggests that a category A screed is suitable for ‘areas of heavy trucking’.
Experience suggests that if heavy trucking comprises frequent usage by self-
propelled vehicles, such as ‘tugs’ which are increasingly being used in hospital
corridors, serviceability of a category A semi-dry cement/sand screed is of
questionable adequacy. It is recommended that in cases where screeds are
necessary in traffic-related service conditions more severe than P3, as defined in
Section 2.2, fine concrete or proprietary modified screeds should be used in
preference to normal cement/sand screeds. These mixes should be of a higher
workability than semi-dry to ensure that maximum compaction is achieved.
The lower soundness categories B and C, while being suitable for less severe service
conditions than category A, should be treated with caution. Since category A is readily
achievable with good-quality materials and workmanship, specification of lower

Required Nominal Fully Partially Unbonded Floating Comment
base screed bonded bonded
tolerance thickness
mm mm
Floating screeds show

200 thickness of screed
only. Insulation
190 thickness must be
added.
180
170
160
± 15 150
140 No - fines screeds

thickness includes
130 nominal 13mm
cement / sand surfacing
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
± 10 } NO BS screed at
50 } 40-50mm. Use
} proprietary
} screed
40
} Proprietary
30 } screed up
} to 35mm.
}
20 }
}
± 5 10 }
- Optimum thickness
- Can be used but may be uneconomical

or technically undesirable in some circumstance
Fig. 5.3 Relationship between base tolerance, screed thickness, screed type and
construction type for cementitious screeds.

categories can imply a reduction in standards of materials and workmanship. There is
some technical merit in aiming higher than is actually necessary in practice.
The serviceability of a screed may also be limited by its relationship with the base, and
by its thickness. Screeds laid unbonded or floating, or bonded screeds that have
subsequently debonded, can suffer from curling. The slight gap that develops beneath
curled screed will permit vertical deflection under applied loads. If deflection is
sufficiently large, or if the loading is high or of an impact nature, then fracture and
general disruption of the screed may take place. In such cases the inherent strength and
thickness of screed play an increasing role in serviceability. Where curling is
anticipated, resistance to applied loadings may be improved by:
• increased screed thickness
• use of fine concrete screed
• use of proprietary modified screed
The use of reinforcement will not significantly contribute to the reduction of this
vertical deflection of curled screed.
Where service conditions are such that the risks associated with curling cannot be
accepted, a concrete overslab of at least 100 mm thickness should be used instead of a
screed. This should be designed as a new floor.
Moisture condition limitations
For screeds that are to receive moisture-sensitive floorings or adhesives, achievement of

satisfactory moisture condition within the programme time should be considered at
design stage. (Also refer to Sections 3 and 4.) The rate of drying of cement/sand and
fine concrete screeds is dependent upon:
• ambient conditions of temperature, relative humidity (RH), ventilation
• thickness of screed
• type and thickness of base, if screed is not isolated from it
• finish of screed surface
BS 8203 suggests that for thicknesses up to 50 mm a rate of 1 day per mm should be

allowed, followed by an increasing time per mm for greater thicknesses. In practice
these values should be regarded as the best possible under ideal drying conditions of
low RH, good ventilation and reasonable temperature, and where the screed is isolated
from the structural base. Significantly longer times will prevail in typical site-drying
conditions, or where the screed is not isolated from a damp concrete base. In situations
where achievement of adequate moisture condition in the screed is unlikely within the
programme time, the designer may opt for the following actions, either separately or in
combination:
• Isolate the screed from the base by interposing a dpm or polyethylene sheet
separating layer.
• Use a proprietary modified faster-drying screed, either on a dry base or isolated
from a damp base.
• Use a proprietary surface-applied dpm on top of the screed.
• Use a proprietary bonding/dpm system at the screed/base interface.
• Use dehumidification equipment.
Refer to Section 3 for further guidance on the use and limitations of rapid-drying
screeds and surface-applied dpm systems.

Checks on specification and site work
Control of operations on site is crucial to ensure that the screed as laid is of the
designed quality and attributes. Construction of screeds should be entrusted to a
specialist contractor with the necessary skills and proven controls. Even where such
specialist contractors are employed, experience suggests that there is usually a need for
a high degree of supervision and inspection by the main contractor. To ensure adequate
supervision, familiarisation with the specification, Codes of Practice, and acceptable
workmanship standards are essential. The following information in this section on site
work summarises the major areas in which supervision and control are critical, and
gives details of the various requirements.
Specification
Check the suitability of the screed specification against the BS Code of Practice
requirements, and against the information given in this Guide. Where differences exist,
seek specialist advice.
Remember that partially bonded, unbonded, floating or over-thick bonded screeds may
crack and/or curl, and lead to a risk of failure under heavy traffic conditions or a risk of
failure of rigid floorings. Ensure that the soundness category specified is suitable for
the intended traffic-related service conditions and flooring type.
Structural base
Check that the levels of the base are suitable for achieving the specified minimum,
maximum and/or nominal screed thickness. Check that any services to be incorporated
in the screed are correctly detailed and positioned so as to minimise subsequent
disruption of the screed (refer to Section 3). The minimum thickness of normal
cement/sand or fine concrete screed over services should be 25 mm, and it should
normally include a layer of BS 4483 D49 or D98 reinforcing mesh at mid-screed depth
to limit cracking risks.
Base preparation
Check that the required surface preparation is carried out (refer to Section 4.2.2).
For isolated, i.e. unbonded or floating, screeds, the base should be reasonably flat and
smooth, and swept clean prior to laying insulation, dpm or separating layers.
For fully bonded screeds, the concrete base should be prepared by scabbling, grit
blasting or planing to produce an exposed aggregate finish. Where the base is a thin
in-situ topping over precast units, or is prestressed planks, grit blasting should be used.
Before applying the bonding grout, the base surface should be thoroughly cleaned of
dust and detritus by vacuum-cleaning equipment, and should be soaked with clean
water for several hours. The bonding grout should be a Portland cement/water mixture
of thick creamy consistency, thoroughly scrubbed into the base surface, and covered
with screed within 15–20 minutes. The common practices of sprinkling dry cement
onto a dampened surface, or using an extremely wet grout, are unsatisfactory.
The use of proprietary bonding agents should be to the manufacturer’s recommended

procedures, but it is not a substitute for the good preparation procedures described
above.

For partially bonded screeds, in-situ concrete bases should be swept with a stiff broom
prior to hardening to remove surface laitance. At the time of screeding, this type of
surface will have accumulated dirt. Thorough removal of such dirt is essential prior to
final surface preparation, and may require mechanical wire brushing. Soaking and
grouting procedures should be the same as for fully bonded construction.
For partially bonded screeds on in-situ concrete that has not been swept with a stiff
broom prior to hardening, or on precast floors that are not prepared, thorough cleaning,
soaking and grouting are still necessary. Serviceability may be affected (refer to Design
criteria – partially bonded).
Screed mixes
Check that the screed mix and raw materials are correct. For normal cement/sand and
fine concrete, materials should be:
• Portland cement to BS 12 (other types are permitted by Codes of Practice, but are
rarely used)
• sand complying with grading limit C or preferably M of BS 882, with not more
than 10% passing 150 mm sieve
• 10 mm single-sized coarse aggregate complying with BS 882

• water of potable quality
Mix proportions should normally be selected by the screeding contractor to provide

compliance with the soundness category specified, but should be within the range
1:3–l:4.5 cement : sand by mass for normal cement/sand screeds, or 1:4–l:5 cement :
total aggregate by mass for fine concrete screeds. (For fine concrete of
semi-dry consistency, the coarse aggregate should form 10–25% of the total aggregate
to maintain ease of finishing. For plastic-consistency fine concrete, the coarse
aggregate should form 50–60% of the total aggregate.)
The use of natural sand with an even grading is preferred. The use of single-size finely
graded sand, fine bricklaying sands, crushed rock fines, and sea-dredged sand with a
high proportion of flat shell should be avoided. Sand should be inspected and tested
regularly to ensure satisfactory and consistent quality.
The grading and particle shape of 10 mm single-size aggregate used in semi-dry fine
concrete can have a significant effect on the finishing properties of the screed. Trials
are normally necessary to determine the optimum proportion. In some cases, the use of
a 6 mm or 8 mm single-size coarse aggregate in lieu of 10 mm may be necessary to
retain finishing properties.
Where proprietary screeds are used, manufacturers’ advice on materials and mixes
should be followed.
Batching and mixing
Weight batching is inherently more accurate than volume batching, and is preferable.
The sand moisture content should be tested regularly and adjustments made to batch
weights. Batching of cement by whole bags is preferable. If volume batching is used,
gauge boxes should be used, and regular sand bulking tests made to adjust for the effect
of moisture in the sand. Batching by the shovel-full should not be permitted.

Forced action trough and paddle or pan mixers, or purpose-made screed mixer/pump
units must be used. Hand-mixing or tilting drum free-fall mixers cannot reliably
provide adequate or consistent distribution of cement in the mix, and should never be
used.
Where mixer/pump units are used, or where pre-mixed screed is to be placed through a
pump, suitability of the screed mix for pumping should be checked. Pumpability can be
affected by aggregate grading, cement content, and water contents. Commonly, mixes
at the higher cement content of the mix proportion range (i.e. 1:3) are difficult to
pump. Unauthorised changes in mix proportions or aggregate quality to achieve
pumpability should not be permitted, unless it has been proven that there is no adverse
effect on finished quality.
Ready-mixed screeds normally incorporate a set-retarding admixture, permitting use up

to 8 hours after delivery. Quality consistency is normally better than that of site-
produced screeds, and their use should be encouraged where economics and quantities
permit. Ready-mixed screed should be supplied in accordance with BS 4721 : 1981.
Specification for ready-mixed building mortars. Proof of compliance with BS 4721

should be sought from the supplier. Some proprietary modified screeds, incorporating
polymers and/or water-reducing admixtures, are available through ready-mixed supply.
Check that the workability of the screed is correct. For semi-dry screeds, this is judged
by the ‘snowball’ test (see Fig. 5.4). Squeeze a handful of the screed mix in a gloved
hand. At the correct workability, water should not be squeezed out but the mix should
be moist enough to hold the ball together when released. Over-wet mixes will promote
shrinkage problems and may result in greater deviations from flatness in the finished
screed. Very dry mixes can result in poor compaction and inadequate soundness.
Laying and compacting
The screed mix must be spread over the base with a 10–20 mm surcharge, while any
bonding slurry grout used is still wet (within 15–20 minutes), and thoroughly
consolidated until maximum compaction and the correct level are achieved. Particular
attention must be paid to bay edges and corners. Good compaction can be readily
achieved by using a hand-rammer or roller (see Fig. 5.5). Simple screeding-off with the
straightedge may not give adequate compaction. Thicknesses in excess of 50–60 mm
should be compacted in two separate layers. The time delay between layers should be
minimal, and the surface of the first should be lightly raked before placing the second
layer to prevent the risk of delamination. Where reinforcement is to be included, two-
layer work will be necessary. Reinforcement should normally be positioned at
approximately mid-depth.
To achieve the surface flatness tolerances, the width of screed bay should normally be
limited to 4–5 m maximum. This may be either by the use of timber battens set
accurately to level, or by the use of ‘wet levels’.
Where ‘wet-levels’ are used (ribbons of screed laid to finished level to act as level
devices) it is essential that they are fully compacted and formed with fresh screed mix.
Where they are used to form a day joint, they must be trowel-cut back to a clean
vertical edge before hardening. Failure to do this can promote poor serviceability of the
joint (see Fig. 5.6).
Check that the layout of screed bays and joints is consistent with the requirement for
coordinating either with movement joints in the structural base or with movement joint
positions in rigid floorings such as ceramic or stone tiling. In the latter case, joints in

Fig. 5.4 ‘Snowball’ test for cement/sand screed workability.

Top – Too dry
Middle – Too wet
Bottom – Correct.

Fig. 5.5 Cement/sand screed compaction.

Top – Roller
Bottom – Hand rammer.

adjacent screed laid ensure thorough
before hardening of compaction wet–level
wet–level.
Use of wet–levels.
Adjacent screed to be
laid before hardening
of wet–level.
trim back to
wet–level vertical edge
Wet–levels must be trimmed
back to vertical fully
compacted edge prior to
hardening if it is to be used
to form a day joint
reduced compaction risk of disruption

on joint line
Failure to trim back at
day joint can lead to
poor compaction, and
subsequent disruption
adjacent to day joint.
Fig. 5.6 Use of ‘wet-levels’.

the screed may be either trowel-cut as screeding progresses, or saw-cut after hardening
of the screed. Where sawing is used, excessive delays before sawing may give rise to
random cracking of the screed, which may reflect through the flooring. For reinforced
screeds, these ‘stress relieving joints’ in the screed should be cut to the steel depth only,
unless complete isolation is required between flooring bays.
Finishing
Check that the finishing technique is correct. Wood floating followed by steel
trowelling can normally produce a smooth surface suitable for direct fixing of thin
flexible finishes such as vinyls. With some coarsely graded sands, a closed surface may
not be achievable. In these cases, the use of a subsequent application of a smoothing
compound may be necessary. The slight texture produced by wood floating is normally
satisfactory for all other types of flooring.
Curing
Curing is essential to prevent premature drying, which can give a weak surface and can
exacerbate shrinkage-induced problems. Close covering with polyethylene sheet as
soon as possible after laying is the only satisfactory method. (Spray-applied curing
membranes should not be used, since they may adversely affect adhesion of overlaid
flooring.) The polyethylene sheet should be kept in position for a minimum of 7 days.
The duration of curing of proprietary modified screeds may be less than 7 days,
depending upon type. Curing or extended curing of some polymer-modified screeds
may be detrimental to quality. Manufacturers’ advice should be followed.
In cold weather, screeds must not be laid on freezing surfaces and, if there is a risk of
frost after laying, should be protected with insulating quilts for 2–3 days.
After curing, screeds should be allowed to dry out slowly. The use of dehumidifiers,
which may be necessary to reduce screeds to a suitable moisture condition for laying
moisture-sensitive floorings, can promote unnecessary cracking, debonding and curling
of immature screeds.
Protection
Since screeds do not provide a wearing surface, protection against site traffic will
normally be required to prevent excessive abrasion. The extent of protection necessary
will depend largely upon the particular site conditions, but normally at least the most
vulnerable areas such as doorways or corridors should be protected. A variety of sheet
protection materials may be used, including hardboard, corrugated plastics, and
reinforced paper. Whichever material is used, consideration must be given to safety
aspects relating to slipping, trip hazard, and flammability.
The application of protection can reduce the drying rate of screeds. Where moisture-
sensitive floorings are to be laid, consideration should be given to the likely effect of
protection on delays in application of floorings.
Where protection is not used, allowance should be made for the subsequent repair of
damaged screed surfaces with smoothing or levelling compounds.
The costs of providing protection or of subsequent use of repair materials can be

significant, and commonly causes considerable argument over liability. It is advisable
to define liabilities accurately prior to the start of work on site.

Testing (see also Section 8)
Check completed screed surfaces with a straightedge to confirm compliance with the
specified tolerances.
Check bonded and unbonded screeds for soundness using the BRE screed tester, 14
days after laying, by the test method defined in BS 8204 Part 1. (Earlier tests may be
appropriate for proprietary screeds.) At least three tests per 20–25 m², plus additional
tests in high-traffic areas such as doorways. Test corridors at 3–5 m intervals. Check
for compliance with the specified soundness category. If the test results are marginal,
test on a closer grid basis (l–2 m). Reject, cut out and replace unsound screed, or seek
specialist advice on alternative remedial methods and materials, e.g. resin
impregnation treatment.
Check floating screeds for compliance by cutting out samples for assessment of
compaction, mix uniformity, and mix proportions. Analysed mix proportions should be
between 1:3 and 1:6 cement : sand by mass for individual results, and between 1:3 and
1:4.5 on average.
During the production of this Guide, a modified BRE screed test has been proposed by
the BRE for assessment of floating screeds (see Section 8.1.2).
Where moisture-sensitive floorings are to be laid, check the moisture condition of the
screed in accordance with the method given in BS 8203 Appendix A1, or other method
as stipulated by the specification or the flooring material manufacturer.
Periodically check screeds for debonding, cracking, curling and lipping as they
continue drying. Cracking may adversely affect rigid floorings. Lipping, curling and
debonding at cracks or joints may adversely affect all types of flooring and screed
serviceability, depending upon the severity and the type of traffic. If such defects give
rise to a risk of disruption of the flooring or jeopardise the serviceability of the screed,
remedial works will be required. While removal and replacement of affected areas can
be effective, it may not always be the best solution for the following reasons:
• Cutting-out operations may extend the defective area.
• Surface preparation techniques such as scabbling may not be as easily carried out
in smaller replacement areas.
• The replacement areas may further extend drying programmes, unless rapid-drying
proprietary screeds are used.
• Replacement may introduce more joints, all of which may have the potential for
further defects.
Provided that the screed is well compacted and of adequate soundness, specialist repair
techniques such as resin injection to re-bond or to fill gaps beneath curled screed can
frequently be used economically to reinstate serviceability.
5.1.2 No-fines screeds
No-fines screed is defined as a screed comprising a mixture of lightweight aggregate

and cement. Dense aggregates can be used in no-fines concrete, but are not normally
used in producing floor screeds. The use of a coarse aggregate of 6–10 mm nominal
size with cement and no fine aggregate produces an open-textured ‘basecoat’ material
that is lighter in weight and has improved thermal insulating properties as compared
with normal cement/sand screed. The density of the no-fines material depends upon the
type of aggregate and the mix proportions, and is normally within the range 800–1200

kg/m 3. The most commonly used aggregates are sintered pelletised pulverised fuel ash,
expanded clay and foamed slag. (Other types of lightweight screed, as used on roofs
and formed from foamed cement/sand, vermiculite and ultra-lightweight aggregates,
are not generally suitable for use on floors because of their lower strength.)
No-fines basecoat cannot be finished to a closed surface. A surfacing mix of

cement/sand is applied to the no-fines basecoat to provide a flat, smooth surface to
receive the flooring. This surfacing is normally a nominal 13 mm thickness (see Fig.
5.7). At this thickness, stresses imposed by drying of the surfacing can be restrained by
the basecoat. Increased surfacing thickness can result in cracking and debonding of the
surfacing, unless it is of a water-reduced proprietary material.
nom i nal 13m m

cem ent / sand
surfaci ng m i x,
l ai d aft er 24hrs
no fi nes
basecoat m i x
base concret e
Fig. 5.7 No-fines lightweight aggregate screed.
The low density of no-fines screed makes it particularly suitable in situations where
deadloads are restricted or where weight savings are required. It is particularly suitable
where very thick screeds are required, such as is common for ancillary areas such as lift
lobbies, and toilets in buildings where raised access floors are installed.
Although the thermal insulation properties of no-fines screed are three to four times
better than those of ordinary cement/sand, this is normally insufficient to construct a
thermally insulated floor without the use of an additional insulating material. This
aspect is therefore not commonly exploited. The thermal efficiency is, however,
sufficient to prevent its effective use to form heated screeds.
Relevant documents

Although BS Codes of Practice do not exclude screeds made with lightweight

aggregate, no recommendations are given on their use. It is therefore necessary to make
full use of manufacturers’ recommendations. The following information in this section
on no-fines screeds is outline data on general principles.
Design criteria
The design considerations are largely similar to those for cement/sand or fine concrete
screeds.

The base accuracy tolerances must be coordinated with the screed thickness. Refer to
the base tolerance/screed thickness relationship indicated in Fig. 5.3.
No-fines screeds may be of bonded, unbonded or floating construction.

• Bonded construction is necessary for all screeds with a basecoat thickness of less
than 50 mm (63 mm including cement/sand surfacing). The minimum thickness
should be 25 mm (38 mm with surfacing). The degree of potential bond to the
substrate is limited, since only point contact is achieved between the base and
individual aggregate particles. This is offset, however, by the lower net shrinkage
potential of the no-fines mix as compared with normal cement/sand. It is normal
practice for surface preparation to only include cleaning, soaking and grouting, but
this rarely results in subsequent debonding and curling, even in screeds in excess
of 50 mm thickness. (Mechanical surface preparation, such as wire
brushing/gritblasting, is generally only used where contamination or excessive
laitance is present.) There is no intermediate classification of ‘partially bonded
construction’ for this type of screed. For thicknesses in excess of 75 mm, full
bonding may not be warranted, and unbonded construction may be used.
• Unbonded construction is used where a bond to the base is not possible, such as
where the base is contaminated or has an overlaid dpm, or where a separating layer
is interposed to provide isolation of the flooring system from the base. The
minimum basecoat thickness should be 50 mm (63 mm including surfacing).
The reduced shrinkage potential of the no-fines reduces the risk of cracking and
curling that is normally associated with unbonded screeds, thereby reducing the
risk of disruption of applied floorings.
• Floating construction is used where sound or thermal insulation is interposed
between the base and the screed. The minimum thicknesses are as for unbonded
construction, but the mix is normally strengthened by use of a higher cement
content mix. Reinforcement is normally incorporated. Manufacturers of the
lightweight aggregates commonly recommend that reinforcement should be a
galvanised wire mesh (‘chicken wire’) installed directly over the insulation. A
technically better solution would be to install a BS 4483 D49 or D98 mesh at mid-
depth of the no-fines basecoat.
Where the flooring is to be fixed to the screed, the potential for screed movements to
adversely affect the flooring should be considered. The no-fines basecoat has a lower
tendency to cracking and curling than normal cement/sand screeds. The cement/sand
surfacing does, however, normally develop some cracking through shrinkage stresses.
These will be random in nature, unless controlled. Manufacturers normally recommend
control of such cracking by knifing through with a trowel during screed laying to
divide it into bays of approximately 20 m2. In practice, these joints are commonly sawn
after hardening. Where the flooring is to be a rigid material such as ceramic stone
tiling, the small degree of potential continued movement at these joints may lead to
reflective cracking. Coordination of screed joints with movement joints in the flooring
is recommended.
Curling at cracks or joints in no-fines screeds is rare, and when it does occur is of an
extent that is unlikely to disrupt overlaid flooring.

Significant curling can occur, however, if the cement/sand surfacing mix has been
specified or laid too thick. In such cases the risk to the flooring will be the same as for
curled ordinary screeds.
Service limitations
Since no-fines screeds are not specifically incorporated into BS Codes of Practice, there
is little guidance on their service limitations other than that offered by manufacturers.
If well constructed, experience suggests that they are capable of providing serviceability
equivalent to that of normal cement/sand screeds for traffic-related service condition up
to P3 as defined in Section 2.2. Above this, resistance to traffic loading will be largely
dependent upon the inherent strength of the lightweight aggregate used and the mix
proportions of the basecoat, and manufacturers’ advice or evidence of past usage should
be sought.
The reduced risk of significant debonding and curling, as compared with normal
cement/sand screeds, can reduce the risk of disruption of overlaid flooring and can
therefore provide improved serviceability.
Limitations on moisture condition where a moisture-sensitive flooring is to be laid are

the same as for normal cement/sand screeds as outlined in Section 5.1.1.
No-fines screeds can provide an increase in the rate of drying. This is related to the free
passage of air through the basecoat, and is commonly estimated to reduce the time by
approximately one third for the equivalent cement/sand screed thickness.
The general aspects of control and supervision are identical to those for cement/sand
screeds, as outlined in Section 5.1.1. The following information summarises the major
areas in which supervision and control are critical, and gives details of the various
requirements.
Specification
Check the suitability of the screed specification against the recommendations of the
screed manufacturer, and against the information given in this Guide. Where
differences exist, seek specialist advice.
Ensure that the cement/sand surfacing has been specified to the correct thickness. This
should normally be a nominal 13 mm. Greater thicknesses can impair serviceability.
Where the surfacing is to be a proprietary water-reduced or modified cement/sand,
greater thicknesses may be specified, but may not be warranted.
Check that the mix proportions for the basecoat are as recommended by the
manufacturer for the service conditions.
Structural base
maximum and/or nominal screed thickness. Note that these thicknesses may apply to
the base coat only, and additional allowance should be made for the cement/sand
surfacing.

Check that the minimum thickness of basecoat over any services is at least 25 mm
(38 mm with surfacing).
Base preparation
For bonded screeds, the base concrete should be thoroughly cleaned of all dust and
detritus, preferably by vacuum, soaked for several hours with clean water, and coated
with a bonding grout of Portland cement/water mixed to a thick creamy consistency. If
the base is contaminated with hardened deposits such as plaster droppings, mechanical
wire brushing or a light gritblast may be required. Screed should be placed within
15–20 minutes of grouting. The use of proprietary bonding agents should be to the
manufacturer’s recommended procedures.
For isolated, unbonded or floating screeds, the base should be reasonably flat and
smooth, and should be swept clean prior to laying insulation, dpm or separating layers.
Screed mixes
Check that the screed mixes and raw materials for both the basecoat and surfacing are
correct to the manufacturer’s recommendations. For the surfacing mix, this will
normally be:
1:4.0 by mass Portland cement: Sand complying with BS882 grade M.
Richer mixes may induce shrinkage problems, and should not be used.
No-fines basecoat mixes vary, depending upon the type of lightweight aggregate and
the service conditions. Typical proportions for a 6 mm sintered pelletised pulverised
fuel ash aggregate are:
Proportion by Application Approximate

volume cement : dry density
aggregate (kg/m3)
1 : 10 bonded/unbended 1040
1: 8 floating 1100
1: 6 high strength 1160
Batching and mixing
Batching and mixing of the surfacing mix is the same as for normal cement/sand
screed (refer to Section 5.1.1).
Materials for the basecoat may be batched either by weight, or by volume using gauge
boxes, and should be mechanically mixed in a forced action mixer. Free-fall type
mixers (tilting drum) can provide adequate mixing if used with care but must not be
used for mixing the cement/sand surfacing mix. No-fines mixes can also be supplied
ready-mixed, although careful control is essential to ensure correct consistency and to
avoid segregation of grout in the delivery truck.
It is essential that the water content of the basecoat mix is closely controlled to provide
the correct mix consistency (see Fig. 5.8). This is achieved when each aggregate
CIRIA Repot 184 163

Fig. 5.8 Consistency of no-fines basecoat mix.

Top – Too dry
Middle – Too wet
Bottom – Correct (just glistening).

particle is evenly coated with cement grout and has a ‘glistening’ appearance. In this
condition the finished screed will have adequate bond between particles. Too much
water will cause grout to segregate and drain, too little will not allow particles to stick
together, and both may produce weak mixes.
No-fines basecoat mixes can be pumped using a purpose-built screed pump unit.
The no-fines basecoat should be laid in large areas or long strips, and does not require
joints other than those needed to facilitate construction. Because of the nature of the
fresh material, where day joints are required shuttering is necessary to retain the
screed. This should be set accurately to the finished screed level.
After surface preparation, and within 20 minutes of grouting of the base for bonded
construction, the basecoat should be spread, levelled and tamped to a nominal 13 mm
below finished screed level. Powered or heavy compaction should not be used, since
this may fracture aggregate particles. After final levelling, the basecoat should be
protected from excessive drying by covering with polyethylene sheet, and should be
protected from disturbance by traffic.
After 18–24 hours the cement/sand surfacing should be laid, spread and levelled to a
surcharge, and tamped to full compaction prior to ruling to finished level and floating
or trowelling.
During placement of the surfacing the basecoat will be relatively weak and prone to
disturbance of the top layer of aggregate particles under foot trafficking. Loose particles
can detract from bond of the surfacing. Care must be exercised during placement to
prevent loosening.
Time delays in excess of 24 hours between laying of basecoat and surfacing are not
recommended. If this is unavoidable, the basecoat surface should be grouted prior to
laying the surfacing. Extended delays can also result in increased disturbance and
loosening of the basecoat surface. This should always be remedied prior to surfacing
with cement/sand.
For floorings such as ceramic or stone tiling, which may be fixed with a semi-dry
cement/sand bed, it is feasible to fix these direct to the no-fines basecoat, utilising the
surfacing mix as the bed. Although feasible, it is rarely favoured by tiling contractors
since problems can arise through setting-out accuracy, and through loosening of the
basecoat surface due to the need to traffic the basecoat heavily during tiling. The most
commonly adopted solution is to adhesive fix tiling to the hardened screed surfacing.
Finishing
Check that the finishing technique is correct. This should be as for normal cement/sand
screeds (refer to Section 5.1.1).
To reduce the risk of random fine cracking in the cement/sand surfacing, check that the
appropriate stress relief joints are incorporated by trowel cutting through the surfacing
mix during finishing. These should divide the area into 20 m2 bays, or be at
approximately 5 m centres in long strips of screed. Where the flooring is to be rigid,
these stress relief joints should be coordinated with joints in the flooring, and may be
sawn after hardening. These stress relief joints need only be to the depth of the
surfacing mix.

Curing and protection
The requirements for curing and protection of no-fines screed are the same as for
normal cement/sand screeds. (Refer to Section 5.1.1).
Check completed screeds with a straightedge to confirm compliance with the specified
tolerances.
Unlike normal cement/sand screeds, there is no recognised test method for determining
soundness. The BRE screed test, as described in BS 8204 Part 1, has been used on
no-fines screeds to a limited extent, and has demonstrated that satisfactory test results
equivalent to Category A, B and C can be achieved. Failure to achieve such results,
however, does not necessarily indicate inadequate quality since the honeycombed
nature of the base may result in ‘punching through’ of the surfacing mix. It is
recommended that the BRE test should only be used for this type of screed by a
specialist, and test results treated with caution.
screed in accordance with the method given in BS 8203 Appendix Al, or other method
as stipulated by the specification or the flooring material manufacturer.
Periodically check screeds for cracking, delamination and curling of the cement/sand
surfacing as they continue drying. These defects are most likely where the surfacing is
over-thick or where the time delay between basecoat and surfacing was excessive.
Cracking and delamination may adversely affect rigid floorings. Lipping, curling and
delamination at cracks or joints may adversely affect all types of flooring, and
serviceability of the screed, depending upon the type and severity of traffic. If such
defects give rise to a risk of disruption of the flooring or jeopardise serviceability of the
screed, remedial works will be required. Because of the nature of the basecoat,
specialist repair techniques such as resin injection to reinstate bond or fill gaps beneath
curled areas are inappropriate. Cutting out and replacement of the cement/sand
surfacing is normally the only option. This will usually disrupt the basecoat, and result
in a repair depth in excess of the nominal 13 mm depth. Use of a water-reduced or
polymer-modified repair material is advisable to offset the shrinkage potential of the
increased depth.
5.2 ANHYDRITE SCREEDS (TRADITIONAL HAND-LAID)
Synthetic anhydrite is a by-product of the chemical industry. When processed it forms a

binder, similar in nature to gypsum, which can be used in combination with aggregates
and admixtures to produce a dense screed material. Anhydrite has been used in the UK
and Europe for over 30 years as a traditional hand-laid screed system, and in more
recent years has been developed as a flow-applied screed system (refer to Section 5.3).
This section deals with the use of traditional systems, although the material properties
and limitations given equally apply to anhydrite base flow-applied systems.
The inherent properties of anhydrite screeds vary from those of cement-based screeds to
an extent that significantly changes construction parameters. The major factors are:
• negligible drying shrinkage (typically 0.001%)

• lower free-water content (most of the water remains chemically combined)
• greater density

• subject to degradation in the presence of permanent moisture
• low coefficient of thermal movement
The most significant of these factors is the low drying shrinkage, which enables
construction of screeds in large areas without stress relief joints, and which will have a
low incidence of either cracking or curling. In the absence of curling, in combination
with the dense nature, unbonded or floating screeds can be laid relatively thin. Since
shrinkage stresses are low, bonded construction is not generally necessary, thereby
avoiding costly surface preparation techniques. Indeed, full isolation is normally
adopted, and is necessary where the structural base may be subject to permanent
dampness. Isolation from the base is also advantageous for drying times where
moisture-sensitive floorings are to be overlaid. The drying time for the screed alone is
potentially less than for normal cement/sand of equivalent thickness, but is similarly
affected by ambient conditions of temperature, relative humidity and ventilation.
The ability to lay screeds in large areas with little risk of cracking or curling, in
combination with a relatively low thermal expansion coefficient, makes the use of
anhydrite particularly suitable for construction of heated screeds.
Although anhydrite screeds may be used to receive the same types of flooring as
applied to cement-based screeds, it should be borne in mind that compatibility cannot
be automatically assumed. For example, application of cement-based adhesives or
smoothing compounds on anhydrite may require the use of special primers.
Manufacturers’ advice should always be sought.
Synthetic anhydrite screeds are normally supplied and laid through specialist
contractors, and advice on specification and on application should always be confirmed
with suppliers. They are not currently covered by BS Codes of Practice, but are
included in the National Building Specification. The German DIN Standard for floor
screeds includes the use of anhydrite. It is anticipated that a Code of Practice on
anhydrite screeds will be issued through European Standards in due course.
The following information summarises typical current recommendations.
Relevant documents

NBS Ml3 29 Specification
DIN 18560 26 Construction
Design criteria
The base accuracy tolerances must be coordinated with the screed thickness. Since the
minimum thicknesses recommended are normally in the range 25–40 mm, tolerances
in the base should be minimised to prevent either the risk of reducing the screed below
the recommended thickness, or of unnecessary use of over-thick screed. It is
recommended that for practical design purposes, the tolerances of the base should be
limited to ± 10 mm. This would require average screed thicknesses to be 10 mm greater
than the recommended minimum thickness.

Anhydrite screeds may be of either unbonded or floating construction. Where the

structural base is a ground-bearing concrete slab, it should have an effective dpm. If
this is not present, the anhydrite screed should be laid over a 1200 gauge polyethylene
sheet with taped joints to provide a dpm. In all other cases the screed should be laid on
a 250 gauge polyethylene sheet separating layer, laid directly over the structural base,
dpm, or insulation.
Although the screed is fully isolated from the structural base, and is relatively free from
significant movement stresses, the risk of cracking may still arise through movements
in the base. Movement joints in the base should be reflected through the screed.
Consideration should also be given to incorporation of joints in the screed over points
of rigidity in suspended slabs that are subject to significant deflection.
The minimum screed thickness, after allowing for variations in the structural base, is
dependent upon the type of base and its inherent rigidity or stability, or on the presence
of insulation, and should normally be:

• 25 mm – over all concrete bases, except as noted below
• 40 mm – over concrete bases constructed of precast plank or beam and block
– over rigid timber structural base
– over sound or thermal insulation
– for heated screeds
• 20 mm – over conduits or pipes
• 35 mm – over conduits or pipes, with insulation beneath screed
Since the screed is relatively free from the risk of cracking or curling, the risk of
movements’ inducing disruption of the flooring is low. Nevertheless, some small
degree of movement is inevitable at day joints, which may reflect through a rigid finish.
Reinforcing mesh cannot be used to control such movements since there is a risk of
corrosion of embedded metals. Where day joints are necessary, they should be
positioned to coincide with joints in the flooring.
The fixing of floorings to the screed surface will normally be with some form of
adhesive, or primer. Compatibility of these materials with anhydrite must be checked.
Service limitations
Since anhydrite screeds are not specifically included in BS Codes of Practice, there is
little current UK guidance on their service limitations, other than that offered by
manufacturers. Reference to the German DIN Standard, and evidence of past usage in
the UK, suggests that equivalence to normal cement-based screeds is attainable.
Technically, the denser nature and the relative freedom from shrinkage-induced
problems suggests that performance may be potentially superior to that of cement-based
screeds.
For design purposes, anhydrite screeds should be limited to traffic-related service

conditions up to P3, as defined in Section 2.2, unless manufacturers confirm otherwise.
The risks associated with permanent moisture from ground-bearing slabs have been
discussed earlier in this section. Where the screed is to be used in areas where wet

conditions prevail, such as showers or toilets, a totally impervious flooring must be
applied to protect the screed.
Limitations on moisture condition where a moisture-sensitive flooring is to be laid are

as for cement-based screeds, as outlined in Section 5.1.l.
The isolated construction and the chemical combination of the majority of the mix
water can reduce the potential drying time, as compared with equivalent cement-based
screeds.
The general aspects of control and supervision are similar to those for cement/sand
screeds, as outlined in Section 5.1.1. Since the materials are proprietary and laid by
specialist contractors, good communication between specifier, contractor and specialist

contractor is essential. It is recommended that the supplier should provide a
comprehensive method statement covering all aspects of quality control of materials,
production and workmanship. The following information summarises the major areas
in which supervision and control are critical, and gives details of the various
requirements.
Specification
Check the suitability of the screed specification against the recommendations of the
manufacturer, with particular regard to screed thickness for the type of base
construction, and for compatibility with the intended overlaid flooring.
Structural base
maximum and/or nominal screed thicknesses. Check that the installation of services
within the screed depth does not impinge on the recommended minimum thickness
over services.
Base preparation
Ensure that concrete bases in contact with the ground are protected by an effective
dpm, or that provision is made for a 1200 gauge polyethylene sheet isolating
membrane/dpm beneath the screed. Check that the base is swept clean of all dust and
detritus before installing insulation/separating layers/sheet dpm. Ensure that any
embedded metals are protected from corrosion by a suitable paint system.
Screed mixes
Raw materials quality and screed mix proportions are normally determined by the
supplier/specialist contractor to provide satisfactory finished screed quality.
Confirmation should be sought of compliance of raw materials and mixes with the
method statement.
Typical materials, mix proportions and properties are:

Synthetic anhydrite 1.00 parts by volume
BS 882 Grade C-M sand 2.50 parts by volume
Activator plus water
Compressive strength 18 N/mm 2 at 28 days
Flexural strength 4 N/mm 2 at 28 days
Density 2000–2400 kg/ m 3
Batching and mixing
Check that the batching and mixing procedures adopted are as declared in the method
statement. Batching should be either by volume, using gauge boxes, or by weight.
Materials should be mixed in a forced-action paddle mixer.
Check that the procedures used are as declared in the method statement. Placement,
spreading, compacting and levelling techniques are normally the same as for cement-
based screeds. The slightly wetter-consistency mix normally enables adequate

compaction by hand-tamping/screeding techniques.
Finishing
The coarse-graded sand that is traditionally used in the screed mix produces an open-
textured surface when floated or trowelled. To provide the closed finish necessary for
most floorings, it is common and acceptable practice to lay a finishing coat of neat
anhydrite shortly after initial levelling. Final finishing should be by steel trowel.
Check that the screed is close-covered with polyethylene sheet for the first 48 hours
after laying. Restrict traffic for the same period. Thereafter, screeds may be uncovered
and subjected to controlled drying.
Provide protection against site traffic as for normal cement/sand screeds (refer to
Section 5.1.1).
tolerances.
Although not specifically developed for this type of screed, the BRE screed tester, as
described in BS 8204, may be used to assess the soundness of non-floating construction
screeds. It is suggested that the sampling plan and compliance criteria , as used for
cement/sand screeds, are equally applicable to anhydrite screeds. Reject, cut out and
replace any unsound areas of screed.
screed in accordance with the method given in BS 8203 Appendix A1, or other method
as stipulated by the specification or flooring manufacturer.

5.3 FLOW-APPLIED SCREEDS (CEMENT AND ANHYDRITE
BASED)
Flow-applied screeds, also commonly referred to as flowing screeds, have been in use
for some years within Europe, notably in Scandinavia, Germany and the Netherlands,
where they have largely replaced traditional screeding methods and materials. Since
introduction into the UK in the late 1980s, usage has been limited but successful.
The screed materials are based on either special cementitious or synthetic anhydrite *
binders, blended with selected aggregates, fillers, polymers and admixtures, which
when mixed with water produce a workability of flowing consistency with self-levelling
and self-smoothing properties. At this consistency, the screed can be either pumped or
manually poured onto the substrate, and levelled with minimum effort, enabling large
areas to be screeded in relatively short periods (see Fig. 5.9). Areas in excess of
1000 m 2 per day are achievable. Material costs are high by comparison with traditional
screeds, but easier placement and reduced thickness can largely offset these costs. All
of these materials are proprietary systems, but the method of supply may vary. Some
materials are simply available through builders’ merchants. Most are available only via
approved or licensed applicators. Some manufacturers also have their own application
service. Whichever method of supply is adopted, it is essential that skilled applicators
of proven ability are employed to ensure satisfactory results.
*Note: During the production of this Guide, a proprietary flow-applied alpha

hemi-hydrate-based screed has been introduced in the UK. Both synthetic
anhydrite and alpha hemi-hydrate produce a floor screed composed of gypsum.
Construction methods, drying times and service applications for both materials
are similar. Comparative thicknesses vary slightly. Subject to confirmation from
manufacturers, where unbonded synthetic anhydrite screed is indicated in this
Guide, alpha hemi-hydrate screed may be considered as suitable.
The cementitious-based flow-applied screeds are all pre-blended bagged materials

requiring only the addition of a controlled quantity of water on site. The synthetic
anhydrite-based flow-applied screeds may either be pre-blended bagged products, or in
some cases may be supplied via a ready-mix plant, where the screed is batched from the
raw materials under the control of the screeding contractor.
The method of production on site varies depending upon the scale of the contract.
Where floor areas are small, screed may be mixed in a drum using an electric drill and
paddle. For large areas, purpose-built mixer pump units are normally used. Where
screed quantities are large, some manufacturers/applicators can supply through either
static or truck-mounted silo/mixer/pump units.
The nature of the material and the method of application can provide significant
benefits to several aspects of construction and serviceability as follows:
• Flowing consistency ensures full compaction, and reduces the risk of inadequate
soundness.
• Reduced thickness reduces weight and storey height.
• Reduced thickness reduces drying time (provided base is dry).
• Increased application rate can reduce programme time, and net costs.
• Application at a later stage in construction can reduce protection requirement.
• Ease of application reduces strain on labour force.
• Speed of application can minimise disruption, particularly in operational
buildings.

Fig. 5.9 Flow-applied screed.

Top – Small mixer/pump unit
Bottom – Screed placement.

Since the flow-applied screed concept is based on significantly different thicknesses,
and application times and rates, as compared with traditional screeding, these benefits
will not be fully realised unless the concept is fully taken into account at design stage.
It is also essential that the concept is fully coordinated within the construction stages.
Allowance should be made for relatively large areas of floor to be available to the
specialist contractor, usually at a later stage in the programme. Inclusion of flow-
applied screeds into existing contracts based on traditional screeding is not normally
economically viable. Services cannot be incorporated within the screed thickness,
except in the case of the thicker anhydrite systems.
As they are proprietary systems, it is essential that advice is sought from

manufacturers/suppliers/specialist applicators early in the design process to ensure that
the optimum material or system is selected. There are different design thicknesses,
which are dependent upon material type, manufacturer and the type of flooring system
required.
Anhydrite-based flow-applied screeds are normally laid over a separating layer and are
subject to the same minimum thicknesses as for traditional anhydrite screeds (see
Section 5.2). Some manufacturers, however, permit bonded construction of anhydrite
on concrete bases suitably protected against moisture at thicknesses down to 15 mm.
Cementitious-based flow-applied screeds are normally laid bonded to a concrete base at

thicknesses in the range 4–20 mm. At the higher end of this range, and at greater
thicknesses, two-layer construction may be used, the lower layer being formed of a
lower-grade material. Some manufacturers produce screeds, usually with added fibre
reinforcement, that can be used at thicknesses of 20–30 mm for floating screeds on
insulation, or at reduced thicknesses over timber bases or existing floorings. Rapid
setting/drying cementitious-based screeds are also available that, subject to satisfactory
moisture condition in the base, may be overlaid with moisture-sensitive floorings
within 24 hours.
As flow-applied screeds have been largely developed in and imported from Europe,
recommendations for their usage and testing are not yet covered within BS Codes of
Practice. Confirmation of suitability is therefore currently reliant on the manufacturer’s
certification, which is based on the test methods used in the country of origin. These
commonly include compressive and tensile strength, and an assessment of abrasion
resistance by castor wheels. In all cases, it is advisable to ensure that the manufacture
or production of the material is subject to an approved quality control system. In cases
where further confirmation of suitability is considered necessary, evidence of past
satisfactory usage should be sought.
Relevant documents
Refer to manufacturers’ data.
Design criteria
The coordination of base accuracy tolerances with screed thickness is critical for the
thinner construction depth of flow-applied screeds. Advice should always be sought
from the manufacturer on the minimum and maximum thickness requirements of the
product. Usage at below the minimum thickness may adversely affect the flowing and
levelling properties. Usage above the maximum thickness, apart from increasing

material costs, may also increase the stresses within the screed to a level that cannot be
restrained by the interface bond.
With the exception of unbonded anhydrite screeds, which are laid at normal
thicknesses, it will usually be necessary to achieve a base accuracy of ±5 mm or better
to optimise usage of a typical cementitious-based screed. Alternatively, where such
accuracy is unachievable or cost prohibitive, use of the thicker anhydrite system or of a
two-layer cementitious system may be appropriate.
For unbonded anhydrite flow-applied screeds, relationship with the base will be the
same as for traditional anhydrite (see Section 5.2). For bonded anhydrite, the base must
not be subject to permanent dampness.
Bonded flow-applied screeds, by virtue of their relative thinness and slight flexibility,
relieve their own stresses, generally without either significant cracking or debonding.
They will, however, transmit any movement at cracks or joints in the structural base
through the screed. Such movement may adversely affect some types of overlaid
flooring. Attention should therefore be given to the design of the structural base and its
potential effect on the flooring.
For unbonded anhydrite flow-applied screeds, the relationship with the flooring will be
the same as for traditional anhydrite (see Section 5.2).
For all anhydrite-based screeds, compatibility with adhesives or primers used to fix
floorings should be confirmed.
Bonded flow-applied screeds will not isolate the flooring from movements in the
structural base. For rigid floorings such as ceramic or stone tiling, consideration should
be given to coordination of joints between the structural base and the flooring.
Flow-applied screeds are suitable to receive most types of applied flexible, rigid tile or
timber-based floorings, subject to confirmation with the screed and flooring
manufacturers. In-situ resin floorings or coatings can be applied to some of these types
of screed, but problems can arise through compatibility of materials and difficulties in
achieving bond with the dense screed surface. Manufacturers of both screed and resins
must be consulted.
Service limitations
Guidance on service limitations is currently limited to that given by manufacturers, and

to evidence of past usage. Equivalence to normal cement/sand screeds is readily
achievable. Technically, the denser nature and the relative freedom from shrinkage-
induced problems suggest that performance may be potentially superior to that of
normal cement/sand screeds.
For design purposes, flow-applied screeds should be considered as suitable for traffic-
related service conditions of up to P3 as defined in Section 2.2, unless manufacturers
advise otherwise.

Where anhydrite-based flow-applied screed is to be used in areas where wet conditions
prevail, such as showers or toilets, a totally impervious flooring must be applied to
protect the screed.
In some types of building, such as hospitals or laboratories, concern over the potential
for bacteriological growth has lead to a restriction in the use of flooring materials
containing protein, casein or latex. Some of the flow-applied cementitious screeds may
contain such materials. Confirmation should be sought from the manufacturer.
Limitation on the moisture condition of the screed where a moisture-sensitive flooring

is to be laid are the same as for normal screeds as outlined in Section 5.1.1.
Isolated anhydrite-based screeds are independent of moisture in the base, and may be
expected to have a short drying time. Bonded flow-applied screeds, although relatively
thin and with a potentially short drying time, are not independent from moisture in the
base. If the base has not reached adequate moisture condition to receive a moisture-
sensitive flooring, application of a bonded screed will not provide an effective moisture-
resistant barrier. It may also delay drying of the base. Where the construction
programme is such that adequate drying of the structural base is unlikely, provision
should be made for the use of a surface-applied damp-proof membrane (see Section 3).
Since the materials are proprietary and would normally be laid by a specialist
contractor it is recommended that a comprehensive method statement should be
provided by the specialist covering all aspects of quality control, production and
workmanship.
The rapid laying process normally requires relatively large areas of unobstructed floor
to be made available to the specialist contractor for a period of 3–4 days for preparation
and laying. Failure to comply with these requirements will increase application times,
and can significantly increase costs. Good coordination and communication are
essential.
The following information summarises areas in which supervision and control are
essential, and outlines typical requirements.
Specification
Ensure that the method statement, specification and manufacturer’s recommendations

are all compatible, with particular regard to screed thickness/base tolerance
relationship, and to suitability for the intended overlaid flooring.
Structural base
Check that the levels of the base are suitable for the required screed thickness
limitations.
Base preparation

For unbonded anhydrite screeds, the base should be reasonably flat and smooth, and
swept clean prior to laying the separating layer.
For bonded flow-applied screeds, the base should be prepared in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations. This will typically include thorough removal of all
dust and detritus by brushing and vacuum cleaner, although gritblasting may be
necessary for some situations. Bonding primer is then applied by brush, roller or spray,
and allowed to dry before screeding. After priming, access must be restricted to prevent
contamination. During the preparation process, it is essential that all holes and gaps
are filled to prevent unwanted ingress of flowing screed.
Screed mixes
Screed mixes are determined by the manufacturer/specialist contractor, and are

normally pre-blended bagged materials. Anhydrites may be batched off site from raw
materials and delivered to site ready mixed. Check that the type or grade of mix is in
accordance with the specification and/or method statement. Some pre-bagged materials
have a limited shelf life, typically 3 months, beyond which properties can be
significantly affected. Check that the materials in use are within the shelf-life.
Batching and mixing
Check that the batching and mixing procedures comply with the method statement.
For mixes batched off site and supplied ready-mixed, the supplier should confirm
quality by sampling for workability and strength testing.
For pre-bagged materials mixed in a drum with an electric drill and paddle (batch
mixing), calibrated containers should be used for water to ensure that the water content
is maintained within the manufacturer’s stated limits. Where continuous mixing is
used through either a mixer/pump unit or silo/mixer/pump unit, the water supply
should be controlled to maintain the workability within the manufacturer’s stated
limits. Samples should be taken for workability testing.
Laying
Laying techniques may vary depending upon material and specialist contractor. Level
control may be achieved either by working to pre-positioned nails or pads fixed to the
base, or by laser levelling. Placing and spreading either by pump or by pouring from a
mixing drum relies mainly on the flowing and self-levelling properties of the screed,
but may be assisted by a variety of tools.
When laid in room-size areas, placement is normally continuous, working to a

‘live-edge’. In larger areas, screed is normally laid in strips separated by foam edge
forms fixed to the base. These are removed after initial stiffening of the mix, and prior
to placing adjacent screed.
Finishing
The requirement for finishing is largely dependent upon the material used. Some
require no finishing at all, relying totally on the self-levelling and smoothing
properties. Some require a degree of agitation or smoothing of the surface with
purpose-made hand-operated tools.

Some of the anhydrite screeds require a final finishing after hardening with a powered
sanding machine to remove the thin layer of laitance that forms on the surface.
Curing is not normally necessary for flow-applied screeds, although manufacturers’

recommendations on ambient conditions during and after placement should be
followed. These are typically a minimum temperature of 5 °C and freedom from
draughts.
Most types of cementitious flow-applied screed can be subjected to light foot traffic
within 24 hours or less. Manufacturers’ recommendations should be followed. Where
screeds are to be subject to subsequent site traffic, protection should be provided as for
normal cement/sand screeds.
Tests should normally be carried out by the specialist contractor during screed
production to verify workability/flowing characteristics. The test method may vary
between manufacturers, but normally comprises filling a circular mould on a base plate
with the mix, removing the mould, and measuring the spread of the material. Results
should be compared with manufacturers’ data.
Where anhydrite screed is produced off site from raw materials, consistency of quality
should be proven by the supplier by taking samples for compressive strength testing.
Results of tests should be compared with manufacturers’ data.
tolerances.
screed in accordance with the method given in BS 8203 Appendix 1, or other method
as stipulated by the specification or flooring manufacturer.
5.4 SMOOTHING COMPOUNDS
A smoothing compound is defined as a semi-liquid material applied to a substrate and

intended to provide a smooth surface when set. They are also commonly referred to as
smoothing underlayments.
Smoothing compounds are traditionally used by flooring contractors to smooth the

surface of rough, open-textured, damaged or worn surfaces of screed or concrete. either
locally or as an overall application, prior to laying of flexible floorings such as vinyl or
carpet. Thickness may vary from a feather-edge up to 4–5 mm. Smoothing compounds
cannot be used to rectify surface weakness or friability of substrates. They are also
commonly used at a nominal thickness of approximately 3 mm to provide the necessary
absorbency for flooring adhesives on otherwise impervious substrates such as asphalt,
power-trowelled concrete or surface-applied dpm systems. They cannot generally be
used to make significant adjustments to the achieved level or flatness tolerances in the
structural base. Some products, however, may be filled with aggregate, or built up in
layers, to provide levelling capabilities. (Refer to Section 5.5 levelling compounds.)
Smoothing compounds are proprietary products and may be of two main types:

• Powder/water mixes are a bagged pre-blended mixture of cementitious binder,
aggregates, fillers, and additives such as spray-dried PVA and casein, and require
only the addition of water on site. They are easy to apply, and have good
workability and flow, which imparts a ‘self-smoothing’ property that reduces the
need for trowelling. Priming of the substrate is normally required to provide
adhesion and to prevent air bubble formation.
• Powder/liquid mixes are a bagged pre-blended mixture of cementitious binder,
aggregates and fillers, which must be mixed with a liquid component, usually of
either a natural latex or synthetic emulsion such as acrylic. Self-smoothing
properties are not generally equivalent to those of powder/water mix products,
increasing the need for trowelling. Priming of the substrate is not necessary for
some types of powder/liquid mix.
A third, less common type of smoothing compound is based on synthetic anhydrite, and
is specifically for use over anhydrite-based screeds.
There are a wide range of proprietary smoothing materials available with equally wide
variations in basic properties such as minimum and maximum thickness limitations,
ease of finishing, and hardness or resistance to indentation. Guidance on suitability for
any particular usage should be sought from manufacturers. Many flooring contractors
tend to use one particular product range, either for practical or economic purposes,
which can lead to the use of inappropriate materials, or not the best-suited material.
Limitations of materials offered should always be checked.
Relevant documents
Refer to manufacturers’ data
Design criteria
Smoothing compounds are designed to provide thin, relatively uniform surfacing over a
substrate, and cannot generally be used to rectify base accuracy variations. Accuracy
achieved in the substrate must be that required for the finished flooring.
A high degree of bond to the substrate is critical to ensure adequate performance of the
applied flooring. The substrate must be sound, and should be prepared in accordance
with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Use of smoothing compounds in excess of
the recommended thickness may result in delamination from the substrate.
Smoothing compounds, used at the correct design thickness, will generally relieve their
own stresses without cracking or debonding. They will, however, transmit any
movement at cracks or joints in the structural base or screed. Attention should be given,
therefore, to the design of the structural base or screed, and the potential effects of
movement on the flooring.
Not all smoothing compounds are suitable for use on substrates other than concrete or
cementitious screeds. For other substrates, such as asphalt, timber, anhydrite, or
existing floorings, manufacturers’ advice should be sought.

Smoothing compounds are normally used only where the flooring is to be a thin
flexible type, such as vinyl or carpet. Compatibility between the smoothing compound
and any flooring adhesive should be checked.
For thin floorings, such as 2–3 mm vinyl sheet, the use of a smoothing compound may
not necessarily guarantee freedom from visible irregularities in the finished surface,
particularly where the flooring is polished, or viewed in a shallow angle of lighting.
Grinding or stoning of the smoothing compound may reduce irregularities to within
acceptable levels in some cases. Where appearance is critical, trial areas are advisable.
Alternatively, a thicker type of flooring can be used to reduce the potential for visible
irregularities.
Service limitations
Depending upon the mix formulation, smoothing compounds may be either relatively
soft and resilient, or relatively hard. The selection of the correct material is critical to
the performance of the flooring. Where indentation is expected, such as may arise from
stiletto heels, a hard underlayment will be required. In areas frequently used by hard-
wheeled trolleys, the material must retain its inherent strength to prevent disruption or
delamination of the flooring. This may require either a hard material or a higher-
strength but resilient product. In all cases where other than light pedestrian traffic is
anticipated (P1 as defined in Section 2.2), suitability should be checked with the
manufacturer.
Smoothing compounds should normally be laid shortly before application of the

flooring (1–7 days). Resistance to abrasion from site traffic will be limited. Where
extended periods of site trafficking are anticipated, protection should be provided or a
harder type of compound used.
In some types of building, such as hospitals or laboratories, concern over the potential
for bacteriological growth has led to a restriction in the use of flooring containing
protein, casein or latex. Some smoothing compounds may contain such materials.
Confirmation of suitability should be sought from the manufacturer.
None of the smoothing compound types provide a damp-proofing function:
Powder/water mixes are generally not resistant to long-term moisture, and should be
installed only in floors that are suitably protected from groundwater. Powder/liquid
mixes, notably those based on latex, can be resistant to long-term moisture. Where
smoothing compound application is required prior to the application of a surface-
applied dpm system, a moisture-resistant type should be used.
The drying time of smoothing compounds is relatively short, normally permitting

laying of the flooring after a few hours to a few days, depending upon the mix type and
thickness. They will not, however, provide a barrier to moisture in the structural base.
Where moisture-sensitive floorings are to be laid, the base should be allowed to dry to
the required moisture condition (normally 75 % RH as given in BS 8203) prior to laying
the smoothing compound.

The following information summarises areas in which site supervision and control are
Specification
For the smoothing compound specified or selected, check the manufacturer’s data to
ensure that it is fully compatible with the intended usage, with particular reference to
anticipated thicknesses, structural base type and condition, flooring and adhesive type,
and the type and intensity of traffic.
Substrate
Check that the level accuracy of the substrate complies with the tolerances required for
the finished flooring. A smoothing compound will not provide an improvement in

accuracy.
Base preparation
The base should be prepared fully in accordance with the manufacturer’s

recommendations. This will always comprise removal of physical contamination such
as mortar or plaster droppings, and freedom from dust and dirt. Chemical or liquid
contamination must be assessed for potential effect on bond, smoothing compound,
adhesives and flooring (refer to Section 4.2.2). Where a primer is required, this should
normally be applied by brush, roller or spray, and allowed to dry. After priming, access
should be restricted to prevent contamination.
Batching and mixing
Check that the batching and mixing procedures are in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations. Mechanical mixing in a drum with an electric drill
and paddle is normally used. Hand mixing may be suitable for small areas.
For powder/water mixes, the quantity of water added must be within the range advised
by the manufacturer, and should be accurately measured with calibrated containers. For
powder/liquid mixes, the latex or emulsion is normally supplied in a pre-measured
quantity to be added to a bag of powder. Addition of extra water or liquids above that
recommended may result in a weak or soft material, and should not be permitted.
Laying
Laying techniques may vary depending upon the material types and thickness required.
Thin applications up to 1 or 2 mm are normally poured onto the substrate and hand
spread by trowel to finished level. For thicker applications, and particularly with those
mixes with high flow characteristics, the material is placed by pouring onto the
substrate and spreading with various types of special tool.
Finishing
The degree of trowelling required depends upon the efficiency of the self-smoothing
properties of the material. For those compounds with self-smoothing properties, normal
trowelling is not usually necessary or beneficial.

After hardening, imperfections in the finished surface should be removed by rubbing
down with a carborundum stone. This process may be difficult with some of the harder
types of material, and timing of the operation can be critical.
Curing is not normally necessary, but manufacturers’ recommendations regarding

ambient conditions during and after placement should be followed. These are typically
a minimum temperature of 5 °C and a freedom from draughts.
Most types of smoothing compound are sufficiently hard to receive foot traffic after a
few hours. Where they are to be subjected to site traffic, other than that involved in
laying of the flooring, protection from surface wear may be necessary.
Testing
Testing is not normally carried out on smoothing compounds, although in special

circumstances some form of site testing may be desirable or necessary. For example,
where doubt exists over the adhesion to the substrate, pull-off tests may be necessary to
assess bond strength.
Where moisture-sensitive floorings are to be laid, suitability of the moisture condition

of the screed or concrete base should have been checked prior to laying of the
smoothing compound.
5.5 LEVELLING COMPOUNDS
A levelling compound is defined as a semi-liquid material applied to a substrate,

intended to provide a level surface when set.
A great deal of confusion exists between levelling compounds and smoothing

compounds, particularly since both may have self-smoothing properties, and some
smoothing compounds may also have self-levelling properties if laid at sufficient
thickness.
The major requirements of a levelling compound are the ability to provide a surface
suitable for receiving the flooring direct, and the ability to rectify a degree of level
inaccuracy in the substrate. The degree of levelling capacity will be dependent upon the
material used, but will typically be in the order of ±5 mm.
The attributes required of a levelling compound may be met by the use of the following
options:
1. A flow-applied screed system
2. A purpose-made levelling compound
3. A modified smoothing compound
The requirements and limitations for option 1 are given in Section 5.3.
Option 2, purpose-made levelling compounds, are materials similar in composition to

smoothing compounds, but suitable for use at greater thicknesses, typically up to
10 mm. At such thickness their fluidity and self-smoothing properties enable the
material to virtually self-level. Many of these types of material are in fact also used as
smoothing compounds at reduced thicknesses. Where thicknesses in excess of 10 mm

are required, fine aggregates may be incorporated to reduce material consumption and
to limit shrinkage stresses. In such cases it is usually necessary to apply a second layer
of unfilled material to provide the smooth finished surface.
Option 3, modified smoothing compound, refers to normal smoothing compounds that

may be filled with fine aggregate to reduce shrinkage potential and hence increase
thickness to above that normally used. Again, a second unfilled layer is normally
required to provide the smooth finished surface.
The details for design criteria and site work given for smoothing compounds in
Section 5.4 equally apply to levelling compounds options 2 and 3 with the following
exceptions.
• Capacity for rectifying base level inaccuracies is increased.
• For many of the products, the increased thickness, as compared with smoothing
compounds, will require a longer drying period prior to laying flooring. Refer to
manufacturers’ data.
• Aggregates added to some products are not pre-batched. It is necessary to check
that site procedures ensure consistent batching to proportions within the
manufacturer recommended range.
5.6 HEATED SCREEDS
Underfloor background heating can be provided by the incorporation of heating

elements in the floor screed. The heating elements may comprise either electric wires
or, more commonly in recent years, plastics hot water pipes. Screeds are of floating
construction on thermal insulation to reduce heat loss to the structural base, and may be
used in conjunction with various floorings including flexible materials such as vinyls or
carpet, and rigid materials such as ceramic, stone or terrazzo tiling or timber.
Heated screeds have historically gained a reputation for poor serviceability. The major
problems have stemmed from poor compaction of traditional screed material around
the heating elements and from the larger movement potentials causing disruption of
flooring. Manufacturers or suppliers of heating systems tend to concentrate guidance on
the mechanical side of installation with little information on screeding materials,
laying, movement provision and suitability of overlaid floorings. British Standards
offer no specific advice on construction of screeds where underfloor heating is to be
incorporated. Screed construction requirements are included, however, in the German
Standard DIN 18560 Part 2 (Bibliography 26), upon which most heating system
manufacturers base their recommendations. The following information in this section
on heated screeds is limited to a brief description only of design criteria, types of
screed, and inherent problems associated with the most commonly adopted forms of
underfloor heating system. Where such systems are to be installed, specialist advice
should always be sought. (see also Section 3.1.3, Heated floors.)
Heated screeds do comprise a higher risk of failure in service, and as a general

rule are best avoided.
The heating elements contained within the screed are most commonly plastics hot
water pipes but electrical systems are also used. To retain efficiency, the screed
containing the elements should be laid as floating construction over thermal insulation.
The total isolation from the base allows the screed and overlaid flooring to realise its
full movement potential, both from initial moisture movements and from subsequent
thermal movements. Movements will continue through the life of the floor due to

cycling of the heating system. These movements must be accommodated by design to
prevent disruption of the flooring and/or the screed.
To fully accommodate these movements, the screed should be designed to provide

individual bays that have the capacity to move fully independently. Stress relief within
bays should also be considered. DIN 18560 Part 2 recommends that this is achieved by:
• limiting bay size to 40 m 2
• limiting maximum bay dimension to 8 m

• coordinating bay sizes with individual heating circuits
• bay joints to provide complete isolation
• perimeters and projections through screed to be isolated with joints capable of at
least 5 mm movement
• minimising the number of heating elements passing through joints
• isolate heating elements and accurately aligning elements passing through joints
• introducing additional stress relief joints in bays of cement-based screed

• providing reinforcement in cement-based screeds where rigid floorings are to be
applied.
The implication for complete isolation of the bay joints is that they should be a flexible
material capable of accommodating both contraction and expansion, similar to
perimeter joints. Clearly, any such joints should be reflected through the flooring.
While this is feasible with rigid floorings such as ceramic or stone tiling where they
can be coordinated with movement joints in the flooring, the concept is not so easy with
flexible floorings, which are normally required to be relatively free from movement
joints. Where screed day joints are not formed to the DIN recommendations, and are
simply butt jointed, movement in service can cause disruption of overlaid flexible
floorings, even where the joint has continuous reinforcement.
With cement-based screeds in particular, curling that may develop at bay edges cannot
be controlled at joints with full isolation. There is therefore a risk that differential
curling, which may occur during initial drying or through subsequent heat cycling, may
result in lipping, which may adversely affect either the flooring or the usage of the
floor. Although such lipping could be controlled with reinforcement across the joint,
this would negate the benefit of isolation for control of lateral movements.
DIN 18560 provides information on forms of construction where heating elements may
be incorporated at varying depths within the screed or in the insulation, and relates
these to minimum thicknesses of construction for cementitious, anhydrite or mastic
asphalt screeds.
The most common form of construction in the UK is for plastics hot water pipes to be
positioned towards the base of the screed, usually supported in clips or on preformed
plastics plates, which are laid on, and completely over, the insulation. With this form of
construction the most commonly adopted screed material is cement-based, although
synthetic anhydrite is suitable and has technical advantages.
Cement-based screed
Traditional semi-dry cement/sand screeds can present problems of compaction,

particularly around and beneath the pipes, which can lead to inadequate soundness.
The high shrinkage potential can lead to cracking and curling, the effects of which may

be exacerbated by continued movement through heat cycling. Where a cement-based
screed is required the following steps may be taken to reduce risks:
• minimum thickness 75 mm overall, 50 mm over pipes
• incorporate a D49 or D98 reinforcing mesh to BS 4483, over the pipes
• use a semi-dry fine concrete incorporating a water-reducing admixture, to reduce
shrinkage problems
• use a high-workability fine concrete incorporating a super-plasticiser to reduce
compaction problems
Synthetic anhydrite-based screed
The low thermal movement coefficient and relative freedom from drying shrinkage-
induced problems make anhydrite-based screed potentially more suitable for use in
heated floors than cement-based materials. Flow-applied anhydrite can overcome
problems of compaction around and beneath the pipes. Reinforcement must not be
used. The minimum overall thickness should be to the manufacturer’s/supplier’s

recommendation, but is normally in the range 40–50 mm. Refer to Section 5.2 for
limitations for anhydrite screeds.
5.7 BITUMINOUS/ASPHALTIC SCREEDS
Mastic asphalt is a mixture of asphaltic cement binder and graded aggregates, which is
laid hot. On cooling, it forms a jointless material that is impermeable to water in both
liquid and vapour form. Apart from the more common use as a flooring (refer to
Section 6.4) it can also be used as a screed. In this case it may also provide an effective
dpm on ground-bearing concrete structural bases.
Laying of mastic asphalt is a skilled operation, and should be entrusted only to

specialist contractors with the necessary proven skills.
Relevant document
Document Bibliography
BS 8204 : Part 5 22
MACEF Flooring Handbook
Design criteria
Mastic asphalt is available in a variety of grades, and may be laid at various thicknesses
over 15 mm to provide screeds to suit a number of traffic- and temperature-related
service conditions. The advice of the asphalt contractor or the Mastic Asphalt Council
and Employers Federation (MACEF) should always be sought at design stage to ensure
that a suitable system is selected for the particular conditions. Inspection of an existing
installation under similar service conditions is also advisable. MACEF provides full
details of design and application of this specialised material, and full reference should
be made to their range of publications and to the recommendations given in BS 8204
Part 5. The following information in this section summarises the major design criteria.
The thickness of the applied mastic asphalt must be uniform. The substrate surface
should therefore be prepared to the same accuracy tolerance as that required in the

finished flooring. If this cannot be achieved in the structural concrete base, provision
should be made for use of either an interposed cement-based screed or a mastic asphalt
undercoat to level irregularities in the base.
Mastic asphalt screeds should normally be laid isolated from the base. This is to
prevent restraint of relative movements between the base and asphalt, which may
induce cracking of the asphalt. This is particularly important where the asphalt is to
provide a damp-proofing function. The isolating membrane should preferably be of
glass-fibre tissue, but black sheathing felt may be used, and should be used in any case
where asphalt is to be over a timber substrate. The use of glass-fibre tissue membrane is
essential where the asphalt is to be laid over a concrete base in direct contact with the
ground with no effective dpm, or on suspended concrete bases where moisture from wet
processes below may permeate the floor. This is necessary to prevent the risk of
dampness beneath the asphalt rotting natural fibres in sheathing felt, which can lead to
disruption of the asphalt screed and flooring.
Asphalt screeds are laid jointless; where correctly laid they will remain free from
significant disruption, and are able to relieve their own inherent stresses. Where
floorings are to be laid bonded direct to the asphalt, it is essential to ensure
compatibility of the applied materials with the asphalt, and to ensure that the flooring
does not transfer stresses that may disrupt or cause cracking of the asphalt. The other
major consideration is the degree of bond achieved to the dense, impervious asphalt
surface. A sand-rubbed finish to the asphalt, or the use of special primers, may be
necessary. Advice should be sought from the manufacturers of adhesives.
The most common types of flooring laid bonded on asphalt screeds are thin flexible
floorings such as vinyl or linoleum, or thin rigid floorings such as ceramic tiling.
For thin flexible floorings a smoothing compound should be applied to the asphalt
surface to provide absorbency for the flooring adhesive. Bond of this layer is critical,
and advice should be sought from the manufacturer on the need for a primer. Thicker
applications of levelling compound should not be used since these may impose stresses
on the asphalt. The adhesive used for fixing the flooring to the smoothing compound
must be checked for compatibility with asphalt. Adhesives containing solvents should
not be used.
Ceramic tiling should be fixed direct to the asphalt with a cement-based thin-bed
adhesive. To limit the stresses imposed on the asphalt, the adhesive bed thickness
should not generally exceed 3 mm. Adhesives incorporating admixtures to impart a
degree of flexibility are preferable. It is important that provision should be made in the
tiling for movement joints. (These are not taken through the asphalt.)
Thicker beddings, as required for floorings such as terrazzo or stone tiling, would
impose a high risk of stress-induced cracking in the asphalt if laid bonded. In these
cases the flooring and bed should be laid fully isolated from the asphalt by a method
appropriate to the service conditions: for example, isolated and reinforced semi-dry
cement/sand bed.

Service limitations
Advice should be sought from the asphalt contractor or MACEF on the most
appropriate grade of mastic asphalt for the particular service conditions. For use as a
screed, Grades I and II are those most commonly used. Thickness should be 15–20 mm.
Grade I, Special hard flooring, has the higher resistance to indentation, and is designed
for usage up to relatively high (25–30 °C) ambient temperatures. Minimum service
temperature is 5 °C. Grade I should normally be used for overlaid flexible floorings.
Grade II, Light duty (standard) flooring, has a lower resistance to indentation from
point loading. Where it is used beneath flexible floorings, a small degree of indentation
may occur from point loadings. Grade II should normally be used for overlaid rigid
flooring.

Since mastic asphalt is impervious, moisture-sensitive floorings are effectively isolated

from any moisture in the structural base. Such floorings may be laid after a suitable
drying period of the smoothing compound (refer to 5.4).
Structural base
Check that the levels of the base are suitable for the required screed thickness, and will
not result in a non-uniform thickness.
Base preparation
The base should be swept clean of dust and detritus, and the isolating membrane laid
loose with 50 mm lapped joints.
Materials preparation
Mastic asphalt may be delivered either in a molten condition in a mobile mixer, or in

blocks of 25 kg for re-melting on site. Check that the correct grade of material is
supplied. Re-melting should be carried out in mechanically agitated mixers. Cauldrons
should be used only in exceptional circumstances, governed by site conditions and the
area of flooring to be laid. Temperature should normally be between 200 and 220 °C,
but should never exceed 240 °C. Overheating can have an adverse effect on finished
properties.
Laying
Although there are generally accepted laying practices, the asphalt contractor should be
allowed discretion in exercising his judgement if circumstances in any particular case
require modification of laying methods.
Molten material is transported in buckets to the point of laying. The inside of the
buckets may be sprinkled with a minimum quantity of limestone dust to prevent
sticking. Ashes or oil must not be used.
Asphalt should be laid in bays to allow cooling stresses to be dissipated. Special care is
required at junctions of new work with previously laid sections. The contact edges of

previously laid work should be cleaned and warmed by the temporary application of hot
asphalt, which should then be removed prior to making the joint with the new material.
Gauges should be used during laying to ensure that the thickness of asphalt is correct to
the specification and is uniform. ‘Blowing’ of the asphalt (formation of blisters through
gases at the asphalt/base interface) can occur, depending upon the nature of the
concrete base. Extreme conditions of dryness or moisture, or of concrete surface
texture, can affect the risk of blowing. The use of an isolating membrane should largely
eliminate this problem. Where blowing does occur, the blisters should be punctured and
the affected areas made good while the asphalt is still hot.
Finishing
Asphalt is finished by floating to provide either a smooth surface or a textured sand-

rubbed surface (by introducing sand on the surface during final floating). The fine sand
must be clean and free from impurities, and surplus material should be removed after
rubbing is completed. Where a bonded flooring is to be subsequently laid, a sand-
rubbed texture is preferred.
Protection
The asphalt should be protected from damage by following trades. Timber boarding
may be necessary to avoid impact damage, for example from dropped scaffold tubes.
Loading in excess of that expected in the finished floor should be avoided, or suitable
protection provided. For example, heavy point loading from stored equipment or
scaffolding should be spread through suitably thick boarding.
The surface should be protected from contamination from concrete/mortar, plasters,

oils, paints, etc.
tolerances.

6 Toppings and in-situ applied
floorings
The suitability for meeting specific service conditions and for providing other
properties in the finished floor for this range of floorings is given in Section 2.3.2. The
range covers all of those floorings that are formed in-situ to provide a finished floor
surface. The contents of this section are:
• 6.1 High-strength concrete toppings (including granolithic)
• 6.2 Polymer-modified cementitious flooring
• 6.3 Flow-applied cementitious flooring
• 6.4 Asphaltic and bituminous floorings

6.4.1 Mastic asphalt flooring
6.4.2 Proprietary bituminous flooring
• 6.5 Resin flooring
• 6.6 In-situ terrazzo flooring
• 6.7 Magnesium oxychloride flooring
6.1 HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETE TOPPINGS

(INCLUDING GRANOLITHIC)
High-strength concrete toppings may be constructed either monolithically (within 3

hours) with an in-situ concrete structural base, or laid after hardening of the base.
Monolithic construction has the least risk of failure, and should be regarded as the
preferred method. Guidance on monolithic construction is given in Section 4.1. This
section deals only with high-strength concrete toppings laid onto a hardened base,
which is described hereafter as ‘separate’ construction.
Relevant documents
BS 8000 Part 9 14 Workmanship
BS 8204 Part 2 19 Design
Design criteria
BS 8204 Part 2 gives details of two forms of separate construction (see Fig. 6.1):
• separate bonded at 20–40 mm thickness
• separate unbonded overslab at 100 mm thickness
Construction to BS recommendations, with adequate control over materials and

workmanship, minimises the risks of cracking, debonding and curling, which all have
the potential for seriously jeopardising serviceability. Nevertheless, the risks are not
totally eliminated with any form of separate construction.

Construction to alternative methods has commonly been used in the past with differing,
but usually low, degrees of success. These alternatives have included:
• bonded toppings at thicknesses over 40 mm
• unbonded toppings at 75 mm nominal thickness
• cement/sand or fine concrete screeds with a monolithic topping
• multi-layer work with differing mix consistencies and proportions
b a s e c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e p r e pared
m e c h a n i c a l l y t o m a x i m i s e bond
20–40m m t hi ck hi gh
st rengt h concret e t oppi ng
hardened base concret e,

surface l evel accuracy
cont rol l ed t o ± 10m m
r e i n forcem ent , i f requi red
15± 5m m m onol i t hi c
t oppi ng (i f requi red)
oversl ab m i n. 100m m t hi ck,

desi gned as a ground support ed
sl ab, di rect fi ni shed as a
weari ng surface.
(m onol i t hi c t oppi ng m ay be used
for hi gher abrasi on resi st ance)
structural base
separat i ng l ayer
Fig. 6.1 High-strength concrete toppings.

Top – separate bonded construction
Bottom – separate unbonded overslab.

The major problems with these alternatives are the relatively high levels of cracking,
curling or debonding that can occur. It is recommended that only the methods detailed
in BS 8204 Part 2 should be allowed for in the design and specification, unless
satisfactory serviceability can be demonstrated for alternative methods completed in the
same construction conditions and subject to the same service conditions.
Where thicknesses are encountered that are outside the range covered by
BS recommendations, proprietary materials may provide a solution. For example, the
use of water-reducing admixtures and polymers in the concrete topping mix can reduce
drying shrinkage stresses and impart a degree of resilience, and hence reduce the risks
of cracking and debonding of both over-thick and under-thick toppings. Proprietary
mixes based on special cements, selected aggregates and polymers are also available.
Guidance on the use of proprietary materials should be sought from the manufacturers.
Another technique that may be utilised to overcome the risk of debonding of over--
thick toppings is to provide mechanical anchorage to the structural base via a
reinforcing mesh and resin fixed anchors. Specialist advice should be sought prior to
considering this technique.
The remainder of this Section concentrates on the requirements for the two
construction methods as given in BS 8204 Part 2.
Thickness/base accuracy
For separate bonded construction, the minimum and maximum topping thicknesses
are 20 mm and 40 mm respectively. Greater thicknesses have a higher risk of
subsequent debonding, and should be avoided. Base accuracy should therefore be
closely coordinated with the specified topping thickness. For practical purposes,
topping thickness should normally be specified as 30 mm average, and base surface
level accuracy controlled to ± 10 mm.
For separate unbonded construction, the minimum thickness of overslab should be

100 mm. This should be increased to allow for variations in base accuracy. For
example, if the base is specified to an accuracy of ±15 mm, the specified average
thickness should be 115 mm.
Inclusion of services within a topping may jeopardise performance. Where necessary,

services should be incorporated in a duct in or below the base slab, and brought
through to the floor surface.
For concrete stairs to receive a separate bonded topping, the BS recommends the same
thickness range as for floor areas. Although the 20–40 mm range is suitable for use on
stair treads, in practice the topping to risers should normally be designed for 20 mm
thickness. The structural concrete should be formed to the stair profile, less the design
topping thickness, to an accuracy of ±5 mm.
For separate bonded construction, it is of paramount importance that the

substrate/topping bond is maximised. The structural concrete base should be of at least
BS 5328 C35 grade with a minimum cement content of 300 kg/ m3. Lower-strength
grades may not afford adequate surface strength to resist stresses imposed on it by the
topping. The surface of in-situ concrete bases should be prepared by mechanical
methods such as scabbling, gritblasting or planing to cleanly expose the coarse
aggregate, prior to thorough cleaning by vacuum equipment, soaking and grouting. For

composite construction, such as precast concrete units or hollow pot units with a
structural concrete topping, heavy mechanical preparation may cause damage. In such
cases gritblasting is preferred. For direct bonding to precast units, BS 8204 Part 2
suggests that the surface of units should be left rough during manufacture, and surface
preparation should comprise wire brushing and washing. This may not afford sufficient
bond to prevent excessive debonding and curling, particularly in the case of suspended
floors subject to significant deflections. In such cases a separate unbonded overslab can
provide enhanced serviceability. Where the concrete topping is over precast units and is
designed as an integral part of the structural floor, adequate bond is essential. Such
toppings will normally be reinforced, and may be provided with mechanical anchorages
to the precast units.
Separate bonded toppings will fully reflect any movements within the structural base.
Any joints in the structural base designed for either expansion or contraction should
therefore be reflected through the topping at the same width and to accurate alignment.
Construction joints in the base that are subject to slight opening may also reflect
through as a crack. This movement should be either eliminated by design of the base,
or reflected through the topping as a construction joint. In suspended floors, deflection
of the base may result in cracking of the topping over the line of rigid supporting
beams. Provision should be made for a construction joint in the topping at these
locations (see Fig. 6.2).
Separate unbonded overslabs should be used where a bond to the base is not possible:
for example, where the base is contaminated, or has an overlaid damp-proof
membrane. They may also be used to isolate the flooring from suspended bases subject
to deflection. BS 8204 Part 2 recommends that overslabs should be designed as a
ground-supported slab, and as such should normally be laid over an isolating
membrane. The structural base should therefore be sufficiently smooth and clean to
receive the isolating membrane (refer to Section 4.2.2). Isolation from the base negates
the need to allow for movements transferred from the base through the overslab, except
in the case of suspended slabs with significant deflection. In such cases joints in the
overslab should be aligned with the line of rigid supports such as beams (see Fig. 6.2).
Control of movements in the flooring
Concrete, notably high-strength mixes, has a significant drying shrinkage value. When
it is laid as a thin bonded topping, control of drying shrinkage stresses is essential to
restrict random cracking and the tendency to debond and curl, both of which may
adversely affect serviceability. Where it is laid as an unbonded overslab, control is
necessary to restrict random cracking, curling being considered as less of a problem for
the thicker topping.
For separate bonded construction, control of movement is achieved by limiting bay

size and shape. BS 8204 Part 2 recommends:
Toppings 20–30 mm thick – maximum bay size 20 m2

Toppings 30–40 mm thick – maximum bay size 15 m2
Maximum length/width ratio of bay 1:1.5

bonded isolated
topping joint deflection overslab joint deflection
In situ concrete base – Precast concrete base –

bonded topping isolated overslab
Fig. 6.2 Suspended bases subject to deflection. Control joints should be used over
rigid supports to reduce cracking risk.
In addition to these requirements, consideration should be given to other factors that

may contribute to cracking. For example, bays with re-entrant angles are prone to
cracking, and joints should preferably be aligned with the re-entrant angle to produce
rectangular bays. Restraint from columns, plinths, manholes etc. can induce cracking.
These should preferably be isolated with a soft joint, and subsequently sealed at the
surface if necessary. Apart from these isolation joints and any movement joints
reflected through from the structural base, all joints in bonded toppings should be
simple butt joints with vertical sides, and formed in straight lines. The BS does permit
laying of the topping in strips, transverse joints being subsequently sawn within 7 days,
or 48 hours if the building is not protected by a roof. If this technique is used, it is
essential that the saw cuts are to full topping depth, and the operation is not delayed.
Subsequent sealing with a hard sealant may be necessary, depending upon service
conditions. Where construction joints in the structural base are expected to move, they
should be reflected through the topping. These joints may be formed butt joints or
sawn, and should closely align with the concealed joint beneath. Great care is needed
when joints are sawn, to ensure correct alignment.
For separate unbonded overslabs, control of movements will be dependent upon the
design of the overslab. Overslabs should normally be laid in long strips of
approximately 4.5 m width, and divided into bays by transverse joints at 6 m centres for
unreinforced construction or 10 m centres for reinforced construction. Further guidance
is given in BCA 48.034 (Bibliography 1).
High-strength concrete toppings are not moisture sensitive, and so will permit slow
continued drying of damp structural bases. BS 8204 Part 2 does not limit the moisture
condition or age of the concrete base at the time of laying the topping. For separate
bonded toppings it is advisable to allow a period of 4-6 weeks for in-situ structural
bases to allow part of the drying shrinkage to take place, and to ensure that the surface
is sufficiently strong to enable the correct surface preparation. Separate unbonded
overslabs are independent from moisture movement of the base, and may be laid earlier
than this time period, subject to any structural requirements.

Materials requirements and limitations
Guidance on service limitations is given in Section 2.3.2.A. For separate bonded

toppings, the materials, mixes and finishing techniques are the same as for monolithic
high-strength toppings (refer to Sections 4.1.3 and 4.1.4, and Table 4.1).
For the purposes of design, separate unbonded high-strength overslabs should be

regarded as a direct-finished wearing surface. To provide the required serviceability, it
may therefore be of either a BS 5328 C40-60 grade concrete finished direct, or a
C35 grade concrete with a high-strength monolithic topping. Materials, mixes and
finishing techniques for direct-finished wearing surfaces are given in Section 4.1.
Control of operations on site is crucial to ensure that separate construction of high-

strength concrete toppings provides the designed quality and attributes. Laying of
toppings should be entrusted only to specialist contractors with the necessary skills and
proven controls. Even when specialist contractors are employed, there is a need for
close supervision and inspection by the main contractor. Familiarisation with the
specification, codes of practice and acceptable workmanship standards is therefore
necessary for those engaged in supervision. The following information summarises the
major areas in which supervision and control are critical, and gives details of the
various requirements.
Specification
Check the suitability of the project specification against BS 8204 Part 2 requirements
and the information in this Guide. Where differences exist, seek specialist advice.
Beware of:
• bonded toppings outside the 20–40 mm thickness range
• unbonded toppings less than 100 mm thick
Structural base
Check the levels of the structural base to ensure that the specified minimum, maximum
or nominal topping thickness can be achieved.
Check that any services are to be positioned in ducts brought through to the finished
surface, and are not to be incorporated in the topping.
Base preparation
Check that the required base preparation is carried out.
For separate unbonded overslabs the structural base should be reasonably flat and
smooth, with any adhering plaster droppings etc. removed, and swept clean prior to
laying the isolating membrane.
For separate bonded toppings and stairs, the base should be prepared by scabbling,
gritblasting or planing to produce a cleanly exposed aggregate finish. Where the base is
a thin in-situ concrete layer over precast units, gritblasting should be used. Before
applying the bonding grout, the surface must be thoroughly cleaned of all dust and
detritus, preferably by vacuum cleaner, and should be soaked with clean water for

several hours. The bonding grout should be a Portland cement/water mixture of thick
creamy consistency, thoroughly scrubbed into the base surface, and covered with
topping mix within 15–20 minutes. The common practices of sprinkling dry cement
onto a dampened surface, or using an extremely wet grout, are unsatisfactory.
Where required, proprietary bonding agents must be used strictly in accordance with
the manufacturer’s recommendations. They are not a substitute for the aforementioned
surface preparation procedures.
Mixes and materials
Check that the topping mix and raw materials are correct. Refer to Table 4.1 for
materials quality.
For separate bonded toppings, mix proportions will normally be approximately 1:1:2
by mass of cement : natural sand : 10 mm single-sized coarse aggregate. (Other
proportions may be specified for special circumstances.) The proportions may be varied
to suit the particular aggregates used. The proportion of sand should be adjusted to
produce a mix with just sufficient cohesion and workability to ensure full compaction
and adequate finishing properties.
To avoid shrinkage-related problems and poor wearing characteristics, it is essential to

avoid:
• crushed rock fines
• all-in crushed rock or natural materials
• very fine bricklaying sands
• high sand contents
For separate unbonded overslabs, the concrete should be a BS 5328 C40–60

grade 20 mm aggregate concrete for direct finishing, or a C35 grade 20 mm aggregate
concrete to receive a monolithic topping.
Batching and mixing
Production of structural grades of concrete for overslabs should be to the requirements

of BS 5328.
Production of the small volumes of concrete for bonded toppings is usually limited to
site batching and mixing. Weight batching is inherently more accurate, and should be
used in preference to volume batching. The sand moisture content should be tested
regularly, and adjustments made to the batch weights. Batching of cement by the whole
bag is preferable. If volume batching is used, gauge boxes should be used, and regular
sand-bulking tests made to adjust for the effect of moisture in the sand. Batching by the
shovelful should not be used.
The materials should be thoroughly mixed in a forced-action mechanical mixer. Hand

mixing should not be permitted.
The amount of water added should be the minimum necessary to give sufficient
workability to ensure thorough compaction during the laying process. Workability, as
measured by the slump test, should normally be in the range 25–75 mm.
Where proprietary admixtures or mixes are used, proportions batching and mixing
should be to the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Separate unbonded overslabs are laid by the same basic techniques as used for ground-
bearing slabs (refer to Section 4.1).
• For bonded toppings, the mix must be spread over the prepared base while the
bonding slurry grout is still wet (15–20 minutes), and thoroughly consolidated until
maximum compaction is achieved. Particular attention must be paid to bay edges
and corners. The method of compaction may be either manual using a tamping
board, or mechanised using a vibrating beam, using side forms as the level
reference. Side forms should be of either steel or timber, rigidly fixed to the base
and set accurately to the finished level. In setting out side forms, check for
compliance with bay size limitations and the need to coordinate joints with joints in
the base. After compaction, the topping should be screeded off accurately to level
ready for finishing.
For stair toppings, formwork should be set accurately to profile, and the riser cavity
filled with the topping mix and fully compacted, followed by laying of the tread
topping. The formwork system used should be capable of rapid fixing to ensure that the
topping mix can be placed prior to drying of the bonding slurry.
Finishing
The topping can be finished either by hand or by power trowelling. The choice will
normally be dependent upon the size of floor area to be completed. Procedures for
trowelling are given in Section 4.1.4.
Stair risers are prone to the formation of cavities or pinholes on the cast face. These
should be filled with a cement/fine aggregate mortar after striking of the formwork.
Curing
Curing is essential to prevent premature drying out, which may reduce the wearing
properties of the surface and exacerbate shrinkage-related problems. Curing may be
either close covering with polyethylene sheet for 7 days or by proprietary spray-applied
curing agent (refer to Section 4.1.4). The latter method should not be used where
subsequent treatments are to be applied, unless compatibility is confirmed.
In cold weather, toppings must not be laid on freezing surfaces, and if there is a risk of
frost after laying, toppings should be protected with insulating quilts for 2–3 days.
After the initial curing period, slow drying out is necessary to limit the risk of cracking,
debonding and curling. The building should not be heated artificially for 6–8 weeks,
and then the temperature should be raised slowly.
Protection
Protection should be provided to prevent damage or contamination with paint, plaster,

etc. from following site operations.
Surface treatments
It is not generally necessary to apply further surface treatments to high-strength

concrete toppings. Where these are specified, refer to Section 4.1.5.

Check completed toppings with a straightedge to confirm compliance with the specified
tolerances. Electronic methods of measurement may be required by some specifications.
Check bonded toppings for debonding, cracking, curling and lipping periodically as
they continue drying. All of these defects, if severe, may adversely affect serviceability.
BS 8204 Part 2 recommends cutting out and replacement of areas where visible or
measurable lifting of edges of bays or at cracks has occurred to an extent that fracture
of the topping may occur under imposed loadings. While removal and replacement of
affected areas can be effective, specialist repair techniques such as resin injection and
pinning to the base with resin-fixed steel dowels can provide a more economical
solution in some cases. Specialist advice should be sought. Debonding on its own,
without cracking or curling, is not always detrimental to serviceability. Caution must
be exercised in assessment of hollowness. Specialist advice should be sought to prevent
needless removal of toppings that simply sound hollow without other apparent defects.
6.2 POLYMER-MODIFIED CEMENTITIOUS FLOORING
Polymer-modified cementitious flooring is defined as a mixture of cement, aggregates,

polymer dispersion or re-dispersible powder polymer that hardens on curing. The
potential benefits of these materials are outlined in Section 2.3.2. A variety of polymer
and aggregate types may be used, which may provide differing degrees of resistance to
certain service conditions such as temperature, chemical exposure, abrasion and
impact. In all cases it is essential to consult with manufacturers of these proprietary
systems to confirm suitability for the particular service conditions.
Relevant documents

BS8204 Part 3 20 Design
FeRFA Guide No.6 28 Application
Manufacturer’s data
Design criteria
Polymer-modified floorings should be laid fully bonded with bonding agents to a

hardened concrete substrate. The substrate should preferably be an in-situ concrete
structural base. Laying directly onto precast units of prestressed planks or prestressed
beam and block is not recommended without an interposed concrete overslab. Where a
screed is required to regulate surface accuracy deficiencies in the substrate, it should be
of fine concrete. Cement/sand screeds are not generally suitable.
Surface preparation and achievement of a high degree of bond to the substrate are
crucial to performance. Great emphasis should be placed on assessment of substrates
for suitability of bonding.
The remainder of this section refers to the general design and laying aspects of
polymer-modified floorings laid direct on in-situ concrete structural bases, or on
concrete screeds and overslabs. Full reference should be made to the above documents
for specific details.

The thickness of the flooring is related to both the traffic-related service conditions and
the maximum aggregate size. BS 8204 Part 3 recommends an absolute minimum
thickness at any point of 6 mm, a maximum single application thickness of 40 mm, in
combination with the following:
BS 8204 Traffic-related Thickness Maximum

service conditions range (mm) aggregate size
(see Section 2.2) (mm)
Light duty W1 8–15 Sand
Medium and W2 and 10–15 3
heavy duty W3 15–30 6
25–40 10
Deviation outside these thickness ranges may adversely affect serviceability, induce
greater risks of debonding, and increase consumption of relatively costly materials. It is
necessary, therefore, to fully coordinate the base accuracy with the thickness ranges.
– 10 15 mm– ranges the base should preferably be
For floorings in the 8 15 and
constructed to the same surface tolerances as required in the finished flooring. For the
thicker ranges, deviation of the base should normally be within ±5 mm.
Thickness for stair treads and risers should be the same as for flooring, the structural
concrete being formed to the finished profile less the flooring thickness.
Services should not be incorporated in the flooring thickness. Where necessary, they
should be positioned in the structural base, screed or overslab, with appropriate
measures to reduce the risk of crack inducement.
For the high degree of bond required, it is of paramount importance to ensure that the
substrate surface is strong enough to restrain the shrinkage stresses imposed on it
during setting, hardening and drying of the flooring. BS 8204 Part 3 gives the
following criteria for the concrete substrate:
• minimum grade BS 5328 C35
• minimum cement content 300 kg/ m3
• concrete not to contain water-repellent admixtures
• minimum age 14 days prior to laying flooring
• minimum rebound hammer value*
25 for floorings up to 15 mm thick
30 for floorings over 15 mm thick
• minimum surface tensile strengt h + 0.8 N/mm 2 (alternative to rebound hammer
testing).
* measured in accordance with BS 1881 Part 202 1986
+
measured in accordance with BS 8204 Part 3 Annex B1
New concrete surfaces should be prepared by mechanised methods such as scabbling,

gritblasting or planing to produce a clean exposed aggregate finish. Remaining dust
and detritus must be removed, preferably by vacuum, prior to laying the flooring.

For old concrete bases, all surface contamination such as oil, paint and rubber must be
removed, and the surface prepared as for new concrete. In addition, it is necessary to
visually inspect the surface to verify cleanliness and freedom from deleterious materials
in the concrete, such as lignite and iron pyrites. Since the history of the old base may
not be known, a check should also be made for the presence of water repellents, dust
sealers etc., which may affect bond. BS 8204 Part 3 recommends the use of a water
droplet test. If a droplet of water forms a ‘blob’ on the surface, which does not spread,
materials may be present that could impede bond of the flooring.
Stairs should be prepared in the same manner as floors.
Bonding agents are always used. These may be based on polymers, which may be used
mixed with water, or with water and cement to form a slurry, or may be based on
epoxide dispersions or solvent-free epoxides. The latter may also be utilised in two or
more coats to form a damp-proof membrane at the flooring/base interface. BS 8204
Part 3 Table 2 gives guidance on typical methods of use. In all cases the manufacturer’s
recommendations on suitability and application methods should be followed.
Bonded polymer floorings will reflect any movements that occur in the structural base,
screed or overslab. Any joints in the base designed to accommodate movement should
therefore be reflected through the flooring at the same width and to accurate alignment.
Construction joints in the base that are expected to move should also be reflected
through the flooring. Movement joints should be incorporated in suspended floors
subject to deflection, over the line of rigid supports such as beams. Manufacturers’
advice should be sought on the need to form a rebated toe-in at joint edges. Depending
upon service conditions, provision should be made for application of a sealant at all
joints to prevent passage of water or other liquids through the joint, or to prevent dirt
accumulation. In areas where trucking occurs, the edges of wide joints should be
protected by metal sections (see Fig. 6.3).
In addition to the control of movements transferred from the base, it is necessary to

consider control of movements in the flooring. Reduced shrinkage potential and
thickness, and increased flexibility, as compared with non-modified cementitious
s e al ant
back-up st ri p
pol ym er m odi fi ed
cem ent i t i ous fl oori ng
fi ne concret e screed
st ruct ural base
j oi nt fi l l er
steel angle
anchored
to base
Fig. 6.3 Typical metal angle arris protection of expansion joint in polymer-modified
cementitious flooring subject to vehicular traffic.

toppings, reduce the stresses within the flooring that can lead to cracking and
debonding. There is an expectation with polymer-modified flooring that, if laid
jointless, some minor cracking may occur but without significant debonding. General
serviceability may not therefore be affected. If crack control is required for
considerations of other service aspects, such as hygiene or chemical resistance, then
stress relief joints may be incorporated to limit bay size, and a sealant groove plus
sealant should be provided. BS 8204 Part 3 offers no guidance on the spacing of such
joints. Manufacturers’ advice should be sought.
Compressible isolation joints should be provided around the perimeter of all

protrusions through the topping, such as columns, plinths and manholes, to eliminate
the risk of crack propagation.
Movement joints should also be provided at the junction between floor areas that are to
be operating at significantly different temperatures. For example, flooring adjacent to
furnaces, ovens etc. may become warm enough to induce a lateral thermal gradient
sufficient to induce cracking.
Polymer-modified cementitious floorings are not moisture sensitive, and are therefore
independent of the base moisture condition. Hydrostatic pressure or rising damp may
under certain circumstances cause adhesion failure between the flooring and substrate.
Structural bases in contact with the ground should be protected by an effective dpm.
The moisture condition of the base may be critical to either the use of bonding agents
or their durability in service.
Some types of polymer used as a primer (not mixed in a cement slurry) require the base
to be dry to assist absorption. These types may only be suitable for use in dry service
conditions.
Polymers that are mixed with cement to form a bonding slurry must be applied to a
base that is saturated, but surface dry.
Epoxide dispersions may be used on either dry or damp bases. Solvent-free epoxides
usually require the base to be surface dry, although some manufacturers can provide
grades suitable for adhering to damp bases.
Typical requirements for the use of bonding agents are given in BS 8204 Part 3
Table 3. In all cases it is crucial that manufacturers’ recommendations on proportions,
mixing and application are strictly followed.
General guidance on service limitations is given in Section 2.3.2.A. Where the flooring
is to be exposed to chemical contamination or temperatures outside the range given in
Table 2.13, confirmation of suitability must be sought from the manufacturer of the
flooring.
Bonding agents may be of any of the types used in the polymer flooring
(see Section 2.3.2.A) or epoxide dispersions or solvent-free epoxides. Ordinary cement-
based bonding agents, without polymers, are not recommended. Quality of bonding
agent is limited by BS 8204 Part 3 by laboratory performance testing of bond strength.
The requirements are:

• minimum 20 N/mm 2 slant shear bond strength measured by the method given in
BS 6319. Part 4. 1989 (after air curing for 28 days at 20 ± 3 °C
and 55 ± 10% RH)
and
• Minimum 1 N/mm 2 (2 N/mm 2) tensile bond strength at 3 days (14 days) measured
by the method given in BS 8204 Part 3 Annex B.3.
Apart from this quality requirement, consideration should be given to the open time of
the bonding agent. Where laying techniques cannot guarantee covering with flooring
almost immediately, agents with a longer open time should be used. Typical open times
are:
polymer dispersion primer 3 hours
polymer dispersion with cement 20 minutes
epoxide dispersion 45 minutes
solvent free epoxide – standard set 1 hour
– slow set 3–24 hours
Materials quality and mix proportions for the polymer flooring are recommended in
BS 8204 Part 3. For the sake of quality consistency, pre-batched one-pack or two-pack
materials are preferable. Such products should be subject to a quality control system
operated by the manufacturer, produced within the recommendations of
BS 8204 Part 3, and be supplied with comprehensive application instructions. Some
products may be subject to a limited shelf life, and strict control should be exercised to
ensure usage or disposal within the stated shelf life.
Where polymer flooring is to be batched on site from the raw materials, there will be a
greater risk of error. It is essential that the specialist contractor has quality procedures
in place to ensure that the materials and proportions used are in strict accordance with
BS 8204 Part 3 or with the polymer manufacturer’s recommendations. A method
statement should be provided by the specialist contractor, declaring the materials and
proportions to be used, and the methods of production and control.
Laying of polymer-modified floorings should be entrusted only to specialist contractors

with proven skills and controls. Even when specialist contractors are employed, there is
a need for close supervision and inspection by the main contractor. The following
information summarises the major areas in which supervision and control are critical,
and gives details of the various requirements.
Specification
Check the suitability of the specification against BS 8204 Part 3 requirements and the
recommendations of the flooring manufacturer. Where differences exist, seek specialist
advice. Where there is a choice of the use of pre-bagged materials or site batching, the
former should be regarded as preferable.
Structural base
Check that the levels of the structural base, concrete screed or overslab do not impinge
on the specified topping thickness range.
Check that no services are to be included within the flooring thickness.

Base preparation
Check that the preparation of the base substrate is carried out correctly. In all cases this
must include:
• assessment of old bases for contamination likely to prevent bonding
• scabbling, gritblasting or planing to cleanly expose the coarse aggregate
• removal of dust and detritus by vacuum
• pre-conditioning to a surface moisture condition suitable for the bonding agent to
be used
• application of a polymer or epoxide bonding agent, at a stage when it can be fully
covered by the flooring within the open time
Ensure that after application of bonding agents, particularly those with longer open
times, traffic is restricted to prevent contamination.
Mixes and materials
Check that pre-blended materials are of the correct grade for the type of flooring, and
are within the shelf life. For two-pack materials, confirm that the liquid polymer is the
correct material for blending with the powder.
Check that the declared materials and proportions for site-batched floorings are within
the recommendations of BS 8204 Part 3 Tables 1 and 2, or those given by the polymer
manufacturer.
Batching and mixing
All materials for bonding agents and polymer floorings should be accurately
proportioned in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Batching by
weight is inherently more accurate, and is preferable. If volume batching is used,
accurately constructed gauge boxes should be used. For both weight and volume
batching, due allowance should be made for moisture in the aggregates.
For pre-blended mixes, check that the correct number and combination of component
parts are incorporated into each batch. For one-pack materials, ensure that the water
addition is within the manufacturer’s recommended range.
Mechanical mixing should be used for both bonding agents and polymer flooring. It is
essential that the mixing process ensures thorough blending in of all component parts,
without leaving materials adhering to the sides of the mixing drum.
Mixing of bonding agents, where necessary, should be in accordance with

manufacturers’ recommendations. For polymer/cement bonding agents, this will
normally be by electric drill fitted with a mixing paddle. Mixing of polymer flooring
should be in a forced-action rotating pan, paddle or trough-type mixer. Free-fall-type
mixers should not be used.
The mixing time should be as advised by the manufacturer. This will normally be in
the range l–2 minutes. Longer times should not be used, as they may lead to excessive
air entrainment. With some types of polymer, anti-foam admixtures may need to be
added to restrict air entrainment.

Final workability of the mix is critical to achieving good, uniform in-situ compaction.
Mixes tend to be sensitive to small changes in water content, which may lead to a mix
changing from too dry to too wet with only a very small addition. Very careful control
is therefore necessary.
The polymer flooring mix must be laid within the open time of the bonding agent. The
mix should be laid, compacted and finished within the usable life as indicated by the
manufacturer. The usable life will be affected by ambient temperatures, and care should
be taken in warm weather, particularly if the mixing area is not adjacent to the laying
area. Retarding admixtures may be appropriate, subject to manufacturers’ advice.
The flooring should be spread between temporarily placed screeding battens to ensure
the required minimum thickness. Where a level surface is required, spot levels should
be placed at a maximum of 2.5 m centres on a square grid. The material must be fully
consolidated by means of a screeding bar and float to produce a surface free from
lipping, irregularities and loose areas.
For stairs, formwork should be set accurately to profile, and the riser cavity filled with
the flooring mix and fully compacted, followed by laying of the tread topping. Use of
longer open-time bonding agents may be necessary to facilitate construction.
Finishing
The flooring should be finished with a steel or plastic float to provide a smooth closed
surface free from pinholes or other irregularities. Some polymer mixes may be suitable
for power-float finishing.
Over-trowelling may cause patchiness and blistering in the finished floor, and should
be avoided.
Pinholes and cavities in cast stair risers should be rubbed up with a

cement/polymer/fine aggregate mix after striking of formwork.
Curing
Adequate curing of polymer flooring is essential to ensure that the required

serviceability is achieved. By comparison with non-modified cementitious toppings,
there is a higher risk of cracking through very early evaporation of water while the mix
is still plastic. Early application of curing is therefore necessary, preferably within 2
hours of laying. Polyethylene sheet laid at this stage would mark the surface, and it
should be held clear of the surface and sealed at the perimeters. Since this is invariably
impractical, the use of a spray-applied curing membrane is preferred. If a spray-applied
material is used, it should be subject to confirmation of suitability by the flooring
manufacturer and, if a subsequent surface treatment is to be applied to the flooring,
should be either easily removable or compatible with the treatment.
Where polyethylene sheet curing is used, the period of curing should be for at least
1 day, but not more than 3 days. Following initial moist curing, the flooring should be
allowed to dry out slowly to avoid the risk of cracking. The building should not be
artificially heated for a period of 6–weeks, and then the temperature should be raised
slowly.

Protection
A period of 1–3 days at 15–20 °C should elapse before allowing pedestrian traffic, and
7 days prior to pressure water or steam cleaning. Longer periods are necessary at lower
curing temperatures.
After initial curing, protection of the floor should be provided to prevent contamination
or damage from subsequent site operations.
Surface treatments
In situations where enhanced hygiene, chemical resistance or easier cleaning is

required, the polymer flooring may be treated with a resin sealer coat. These materials
may be either a solvent-free or a solvent-containing system, applied in one or two coats
with a brush, roller or squeegee. Compatibility of the resin with the polymer flooring
should be checked. At the time of application, the flooring should have cured to a
visibly dry condition, which usually takes 3 days or more after the end of initial moist
curing. Where sealer coats are to be used, initial curing should not be by spray-applied
membrane unless compatibility with the sealer coat has been confirmed.
Check completed floorings with a straightedge to confirm compliance with the

Check floorings for debonding, delamination and cracking periodically as they

continue drying. All of these defects, if severe, may adversely affect serviceability.
BS 8204 Part 3 advises either cutting out and replacement, or specialist repair with a
low-viscosity resin, of areas where loss of adhesion is accompanied by visible or
measurable lifting at edges of bays or cracks to an extent that may result in fracture of
the topping under applied loads.
The density of the wet mix should be checked immediately after mixing. The density
should be greater than 2100 kg/m 3.
Additional testing that may be required is detailed in BS 8204 Part 3, and includes:
• Hardened dry density, measured in accordance with BS 1881 : Part 114 : 1983 on
3
samples taken from the in-situ flooring, should exceed 2000 kg/m .
• Slip resistance, measured in accordance with BS 8204 : Part 3 : Annex C, should
be 40 or greater measured either wet or dry as appropriate to the normal service
conditions. Refer also to Section 2.1.1 for guidance on requirements for special
areas such as stairs and ramps.
• Adhesion of the flooring to the substrate should be in excess of 0.8 N/mm 2 when
measured by the pull-off test method described in Annex B2 of BS 8204 Part 3.
• Surface hardness of the flooring, when measured by rebound hammer to the
method given in BS 1881 : Part 202 : 1986 should give minimum rebound hammer
values of 25, 30 and 35 for light, medium and heavy-duty floorings respectively.
Alternatively, the BRE screed soundness tester, as described in BS 8204 Part 1
Appendix B, may be used. The maximum indentation depth after four drops of the
weight should be 1.0 mm.

6.3 FLOW-APPLIED CEMENTITIOUS FLOORING
Flow-applied cementitious flooring is an extension to the same technology used for

cementitious flow-applied screeds (see Section 5.3). By careful selection of polymers,
cements, aggregates and admixtures, in combination with a full bond to the substrate,
the flow-applied screed is upgraded to provide higher strengths and abrasion resistance,
and hence will perform as a flooring. In most cases, the flooring is a one-pack material,
requiring only the addition of water on site, although some are two-pack, requiring the
addition of a separate liquid polymer.
The potential benefits of these materials are outlined in Section 2.3.2. In all cases, it is
essential to consult with the manufacturer of these proprietary systems to confirm
suitability for the particular service conditions.
Relevant documents
Refer to manufacturers’ data
Design criteria
Flow-applied floorings should be laid fully bonded, usually with a polymer primer
system, to a concrete substrate. The substrate should preferably be an in-situ concrete
structural base. Laying direct onto precast prestressed planks or prestressed beam and
block is not recommended. An overslab between precast units and topping is
preferable. If the surface levels of the substrate do not permit the flooring to be laid
within the recommended thicknesses, the manufacturer’s advice should be sought.
Some manufacturers supply a lower-grade, lower-cost, flow-applied material that can
be used to form a regulating screed. This regulating screed should not generally be used
in lieu of a concrete overslab over prestressed plank or beam and block bases.
The recommended thickness of the flooring will be determined by the manufacturer,

but will typically be restricted by an absolute minimum thickness of 4–5 mm and a
maximum of 15–20 mm. A nominal thickness of 8–10 mm is common. In new-build
applications, the structural base should be finished to an accuracy that is fully
coordinated with the recommended thickness criteria. This will usually require the base
accuracy to be the same as that required in the finished floor. In refurbishment, which
is the most common usage of this type of flooring, the existing base accuracy should be
assessed to determine whether the flooring can be used within the recommended
thickness range. If not, allowance should be made for the use of a flow-applied
regulating screed of a compatible type.
For the high degree of bond required, it is essential that the substrate surface is not
friable, and that the upper layer of concrete base has sufficient tensile strength to
prevent shear failure from shrinkage stresses imposed on it during setting, hardening
and drying of the flooring. Manufacturers’ advice should be sought on specific
requirements for base concrete quality. If such information is not available, then the
requirements for polymer-modified floorings should be adopted (refer to Section 6.2).
To achieve satisfactory bond, the base substrate should be prepared as directed by the
manufacturer. This normally requires removal of any contamination, and gritblasting
to produce a clean, lightly exposed aggregate texture, free from all dust and detritus.

Again, if such information is not available, the same requirements as for polymer-
modified floorings should be adopted.
Prior to laying of the flooring, the prepared and cleaned substrate should be primed.
This normally comprises a polymer dispersion that is allowed to become tacky before
covering. This primer has two purposes: first to improve bond, and second to seal the
substrate and prevent bubbles of air from rising through the newly laid flooring.
Bonded flow-applied flooring will reflect any movements that occur in the structural
base. Any joints in the base designed to accommodate movement should be reflected
through the flooring at the same width and to accurate alignment. Construction joints
in the base that are expected to move may reflect through the finished flooring as
cracks. This may be prevented by either forming coincident construction joints in the
flooring, which may interfere with the large-area laying process, or by accurately
marking joint positions during laying, and subsequently forming sawn and sealed joints
in the flooring after hardening.
Advice on the need for additional joints in the flooring, other than those to
accommodate base movements, should be sought from the manufacturer. Normally, the
low inherent stresses in this type of flooring at the design thickness enable laying of
larger areas with no joints, and with little risk of stress cracking. Where joints are
deemed necessary, these should be sawn and sealed after hardening to prevent
interference with the large area laying process.
Flow-applied cementitious floorings are not moisture sensitive, but may be affected by
hydrostatic pressure or rising damp. Structural bases in contact with the ground should
therefore be suitably protected by a dpm. The base should normally be surface dry at
the time of primer application to enable the primer to soak into the substrate. The
moisture condition of the base, as determined by the relative humidity given in
BS 8203, may be limited by some manufacturers. In all cases, manufacturers’ advice
should be sought on aspects of base moisture condition.
General guidance on service limitations is given in Section 2.3.2.A. In all cases it is

advisable to check with the manufacturer on suitability for specific service conditions.
Where doubt exists, inspection of installations subject to similar service conditions is
advisable. The flowing nature of the material precludes its use on stairs. Services
cannot be incorporated in this type of flooring, and must be either positioned in the
structural base or routed elsewhere.
Materials are supplied pre-batched either as days one-pack or two-pack products.

Quality of the product is therefore determined by the manufacturer, and production
should be subject to a quality control scheme. The manufacturer should also provide
full technical and application data. Some products may be subject to a limited shelf life,
and strict control should be exercised to ensure usage or disposal within the stated shelf
life.

Since the materials are proprietary, and should normally be laid by a specialist
contractor, it is recommended that a comprehensive method statement should be
provided by the specialist, covering all aspects of quality control, production and
workmanship.
The rapid laying process (up to 1000 m2 per day) normally requires a large area of
unobstructed floor to be made available to the contractor for a period of 3–4 days for
preparation and laying. Failure to comply with these requirements will increase
application times, and may significantly increase costs. Good coordination and
communication on site is essential.
The following information summarises areas in which site supervision and control are
Specification
Ensure that the specialist contractor’s method statement, specification and

manufacturer’s recommendations are all compatible, particularly with regard to
flooring thickness/base tolerance relationship, and for suitability for the specific service
conditions.
Structural base
Check that the levels of the base do not impinge on the permitted thickness range of the
flooring material to be used. If they do, consult with the manufacturer on appropriate
methods of overcoming the problem.
Ensure that no services are to be incorporated in the flooring thickness.
Base preparation
Check that the base preparation is carried out correctly to the manufacturer’s
recommended procedures. In all cases, this should include:
• gritblasting to lightly expose the aggregate
• pre-conditioning to a moisture condition as advised by the manufacturer
• application of a primer by brush, roller or spray
Ensure that the primer does not become contaminated prior to overlaying with the
flooring. Protection should be provided against traffic and any potential airborne
contamination such as dust, powders, sprays from nearby works.
Mixes and materials
Check that the grade of material is in accordance with the specification and/or method
statement. Ensure that the materials used are within any shelf life limitation stated by
the manufacturer. Where two-pack products are used, ensure that the correct
combination of gauging liquid/powder is used.

Batching and mixing
Check that the batching and mixing procedures comply with the method statement.
Subject to manufacturers’ recommendations, materials may be mixed either in a drum

with an electric drill and paddle (batch mixing) or in a purpose-made mixer/pump unit.
For large floor areas static or mobile silo/mixer/pump units may be used.
Where batch mixing is used, water added to the mix must be measured in calibrated
containers, and maintained within the manufacturer’s recommended water content
range. Use of water contents that are too high or too low may adversely affect flow
characteristics and finished quality.
Where continuous mixing is used through either a mixer/pump unit or a

silo/mixer/pump unit, the water supply should be controlled to maintain workability
within the manufacturer’s stated limits. Samples should be taken by the specialist
contractor for workability testing.
Laying
Laying techniques may vary depending upon material and specialist contractor. Level
control may be achieved either by working to pre-positioned nails or pads fixed to the
base, or by laser levelling. Placing and spreading either by pump or by pouring from
the mixing drum relies mainly on the flowing and self-levelling properties of the
flooring. A variety of hand-operated tools may be used to assist spreading and levelling.
For smaller room-size areas, laying is normally continuous, working to a ‘live-edge’. In

larger areas, the flooring is usually laid in strips of 4–5 m width, separated by foam
edge-forms stuck to the concrete base. These are removed after initial stiffening of the
mix and prior to laying adjacent bays.
Finishing
The need for finishing is largely dependent upon the material used. Manufacturers’
advice should always be followed. Some products, notably two-pack materials, may
require the use of a spiked roller after initial laying. This assists in removal of air
bubbles, localised levelling, and imparts a slight texture to the finished surface. Other
products, with greater self-smoothing properties, may require only a light pass of a
long-handled float or similar tool, or no finishing at all.
Curing
Curing is not normally necessary for flow-applied cementitious flooring, although it is

essential to follow manufacturers’ recommendations on ambient conditions during and
after laying. These are typically a minimum temperature of 5 °C and a freedom from
draughts.
Protection
Manufacturers’ advice should be followed on the time required before permitting

pedestrian traffic. Setting and hardening times are relatively short, and light pedestrian
traffic is commonly permitted after 24 hours. Thereafter, protection should be provided
to prevent damage or contamination from following site operations.

Surface treatments
In some cases a subsequent surface coating may be required to improve appearance,

hygiene or slip resistance. This would normally be a thin coating of epoxy resin,
incorporating a grit-texture where additional slip resistance is required. Adhesion of
such coatings on the dense smooth surface of flow-applied cementitious floorings can
be problematical. It is recommended that such coatings should only be used if they are
part of a flooring system package offered by the manufacturer, and are laid by the same
specialist contractor. This should ensure materials compatibility. Where subsequent
coatings are required, check that the surface preparation/priming of the flow-applied
flooring is strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Tests should normally be carried out by the specialist contractor during flooring
production to verify workability/flowing characteristics of the mix. The test method
may vary between manufacturers, but normally comprises filling a circular mould on a
base plate with the mix, removing the mould, and measuring the spread of the material.
Results should be compared with manufacturers’ data. This test is essential where
continuous mixing is used to ensure that the water content of the mix is within the
manufacturer’s permitted range.

6.4 ASPHALTIC AND BITUMINOUS FLOORINGS
This group of floorings can be split into two sub-groups: traditional mastic asphalt
flooring, and proprietary bituminous flooring.
6.4.1 Mastic asphalt flooring
The use of mastic asphalt as a screed has been covered previously in Section 5.7. When
asphalt is used to form the finished floor surface, different grades may be required as
compared with screeds, particularly for heavier-duty usage. The laying techniques are
largely the same as for asphalt screeds. This section should be read in conjunction with
Section 5.7.
Relevant documents
Refer to Section 5.7
Design criteria
For flooring, mastic asphalt may be laid at various nominal thicknesses of between
15 and 50 mm and of several different grades to suit a number of traffic- and
temperature-related service conditions. Recommendations for the design and
installation of mastic asphalt flooring are given in BS 8204 Part 5. Design of flooring
is a specialist activity, and the advice of the asphalt contractor or the Mastic Asphalt
Council and Employers Federation (MACEF) should also be sought to ensure that a
suitable system is selected and designed for the particular service conditions. Inspection
of existing installations under similar service conditions is advisable. MACEF provides

full details of design and application of this specialised material, and full reference
should be made to their range of publications.
The thickness of the asphalt flooring should be reasonably uniform, to prevent

differential stresses on cooling. The structural base surface should therefore be
controlled to an accuracy tolerance compatible with that required in the finished
flooring. Where the structural base is of insufficient accuracy, provision should be
made for an interposed levelling material of either mastic asphalt or a cement-based
screed. When this is necessary, MACEF or the specialist asphalt contractor should be
consulted to determine the most appropriate material for the service conditions and
make-up thickness.
In wet areas where falls are to be incorporated in the finished floor, as may be the case
in wet working or washdown areas, the falls should be formed in the structural base to
ensure flooring thickness uniformity. Preferred minimum falls to achieve full self-
draining should be 1 in 60.
The information given in Section 5.7 on the relationship of asphalt screeds to the base
equally applies to asphalt floorings. Grades I, II and III flooring should be laid on a
separating membrane. Grade IV flooring should preferably be laid directly on the
concrete base, although a separating membrane is essential when the base:
• is of a porous or open texture such as no-fines or lightweight concrete
• is concrete containing fine cracks
Where surface contamination is evident, reference should be made to the mastic asphalt
contractor for guidance.
A separating membrane may also be necessary when:

• rapid cooling of the asphalt will prevent the required finish from being obtained
• blowing of the asphalt is likely to occur
In all cases where structural movement joints are incorporated in the base they should
be reflected through the asphalt flooring at the same width and to accurate alignment.
The advice of the asphalt contractor or MACEF should be sought on suitable detail for
the joint section. If a proprietary joint system is used, it is essential to ensure that it will
accommodate the expected traffic type and degree of movement, and is capable of
forming a watertight seal with the asphalt.
Although laid in bays to allow cooling stresses to take place, the finished flooring is
jointless (except at structural movement joints), and where correctly laid with the
necessary relationship with the base, will remain free from significant disruption and
able to relieve its own inherent stresses.
The structural base surface should be dry at the time of laying the flooring.

Where the asphalt is laid over a separating membrane, either on ground-bearing
concrete slabs without a dpm or on suspended slabs located over areas where wet
processes could permit moisture vapour to penetrate the concrete, the separating
membrane must be glass-fibre tissue. Use of sheathing felt membrane in these
situations may lead to rotting of the membrane and subsequent disruption of the
flooring.
Guidance on service limitations is given in Section 2.3.2.B. Advice should always be

sought from the asphalt contractor or from MACEF on the most appropriate grade of
material for the particular service conditions.
The constituent materials of mastic asphalt are bituminous/asphaltic binders and

aggregate. The quantities and qualities of these can be varied to produce a material
with physical characteristics to suit different conditions of loading and temperature. For
a given material, increased temperature will result in an increased liability to

indentation under sustained loading, and reduced temperature will result in an increase
in brittleness. It is essential, therefore, that the grade of asphalt selected is compatible
with the temperature and loading conditions anticipated.
Mastic asphalt is available in four British Standard Specification grades:
Grade I special hard flooring

Grade II light-duty flooring
Grade III medium industrial flooring (excluding heavy trucking)
Grade IV heavy industrial flooring
BS 8204 Part 5 gives guidelines for typical applications and limitations for the various
grades (see Table 6.1).
• Grade I Special hard flooring

Available in red, brown or black. Also used extensively as an underlay/screed to receive
other floorings. Designed for use at relatively high ambient temperatures
(25–30 °C). It must not be laid in the open or in unheated buildings, or at ambient
temperatures below 10 °C. Temperature in service must not be below 10 °C.
• Grade II Light-duty flooring

Available in red, brown or black. May be used as an underlay/screed. Designed for use
in situations of moderate usage where point loading will not occur, or where a small
degree of indentation is acceptable. It must not be laid in the open or in unheated
buildings.
• Grade III Medium industrial flooring

General-purpose industrial flooring suitable for most factory conditions and industrial
premises, except where heavy trucking occurs.
• Grade IV Heavy industrial flooring

Intended for factories and other enclosed areas subjected to heavy trucking, abrasion
and impact. Where very heavy traffic is anticipated, proprietary metal grills can be set
into the asphalt flooring to improve resistance to indentation.

Table 6.1 BS 8204 guidelines for mastic asphalt flooring.
Grade and thickness
I II III IV
15–20 mm 15–20 mm 20–30 mm 30–50 mm
Hospital wards
•
Corridors – light traffic
•
Corridors – heavy traffic •
School classrooms
•
Shops (with movable racks) •
Shops (with fixed racks)
•
Offices •
Factory floors – light duty •
Factory floors – medium duty
•
Factory floors – heavy duty •

Loading sheds •
Breweries •
Railway platforms
•
Domestic flooring
•
Flooring subject to heavy foot
traffic
•
• Special grades
Where the properties of Grades I to IV above do not fulfil specific service conditions,
notably those of temperature and chemical contamination, special grades of mastic
asphalt are available. The effects of these two agencies may be interdependent. Advice,
should always be sought from the asphalt contractor or MACEF to determine the most
appropriate grades. Full details of all unusual conditions must be declared. Specific
conditions for which special grades are available include:
– dilute acids and vegetable extracts at normal temperatures
– spark-free flooring
– radioactive contamination
– hot water
Oil resistant grades are no longer available and so an oil-resistant coating should be
applied over the mastic asphalt
Mastic asphalt is not resistant to most solvents, alkali solutions at above 30 °C, and
concentrated solutions of syrups and molasses. Where combinations of contaminants or
complex industrial liquors are likely, laboratory testing is advisable to confirm
suitability.
In wet working areas, particularly where chemical contamination is likely and washing
down is necessary, falls should be provided to channels or outlets. The minimum falls
in the floor and in channels should be 1 in 60. Details at channels, outlets, skirting
perimeters, etc. should be in accordance with MACEF recommendations.

Application of mastic asphalt is a specialist operation, and should be entrusted only to

contractors with the necessary proven skills.
Specification
Check the suitability of the specification against BS 8204 Part 5 requirements and with
the recommendations of MACEF.
Structural base
Check that the levels of the structural base or screed are suitable for the required
flooring thickness, and will not result in excessive variations in thickness.
Check that falls to channels and outlets, and falls in channels, have been correctly
formed in the substrate.
Base preparation
Where an isolating membrane is to be used, check that it is of the correct type, and that
the base is swept clean of dust and detritus before laying the membrane. It should be
laid loose, with 50 mm lapped joints.
Where the flooring is to be laid without an isolating membrane, the concrete substrate
should be a hand- or power-floated texture, free from dust and detritus and adherent
contamination such as mortar or plaster droppings.
Any contamination of the substrate should be assessed for potential deleterious effect
on the flooring, and removed if necessary. Reference should normally be made to the
asphalt manufacturer.
Check that the correct grade of mastic asphalt is used.
Mastic asphalt may be delivered either in a molten condition in a mobile mixer, or in

25 kg blocks for re-melting on site. Re-melting should be carried out in mechanically
agitated mixers. Cauldrons should only be used in exceptional circumstances, governed
by site conditions and the area of flooring to be laid. Temperature of the mixed material
should normally be between 200 and 220 °C, but should never exceed 240 °C.
Overheating may adversely affect the performance of the finished flooring.
Laying
Refer to Section 5.7.
Finishing
Check that the specified finish is applied. Matt sand-rubbed texture should normally be
used where enhanced slip resistance is required or where appearance is of secondary
importance. Smooth surface texture produced by normal floating is preferred where
coloured asphalt is used. Sand-rubbing can deaden the colour.

Curing
The flooring should not be subjected to traffic until it has cooled to the ambient
temperature.
Protection
Surface treatments
The advice of the asphalt contractor should be sought on suitable types of cleaning
agent and polish. Where the mastic asphalt is to be used as a screed to receive a
subsequent applied flooring, refer to Section 5.7.

Check the completed flooring for compliance with the specified surface accuracy
tolerances.
Slip resistance, measured in accordance with BS 8204 Part 5, Annex B, should be 40 or

greater in both the wet and dry conditions.
6.4.2 Proprietary bituminous flooring
Proprietary flooring based on a mixture of modified bituminous emulsions, cement,

sand and aggregates is available that is cold-applied to provide a black/grey seamless
floor most suited for use in exhibition halls, warehouses and production areas. Heavy-
duty grades are available. Special proprietary coloured coatings may be applied where a
coloured finish is required, such as in sports halls and showrooms.
The combination of materials imparts a degree of permanent plasticity to the flooring,

which limits cracking or damage, but where these do occur, they tend to ‘self-heal’
under continued trafficking. Unlike asphalt, the thermoplastic properties of the
material are negligible, enabling a greater service temperature range of –20 to +60 °C.
Normal application thickness may vary between 15 and 30 mm. Greater thicknesses are
technically satisfactory, although economically should be avoided. The flooring is laid
bonded to the substrate with various types of primer/bonding agent, depending upon
the type and porosity of the substrate. The flooring may be laid over a variety of
different types of substrate, including new and old concrete structural bases, asphalt,
and some types of existing flooring. In new-build projects, ground-bearing floor areas
are commonly formed in dry-lean concrete, which can be laid without the need for
movement provision, and over which this type of flooring can be laid direct.
This proprietary flooring system is laid by appointed specialist contractors only. Design
of flooring should be entrusted to the manufacturer of the system. The remaining
information in this section summarises typical manufacturers’ recommendations. If any
doubt arises over interpretation, refer to the manufacturers.
Relevant documents
Manufacturers’ data.

Design criteria
The substrate levels should preferably be controlled to an accuracy enabling laying of

the flooring within the thickness range 15–30 mm. Applied thicknesses outside this
range are possible but undesirable.
The flooring is fully bonded to the base substrate, and will be subjected to the same
movements as the base. It is usually necessary to reflect any contraction or expansion
joints in the structural base through the flooring at the same width and to accurate
alignment. Cracks or construction joints in the base subject to minor movement are
normally accommodated by the inherent flexibility of the flooring.
Flooring is laid jointless, between any structural movement joints in the base.
The flooring may be laid over concrete bases irrespective of the concrete age, provided
it is of sufficient surface hardness and is surface dry.
The materials used in the flooring, and their quality and relative proportions, are
determined by the manufacturer.
The flooring is suitable for accepting concentrated loads of up to 6 N/mm 2 for standard
2
grade, or 10 N/mm for heavy-duty grade. The appropriate grade should be determined
by the manufacturer, taking into account dynamic/static loads, wheel size, bearing
areas, etc.
Operating temperatures should be limited to –20 to +60 °C.
The flooring is resistant against light oil spillage, although softening may occur with
excessive spillage over a period of time. Manufacturers’ advice should be sought on all
other aspects of suitability for specific service conditions.
Specification
Check the specification against the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Structural base
Check that the levels of the structural base or substrate over which the flooring is to be
laid, permit the flooring to be used within the 15–30 mm thickness normally specified.
Consult the manufacturer or specialist contractor where thicknesses outside this range
are necessary.

Base preparation
Check that the manufacturer’s advice on surface preparation, removal of contamination

and usage of primers/bonding agents is strictly adhered to.
For new concrete bases, the preferred surface texture is a smooth or slightly ridged
finish (max 3 mm ridge) and free from laitance.
For existing bases, removal of contaminants such as oil, grease and rubber will require
scrubbing with caustic soda solution. For badly affected areas, steam cleaning or bush
hammering may be necessary. Holes should be pre-filled with an initial application of
the flooring mix. All substrates should be rigid, stable and cleaned of all dust and
detritus.
Normal concrete surfaces should usually be initially primed with a diluted application
of the modified bitumen emulsion and, after drying, a bonding agent comprising a
blend of cement and the emulsion should be applied. For non-porous surfaces such as
asphalt or power-trowelled concrete, the initial primer coat is replaced by a
cement/sand/special emulsion coating to provide the necessary interface bond. In all
cases, the flooring mix must be laid while the final bonding agent application is still
wet.
Mixes and materials
Mix designs are determined by the manufacturer, as appropriate to the service

conditions. Adjustments to standard mixes may be necessary to account for variations
aggregate quality. Check that the specialist contractor has approved mix designs and
batch quantities for the materials to be used.
Batching and mixing
Batching and mixing normally take place on site. Materials are normally gauged by
volume. Check that the batching procedures adopted give correctly gauged proportions.
The use of gauge boxes is preferred. Adjustment should be made for any moisture in
the sand.
Mixing should be in a forced-action mechanical mixer. The sequence of addition to the

mixer is important to ensure thorough mixing of all materials. The water, aggregate
and bitumen emulsion should be added and mixed to ensure distribution of the
emulsion, prior to adding the cement and sand.
The final workability of the mix should be judged by the specialist contractor to suit the
laying conditions. Normally this will be of consistency such that, when tipped from a
dumper, the material will stand up as a heap.
Laying, compacting and finishing
The mixed material must be laid over the substrate while the bonding agent is still wet.
Steel strips should be used as side-forms to control the thickness of the flooring and the
finished level. The forms should be set higher than the finished level to allow for
approximately 30% compaction. After initial spreading and screeding between the
forms, the flooring should be compacted and finished by trowelling with twin- or triple-
headed power-trowelling machines.

Curing
The ambient temperature at the time of application should be within the range
5–30 °C.
Protection
Traffic should be restricted from the newly laid flooring for a period of at least:
• 36 hours for foot traffic
• 72 hours for light pneumatic-tyred traffic
• 7 days for intensive traffic
Thereafter, protection should be provided against contamination from paint, plaster,
mortar etc. The flooring should also be protected from damage by following trades.
Timber boarding may be necessary to protect against loading in excess of that expected
in the finished floor.
Surface treatments
Thin surface coatings may be applied to this type of flooring for special purposes, such
as to provide a coloured finish in showrooms or sports floors. These coatings should
normally be provided by the manufacturer of the flooring, and must be used strictly in
accordance with their recommendations.
6.5 RESIN FLOORING
Synthetic resin flooring is a mixture of synthetic resins used in combination with

hardeners and accelerators and graded fillers such as silica flour and various
aggregates. The amount and type of fillers have a great influence on the properties of
the cured flooring, i.e. compressive strength, impact/abrasion resistance, and surface
texture.
The range of synthetic resin systems used in flooring includes:
• epoxy
• methacrylate
• polyester
• polyurethane
Synthetic resin flooring can be divided into three basic categories according to product
thickness and function:
• seals and coatings, generally of thickness 0.1–0.5 mm
• thin layer self-smoothing systems applied at 2–4 mm thickness
• heavy-duty, heavily tilled, trowel-applied screeds 5–12 mm thick
A comparison of some properties of the available synthetic resin flooring systems is

given in Table 6.2.
During installation, all synthetic resin flooring systems will have an odour.
Manufacturers’ advice on health and safety precautions must be adhered to. Some
products may cause tainting of foodstuffs, and appropriate precautions should be taken
in operational food factories.

Table 6.2 A general comparison of properties of synthetic resin flooring systems.
Resin type Application Rate of cure at Resistance to Resistance to Volumetric

and cure at ambient oxidising steam shrinkage
temperature temperatures chemicals cleaning
below 0 °C
Epoxy No slow low low low
Methacrylate Yes rapid low medium high
Polyester No rapid medium low high
Polyurethane No medium low high medium
Odours arise from:

• Epoxy curing agents – a free amine content that is reduced on application as
the material cures.
• Methacrylate – a free methacrylate content that reduces on
application as the polymer cross-links.
• Polyester – free styrene content that reduces on application as the

polymer cross-links.
• Polyurethane – a free isocyanate content that reduces on application
as the material cures.
Additional solvents can be used with epoxies and polyurethanes, which gives an
additional risk of flammability during application.
Relevant documents

NBS M60 29 Design
FeRFA Guide No.4 27 Application
Manufacturers’ data.
The CIRIA document The use of epoxy, polyester and similar reactive polymers in
construction is currently in preparation, and is to be published as CIRIA Report
FR/CP/37.
Design criteria
The sole function of the synthetic resin flooring is to provide a protective finish to the
substrate, and the substrate should be designed independently of the protective finish to
withstand all structural, thermal and mechanical stresses and loads that occur during
service. Failure of the substrate to remain stable will invariably affect the stability of
the flooring. Any cracking of the substrate is likely to reflect in the flooring.
Resin flooring should be laid fully bonded to a concrete substrate. The substrate should
preferably be an in-situ concrete structural base. Laying directly onto precast units of
prestressed planks or beam and block is not recommended without an interposed
concrete overslab.
The manufacturer of the resin flooring must be consulted on the suitability of their
product for all the declared conditions because of the varying degrees of resistance of
different resins to the range of chemicals encountered and the necessity to include the
correct amounts of aggregates and fillers.

Where a screed is required to regulate surface accuracy deficiencies in the substrate, it
should be of fine concrete. Cement/sand screeds are not generally suitable.
Surface preparation and achievement of a high degree of bond to the substrate are
crucial to performance, and thus great emphasis should be placed on ensuring that the
substrate is suitable for bonding.
Preparation and cleaning of substrate
When applying a synthetic resin flooring to a concrete substrate, thorough surface

preparation is essential. The ideal concrete surface for a resin finish should be:
• free from laitance and contamination

• mature and dry as measured by a electrical conductivity or hygrometer – refer to
BS 8203 : 1987 Appendix A – Dampness testing
• textured with a sandpaper-like finish
• laid to falls as necessary

• laid with a surface accuracy the same as that required in the finished flooring
• structurally sound and stable under operating conditions
BS 8204 Part 3 gives the following criteria for the concrete substrate for polymer
flooring. This is considered as equally applicable as a minimum requirement for resin
flooring:
• minimum grade BS 5328 C35
• minimum cement content 300 kg/ m3

• concrete not to contain water-repellent admixtures
• minimum age 14 days prior to laying flooring
• minimum rebound hammer value*
25 for floorings up to 15 mm thick
30 for floorings over 15 mm thick
• minimum surface tensile strengt h + 0.8 N/mm 2

(alternative to rebound hammer
testing)
*measured in accordance with BS1881 Part 202. 1986
+
measured in accordance with BS8204 Part 3 Annex B1
New concrete surfaces should be prepared by mechanised methods such as scabbling,

gritblasting or planing to produce a clean, exposed aggregate finish. Remaining dust
and detritus must be removed, preferably by vacuum, prior to laying the topping.
Acid etching is not a recommended procedure for preparing concrete surfaces because
of the formation of inorganic salts near the surface of the concrete, which can help to
promote the problem referred to as ‘osmosis’.
Old concrete floors are probably contaminated, and it may be necessary to use a variety
of other methods including chemical cleaners, detergents, steam cleaning and high-
pressure water jetting. This is normally carried out prior to mechanical preparation.
It must be recognised that not all surfaces can be cleaned successfully or economically,
and the alternative of removing and relaying the substrate should be considered.
For old concrete floors there is always some doubt about the existence of a dpm.

The best method of assessment is to tape a metre square of heavy-duty polythene onto
the concrete surface. This should be left in position for at least 24 hours, prior to
removal and the immediate use of a hygrometer in accordance with BS 8203 : 1987
Appendix A. This procedure can be repeated over larger floor areas.
As a result of the above test procedure, any floor with a suspect waterproof membrane
requires pre-treatment with a specialised epoxy surface waterproof membrane prior to
the application of any epoxy resin flooring.
Movement joints
Bonded resin floorings will reflect any movements that occur in the structural base,
screed or overslab. The spacing of movement joints is determined by the design of the
sub-floor. All movement joints in the sub-floor must be carried through the synthetic
resin flooring. In areas where trucking occurs it may be necessary to reinforce the
screed edges with stainless steel at the movement joints. Joints should be filled with an
appropriate sealant.
through the flooring.
Movement joints should be incorporated in suspended floors subject to deflection over

the line of rigid supports such as beams.
Drainage channels
Depending on the plant layout, drainage channels should always be designed to be

outside trafficked areas when possible. Falls on the floor should discharge liquids as
quickly as possible to the channels. Gradients between 1:80 and 1:35 are
recommended, the precise fall being varied to cope with conditions in different areas.
The choice of gradient will depend on the amount and type of spillage anticipated.
Large and more corrosive spillages need to be taken away more readily. The falls
within channels should usually be greater than those in the floor.
Channel design detail can take a variety of forms, and in new installations should be
designed in conjunction with a specialist application.
Skirting details (see Fig. 6.4)
When there is a requirement for a perimeter movement joint, the free edge of the
synthetic resin flooring is terminated into a chase formed adjacent to the expansion
joint rebate. The width of the chase should be nominally twice the thickness of the
flooring. Two methods of forming the upstand are to use either a ceramic tile or a
continuation of the synthetic resin flooring.
Where no movement joint is necessary a coved vertical extension of the synthetic resin
flooring is applied.
Generally, new concrete should be at least 21 days old before applying resin flooring
systems. A moisture test should be carried out. The moisture content should not be
greater than 5% using an electrical conductivity method. An alternative method is to
measure the relative humidity at the slab surface using a calibrated hygrometer. The

resin upstand resin upstand
turned into turned into
chase in wall chase in wall
r e s i n fl oori ng
sealant t u r n e d i nt o fillet at
rebate internal angles
concret e
screed
or base
joint filler
Resin upstand skirting R esi n upst and ski rt i ng

with expansion detail wi t hout expansi on det ai l
ceram i c t i l e
ski rt i ng
resi n foori ng
t urned i nt o
rebat e
seal ant
concret e
screed
or base
j oi nt fi l l er
C eram i c t i l e ski rt i ng
wi t h expansi on det ai l
Fig. 6.4 Typical skirting details in synthetic resin flooring.

test methods are given in BS 8203 : 1987. Appendix A ‘Dampness testing’. Always use
the test method recommended by the manufacturer of the resin flooring.
It should be noted, however, that special resin-based systems are available for laying
onto damp concrete. These systems are based on epoxy resins, and employ moisture-
tolerant epoxy primers.
Uses and properties
Synthetic resin flooring systems have been developed to resist the combination of
severe conditions to which a floor can be subjected in the following typical industries:
• chemical
• petroleum and petrochemical
• food, brewing and soft-drinks
• warehousing and storage
• engineering
• laboratories
• cold storage
The different types of synthetic resin flooring have varying degrees of resistance to a
very wide range of chemicals. It is essential that the manufacturer of the resin floor is
consulted on the suitability of their product for declared service conditions.
It is of paramount importance that the building owner/occupier declares all of the

possible service conditions and materials that may contact the flooring. Failure to
do this may result in the use of an inappropriate type of resin formulation. The
possibility of taint of foodstuffs must also be considered.
Heavy-duty floorings are used where high resistance to impact and abrasion are
required, especially in heavy engineering, trucked workshops and heavy trucking
aisles. These floorings contain graded natural or synthetic aggregates, and are normally
applied in thickness above 5 mm. They are formulated to give the highest compressive
strengths, 60–120 N/mm 2 with correspondingly high tensile and flexural strengths.
Self-smoothing floorings are mostly solvent-free, and offer the best combination of
resistance to chemicals and abrasion. They can also be tailored to incorporate various
degrees of slip resistance, anti-static and electrically conducting properties, and a wide
range of colour shades. Several resin-based systems can also be steam cleaned. They
are used for medium-duty exposure, particularly in production and process areas
requiring optimum levels of hygiene and chemical and abrasion resistance. For
installation in proximity to foodstuffs, beverages or pharmaceuticals, systems with low
odour during application and which are non-tainting when fully cured are available.
Seals and coatings are used for light to medium production, assembly or packaging
areas or for warehouse and storage areas. The range of products can be solvent-free,
solvent-containing or water dispersions, and are specifically designed as wearing
surface treatments.
Seals and coatings may also used in combination with a heavy-duty resin flooring to
provide the final finish.
The synthetic resin systems can provide flooring with many of the following attributes:

• rapid installation and curing
• high resistance to wear and impact
• high resistance to a wide range of chemicals
• seamless and hygienic finish
• non-dusting in service
The laying of synthetic resin-based flooring should be entrusted only to specialist

contractors. Even when specialist contractors are employed, their ability should be
checked with the manufacturer of the product to be applied and any trade organisation
e.g. FeRFA (the Federation for Repair and Protection of Structures). Further, there is
always a need for close inspection of the work by the main contractor. The following
information provides details of the various requirements.
Specification
Check the suitability of the specification with the client, specialist contractor and
flooring manufacturer.
Structural base
Check that the levels of the structural base, concrete screed or overslab do not impinge
on the specified flooring thickness range.
Check that no services are to be included within the flooring thickness.
Base preparation
Check that the preparation of the base substrate is carried out correctly. In all cases,
this must include:
• scabbling, gritblasting or planing to cleanly expose the coarse aggregate
• pre-conditioning to a surface moisture condition suitable for any primer to be used
• application of a primer at a stage when it can be fully covered by the flooring
within the open time.
Ensure that after application of the primer, trafftc is restricted to prevent

contamination.
Materials
Check that resin components are stored under cover in dry conditions. Ambient
conditions in the storage area must comply with the manufacturer’s recommendations
to ensure that the shelf life of the material (i.e. the length of time that the material can
be kept before use) is not exceeded. It is important that instruction labels do not become
detached from the containers to which they apply.
Generally, resin flooring materials should be maintained at temperatures of 15–20 °C

for 24 hours before and during the application period to facilitate application and cure.

For self-levelling systems, storage and application conditions are even more critical to
satisfactory results in respect of flow properties, air release and surface blooming.
Mixing the components
The components of any resin-based product must be mixed thoroughly, preferably in

suitable mechanical mixers. It is usual to mix the liquid components together first
before mixing in fillers and aggregates.
The usable or pot life of the mixed materials depends on the volume of the mixed
material and its temperature. The manufacturer’s datasheet should provide an accurate
indication of the pot life of its mixed product over a range of temperatures.
For small resin-system packs (up to 3 litres) thorough mixing of the liquids and
fillers/aggregates can be achieved with a flat-bladed palette knife.
For larger mixes, mechanical mixers such as the rotating drum mixer with fixed or
counter rotating blades should be used.
The base component is emptied into the mixing container, and the mixer is started.
While the drum is rotating, the hardener component is added, ensuring that the total
contents of the container are drained into the mixer. Mixing is carried out for a
minimum period of 2 minutes or until the hardener is thoroughly dispersed throughout
the mix and a uniform consistency has been achieved.
In this latter instance the base component consists of a factory-mixed blend of resin,
pigments, fillers and aggregates.
In other instances, the solid component is supplied separately and has to be added and
mixed with the already mixed base resin and hardener.
Priming the substrate
The two-component primer is supplied in pre-weighed quantities ready for mixing. The
components are thoroughly mixed with a palette knife and applied to the substrate by
stiff brush or lambswool roller. The substrate must be completely wetted by the primer
without pooling.
Laying and finishing the mixed material
The mixed flooring material should be applied to the primed surface. Epoxy primer
should generally be overlaid while it is still tacky. Methacrylate primers may require
curing prior to overlaying. In all cases, the manufacturer’s advice should be followed.
Trowel-applied heavy-duty floorings should be well consolidated between temporary

placed levelling bars to ensure uniform thickness and a level surface. A final smooth
finish is achieved by using a steel trowel.
Self-smoothing compositions are applied by spreading evenly over the sub-base using a
serrated trowel. Entrapped air is removed by rolling with a spiked roller.
Seals and coatings may be either solvent-free or solvent-containing systems. They are
applied by brush, squeegee or roller.

Curing
The flooring system should be allowed to cure according to the resin manufacturer’s
instructions. These generally require 1–3 days at 15–20 °C before allowing any foot
traffic and 3–7 days before allowing full service conditions. Methacrylate systems may
be suitable for use after shorter periods of 1–12 hours.
At site temperatures below 10 °C these times will be substantially increased unless

some form of external heating is used.
Check completed flooring with a straightedge to confirm compliance with specified

tolerances.
Check flooring for any signs of debonding, delamination and cracking during the early
period of service.
Localised damage must be anticipated for any flooring system, and ease of repair
is an important factor. One of the advantages of resin-based flooring is that
repairs can be completed overnight in some instances and certainly over a
weekend.
There is not a specific slip-resistance test for resin flooring. Slip resistance however can
be measured in accordance with BS 8204 : Part 3 : Annex C.
Problems in service, e.g. osmosis (see also Section 9.2.4)
Many of the problems experienced with synthetic resin floor systems are usually as a
result of one or more of the following:
• inadequate sub-floor preparation
• insufficient mixing of components
• poor workmanship in application
• extreme service conditions.
In addition however, a problem referred to as ‘osmosis’, in which the resin flooring

experiences blistering, has become more apparent.
Reported cases have mainly been concerned with thin coatings of the self-smoothing
type and not the heavily filled resin screeds.
The term ‘osmosis’ is used to describe the spontaneous flow of water from a more
dilute solution to a more concentrated one when the two are separated by a semi-
permeable membrane. A semi-permeable membrane is one that will allow the passage
of water but not the dissolved substance. If the side of the membrane containing the
higher concentration is enclosed then the passage of water through the membrane will
cause a pressure to develop. Water continues to pass until the resultant pressure
prevents further movement. This pressure, the osmotic pressure, may be very high
(see Fig. 6.5).

w a te r– so lu b le su rface
c o n ta m in a n t blister in resin coating
containing solution of
contaminant
resin
coating
surface zone
of concrete
acting as
semi–permeable
membrane
d a mp concrete base
Fig. 6.5 Schematic diagram of failure by osmosis.

Three conditions are required for osmosis to occur:

• a concentration of water-soluble material
• the formation of a semi-permeable membrane
• a source of water
Water-soluble materials may comprise inorganic or organic substances that can derive
from resin ingredients of the flooring, from the concrete base or from contamination.
It is suggested that resin films including epoxy, polyurethane, polyester or

methacrylate, may behave as semi-permeable membranes.
It is considered that nominally ‘dry’ concrete subbases will contain 3–5% of free water
by weight, and that this is sufficient water for osmosis to occur.
Generally blistering of floorings caused by osmosis is noticed after six months. The
formation of blisters often continues for about 2 years, after which no further blistering
is noted.
There are a variety of steps that can be taken to ensure that the problem of osmosis will
not occur with a particular thin finish resin floor. These steps include the following:
• Ensure concrete has low levels of soluble salts.
• Allow concrete to dry out for as long as possible.
• Prepare surface of concrete by mechanical means.
• Avoid any water-based surface treatments.
• Use specialised resin surface treatments to prevent osmosis from occurring.
Health and safety
Refer to Section 11.
6.6 IN-SITU TERRAZZO FLOORING
Although now largely replaced by precast terrazzo tiles, in-situ terrazzo is still widely
used in conjunction with tiles to form edge panels, skirtings, stairs etc., but only to a
limited extent for complete floor areas. Laying of in-situ terrazzo flooring is a highly
specialised skill, and should be entrusted only to specialist contractors. Inspection of

previous work is strongly recommended. The in-situ terrazzo flooring is laid directly on
hardened but newly laid screed, and the two materials act together as the flooring. The
two operations, screed laying and terrazzo laying, should always be carried out by the
same specialist contractor.
Monolithic construction of in-situ terrazzo, where the terrazzo is laid prior to

hardening of the structural concrete base, cannot be used in combination with precast
terrazzo tiling. Where it is used for complete floor areas, the laying at a very early stage
in the contract presents problems of providing effective protection from following
works. Monolithic construction is no longer used, and has been omitted from codes of
practice. It is not included in this Guide.
Relevant documents

BS8204 Part 4 21 Design
Design criteria
BS 8204 Part 4 gives details of two forms of construction of the screed to which the
terrazzo topping is bonded (see Fig. 6.6):
• fully bonded cement/sand screed 25–40 mm thick
• unbonded tine concrete screed at least 60 mm thick, laid over a 500 or 1000 gauge
separating membrane, with a BS 4483 D49 or D98 reinforcing mesh at mid-depth
Screed mix proportions and quality should be as given in BS 8204 Part 1 (refer to
Section 5.1.1 screed mixes).
Fully bonded screed is the preferred construction to receive in-situ terrazzo flooring.
Unbonded screeds may be necessary, however, over existing bases unsuitable for
bonded construction and over precast concrete units or other suspended floors subject to
deflection or vibration. In all cases consideration should be given to the potential for
movements in the structural base and screed reflecting through the rigid terrazzo
topping.
Guidance on design and construction of bonded or unbonded cement/sand screeds is

given in Section 5.1.1.
The accuracy of the structural base should be controlled to tolerances that permit use of
screeds at the recommended thicknesses (refer to Section 5.1.1), and any falls required
in the finished flooring should be formed in the structural base. Deviations from the
recommended screed thicknesses may increase the risk of cracking, de-bonding and
curling, all of which may adversely affect the performance of the finished terrazzo.
Screeds should be finished to the same surface accuracy tolerances required for the
finished flooring.

in situ terrazzo min. 15mm thick
25–40mm thick fully

bonded cement/sand screed
concrete base
in situ terrazzo min. 15mm thick
min. 60mm thick unbonded fine

concrete screed with D49 or D98 mesh
500 or 1000 gauge polyethylene
separating layer
concrete base
Fig. 6.6 In-situ terrazzo/screed construction.

Top – terrazzo on fully bonded cement/sand screed
Bottom – terrazzo on unbonded fine concrete screed.
The thickness required for the terrazzo topping layer is dependent upon the maximum
size of aggregate required for the particular decorative effect. Aggregate sizes of
3–25 mm may be used. Minimum thicknesses should be:
• Flooring 15 mm for aggregate size up to 10 mm. Increased proportionately

for larger aggregate sizes
• Stair treads 15 mm on a bonded screed of 25–40 mm thickness
• Skirtings 6 mm on a bonded cement/sand backing of 10–20 mm thickness
• Stair risers 10 mm on a bonded cement/sand backing of 10–20 mm thickness
• Stair strings 6 mm on a bonded cement/sand backing of 10–20 mm thickness
For areas other than flooring, only the smaller range of aggregate sizes can be used.
This should be borne in mind when considering the visual aspects of flooring.
Inclusion of services within the screed thickness imposes a high risk of cracking of the
screed, which may reflect through the terrazzo. Unless this risk is acceptable, services
should be routed elsewhere, or in purpose-made ducts brought through to the finished
surface.
Fully bonded screeds will reflect any movements in the structural base, which will
clearly reflect through to the in-situ terrazzo flooring. It is necessary to allow for any
joints within the structural base that are to be subject to movement to be extended

through both the screed and the terrazzo at the same width and to accurate alignment.
Where unbonded screeds are to be used, similar joint provision should be made over
contraction or expansion joints in the structural base. For both bonded and unbonded
screeds, additional joints should be used around columns and other localised points of
restraint, at junctions with other types of flooring, and centrally over supporting beams
and walls of suspended structural floors that are subject to deflection. In all cases, these
joints should be of a proprietary metal-edged profile type.
The provision of these types of joint should be considered early in the design stage to
ensure that they may be fully coordinated with minimal disruption to any architectural
patterning required in the finished terrazzo.
The terrazzo mix has a high cement content and consequently a relatively high drying
shrinkage potential. There is therefore a high risk of cracking and crazing of the
flooring. In addition to the above provisions for controlling movements transmitted

from the structural base, it is necessary to control inherent stresses within the terrazzo
and screed.
For controlling stresses in the terrazzo topping, the following precautions should be
taken:
• The flooring should be divided into panels not exceeding 1 m2 in area, and with
the length of panels not exceeding twice the width. Square panels are preferable
(see Fig. 6.6).
• Panels should be formed by setting metal or plastics dividing strips into the screed.
• Aggregates smaller than 3 mm should not be used. Larger sizes reduce the risk of
crazing.
• Water content of the terrazzo mix should be as low as possible, consistent with
obtaining full compaction. Smaller aggregate sizes increase water content.
• Avoid of high temperatures, strong sunlight, draughts and wind during laying.
Terrazzo should normally be laid only in fully enclosed buildings.
Stresses will also arise in the screed on subsequent drying, and unless controlled may
lead to random cracking of the screed and terrazzo. Incorporation of the terrazzo
dividing strips to part depth of the screed acts as close-centred stress relief joints and
reduces the risk of random cracking. They should ideally extend to ‘one third to
one half of the screed depth. Use of lesser embedment depths should be discouraged
(see Fig. 6.7).
Narrow sections of terrazzo, such as skirtings and surrounds to terrazzo tiled floors, are
prone to transverse shrinkage cracking at close centres due to their section shape, even
where joints are incorporated at 1 m centres. Unless joints are very closely spaced
(200–300 mm centres) cracking is unlikely to be avoided. It is normal for some fine
closely spaced cracking in such sections to be considered as preferable to the visual
effect of numerous joints.

metal or plastics
dividing strips
in situ
terrazzo
screed
concrete
base
metal or plastics
dividing strips
in situ
terrazzo
screed
strip depth at least ¹/ 3 screed thickness
Fig. 6.7 In-situ terrazzo dividing strips.

Top – preferred dividing strip provision
Bottom – preferred dividing strip depth.
In-situ terrazzo flooring is not moisture sensitive, and so will permit continued drying
of damp structural bases. Any dpm or thermal insulation required should be placed
beneath the structural slab. BS 8204 Part 4 does not limit the age or moisture condition
of the concrete base slab at the time of laying the screed and terrazzo. Where a bonded
screed is required, it is advisable to allow a period of 4–6 weeks for in-situ concrete
bases to allow part of the drying shrinkage to take place and to ensure that the surface
is sufficiently strong to enable the correct surface preparation to be carried out.
Unbonded screeds may be laid earlier, subject to structural requirements.
Guidance on service limitations is given in Section 2.3.2.A.
The soundness of the screed is an important factor in providing a finished floor with
adequate resistance to traffic loadings. The soundness category cannot, however, be
verified by BRE screed testing since it would normally be covered by the terrazzo

topping after a period of 2 days (soundness tests being normally made after at least 14
days). Procedures adopted during construction should therefore be aimed at achieving
maximum compaction of the screed mix.
Materials for use in the terrazzo mix are defined in BS 8204 Part 4 and summarised as:
• Grey or white Portland cement to BS 12 class 42.5N.
• Pigments to BS 1014. Pigments not complying with BS 1014 may be subject to
fading.
• Crushed, washed, angular-shaped marble, free from fines or dust, graded as single
sizes between 3 and 25 mm, and with the following mechanical properties when
measured in accordance with the relevant parts of BS 812:
– aggregate crushing value 15–30%
– aggregate impact value 15–35%
– aggregate abrasion value 7–15%
Aggregates must also be free from impurities such as coal, lignite and iron pyrites,
which may cause defects in the finished surface.
• Potable water
Admixtures and other materials such as polymers may be incorporated, subject to

suitability and evidence of past satisfactory performance.
Laying of in-situ terrazzo flooring should be entrusted only to specialist contractors

with the necessary skills and proven controls. The laying of screeds to receive in-situ
terrazzo should be undertaken by the same specialist contractor. Even when specialist
contractors are employed, close supervision and inspection are necessary, and
familiarisation with the specification, codes of practice and acceptable workmanship
standards is necessary for those engaged in inspection and supervision. The following
information in this section on site work summarises the major areas in which
supervision and control are critical, and gives details of the various requirements.
Specification
Check the suitability of the specification against BS 8204 Part 4 requirements and the
information in this Guide. Where differences exist, seek specialist advice.
Beware of:
• bonded screeds outside the 25–40 mm thickness range
• unbonded screeds thinner than 60 mm
• aggregate sizes smaller than 3 mm
• dividing strips that do not extend to at least one third of screed depth
• bays of greater than 1 m2 area
• architectural patterns that cannot be interrupted by joints reflected through from
the structural base.
Structural base
Check that the levels of the structural base enable the specified screed thickness
limitations to be achieved.

Check that any services are to be installed within purpose-made ducts brought through
to the finished surface. Where services are to be included in the screed depth, ensure
that appropriate measures are taken to minimise the risk of induced cracking in the
screed and flooring.
Base preparation and screed laying
Check that the correct structural base surface preparation is carried out prior to laying
of bonded or unbonded screeds, and that all aspects of screed laying are to approved
methods (refer to Section 5.1.1). Dividing strips should be inserted and fixed at the
specified positions and to the correct level while the screed is still workable. The screed
should be finished with a wood float and protected from drying by covering with
polyethylene sheeting. Terrazzo laying should commence within approximately 48
hours.
Immediately prior to laying the terrazzo mix, a cement/water bonding slurry grout of
the same colour as that used in the terrazzo mix should be well brushed into the screed
surface.
For skirtings and stair treads, risers and strings, the concrete substrate should be
mechanically prepared as for bonded screeds. The cement/sand screed or backing mix
should be applied fully bonded with a bonding slurry grout, wood floated and, after
hardening, treated with a cement/water slurry prior to application of the terrazzo mix.
Mixes/materials
The proportions of cement and aggregate for the terrazzo mix will depend upon the
maximum size and grading of the aggregate, but mixes richer than 1:2 parts by volume
of cement/aggregate should be avoided for flooring and stair treads. Mixes of 1:1½
parts by volume of cement and aggregate may be necessary on thin sections such as
risers, strings and skirtings.
The combination of the various aggregate sizes and aggregate colours will be
dependent upon the required finished floor appearance, and the mix overall designs
should have been predetermined by trials.
Aggregates are normally supplied bagged in separate size fractions for gauging on site.
If aggregates are supplied loose, intermixing of the various sizes and colours during
storage should be avoided.
Batching and mixing
All materials should be gauged accurately and thoroughly mixed to provide a mix with
uniform colour and distribution of aggregates. Gauging may be either by weight or by
volume. Although weight batching is inherently more accurate, volume batching is
traditionally used and, provided gauge boxes are used, can give consistent results.
Particular attention should be paid to mixes in which pigments are used. Pigments
should be thoroughly mixed with the dry cement to ensure colour uniformity, prior to
adding the aggregates.
Two alternative methods of mixing and laying terrazzo flooring may be used: either all
of the aggregates are added during mixing, or only the fine aggregates are added
during mixing and the larger-sized aggregate are scattered over the surface after laying.
These are then beaten or rolled in. The choice of either system may be dependent upon

the maximum aggregate size or the preference of the specialist contractor. Whichever
method is used, it should be maintained throughout, otherwise differing finished
appearance may result.
Immediately after brushing in the cement/water bonding slurry grout over the screed,
the terrazzo mix should be placed in the panels formed by the dividing strips, paying
particular attention to complete filling at corners. The surface should be trowelled to
level, and where appropriate, the larger aggregate sizes scattered uniformly over the
surface and beaten or rolled in. The terrazzo should be compacted by rolling and
trowelling at intervals, depending upon the rate of setting, to remove excess cement
and water and produce a uniform distribution of aggregate with a minimal amount of
matrix. After final trowelling, the line of the dividing strips should be revealed.
For surfaces other than floors, the terrazzo mix should be applied by trowel while the
bonding slurry grout is still wet, compacted, and worked to the correct thickness and
line.
After final trowelling, the surface of the terrazzo should be covered with polyethylene
sheet to prevent moisture loss, as soon as the surface is resistant to damage from the
covering operation.
Finishing and curing
Terrazzo is finished after hardening by successive grinding with progressively finer grit
stones until the surface is completely flat and the coarse aggregates are exposed. The
depth of surface to be removed to achieve the required finish will depend upon the
maximum aggregate size.
Grinding with purpose-built wet-process machines should normally be used. Dry

grinding should be permitted only for small areas where wet grinding is impractical,
such as staircases, skirtings, and in toilets.
Grinding is normally carried out in two separate stages, the timing of which depend
upon the rate of hardening of the terrazzo.
In normal circumstances, the finishing and curing process should comprise:

• Cover with polyethylene sheet until first grind.
• 3–4 days after laying, initial grinding with coarse grit stones (usually 20 grit)
• Immediately wash and rinse the floor, cleaning out any voids filled with grinding
deposits.
• Grout the entire floor with a neat cement/water grout, tinted to match the terrazzo
matrix colour if appropriate.
• Cover with polyethylene sheet.
• 3–4 days after grouting, final machining with fine grit stones (usually 80 grit).
• Re-cover with polyethylene sheet and provide protection from following trades.
The temperature during laying and for the first 48 hours after laying should be
maintained above 5 °C.

After completion, the flooring should be allowed to dry slowly and naturally to reduce
the risk of shrinkage cracking. Artificial heating should not be used for 6–8 weeks after
laying, and then the temperature should be raised slowly.
Protection
Completed terrazzo work should be protected to prevent damage or contamination with

paint, plaster, etc. from following site operations. Sheeting or boards should be used
depending upon the type of following site traffic. Sawdust should not be used for
protection.
Surface treatments
Terrazzo surfaces are commonly treated with a proprietary surface hardener/sealer

material, usually a sodium silicate, or zinc or magnesium silica-fluoride solution.
Advice should be sought from the terrazzo specialist on the need for such applications.
Where such materials are required, they should be used strictly in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations. The surface should normally be air-dried for several
weeks prior to application to enable absorption into the terrazzo. After application, it is
essential that all surplus material is removed to prevent the risk of surface
discoloration.
Another type of surface treatment increasing in use is the process known as

‘vitrification or ‘crystallisation’. By applying a chemical solution to the surface,
similar in basic composition to concrete surface hardeners, followed by mechanical
steel wool buffing, a thin surface coating is formed that gives a highly polished but
slip-resistant surface. Abrasion resistance is also claimed to be improved. Where such
surface treatment is required, it should be carried out by the terrazzo specialist
contractor immediately prior to opening of the floor to normal service traffic. The
disadvantages of this type of treatment are as follows:
• Scratching of the high polish can occur in heavily trafficked areas, which can
result in a patchy appearance, especially in darker-coloured floors.
• Re-treatment at regular intervals may be required to maintain uniform appearance.
• The high gloss may highlight imperfections in initial grinding and machining.
• The polished appearance may be subconsciously associated with a slip hazard by
the user.
Check completed flooring with a straightedge to confirm compliance with the specified
tolerances.
Check the flooring for debonding, delamination and cracking periodically as it

continues drying. All of these defects, if severe, may adversely affect serviceability.
When tapping the flooring with a rod or hammer to check for loss of adhesion, it is
normal for terrazzo laid on unbonded screed to sound hollow. Careful inspection by an
experienced operator can differentiate between detachment at the screed/base interface
and at the terrazzo/screed interface. The latter is likely to be the most detrimental to
serviceability. BS 8204 Part 4 advises that where loss of adhesion is accompanied by
visible or measurable lifting at cracks or joints to an extent that may result in fracture
under applied loads, repair will be necessary. Repair may be either by cutting out and
replacement, or by specialist repair with a low-viscosity resin.

Additional testing that may be required is detailed in BS 8204 Part 4, and includes the
following:
• Hardened dry density, measured in accordance with BS 1881 : Part 114 : 1983 on
samples cut from the terrazzo flooring, should exceed 2000 kg/ m 3.
• Slip resistance, measured in accordance with BS 8204 Part 4 Annex B, should be
40 or greater in both the wet and dry condition. Where ease of cleaning is more
critical than slip resistance and/or when the floor will only be used by persons
wearing slip-resistant footwear, a wet value of 33 may be acceptable.
2
• Adhesion of the flooring to the base should be in excess of 0.8 N/mm when
measured by the pull-off test described in Annex B2 of BS 8204 Part 3. This
applies to the adhesion between the terrazzo and screed.
6.7 MAGNESIUM OXYCHLORIDE FLOORING
Commonly referred to as ‘magnesite’, this type of flooring is a mixture of calcined

magnesite and fillers such as wood flour, sawdust, ground silica, talc and pigments,
gauged with magnesium chloride solution. Depending upon the types of tiller used it
can be suitable for industrial, commercial and domestic flooring, and can provide
coloured or mottled decorative finishes.
Although still available through a limited number of specialist flooring contractors, it is

not now widely used in the UK. There are a number of limitations regarding use in
other than dry conditions, and due to the risk of chloride-induced corrosion of steel. It
is essential in all cases that the specialist contractor is consulted at design stage to
confirm suitability of the material for the specific service conditions.
Magnesium oxychloride was incorporated in CP 204, Part 2 : 1970, which is now

withdrawn. The recommendations of CP 204 are considered as still valid, and the
document is referred to in this Section. Manufacturers’ data should take
precedence.
CP 204 Part 2 recommended that the grade of flooring should be selected by reference
to a sample to which the finished work should conform in hardness, colour, texture,
and number and thickness of coats.
Relevant documents

CP 204 Part 2 (withdrawn) – Design and application
Manufacturers’ data Design and application
Design criteria
Magnesite flooring should be laid bonded to a concrete substrate. CP 204 Part 2 also
permitted laying over timber bases using galvanised wire netting to provide a
mechanical key. Where laying over existing timber bases is required, advice on
suitability should be sought from the specialist contractor. For new construction, the
structural base should preferably be in-situ concrete, or a bonded fine concrete screed or
isolated concrete overslab.
Since the flooring material contains chlorides, there is a risk of corrosion of metalwork
in contact with the flooring, such as partitions and services, and these must be fully

isolated from the flooring by a coating of bitumen. If the flooring is not maintained in a
good condition with regard to surface treatment and condition of joints, and is subject
to moisture contamination, then a risk of chloride penetration into the structural base
can arise, with an attendant risk of longer-term corrosion of steel reinforcement. Where
such risks are unacceptable, then consideration should be given at the design stage
either to the use of an alternative type of flooring, or to isolating the flooring from the
structural base by interposing an overslab on an isolating sheet dpm.
Magnesite flooring should not be used where it may be exposed to high humidity and
damp conditions. Where it is laid over a ground-bearing slab, an efficient dpm must be
incorporated beneath the slab.
The finished surface of magnesite flooring should be treated with wax or drying oil
dressing to provide a surface resistant to normal liquid contamination.
CP 204 Part 2 gave guidance on the flooring thickness requirements for laying over a
concrete substrate shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 CP 204 flooring thickness requirements
Type of work Thickness
Minimum Maximum
(mm) (mm)
Single coat 10 25
Two coat – bottom 10 40*

– top 5 25
Skirting on cement render 5 –
Two coat skirtings on 15 –

unrendered background
* Where greater thickness is required, the extra thickness

should he made up by laying additional coats of not more
than 20 mm.
The specialist contractor should be consulted with regard to the thickness or number of
coats required to provide the necessary serviceability and/or finished appearance.
The surface accuracy of the base should be such that the specified or recommended
flooring thickness can be applied uniformly. The base should therefore be constructed
to the same surface tolerances as required in the finished flooring. For existing bases
outside these tolerances, the specialist contractor’s advice should be sought.
To provide sufficient bond for the flooring, new concrete substrates should be brushed
with a stiff broom or wire brush prior to hardening to give a slightly coarse texture.
Steel trowel finishing is not suitable. For hardened bases, the specialist contractor’s
advice on suitable preparation technique should he followed.
Prior to laying of the flooring, the concrete base should be thoroughly dry hut of limited
absorbency. CP 204 Part 2 offered no guidance on methods of assessment of a suitable

moisture condition, but does give a method of assessing for undue absorbency, which
may adversely affect the flooring by loss of magnesium chloride solution from the mix.
Since the flooring is of bonded construction, movements in the base will be reflected in
the flooring. Any joints in the base designed to accommodate movement should
therefore be reflected through the flooring at the same width and to accurate alignment.
through the flooring, and should preferably be coordinated with bay division joints
required for flooring construction.
CP 204 Part 2 indicated that the flooring should not be liable to expansion, lifting or
shrinkage cracking provided that the base is sound and that materials quality and
workmanship are satisfactory. It is nevertheless necessary to incorporate joints through
the flooring thickness at centres of not more than 8 m in either direction. These joints
may be in the form of mastic or plastics insertions, or may consist of strips of

hardwood, vulcanite or other suitable materials approximately 6 mm wide. Suitability
of joint materials and formation for specific service conditions should be sought from
the specialist contractor.
Apart from this overall restriction for joint spacing, smaller bay sizes may be necessary.
Optimum bay sizes will depend upon the temperature at the time of laying, control of
surface accuracy, and on the time taken to obtain adequate compaction of the flooring
material. Bay sizes should normally be determined by the specialist contractor.
Magnesite is subject to degradation in conditions of permanent dampness.
Concrete bases in direct contact with the ground must therefore be effectively protected
from rising damp by installation of a dpm beneath the base.
No guidance was offered in CP 204 on the moisture condition of the concrete base at
the time of laying the flooring, other than that it should be ‘thoroughly dry’. Guidance
should be sought from the specialist contractor on suitability of bases, and for
appropriate methods of assessment of moisture condition.
Magnesite should not be used where it may be exposed to high humidity or dampness.
If the surface of the flooring is not adequately protected by oiling or waxing, gradual
disintegration may occur where used in wet areas.
General guidance on service limitations is given in Section 2.3.2.B. Guidance on

resistance to chemical attack was given in CP 204 (see Table 6.4).
The raw materials used in magnesium oxychloride flooring are specified in BS 776.
Guidance was given in CP 204 on typical mix proportions for single- and two-coat
work. Ultimately, the final mix proportions must be selected to produce the properties
required of the finished floor, and those should be matched to the proportions used in
the selected flooring samples. Inspection of similar installations of the same grade of
material subject to similar service conditions is advisable.

Table 6.4 CP 204 guidance on resistance to chemical attack.
Agent Resistance
Water Poor under continuous exposure. Oil or wax dressing provides surface
protection.
Alkalis Not seriously affected. Strong alkalis degrade any oil or wax dressing.
exposing the magnesite to water.
Acids Poor. Oil or wax dressing provides protection against occasional contact
with dilute acids.
Salts Poor under continuous exposure. Oil or wax dressing provides

protection under normal conditions of use.
Organic materials Not affected by non-drying oils, fats, greases or organic solvents. These
may degrade any oil or wax dressing and expose the flooring to other
deleterious materials.
Strict control must be exercised over the preparation of magnesium chloride solution on
site, and it should not be allowed to come into contact with any floors or walls.
Preparation should preferably take place outside the building. When the solution is
used internally, protection against contamination of other building components should
be provided by means of trays and plastics sheets around all vessels containing the
solution.
With the exception of sawdust fillers, the dry ingredients of the mix should be
premixed prior to delivery to site.
Laying of magnesite flooring is a highly skilled operation, and should be carried out
only by specialist contractors with proven ability. It is recommended that the specialist
contractor should provide a detailed method statement for the works. The following
information summarises the major areas in which supervision and control is necessary.
Specification
Check the suitability of the specification against the recommendations of the specialist
flooring contractor or flooring manufacturer.
Structural base
Check that the levels of the concrete base or screed do not impinge on the specified
flooring thickness range.
Check that any metalwork that is to be in contact with the flooring is suitably protected
by application of a bituminous coating.
Base preparation
Check that the base is in a suitable condition to receive the flooring. Essential
requirements are:
• a slightly coarse brushed texture, produced before hardening of the base, or
alternative texture as advised by the specialist contractor
• freedom from all dust, detritus and contamination

• a suitable moisture condition. CP204 advised ‘thoroughly dry’. Seek advice from
the specialist contractor on methods of assessment.
• limited absorption characteristics*
• priming with a solution of magnesium chloride, or a mixture of magnesium
chloride and magnesia.
*Test method included in CP 204 Part 2 Clause 727
Mixes/materials
Ensure that the mix designs and materials used are correct for the grade of flooring
selected.
Batching and mixing
With the exception of sawdust fillers, all dry materials should be pre-batched and
mixed prior to delivery to site.
Sawdust fillers may be damped with magnesium chloride solution before delivery to
site. In any case, they should be pre-dampened at least 6 hours before use.
All materials should be stored separately in the containers as delivered, and should be
used within 14 days.
Final mixing of the batched constituents should be carried out in a trough. The quantity
of magnesium chloride solution should be varied to provide the workability necessary
for the particular application. Semi-dry consistency is required for the bottom coat for
flooring. Stiff plastic consistency is required for single coat, top coat and skirting work.
Excessive amounts of solution do not contribute to the strength of the mix, and may
lead to sweating of the finished floor.
Laying, compacting and finishing
The mixed material should be laid directly after priming of the substrate. Level and
thickness should be controlled by use of pre-levelled battens. Each coat should be
thoroughly compacted by tamping, but taking care not to bring excessive laitance to the
surface. When the top coat has hardened sufficiently, its surface should be finished by
trowelling.
For ornamental work, such as mottled finishes, scraping of the surface should be
carried out at the trowelling stage.
After approximately 12 hours, the surface should be given a final application of

magnesium chloride solution.
During laying and until the flooring has hardened, it should be protected from extremes
of heat or cold, and from draughts and direct sunlight. Three days should elapse before
opening to light foot traffic, or longer periods in colder weather. The flooring should
not be subject to full service conditions until it has fully dried and hardened. This
process may take several weeks.

Surface treatment
After the final application of magnesium chloride solution, the process of surface
treatment should be started. Any efflorescence should initially be removed with dry
steel wool. The flooring should then be washed with clean warm water, changed
frequently, and wiped dry. The treatment should be repeated at frequent intervals until
the efflorescence has ceased. At this stage, the flooring should be treated with a surface
sealing material. The type of material should be as recommended by the specialist
contractor for the particular service conditions. Traditionally, the treatments used are a
blend of linseed oil and turpentine, or a wax or drying oil.

Samples should be taken during mixing for determination of setting time, modulus of
rupture, and linear expansion and contraction. The test methods are defined in BS 776
and required properties were specified in CP 204 Part 2 as follows:
Initial set 3–6 hours

Final set 7–15 hours
Modulus of rupture – single and top coat 7 N/mm2 min, at 7 days
10.5 N/mm2 min, at 28 days
– bottom coat 2.5 N/mm2 min, at 7 days
3.5 N/mm2 min, at 28 days
Maximum strength loss from 28 to 56 days 10%
Linear change – Expansion 0.15% max
– Contraction 0.25% max
The hardness of the flooring should be checked within two months of laying, and
should achieve a test value within 0.5 mm of that measured for the pattern sample, or
other agreed surface. The test method was defined in CP 204 Part 2 Clause 728, and is
summarised as follows:
• Lay a sheet of handwriting carbon paper, face up, on the floor surface.
• Cover with a sheet of plain white paper.
• Drop a 65-g, 25-mm diameter steel ball on the paper from a height of 2 m.
• Measure the diameter of the impression on the paper to the nearest 0.1 mm in two
directions at right angles.
• Repeat the test at six agreed locations on the floor and calculate the mean
diameter.
• Repeat the tests on the pattern sample.

7 Applied floorings
This group covers all of those floorings that are supplied preformed for fixing to a
substrate.
The contents of this section are:
• 7.1 Flexible applied flooring

7.1.1 Flexible sheet and tile
7. 1. 2 Textile floorings
• 7.2 Rigid tile applied floorings
7.2.1 Ceramics
7.2.2 Natural stone

7.2.3 Precast terrazzo
7.2.4 Conglomerates
7.2.5 Composition block
• 7.3 Timber-based flooring
7.3.1 Block, mosaic and parquet
7.3.2 Board and strip
7.3.3 Cork
7.3.4 Surface treatments
7.3.5 Testing
7.1 FLEXIBLE APPLIED FLOORING
This group of floorings includes PVC, linoleum, rubber, cork, and textiles. The design
and construction of flexible floorings is comprehensively covered by British Standard
Codes of Practice, to which full reference should be made in conjunction with this
Guide. The following information relating to these types of flooring summarises
recommendations for those aspects of design and construction in which problems most
frequently occur. In particular, the influence of moisture on the adhesive/flooring
system and the construction programme is considered, and a solution to overcome
possible problems is offered.
The suitability for traffic-related service conditions and other specific properties in the
finished floor for this range of materials is given in Section 2.3.3. Guidance on
preferred flooring systems suitable for use in conjunction with these flooring materials
is given in Section 3.

7.1.1 Flexible sheet and tile
Relevant documents

BS 8203 17 Design and installation
Manufacturers’ data
Design criteria
BS 8203 : 1987 Code of practice for installation of sheet and tile flooring gives
recommendations for the installation of the following flooring on both new and
existing floor constructions:
• cork tiles
• linoleum sheet and tiles and cork carpet

• rubber sheet and tiles
• Thermoplastics and semi-flexible PVC tiles
• flexible PVC sheet and tiles
• backed flexible PVC sheet and tiles
The recommendations of the standard are confined to the installation of these materials
inside buildings. Specialist floorings such as conductive and antistatic floorings are not
included. Flooring manufacturers, however, will recommend that conductive and
antistatic flooring should be installed in accordance with Code of Practice BS 8203 in
conjunction with their own recommendations.
The standard includes recommendations for screeds and underlays and those aspects of
floor construction that will affect the performance of the flooring, in particular the
effects of moisture.
Selection of flooring materials
The flooring materials covered by BS 8203 are available in a range of types and
thicknesses, and the type and thickness to be used should be selected after consideration
of the building type and occupational use.
The following technical aspects as covered in BS 8203 should be considered:

Slip resistance (Section 2.1.1)
Abrasion resistance (Section 2.1.2)
Impact resistance (or indentation) (Section 2.1.3)
Chemical resistance (or staining) (Section 2.1.4)
Thermal properties (Section 2.1.5)
Acoustic properties (Section 2.1.9)
Resistance to moisture –
Colour fastness –
Flexibility –
The suitability of the various floorings under consideration are given as follows.

Cork tiles and cork carpet
These materials are included in Section 7.3 Timber-based flooring.
Linoleum sheet and tiles
Linoleum forms a quiet floor in use, and is resistant to oils, fats and greases.
Thicknesses over 3 mm should be used where heavy traffic is expected.
Linoleum can be seam sealed if required.
Rubber sheet and tiles
Rubber flooring is hard-wearing and quiet in use. Flooring made from natural rubber
should not be used in situations where it may come into contact with fat, grease, oil or
petrol, as these substances may cause swelling, softening or other deterioration. To
meet such conditions, flooring made from various kinds of synthetic rubber is available.
Thermoplastics tiles
Thermoplastics tiles can be used in all normal situations, but consideration should be
given to possible deterioration caused by grease or oil. PVC modified tiles have a better
resistance to grease and oil, and slightly increased flexibility, which assists laying.
They should be laid on a rigid sub-floor.
Semi-flexible PVC tiles
Semi-flexible PVC tiles have good resistance to grease and oil compared with PVC
modified thermoplastics tiles.
Flexible PVC sheet and tiles
Unbacked flexible PVC flooring complying with BS 3261 : Part 1 is also resistant to
grease, oil and many chemicals, but is easily damaged by hot cinders or cigarette burns.
It is slightly quieter and more comfortable to walk on than thermoplastics tiles or semi-
flexible PVC tiles. Material complying with type A of BS 3261 : Part 1 can be welded
using a hot-air gun and welding rod, and therefore is of particular use in an area where
an unbroken surface is necessary. Tiles complying with type B of BS 3261 : Part 1 are
less flexible but have improved resistance to cigarette burns.
Flexible PVC sheet with backing of cork composition or needled fibres
Both these backings provide good impact sound insulation. The joints of these
materials can be seam welded.
Flexible PVC sheet with backing of flexible expanded material
This material has similar properties to unbacked flexible PVC sheet and gives
resilience and good impact sound insulation. It can be hot air welded if required.
Heterogeneous PVC sheet and tiles
The properties of heterogeneous PVC flooring are similar to those of homogeneous

flooring complying with type A of BS 3261 : Part 1. (Heterogeneous flooring comprises
more than one material.)

Sub-floors
Concrete and screed bases (new)
The appearance and performance of the floorings covered by BS 8203 are determined
to a large extent by the quality of the prepared base or screed to which the various
floorings are laid.
The design of concrete and screed bases is covered comprehensively by BS 8203, but
particular areas of concern that need to be emphasised are as follows:
• Direct to earth sub-floors must have an efficient dpm. BS CP 102 : 1973
Protection of buildings against water from the ground refers.
• Solvents in bitumen solution types of dpm must be totally released prior to

applying the cement/sand screed.
• Constructional water must be allowed to dry out. A concrete base is deemed to be

sufficiently dry to receive the flooring if its relative humidity, as measured by a

hygrometer, is 75% or less. Refer to BS 8203 : 1987. Appendix A – Dampness
testing (hygrometer).
• Use the correct smoothing underlayment over cementitious bases, particularly
where a thin flooring is to be laid, to reduce surface imperfections.
Concrete and screed bases (existing)

• Old floorings and adhesive residues should be completely removed using
mechanical methods and the correct smoothing underlayment applied. (Check on
type of existing floor tiling. Those containing asbestos require special precautions.)
• For damp sub-floors it will be necessary to provide a surface-applied dpm based on
an epoxy resin system. Refer to manufacturer for instructions on application
number of coats etc.
Timber bases
Timber bases should be sound, rigid, level and dry. The timber should be at equilibrium
moisture content, i.e. the state of dryness it will attain in normal service conditions, at
the time it is covered. In new buildings steps should be taken to attain this condition by
the careful storage of timber on site and by the early introduction of normal heating
into the building.
In buildings where the wooden floors have received an in-situ treatment for
preservation, there may be an interaction between the preservative chemicals and the
adhesive or the flooring. The advice of the flooring material manufacturer should be
sought regarding suitable materials and remedial treatment.
Timber bases covered by Code of Practice 8203 include:
• board and strip floors

• wood blocks
• wood chipboard (BS 5669 refers)
• plywood, chipboard (BS 5669 refers) and hardboard, underlayments
In addition to those above, other areas of concern include the following:

• Suspended timber floors at ground level should be adequately ventilated (refer to
BS 8201 : 1987 Code of practice for flooring of timber, timber products and wood
based panel products).

• Loose boards should be nailed down, and unevenness and shrinkage made good.
• Fabricated underlays based on plywood, wood chipboard and hardboard should be
laid where required over existing timber bases.
• Hardboard can have an uneven porosity, and sufficient adhesive must be used to
provide adequate contact and adhesion with the flooring material.
• If the existing wood blocks are sound, level and completely protected from
moisture, a fabricated underlay can be applied and the flooring laid.
• If any doubt exists that the above conditions cannot be met, the wood blocks should
be removed.
Other bases
Some bases, such as clay tiles, concrete tiles or terrazzo, may be sufficiently permeable
to allow moisture to pass through to the back of the flooring. Provided they are sound,
they can be damp-proofed where necessary and covered with the flooring. Note that
joints between tiles may ca use problems with thin surface damp-proof membranes.
Magnesium oxychloride bases are adversely affected by moisture and should be

removed.
For asphalt, apply a suitable smoothing underlayment in preparation for the flooring.
Dampness in floors
Dampness in floors arises either from residual construction water in the cementitious
sub-base or from groundwater rising through the floor construction. High levels of
moisture in the sub-base will cause failure of the adhesive used to bond the flooring,
with resultant break down of the total flooring system. For example, sheet materials
will swell, blister and ruckle up as a result of a combination of adhesive breakdown,
moisture absorption by the flooring and foot trafficking.
Construction programme time should be allowed to ensure that residual moisture dries
to safe levels before the flooring is placed. The drying time required will depend upon
the ambient conditions, the thickness of the construction above the dpm, the concrete
quality, the original water content, and the surface finish. In very general terms
BS 8203 : 1987 Code of Practice for the installation of sheet and tile flooring suggests
allowing one day’s drying per 1 mm depth for the first 50 mm of depth, i.e. a 50 mm
screed requires 50 days or 2 months. For thicknesses in excess of 50 mm a slower rate
of drying should be assumed, e.g. a 150 mm slab on a dpm can take up to a year. This
should be treated as being generally optimistic. Refer to Section 3 for further advice.
BS 8203 describes a test that can be used to indicate whether a floor is dry enough for
laying a covering. A maximum of 75% RH obtained from a hygrometer kept in
moisture equilibrium with the concrete/screed is recommended. Electrical methods of
conductivity measurement provide a means of monitoring the progress of the drying-
out operation, but are not an absolute measure of moisture condition. Refer to
Section 8.
Surface damp-proof membranes
Under some circumstances the flooring has to be laid to a cementitious substrate with a
relative humidity in excess of 75%, or where no dpm exists.

In these circumstances it may be possible to employ a surface dpm, generally based on
an epoxy resin, to suppress the residual moisture within the cementitious substrate and
allow the flooring to be laid.
The surface must be firm, sound, surface clean and surface dry. For power-trowelled
concrete floors it is common practice to lightly machine-scarify the surface to provide a
key.
Provided the cementitious surface is still sufficiently smooth, one or more coats of the
epoxy membrane are applied at right angles to each other. The number of coats
required will be determined by the residual moisture present in the substrate. The
manufacturer of the surface dpm will advise. A smoothing compound to a minimum
thickness of 3 mm is applied to the cured damp-proof membrane to provide absorbency
for water-based adhesives.
Smoothing compounds
Smoothing compounds are a blend of cement, fine mineral fillers and various resins
that, when added to water or a latex/polymer emulsion, produce a fluid mortar with
smoothing characteristics that sets to form a dense, smooth surface suitable to receive
flexible flooring.
The thickness of compound should usually range between 3 and 5 mm. Greater
thickness can be obtained with the use of special aggregates.
Refer to Section 5.4 for further advice on the use of smoothing compounds.
Protection against heat
Underfloor heating systems are designed to run at temperatures up to 27 °C, and except
for cork all the other flexible floorcoverings referred to in this section can be used at
this temperature provided an appropriate grade of adhesive is used.
High surface temperatures may be caused by other sources such as direct sunlight
through large windows with southerly aspects. The correct high-temperature grade of
adhesive must be used.
Skirtings and covings
Extruded sections are available in a number of different profiles, and may be affixed to
the wall using a suitable ‘contact’ adhesive. Some types may additionally be seam
welded to the flooring to give continuity of surface.
Sub-floors
Laying concrete bases and cement/sand screeds is adequately covered in Section 4 of

the Code of Practice BS 8203, and full reference should be made in conjunction with
this Guide. Procedures for curling, protecting and testing bases and screeds are also
covered.

Laying underlays and flooring
Section 5 of Code of Practice BS 8203 adequately covers these procedures, and full
reference should again be made. Particular points of general importance include the
following:
• Care should be taken to ensure good workmanship and efficient supervision.
• Only specialist subcontractors should be employed.
• Users should be aware of any special storage requirements for adhesives containing
flammable solvents..
Prior to starting to lay any flooring the specialist subcontractor should ensure that:
• Any underfloor heating is switched off 48 hours prior to laying the floor.
• The base should be in a clean and sound condition and ‘dry’ in accordance with
BS 8203 – see ‘Dampness in floors’.
•
The appropriate smoothing compound is mixed and laid in accordance with

manufacturers’ instructions.
All floorings must be temperature conditioned before they are laid. For example,
flexible PVC flooring should be stored at a minimum temperature of 18 °C for at least
24 hours before laying, and the laying area should be kept at a minimum temperature
of 18 °C for at least 24 hours before laying and throughout the installation period.
Flooring adhesives
Adhesive selection
The selection of the adhesive is a critical part of any flooring installation, and it is
important that full details of the site conditions are known to the flooring/adhesive
supplier.
Most flooring and adhesive manufacturers publish adhesive recommendations and their
suitability for particular floorings, and these recommendations must be followed.
A guide to the types of adhesives normally used with various floorings is given in
BS 5442 : Part 1 : 1989 Classification of adhesives for use with flooring materials.
This standard also gives a useful description of the types of flooring adhesive in use.
The following factors can affect the choice of adhesive:
• type of flooring and backing

• type of sub-floor and any surface treatments
• temperature requirements
• horizontal or vertical bond

• permanent or release bond
• internal or external application
• special requirements, e.g. electrical conductivity
• health and safety issues – refer to Section 11.

Application of adhesive
The adhesive manufacturer’s instructions for the use of the adhesive must always be
followed. Normally flooring adhesives are applied by a steel trowel with 60° V-shaped
notches along each edge. With use the trowel will wear and will require changing or
re-notching at regular intervals.
Methods of use of flooring adhesives are given in 39.2.3 ‘Methods of use’ in section
five of BS 8203 : 1987, and cover:
• laying into wet adhesive – water-borne, gum/spirit and chemically curing types
• laying into dry adhesive – bitumen and some water-borne types

• laying onto contact adhesive
7.1.2 Textile floorings

Relevant documents

BS 5325 6 Design and installation
NBS M50 29 Carpet tiles specification
NBS M51 29 Edge fixed carpet specification
Design criteria
BS 5325 : 1983 Code of practice for installation of textile floor coverings gives
recommendations for the installation of textile floor coverings, i.e. all products
composed of textile material with a pile or non-pile use surface. It includes the laying
of fully adhered carpet tiles, and gives advice on the selection of materials and their
properties.
Loose-laid squares, rugs, runners, tiles etc. are not included, nor are self-adhesive tiles.
Selection of floorings
Textile floor coverings may be divided into the following three groups:
• woven
• tufted
• non-woven
Any of these may be given a variety of backing treatments that require specific methods
of installation.
For details on construction of these different types of textile floor coverings refer to
BS 5325 and BS 5557 Textile floor coverings: classification and terminology. The
following properties are discussed in detail in BS 5325, and are essential consideration
in selecting a textile flooring:
• resistance to wear
• appearance retention
• tendency to soil ing
• static electricity generatio n
• sound insu lation

• sound absorption
• thermal properties
• dimensional stability
Interlayments and underlays
Underlays, either separate or combined, are defined and described in BS 5808

Specification for underlays for textile floor coverings.
Interlayments are supplied in the following types:

• manufactured in thin, flexible sheet, approximately 0.5 mm to 1 mm thick, known
as dry felt paper
• manufactured from lightweight melded textile material
• manufactured from spun-bonded fibres

They may be used to prevent the passage of dirt-contaminated air through joints in
wooden floors, or to prevent the possible sticking of foam-backed textile floor coverings
to varnished wood floors or PVC sheet or tiles.
They will not prevent the contours of the boards, blocks or sub-floor from showing
through to the surface of the floor covering, but may be used in conjunction with an
underlay.
Underlays should be used with all textile floorings, except where a foam or felt backing
is an integral part of the floor covering, or where the textile floor covering is fully
adhered in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. There may be
certain products or situations for which manufacturers may recommend no underlay,
e.g. fibre-bonded material. Where it is expected that a sewn seam on the textile floor
covering may product a ridge, throwing the seam into prominence, the underlay should
be chosen to allow bedding in.
Underlays include the following types.
• Felt underlay
Underlay made wholly of fibres entangled or matted together, the method of

construction being left entirely to the discretion of the manufacturer.
• Cellular underlay
Underlay formed essentially of a rubber or other polymeric foam, e.g. polyurethane,
with or without being bonded to a fabric or plastics sheet.
• Rubber crumb underlay

Underlay formed essentially of crumb rubber with or without being bonded to a fabric
or plastics sheet.
• Composite underlay
Underlay composed of both fibrous and polymeric material, e.g. felt impregnated with
rubber, foam laminated to felt.

Seaming
Seaming in the joining together of two or more textile floor coverings is described in
BS 5325.
Sub-floors
Concrete and screed bases (new)
The design of concrete and screed bases is covered comprehensively by BS 8203 Code
of Practice for Installation of sheet and tile flooring. BS 5325 describes those areas of
concern that need to be emphasised, and includes the need for:
• direct to earth sub-floors to have an efficient dpm; BS CP102 1973 Protection of
buildings against water from the ground refers
• construction water to dry out until the base is sufficiently dry to receive flooring;
BS 5325, Appendix A refers
• tolerances for screed levels to be in accordance with CP 204 In-situ floor finishes,
subsequently replaced by BS 8204 Part 1
Concrete and screed bases (existing)

• Old floorings and adhesive residues should be completely removed using
mechanical methods and the correct smoothing compound applied.
• For damp sub-floors it will be necessary to provide a surface dpm. Refer to
manufacturer for instructions on application number of coats etc.
Timber bases
The design of all timber bases is covered comprehensively by BS 5325, and includes:
• board and strip floors
• wood chipboard
• plywood
• plywood, chipboard and hardboard fabricated underlayments
Other bases
Some bases, such as clay tiles, concrete tiles or terrazzo, may be sufficiently permeable
to allow moisture to pass through to the back of the flooring. Provided they are sound,
they can be damp-proofed where necessary and covered with the flooring. Note that
joints between tiles may cause problems with thin surface damp-proof membranes.
Magnesium oxychloride bases may be adversely affected by moisture and should be

removed.
For asphalt, apply a suitable smoothing compound in preparation for the flooring.
Sub-floors
Refer to Section 7.1.1 ‘Site work’.

Laying underlays and floorings
This is comprehensively covered in BS 5325 Section 9 Installation. Before laying the

underlay, it is important to ensure that:
• The base is smooth, clean and dry.
• The base is compatible with both the underlay and the textile floor covering.
• The adhesive is compatible with the base, interlayment, underlayment and textile
flooring.
Flooring adhesives
Adhesive selection
Most flooring and adhesive manufacturers publish adhesive recommendation and their
suitability for particular floorings, and these recommendations must be followed.
A guide to the types of adhesive normally used with various floorings is given in
BS 5442 : Part 1 : 1989 Classification of adhesives for use with flooring materials.
The following factors can affect the choice of adhesive:
• type of flooring, backing, interlayment and underlayment
• type of sub-floor and any surface treatments

• temperature requirements
• horizontal or vertical bond
• permanent or release bond

• internal or external application
• special requirements, e.g. electrical conductivity
• health and safety requirements – refer to Section 11
Application of adhesive
The adhesive manufacturer’s instructions for the use of the adhesive must always be
followed.
7.2 RIGID TILE APPLIED FLOORINGS
This group of floorings includes ceramic tile, natural stone tile, precast terrazzo tile,
cement and resin-based conglomerate tile, and composition block. With the exception
of conglomerate tiles, the design and construction of rigid tile floorings is
comprehensively covered by British Standards Codes of Practice, to which full
reference should be made in conjunction with this Guide. The following information
relating to these types of flooring summarises recommendations for those aspects of
design and construction in which problems most frequently occur. Conglomerate tiles
are proprietary materials that are not specifically included in the Codes of Practice but
may be laid by some of the methods adopted for other types of rigid tiling. In the case
of conglomerates, manufacturers’ advice on appropriate fixing methods should always
be sought.
The suitability for traffic-related service conditions and other specific properties in the
finished floor for this range of materials is given in Section 2.3.4. Guidance on

preferred flooring systems suitable for use in conjunction with these flooring materials
is given in Section 3.
7.2.1 Ceramics
Relevant documents

BS 5385 Part 3 7 Design and installation
BS 5385 Part 4 8 Use in specific conditions
BS 8000 Part 11 Sect. 11.1 15 Workmanship
Design criteria
BS 5385 Part 3 gives comprehensive recommendations on the design and installation

of ceramic tiles, mosaics, pavers and brick slips up to 38 mm thick, bedded on bases of
concrete, cement/sand screed, timber, asphalt and existing hard floor surfaces. BS 5385
Part 4 gives further recommendations for floors where there may be specific functional
or environmental requirements and/or conditions that are potentially detrimental to the
flooring and/or the structural base. The recommendations are presented in a
comprehensive and usable format, and full reference should be made to these
documents in conjunction with advice from tile manufacturers on limitations of their
particular products for specific applications. The remainder of this Section 7.2.1
concentrates on those aspects of design and construction that most commonly lead to
problems in the finished flooring.
Fixing methods/relationship with the base
Selection of the correct type of bed and thickness is essential to the performance of the
finished flooring. Guidance on bed types and compatibility with various types of base is
given in BS 5385 Part 3 Table 3. Guidance on suitability of tile type and bedding type
for specific service conditions is given in BS 5385 Part 4 Tables 2 and 4 respectively.
Thin bed methods such as adhesives up to 6 mm thick, and cement/sand mortar

15–20 mm thick, cannot be used to accommodate significant variations in base
accuracy. Bases or screeds should be constructed to the same accuracy requirements as
those of the finished floor surface.
For the thicker semi-dry bed (40–70 mm) uniformity of thickness is desirable to reduce
the risks of differential stresses within the bed, but can accommodate some inaccuracy
in the base. Base accuracy should be controlled to maintain bed thickness within the
specified range.
The resistance of the finished tile flooring to damage from traffic loading and impact is
largely reliant upon support from the bedding. In heavily trafficked and loaded areas
achievement of a high degree of bond between the tile, bed and substrate is crucial, and
the use of unbonded beds should be avoided. Where this is not possible, such as in the
case of new concrete bases or suspended slabs subject to deflection, the flooring system
must provide the necessary resistance to traffic without the stability offered by bond to
the base. In such cases only the semi-dry bed over a separating layer is recommended,
and this should be at least 40 mm thick and reinforced. The use of a thicker type of tile
is also advisable. Even with these provisions, the resistance of the flooring to high
dynamic or static loadings may be less than that offered by a fully bonded bed.

The use of the traditional semi-dry bed method, in which the weak adhesion to the base
permits debonding or cleavage to relieve stresses, should be treated with caution.
Where stresses do cause debonding, cracking of the bed is inevitable. Such cracks
normally coincide with grouted tile joints, and can be sufficient to cause disruption of
the grout and poor joint performance. Curling of the bed can also occur, reducing the
resistance of the flooring to heavy loadings.
There is a need to consider joint provision and coordination to relieve stresses imposed
on the flooring by movements in the base, and screed if used. Structural joints in the
base must be reflected through to the finished floor surface to the same width and to
accurate alignment. Construction joints in the base, or in the screed if used, that are
subject to continued movement should be reflected through if bonded beds are used.
The coordination of these joints can pose significant problems unless cut tiles are
permitted. Further complications can arise where complicated architectural patterns are
required in the finished floor, or where tiles are to be laid in a different orientation to
the base joints (e.g. tiles laid diagonally). Joint coordination problems can be resolved
only by considering the compatibility of the structural base/screed/flooring at design

stage.
BS 5385 Part 3 gives guidance on reducing movement stresses within the flooring and
bed by provision of perimeter and intermediate joints. While these provisions will
minimise the risk of cracking and other types of movement-induced disruption, they
must be detailed correctly. The joint section should pass completely through the
flooring and bedding depth to the structural base surface. Where a screed is interposed,
the joint section should also pass through the screed depth where the bed is to be
bonded to the screed. This will also control stresses within the screed (see Fig. 7.1).
Adherence to BS 5385 Part 3 recommendations results in the flooring’s being divided

into bays of up to 10 m maximum dimensions. Even at this size there may be some risk
of cracking, particularly of cement/sand screeds or semi-dry beds. If this risk is
unacceptable, closer spacing of joints should be used. Experience suggests that 4–6 m
centres are appropriate.
Joint detail and spacings given in BS 5385 Part 3 are intended for floorings used in
normal conditions. Where conditions other than normal exist, reference should be
made to BS 5385 Part 4. Particular attention should be paid to the suitability of the
flexible joint sealant in situations involving.
• greater degrees of movement than normal

• heavy or intensive traffic loading
• high, low or large variations in, temperature
• chemical contamination
• hygienic considerations
BS 5385 Part 4 offers general guidance on suitability of sealants. For specific

recommendations, sealants manufacturers should be consulted.
Joints between flooring units
The joints between tiles are the most vulnerable part of the flooring to damage from
traffic, wear, and contamination. Correct design is therefore critical to adequate
performance. Joints less than 3 mm wide and less than 6 mm deep should not generally
be used since complete filling with grout cannot be guaranteed. In practice, widths of

stress relief joints through tile and adhesive only
tile on adhesive
screed
day joint
random cracks concrete
base
stress relief joints coordinated with joints in screed
tile on adhesive
screed
no day j oi nt s bet ween

st ress rel i ef j oi nt s concrete
base
Fig. 7.1 Stress relief joints in ceramic tile flooring.

Top – joints through tile and adhesive bed only. Risk of reflective cracking
from joints or cracks in the screed.
Bottom – joints through tile, adhesive and screed reduce the risk of
uncontrolled cracking.
up to 10 mm may be necessary to overcome variations in tile plan dimensions and to

reduce the effect of lipping caused by irregularities in tile flatness. Joints wider than
10 mm should not generally be used.
The type of grout used to fill the joint should be given careful consideration. For most
normal floor usages cement/sand or a proprietary modified cement-based grout will
provide adequate serviceability. The latter has a greater potential for consistency of
quality and colour, as compared with site-batched grouts. Grouts based on epoxy or
other specialised resin materials may be necessary to impart specific properties such as:
• impermeability
• resistance to water, heat, cleaning agents, chemicals
• resistance to mould growth and bacteria
• resilience and compressibility
• resistance to high-pressure water cleaning
• suitability for use in food preparation and sterile areas
Manufacturers’ recommendations should be sought on suitability for specific service

conditions.
The finished colour of the grout requires special consideration. In most installations,
tiles will have a slightly rounded arris to provide enhanced impact resistance. Grouting
will therefore invariably be finished slightly lower than the tile surface. This profile, in
combination with the slight texture normally present on the surface of cement-based
grouts, leads to an accumulation of dirt on the grout surface. Even with good cleaning

procedures, this dirt commonly leads to a very dark, sometimes black, appearance to
the joint. Varying degrees of dirt accumulation may lead to varying shading. In
installations where dirt ingress is likely to be high, such as shopping malls, the use of
light-coloured grout is inadvisable.
BS 5385 Part 3 recommends that structural concrete bases should at least be 6 weeks
old prior to laying of the floor tiling or a screed, and that screeds should be at least
3 weeks old prior to overlaying with flooring. These limitations are related to reduction
of potential drying stresses rather than any moisture sensitivity of the flooring. If
unbonded construction with semi-dry or cement/sand mortar bedding is adopted to
overcome this drying period requirement, due regard should be paid to the potential
reduced suitability for use in situations of high dynamic or static loadings.
BS 5385 Part 3 recommends that ground-bearing structural bases should be protected

by an effective barrier against moisture capillary rise to reduce the potential for
efflorescence or mould forming at the flooring surface, or in some cases to protect
against deleterious salts in the groundwater.
General guidance on service limitations is given in Section 2.3.4.
It is common practice to use ceramic tiling extensively in areas such as shopping malls
to provide a decorative patterned flooring. To achieve the required appearance,
different tile colours, textures and dimensions may be used, frequently involving
differing manufacturers and/or suppliers. It is important to ensure that such mixing
does not cause undue difficulty in the construction of the flooring. The most common
problems are:
• differing plan dimensional tolerances, leading to difficulty in maintaining uniform

joint widths and coordinating joint positions
• differing tile thicknesses, leading to adoption of modified bedding procedures, and

incurring a risk of inadequate bedding and/or poor achieved finished surface
accuracy
Full consideration should be given at the design stage to the implications of using a
variety of differing tile types and sizes, and the potential risks should be weighed
against appearance requirements.
Laying of ceramic floor tiling is a specialised operation, and should be entrusted only to
contractors with the necessary proven skills. Inspection of similar previous installations
by the specialist contractor is strongly recommended. The specialist should provide a
full method statement covering all aspects of supply, storage and installation.
Specification
Where screeds are to be interposed between the structural base and flooring, these
should preferably be installed by the tiling contractor, or under his control. This should
avoid subsequent disputes over split responsibilities for quality, and should allow full
coordination of joints.

Situations may arise where the specialist contractor prefers an alternative method of
bedding to that specified. The most common example of this is where a screed and
adhesive bed is specified, and the contractor wishes to use the semi-dry bed method, or
vice versa. In such cases, provided that the end result achieves the necessary
relationship between base, bed and flooring, the contractor should not be unduly
restricted by the specification. Rigid insistence on specified methods and forcing the
contractor to use methods with which he is not totally happy can lead to reduced
finished quality. Early communication between all parties concerned is necessary in
such situations.
Structural base
The two most common problems arising with regard to structural bases or screeds to
receive bed and flooring are inadequate surface accuracy for adhesive beds, and
incorrect position and alignment of movement joints.
Where surface accuracy problems exist, simple thickening-up of the adhesive bed
should be avoided since this may induce higher inherent stresses in the bed, and may
result in poorer achieved finished accuracy. Advice should be sought from the adhesive
manufacturer on appropriate remedial action. In many cases levelling screeds may be
formed by prior application of an adhesive layer, bulked out with a fine sand where
necessary. These are allowed to harden prior to laying of the normal adhesive bed. In
extreme cases of poor accuracy, specialist advice should be sought.
Where structural movement joints, or other joints in the base expected to move, do not
coincide with planned joint positions in the flooring, appropriate action will be
necessary to resolve the risk of disruption or the potential effect on appearance. For
bonded beds of adhesive or cement/sand mortar there is little action that can be taken,
other than following the line of the joint and accepting the effect on appearance. Where
semi-dry bed is used, action will be dependent upon the bed thickness, whether it is
bonded or unbonded, and the width of joint required. Simple introduction of a localised
slip membrane (the common solution) should not be used without prior consideration
of the potential effect on flooring serviceability.
Screeds
Where a screed is interposed between the structural base and flooring bed, it should be
subject to thorough inspection for defects likely to detract from serviceability of the
overlaid flooring. These include:
• lack of soundness – check with BRE screed tester for compliance with
specified soundness category
• cracking – check for relative movement across crack
• curling – check for vertical deflection under load at cracks,

joints and perimeters
If any of these defects are found, specialist advice should be sought on the potential for
affecting the finished flooring, and on appropriate remedial measures.
Laying of flooring
When ceramic tiles are to be bedded in adhesive, it is essential that a full bed is
achieved, with freedom from excessive voidage. Failure to achieve a full bed will
seriously increase the risk of fracture of tiles under applied loadings, a risk that will
increase as tile thickness reduces. In all cases the adhesive manufacturer’s advice

should be followed on the most appropriate application technique for achieving a full
bed. Some materials may require a combed bed of the adhesive on the substrate and
buttering the back of tiles, particularly if the tile back is ribbed. Other types of adhesive
are capable of achieving a solid bed with only a combed bed on the substrate, provided
that the correct size of notched trowel is used. The latter types of adhesive are
particularly suitable for large-format tiles (greater than 150 mm square). Whichever
technique is used, a check on efficiency of bedding is recommended. This may be
achieved by visual inspection of tiles removed at random shortly after initial set of the
adhesive.
When ceramic tiles are bedded by the semi-dry mix method, the finished degree of
compaction of the bedding is critical to adequate performance of the flooring. Unlike
stone or precast terrazzo units, which require some residual compaction of the bedding
to take up variations in unit thicknesses, ceramic tile thickness variations are such that
they should be accommodated in the bonding slurry thickness. The semi-dry bed should
therefore be fully compacted to level prior to spreading of the bonding slurry and laying
of the tiles.
Where cement/sand mortar or semi-dry beds are used, achievement of intimate bond
between tile and bed is essential. Voidage or loss of bond at this interface will seriously
affect the serviceability of the ceramic tiling. Bond is normally achieved with a cement
slurry or an adhesive. Whether this is applied to the back of the tile or to the bed
surface, the bonding coat must achieve 100% coverage. The practice of putting a patch
of bonding slurry in the centre of the tile area should not be permitted since it will not
normally spread during placement to cover the full tile area, leaving corners and edges
unbonded and unsupported. As with adhesive bedding, occasional visual checks should
be made for efficiency of coverage by lifting sample tiles at random.
Formation of joints
Particular attention should be paid to the methods adopted for the incorporation of
movement or stress relief joints in the flooring.
It is quite common practice for joint sections over structural movement joints in the
base to be inserted after the bulk of the flooring has been laid. Post-insertion
necessitates the omission of a strip of tile and bedding either side of the joint. Where
the bedding is either cement/sand mortar or semi-dry mix there is a high risk that
compaction and quality of this post-inserted narrow strip may be inferior to the
remainder of the bedding unless particular care is taken over workmanship. There is
also a high risk of relative movement at the inevitable daywork joint between new and
existing bedding, particularly if the bed is of unbonded construction. It is strongly
recommended, therefore, that joint sections are pre-positioned to allow full continuity
of flooring and bed.
Proprietary movement joint sections that are designed to be anchored to the base should
be fixed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions to provide a rigid
installation capable of resisting the designed imposed loading. The most common
failings in this type of joint are an inadequate number of mechanical anchorages, and
inadequate support to the underside of the section. The type, number and positions of
mechanical anchors should be specified by the manufacturer. Continuous support
should be achieved either by fixing the section over a wet mortar bed to the required
finished level, or more commonly by fixing with shims to finished level for subsequent
filling beneath with a ‘dry-pack’ mortar or grout. The choice of filling material will be
dependent upon the depth. Whichever fixing method is adopted, 100% bedding should
be achieved. Failure to achieve this will invariably result in localised deflection or

disruption of the joint section, followed by a gradual deterioration of flooring and/or
bedding through traffic-induced impact loading.
Stress relief or intermediate joints are normally installed in cement/sand or semi-dry

bedded flooring as work progresses. Where the joint is a preformed section, rather than
a simple sealant joint, it is quite common practice to finish a day’s work one or two
tiles beyond the joint, thereby providing support for the joint section while the bed sets.
Unfortunately, this practice results in the formation of a day joint in the bed, which
may be subject to a degree of future movement that may disrupt the overlying grouted
joint. Such movement may be greater in unbonded or traditional partially bonded semi-
dry beds, even where bed reinforcement is used. If such risks of disruption are
unacceptable, day joints should not be permitted other than those coincident with stress
relief joints (see Fig. 7.2).
this section of bed laid

to support preformed joint risk of subsequent movement
at grouted joint
tile
semi–dry bed
base concrete
preformed intermediate bed day joint
joint section
Fig. 7.2 Incorporation of preformed movement joint sections in semi-dry bed.

Bed day joints should coincide with preformed joint positions to avoid crack
risks.
Where flooring units have a slightly chamfered arris to improve resistance to impact
damage, care must be exercised when there is a need to cut flooring units adjacent to
movement joints. Ideally, the cut edge should be provided with a chamfer. If this is not
possible, as may be the case with some types of flooring unit, it is preferable to reverse
the tile so that the cut edge is supported by a grouted-type joint.
Grouting
Tiles laid by the semi-dry bed method using a vibrating machine should be grouted
within 4 hours of laying. In all other cases the timing of grouting is a balance between
the risk of disturbance of the tiling for early filling, and the risk of dirt accumulation
for delayed filling. Unless a rapid-setting adhesive bed has been used, filling of joints
should not normally commence until the day after laying. Thereafter, joints should be
filled as soon as possible, preferably within 2 days. Effective protection should be
provided to prevent dirt ingress during the time prior to grouting.
The grout used should be related to the joint width. BS 5385 Part 3 advises that
cement/sand grout should be:

• 1 : 1 cement/sand for joints of 3 mm wide
• 1 : 2 cement/sand for joints of 3–6 mm wide
• 1 : 3 cement/sand for joints of over 6 mm wide
The relationship between width and proportions is critical to reducing the risk of
shrinkage cracking of cementitious grouts. Where proprietary grouts are used,
manufacturers’ advice on suitability for joint width should be followed.
Thorough mixing of grout is essential. Failure to produce a homogenous mix can result
in variable appearance, colour, and performance of the in-situ joint.
Where epoxy resin or other special types of grout are used, the advice of the
manufacturer should be followed on appropriate widths, time of application, mixing
etc.
Protection
Unless rapid-setting adhesive beds and grouts have been used, the flooring should be
restricted to use by the flooring contractor only until 4 days after laying, after which
light pedestrian use may be permitted. Heavier traffic should be restricted until at least
14 days after laying.
At all times the flooring should be protected against the risk of contaminants such as
plaster and mortar droppings, paint, and oil. Where continued access for construction
traffic is necessary, timber boarding protection should be provided. Particular care must
be taken where wheeled access vehicles are used, e.g. mobile platforms. The degree of
protection provided must be related to the anticipated loadings from wheels and, more
particularly, from stabiliser legs.
As the flooring dries out it may be subject to efflorescence or to colour or shade

variations due to residual moisture. Application of protection may delay drying out and
hence delay these temporary visual defects until a later stage in the contract. Where
protection is required almost until opening of the building for normal usage, allowance
should be made for the fact that the flooring appearance may not yet be stable.
Surface treatments
The application of permanent seals and polishes is not recommended. These may make
the flooring surface slippery and difficult to clean.
Proprietary temporary surface sealers may be applied to tiles prior to laying to facilitate
cleaning off the surface after laying and grouting. Such materials must be used strictly
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Care must be exercised during
initial application to prevent the sealer from contaminating the tile edges, where it may
interfere with subsequent bond of grout and/or sealant.
Provided that the flooring has been cleaned correctly after grouting, normal cleaning
with warm water and a soapless detergent prior to hand-over should provide acceptable
appearance. In some cases, however, a residual film of cement may be left after the
grouting operation, which mars appearance. This is usually removed by a surface
treatment using a proprietary acid cleaner. Where such materials are used, it is
essential that the flooring is initially wetted with clean water, and surplus water is
removed prior to application of the acid. After treatment, the flooring should be

thoroughly rinsed with clean water. Failure to follow this procedure may result in
permanent damage to the flooring, for cement-based grouting in particular.
Where a residual film has been left from other types of grout, such as epoxide resins,
specialist advice should be sought on appropriate methods of removal.
Testing should include:

• checks for completeness of adhesive bed or bonding slurry, by occasional lifting of
tiles and visual inspection
• comparison of finished flooring with approved samples areas
• checks for compliance with specified surface accuracy tolerances of finished

flooring
7.2.2 Natural stone
Relevant documents

BS 8000 Part 11 Section 11.2 15 Workmanship
Design criteria

of natural stone tiling units of up to 0.6 m2 in area, bedded on bases of concrete,
cement/sand screed, timber, asphalt and existing hard floor surfaces. The
recommendations are presented in a comprehensive and usable format, and full
reference should be made to the document in conjunction with advice from the stone
supplier on limitations of the particular material for specific applications. The
remainder of this Section 7.2.2 concentrates on those aspects of design and
construction that most commonly lead to problems in the finished flooring.
Selection of the correct type of bed and thickness is essential to the performance of the
finished flooring. Guidance on bed type and thickness, suitability for particular stone
types and compatibility with various types of base is given in BS 5385 Part 5 Tables 3
and 4.
Thin bed methods, such as adhesives up to 6 mm thick, and cement/sand or

cement/lime/sand at the lower end of the thickness range, are not capable of
accommodating variations in base accuracy. Bases or screeds should be constructed to
the same accuracy as that required in the finished flooring. These bed techniques are
also incapable of accommodating significant variations in tile thickness. Tiles of
calibrated or uniform thickness should be used.
For thicker beds, such as the semi-dry mix, uniformity of bed thickness is desirable.
Accuracy of the base should be controlled to maintain bed thickness within the
specified range to reduce the possibility of differential stresses within the bed.

The resistance of flooring units to damage from traffic loading and impact is largely
reliant upon uniform support from the bedding. In heavily trafficked and loaded areas,
achievement of bond between the tile, bed and base is crucial, and the use of unbonded
beds should be avoided. Where this is not possible, such as may be the case for
suspended slabs subject to deflection, immature concrete bases etc., the flooring plus
bed should be isolated from the base, and must be capable of providing the necessary
resistance without the stability offered by bond to the base. In such cases, only the semi-
dry bed is recommended, and this should be at least 40 mm thick and reinforced. The
use of thicker flooring units is also advisable. Even with these provisions, resistance to
high dynamic or static loading may be less than that offered by a fully bonded bed.
The use of the traditional semi-dry bed method, in which the weak adhesion to the
substrate permits debonding or cleavage to relieve stresses between the flooring and
base, should be treated with caution. Where stresses do cause debonding, cracking of
the bed is inevitable. Although cracks generally occur at flooring unit joints, movement
at these joints can be sufficient to cause grout loss and general poor performance of the
joint. Slight curling of the bed can also occur, reducing its resistance to heavy loading.
Consideration must be given to the coordination of joints in the structural base with
joints in the screed, if used, and the flooring plus bed. Structural movement joints in
the base must be reflected through to the finished surface to the same width and to
accurate alignment. Construction joints that are subject to continued movement
constitute a risk of reflective cracking and should be reflected through where bonded
beds are used. The coordination of these joints poses a significant problem unless cut
flooring units are permitted. Coordination may be further complicated in situations
where flooring units are not in the same orientation as the joints in the structural base
(see Fig. 7.3). Joint coordination problems can be reduced only by considering the
compatibility of the structural base/screed/flooring at design stage.
r efl ect i ve crack t hrough

t i l e and screed/ bed
di agonal pat t ern t i l i n g
bonded screed or bed
st ruct ural base

concret e
c o n s t r u c t i o n j o i n t i n concret e base
s u b j e c t t o s l i g h t c o nt i nued m ovem ent s
Fig. 7.3 Coordination of joints in structural base. Risk of cracking due to non-
orthogonal joint orientation.

BS 5385 Part 5 gives guidance on reducing movement stresses in the flooring and bed
by provision of perimeter joints and intermediate joints. While these provisions will
minimise the risk of cracking or other movement-induced disruption, they must be
detailed correctly. The joint section should pass completely through the flooring and
bedding depth to the structural base. Where a screed is interposed, the section should
also pass through the screed depth where the bed is to be bonded, thus also controlling
stresses in the screed.
Adherence to BS 5385 Part 5 recommendations results in the flooring’s being divided

into bays of up to 10 m maximum dimension. Even at this size, there will be some risk
of cracking, particularly of screeds and semi-dry beds. Where this risk is unacceptable,
closer spacing of joints should be used. Experience suggests that 4–6 m centres are
appropriate.
Stone units with a textured or riven finish should be provided with joints of 6 mm
width, subsequently filled flush by pointing with mortar. For units with a smooth
finish, consideration should be given to the detail required for the joints. Traditionally,
very narrow cement-grout-filled joints have been used. Difficulties in ensuring
complete filling commonly result in loss of grout and eventual filling with dirt. This
may result in poor appearance, difficulty in cleaning, and loss of tile joint arrises under
the action of hard-wheeled traffic. Increasing the width to 2–3 mm eases complete
filling of the joint, thus reducing these problems. Where appearance criteria permit,
further improvement in joint performance can be gained by slight chamfering of the tile
arris by approximately 1 mm to give a ‘cushion edge’. Advice on the suitability of this
detail should be sought from the stone supplier.
Where movement joints between flooring units are to be filled with a flexible sealant,
compatibility of the stone and sealant should be checked. Under some conditions with
some combinations of stone and sealant, leaching can occur, resulting in staining of the
stone surface (see Fig. 7.4). Advice should be sought from the stone supplier and
sealant manufacturer on suitability and the need for prior application of primers.
Where doubt exists, trials are advisable.
BS 5385 Part 5 recommends that structural concrete bases should be at least 6 weeks
old prior to laying of the flooring or a screed, and that screeds should be at least
of potential drying stresses rather than to any moisture sensitivity of the flooring. If
unbonded semi-dry bedding is used to overcome these drying periods, as may be the
case in very short construction programmes, due regard should be paid to the potential
reduced suitability for high dynamic or static loading conditions.
BS 5385 Part 5 recommends the use of an effective barrier against moisture capillary
rise for ground-bearing structural bases to reduce the potential risks of efflorescence or
mould formation at the flooring surface, or in some cases to protect against deleterious
salts in the groundwater. Some types of stone, notably limestone, contain natural
organic materials that can be dissolved by alkali solution derived from the concrete
base or bedding to form a brown liquid. This liquid may be transported to the flooring
surface by capillary rise to form a stain. Although this risk may be present through the
evaporation of construction moisture, the risks will be higher in ground-bearing

Fig. 7.4 Staining of granite flooring caused by leaching from sealant.
slabs not protected by a dpm. Similarly, contamination such as pyrites or ironstone in

bedding sand may give a greater risk of staining in floors not protected against
groundwater rise.
Unlike manufactured flooring materials, natural stone is subject to inherent variations

in both physical quality and appearance that can be controlled to within acceptable
limits only by selective quarrying, sample testing, and visual inspection. It is essential
that an effective selection process is established well in advance of the start of work on
site to ensure adequate supply of materials of the correct quality. The most common
problem arising on site is that of colour and appearance, and ensuing arguments over
acceptability can cause significant delays. To avoid this requires good communication
between all parties concerned, and the use of established samples representing the
acceptable range of variations.
Laying of natural stone flooring is a specialised operation and should be entrusted only
to those with the necessary proven skills. Inspection of similar previous installations by
the specialist contractor is strongly recommended. The specialist contractor should
provide a full method statement covering all aspects of stone supply, storage and
laying.
Specification
Same advice as in corresponding sub-section in 7.2.1.
Structural base

Screeds
Laying of flooring
Where tiles are bedded in adhesive, it is essential that a full bed is achieved, with
freedom from excessive voidage. Failure to achieve a full bed will reduce the resistance
of the flooring to applied loadings. The adhesive manufacturer’s advice should be
followed on appropriate methods of achieving full bedding. With some adhesives,
buttering the back of tiles may be necessary in conjunction with a combed bed on the
substrate. Some materials are suitable for solid bedding with only a combed bed,
provided that the correct size of notched trowel is used. The latter types are more
suitable where large-format tiles are to be laid. Whichever method is used, a check on
efficiency of bedding is recommended. This may be achieved by visual inspection of
tiles removed at random shortly after initial set of the adhesive.
Where flooring units are to be bedded by the semi-dry mix method, the finished degree
of compaction in the bedding should be as high as possible to provide adequate
resistance to applied loadings. The bedding should be partially compacted prior to
laying of the stone units to a surcharge that, after beating of the units to level, produces
maximum compaction. The degree of surcharge necessary will depend upon the bed
thickness and mix workability. The practice of laying the bedding loose without partial
compaction, followed by gentle tapping of the units to level, may not give the necessary
serviceability required of the flooring system.
Where semi-dry or cement/sand mortar beds are used, achievement of intimate bond
between the bed and flooring unit is essential. Voidage or loss of bond at this interface
will seriously affect resistance to traffic loading. Bond is usually achieved with a
cement slurry or an adhesive. Whether applied to the surface of the bed or to the back
of the stone unit, this bonding coat must be 100% complete. The practice of putting a
patch of bonding coat in the centre should be not be permitted, since spreading to the
full area will not take place during placement, leaving edges and corners unbonded
and/or unsupported. Similarly, where bedding is prepared to receive a line of tiles,
pouring a wet consistency grout along the centre-line of the bed will not guarantee full
coverage. Every effort should be made to ensure that the technique adopted guarantees
complete coverage. Again, checks can be made by lifting sample tiles for visual
inspection shortly after laying.
Formation of joints
Grouting
The timing of grouting or pointing of joints in the flooring is a balance between the
risk of disturbance of the flooring units for early filling, and the risk of dirt
accumulation for delayed filling. Unless rapid-setting adhesive bed has been used,
filling of joints should not normally commence until the day following laying.
Extended times may be necessary where a retarded ready-mixed semi-dry bed has been
used. Thereafter, joints should be filled as soon as possible, unless effective protection
is provided against the accumulation of detritus in the joints.
The grout mix used for filling joints should be of a workability such that maximum
filling can be achieved by the application method used.

Surface treatments
The application of seals and polishes is not generally recommended. Where these are
required, they should be of a type approved by the stone supplier.
Protection

flooring units and visual inspection
• comparison of finished flooring with approved sample areas

flooring
7.2.3 Precast terrazzo
Relevant documents

BS 8000 Part 11 Sect. 11.1 15 Workmanship
Design criteria

of precast terrazzo tile and slab units, bedded on bases of concrete, cement/sand screed,
asphalt and existing hard floor surfaces. The recommendations are presented in a
comprehensive and usable format, and full reference should be made to the document,
in conjunction with advice from the tile manufacturer on limitations of the particular
type of tile for specific applications. The remainder of this Section 7.2.3 concentrates
on those aspects of design and construction that most commonly lead to problems in
the finished flooring.
Guidance on bed type and thickness, and suitability for various types of base, is given
in BS 5385 Part 5 Tables 3 and 4. The three methods that may be used are cement/sand
semi-dry, cement/sand mortar, and adhesive beds. Of these, the most widely adopted by
specialist contractors is the semi-dry bed, since this readily accommodates normal
variations in tile thickness and base accuracy, and enables relatively rapid installation
of large areas of flooring. Use of the other two methods can impose limitations that
should be taken into account at design stage.
Where adhesive beds are used, the base substrate should be to the same surface
accuracy tolerance as that required in the finished flooring. The normal thick-bed
cement-based adhesive thickness is 6 mm. This is insufftcient to accommodate the
expected thickness variations for standard terrazzo tiles. ln recent years terrazzo tiles
have become available that are ground top and bottom during production to give a

calibrated thickness of 19 mm. These are suitable for use in combination with standard
thick-bed adhesive fixing, subject to base accuracy limitations. For standard terrazzo
tiles, adhesive manufacturers, advice should be sought on the availability of products
suitable for bed thicknesses of 10–12 mm.
Where the cement/sand mortar bed method is used, the thickness of bed should be a
uniform 15–25 mm thickness, and the bed should be bonded to the base. The practice
of using this method over a separating layer, even for light-duty situations, is no longer
recommended. At the recommended bed thickness, the capacity for correction of base
inaccuracies is limited, and the base should preferably be laid to the same accuracy
tolerances as required in the finished flooring.
For semi-dry bed fixing, the bed thickness should be within the range 25–70 mm,
except in the case of unbonded construction, which should be 40–70 mm and include a
layer of BS 4483 D49 or D98 reinforcing mesh at mid-depth. Within these thickness
ranges, uniformity of bed thickness is desirable to minimise differential stresses. Base
accuracy should therefore be coordinated accordingly.
The resistance of the tiles to damage from traffic loadings and impact is largely reliant
upon uniform support from the bed. In heavily trafficked and loaded areas achievement
of bond between the bed and the base is crucial, and the use of unbonded semi-dry bed
should be avoided. If this is not possible, such as may be the case for suspended
slabs subject to deflection, immature concrete bases etc., the flooring plus bed must
provide the necessary resistance to traffic loading without the stability offered by bond
to the base. For this reason, unbonded semi-dry bed is thicker and reinforced. Even
with these provisions, potential resistance to high dynamic or static loadings may be
less than that offered by fully bonded systems.
The commonly used traditional semi-dry bed method, in which the weak adhesion to
the substrate permits debonding or cleavage to relieve stresses between the flooring and
the base, should be treated with caution. Where stresses do cause debonding, cracking
of the bed is inevitable. Cracking commonly occurs at grouted tile joints, resulting in
loss of grout and poor appearance. Slight curling of the bed adjacent to the crack may
also occur, reducing resistance to heavy loading.
Consideration must be given to the coordination of joints in the structural base with
joints in the screed, if used, and the bed and tile. Structural movement joints in the base
must be reflected through to the finished floor surface to the same width and to
accurate alignment. Construction joints that are subject to continued movement
comprise a risk of reflective cracking, and should be reflected through where the bed is
of bonded construction. The coordination of these joints poses a significant problem
unless cut floor tiles are permitted. Coordination may be further complicated in
situations where the tiling is not laid in the same orientation as joints in the base.
Coordination problems can be reduced only by considering the overall compatibility of
the structural base/screed/tiling at design stage.
For many years, terrazzo tile flooring had been laid by some contractors without
provision of stress relief joints in the flooring. It was argued that by using the
traditional ‘partially bonded’ semi-dry mix method, or by using partial contact
separating membranes, differential stresses within the flooring or between the flooring
and the base were catered for. Large areas of flooring laid to this concept, although
providing reasonable serviceability, tended to suffer from a high degree of random
opening of grouted tile joints, and subsequent grout loss and tile edge damage. This

lead to a maintenance routine of re-grouting opened joints on a regular basis. Unless
this type of ‘jointless’ flooring system, with its associated problems, is considered as
satisfactory for a particular situation, provision should be made for introduction of
perimeter and intermediate joints in accordance with BS 5385 Part 5.
Provision of joints in accordance with BS 5385 Part 5 divides the flooring into bays of
up to 10 m square. Observation of large areas laid without stress relief joints indicates
that terrazzo tile on semi-dry bed has a natural tendency to crack at grouted tile joints
at 4–6 m centres. For minimal risk of cracking, a reduction to 4–6 m spacing of
intermediate joints from the 8–10 m suggested by BS 5385 may be appropriate.
Correct detailing of joint sections is essential to ensure adequate stress relief not only
within the tiling, but also within the bed depth, and screed where used. Joint sections
used in terrazzo tiling are normally either a non-compressible strip or a proprietary
compressible neoprene/metal or neoprene/plastics section. These should pass through
from the finished tile surface to the structural base. It is common practice to use joint
sections that are only just deeper than the tile thickness. These may not provide
effective stress relief of the full flooring system, and should be avoided.
Terrazzo tiling is normally finished by grinding and polishing to provide a smooth,

continuous flooring, including the grouted joints. Loss of grout from the joints during
service is a relatively common occurrence, and leads to dirt accumulation, poor
appearance, and to tile arris damage under impact loading. One of the major factors
affecting grout loss is adequacy of joint filling during the grouting operation. Slight
movement between tiles through shrinkage stresses can result in hairline cracking at
the grout/tile interface. In shallow filled joints, subsequent traffic or cleaning
operations may result in the grout’s dropping further into the joint or being plucked
out. Where joints are completely or almost completely filled, there is a much reduced
risk of this occurring. The achievement of adequate filling is a function of joint width
and grout workability. Very high-workability grouts can lead to high shrinkage and a
greater tendency to crack or de-bond from the tile edges. For optimum filling and
performance it is recommended that design joint width should be at least 2 mm, and
preferably 3 mm, and that the cement grout should include an admixture to improve
workability (see Fig. 7.5).
The grouted joints, being long narrow strips of a relatively high shrinkage material,
can suffer from transverse cracking, commonly referred to as ‘ladder cracking’.
Occurrence tends to be random and unpredictable. The cracks are normally hairline
only and of little consequence to performance unless accompanied by longitudinal
cracking between tile edge and the grout. The cracks can mar appearance by
accumulation of dirt, particularly in white or very light-coloured joints. The
phenomenon of ladder cracking is commonly blamed on the finer-ground cement used
in recent years. The most effective means of reducing the risk of ladder cracking is to
use an admixture or polymer in the grout mix to reduce its shrinkage potential.
The colour of grouted joints may also play a significant part in the finished appearance
of the flooring, particularly with regard to the potential for highlighting the above-
described defects in jointing grout. Light-coloured joints will clearly show dirt
accumulation in cracks, white being the worst. Where joint colour is selected to match
the tile matrix colour, defects will be less apparent than where joint colour is selected to
contrast with the tile matrix colour.

narrow grouted joint 1 – 1.5mm
typical extent of
grout penetration.
terrazzo tile
void beneath
grout
bed surface
Narrow joint between terrazzo tiles – risk of incomplete filling leading

to eventual grout loosening and loss
w i d e r g r o u t e d j o i n t 2 – 3mm.
t e r r a z z o tile
more complete
grout filling
bed surface
Wider joint between terrazzo tiles – more complete filling and reduced risk
of grout loosening and loss.
Fig. 7.5 Terrazzo tile grouted joints.
old prior to laying of the flooring or a screed, and that screeds should be at least
of potential drying stresses rather than any moisture sensitivity of the flooring. If
unbonded semi-dry bedding is used to overcome these drying periods, as may be the
case in short construction programmes, due regard should be paid to the potential
reduced suitability for high dynamic or static loading conditions.
Ground-bearing concrete bases should be provided with an effective barrier against

capillary rise of groundwater to reduce the potential risks of efflorescence or mould
growth at the flooring surface.
Being a cement-based product, terrazzo tiles are subject to their own stresses on drying
out after manufacture. Laying of immature terrazzo tiles can promote additional

stresses at the tile/bed and tile edge/grout joint interfaces, over and above those already
present. Such stresses can increase the risks of tile/bed bond failure and grouted joint
cracking. BS 5385 Part 5 advises that terrazzo tiles should be air cured for at least
28 days after manufacture. Due allowance should be made for this factor for ordering
and supply of tiles. Where large areas of flooring are to be laid, it is common for tile
manufacture and laying programmes to overlap. In such cases control is necessary to
ensure that the recommended curing period is maintained and deliveries are used in
strict rotation.
A wide variety of terrazzo tiles is available, produced with a large range of aggregate
types and sources, and can be suitable for service conditions ranging from domestic up
to light industrial.
The manufacturer should be consulted to ensure that a tile from a suitable service range
is selected. The manufacturer should also be advised of any additional requirements,
such as incorporation of special aggregates in the surfacing mix to enhance slip
resistance or for conductive tiles for use in electro-static dissipative flooring.
Where in-situ terrazzo flooring is to be laid in conjunction with the terrazzo tiling,
confirmation should be sought from the tile manufacturers on the availability of a
suitable supply of materials for the in-situ work.
Laying of terrazzo tile flooring is a specialised operation, and should be entrusted only
to contractors with the necessary proven skills. Inspection of similar previous
installations by the specialist contractor, including in-situ work if appropriate, is
strongly recommended. The specialist contractor should provide a full method
statement covering all aspects of supply, storage and laying.
Specification
Where a screed is to be interposed between the structural base and the flooring, it
should preferably be laid by the same specialist contractor, or under his control. This
should avoid subsequent disputes over split responsibilities for quality, and should
enable full coordination of joints.
By far the most common method of bedding of terrazzo tiling is the semi-dry mix
method. Where the cement/sand mortar bed method is specified, it cannot be
substituted by the semi-dry method because of different inherent bed thicknesses
between the two methods.
Where adhesive bedding of calibrated tiles on cement/sand screed is specified, it is

common for the specialist contractor to prefer to lay by the semi-dry mix method.
Provided that the designed screed thickness is within the 25–70 mm range, and
provided that the same relationship between base/bed/tiling can be achieved, then
adequate serviceability can be attained. In this case it would be preferable to adopt a
similar laying technique as used for ceramic tiling, i.e. the semi-dry bed should be fully
compacted prior to placing the tiles, rather than relying on tile beating to consolidate
the bed. This also reduces the risk of cracking of the somewhat thinner calibrated tiles,
which may occur during beating to level if the traditional semi-dry bed method is used.

Structural base
Screeds
Laying of flooring
Same advice as in corresponding sub-section 7.2.2.
Formation of joints

Grouting
Grouting of joints should not commence until the bedding has set sufficiently to
prevent disturbance of the tiles by foot traffic. The timing will be dependent upon the
type of bed used. If grouting is unduly delayed, protection should be provided to
prevent dirt and detritus build-up in the open joints.
The grout should be of a workability that is suitable for achieving maximum

penetration into the joints. The use of admixtures to improve fluidity should be
encouraged. These will assist penetration and reduce the risk of subsequent cracking of
the grout. The grout should be applied by squeegee over the total area until all
settlement into the joints ceases and any surface voids in the tiles are filled. It is
essential that no gaps or voids are left, since these may fill up during the grinding
process with ground cement paste, which may remain in the finished floor as a soft
friable grout with poor serviceability. Grout should be protected against rapid drying to
ensure adequate hydration of the cement.
Grinding and polishing
Grinding should not commence until at least 3 days after grouting. Initial grinding
should be carried out with rough grit stones to remove surface grout and eliminate
lipping between tiles, followed by a second grinding with finer grit stones to remove
scratches from the initial grind. The floor should then be thoroughly cleaned and
washed to remove all grinding residues, re-grouted to fill any remaining voids, and
finally ground and polished wet using fine grit stones (No.80 grit or finer). The time
between final grouting and final polishing should not be less than 24 hours. All
grinding and polishing operations should be performed by purpose-built machines. Use
of manual grinding or hand-held grinders will not generally achieve the same degree of
flatness or uniform appearance as purpose-built machines, and they should be used only
where recommended methods are impractical. Use of manual grinding to remove
localised defects will generally detract from the appearance of the floor.
After final polishing, the flooring should be thoroughly cleaned and left to dry
naturally.
Surface treatments
Finished terrazzo tile flooring is commonly treated with proprietary surface

hardener/sealer materials. ‘Vitrification’ or ‘crystallisation’ processes may also be

required. Details of these surface treatments are the same as for in-situ terrazzo
flooring (refer to Section 6.6 Surface treatments).
It is essential that any surface treatments required are to the approval of the tile
manufacturer, are carried out by the specialist flooring contractor, and are applied in
accordance with the proprietary material manufacturer’s recommendations.
Protection
Same advice as in corresponding sub-section 7.2.1.

tiles and visual inspection

flooring
Conglomerates
Relevant documents

Manufacturers’ d ata – All aspects of design, installation and
workmanship
Design criteria
The category of flooring referred to as conglomerate tile covers a wide variety of

proprietary products ranging from synthetic resin/aggregate-based tiles a few
millimetres thick to cement/aggregate-based tiles 15–20 mm thick (see Fig. 7.6). (Refer
to Section 2.3.4 for further detail.) In view of this wide variety, it is essential to
confirm, with the manufacturer of the tile, the suitability for all aspects of service
conditions. Although fixing methods are generally similar to those that can be used for
natural stone tiling, tile thickness or material type may impose limitations that do not
apply to natural stone. Again, manufacturers’ advice on appropriate fixing methods
should be sought. The remainder of this Section 7.2.4 concentrates on typical design
and installation methods.
The method of manufacture of these types of tiles normally provides a uniformity of tile
thickness that enables satisfactory fixing with an adhesive bed of 3–6 mm. For the
thicker type of tile (15–20 mm) bedding in cement/sand mortar is also generally
suitable. For both of these fixing methods, the recommendations given in
BS 5385 Part 5 for natural stone flooring should apply, subject to reference to the
manufacturer. For some types of tile, notably those based on resin formulations, special
adhesives or polymer-modified adhesives/slurry bond coats may be recommended by
the manufacturer.

Fig. 7.6 Typical cement-based marble conglomerate tile.
Bedding by the semi-dry mix method is not generally suitable for the thinner types of
tile. For the thicker types, and notably those with larger aggregate sizes which may
create shear planes through the full thickness, tiles may be damaged during beating-in
(see Fig. 7.7). If the semi-dry mix method is necessary, either to accommodate base
variations or to separate the flooring from the base, the bedding should be fully
compacted prior to placing of the tiles. This equates to the semi-dry bed method for
ceramic tiles described in BS 5385 Part 3 and in Section 7.2.1 of this Guide.
Apart from the above variations, the guidance on fixing methods/relationship with the
base given for natural stone flooring in Section 7.2.2 is considered as applicable to
conglomerate tiling.
The potential for movement stresses in the flooring system will be influenced by the
movement characteristics of the bed, and of the tile. The latter may be dependent upon
the nature of the material from which the tile is made. Flooring should normally be
divided into bays with stress relief joints or intermediate joint at the same spacing and
detail as for natural stone tiling, unless the tile manufacturer advises otherwise. The
advice given in the sub-section on control of movements in the flooring for natural
stone flooring in Section 7.2.2 is considered as equally applicable to conglomerate
tiling.
Conglomerate tiles are normally supplied finished with a polished or honed surface
requiring no further treatment on site. Consideration should therefore be given to the
detail of the grouted joint and its potential for affecting serviceability and appearance.
Unlike terrazzo joints, which are ground flush, joints in this type of pre-finished tile
may be slightly recessed after grouting, leaving tile arrises exposed. Tiles with slightly
chamfered arrises may be beneficial to both the performance and the appearance of the
joint. Manufacturers’ advice should be sought on the suitability of this detail for the
particular product.

Fig. 7.7 Shear plane in piece of conglomerate tile induced by large aggregate size.
As with stone and terrazzo tiles, joint width should be set to ensure that complete
filling with grout is feasible. Joints of less than 2–3 mm width are not recommended.
Advice should be sought from the tile manufacturer on suitability of grouts for filling of
joints. For cement-based tiles, cementitious grouts are commonly used. For synthetic
resin-based tiles, polymer-modified cementitious grouts or grouts based on polyester or
epoxide resins may be necessary to ensure adequate bond to the tile edges. Where
colour-matched grouts are required, these should normally be supplied by the tile
manufacturer.
The advice given in the corresponding sub-section of 7.2.2 is equally applicable to

conglomerate tile flooring. The tile manufacturer’s advice should also be sought on any
other moisture condition limitations that may be applicable. These are unlikely for
cement-based tiling, but for resin-based tiles may include:
• moisture condition of the substrate surface at the time of applying special

adhesives
• moisture condition of the underlying construction at the time of laying the flooring
Tiles are largely imported into the UK. In common with natural stone, there is no
British Standard specification for defining performance criteria. Selection should
therefore be on the basis of evidence of past performance in similar service conditions,
and the specifier should ensure that adequate controls over quality are exercised by the
supplier.

Laying of conglomerate tile flooring should be entrusted only to specialist contractors

with the necessary proven skills. It is similar in most respects to laying of stone,
ceramics and terrazzo, and should be within the capabilities of any of these types of
specialist flooring contractor. It is essential, however, that the contractor is fully aware
of any differences in materials and methods imposed by the manufacturer of the tiling.
A full method statement covering all aspects of supply, storage and installation should
be provided by the specialist contractor in conjunction with the manufacturer.
Specification
Structural base
Screeds
Laying of flooring
Same advice as in corresponding sub-section in 7.2.2 except that where the semi-dry
bed method is used, the bed should be fully compacted prior to placement of the
bonding coat and tiles. Compaction of the bed by tile beating may induce damage to the
tiles.
Formation of joints
Same advice as in corresponding subsection in 7.2.2.
Grouting
Same advice as in corresponding subsection in 7.2.2. Depending upon the type of tile
and/or service conditions, proprietary grouts based on polymers or synthetic resins may
be necessary. The manufacturer’s advice regarding preparation and application should
always be followed. Thorough cleaning-off of all residues of these types of grout is
essential. Removal at a later date may be extremely difficult.
Finishing
Most tiles are supplied pre-finished with a honed or polished surface. For those types
that require a final grinding or polish in-situ, the manufacturer’s advice on suitable
equipment, techniques and sequence of operations should be followed.
Surface treatments
The manufacturer’s advice should be sought on the need for subsequent surface
treatments. Generally, the application of seals and polishes is not necessary or
recommended, although for cement-based tiles with small aggregate sizes, treatment
with a proprietary surface hardener/sealer may be used (refer to Section 6.6 Surface
treatments for in-situ terrazzo).

Protection

flooring units and visual inspection

flooring
7.2.5 Composition block

Relevant documents

Manufacturers’ data All aspects of specification, design and
workmanship
Design criteria

of proprietary composition block flooring onto concrete bases or screeds. Where laying
over other types of base is required, manufacturers’ advice should be sought. The
traditional composition block provides a rigid type of flooring commonly used for
sports halls, gymnasia etc. In recent years alternative types of composition block have
become available that have a rubber backing and are mounted on a resin-impregnated
board with resilient pads. This type of flooring system provides ‘area elastic’ properties
(refer to Section 2.1.14) that can improve the suitability of the flooring for some sports
activities. The manufacturer’s advice should be sought for specification and installation
detail of this modified type of composition block flooring system.
The remainder of this Section 7.2.5 concentrates on those aspects of design and
construction that most commonly lead to problems in the finished flooring where
composition blocks are bedded directly onto concrete bases or screeds.
Composition blocks have dovetail keyways on the underside to provide a mechanical

anchorage to the bed. The bedding technique used to lay the blocks must achieve
adequate filling of these keyways (see Fig. 7.8). BS 5385 Part 5 advises that blocks may
be bedded in a 3 mm thick cement-based adhesive for light-duty situations, or in a
13–25 mm thick plastic consistency cement/sand mortar. The latter method is generally
preferred by manufacturers and specialist contractors. Cement/sand semi-dry bed
techniques are unsuitable, since complete filling of the dovetail keyway will not be
achievable.

voidage in keyways may lead to
block adhesion failure correct filling to ensure effective bond
c o m p o s i ti o n
block
mortar
bed
concrete
base
Fig. 7.8 Filling of dovetail keyways in composition block.
Neither of the two bed techniques permits any significant adjustment to substrate
surface accuracy, which should therefore be constructed to the same degree of accuracy
as required in the finished flooring.
Concrete bases to receive blocks bedded in cement/sand mortar should be finished with
a broom prior to hardening to remove surface laitance. For all other combinations of
base and bed method, the concrete or screed should be wood float finished.
Since there is no bed method suitable for providing isolation from the structural base,
situations requiring isolation will involve the use of unbonded screeds or overslabs. It is
essential to ensure that design of these minimises the risks of random cracking and
curling. The use of thick reinforced fine concrete screeds or concrete overslabs is
preferred.
There is a need to consider the joint provision and coordination to relieve stresses
imposed on the flooring by movements in the base, or screed if used. Structural
movement joints in the base must be reflected through to the finished floor surface to
the same width and to accurate alignment. Construction joints in the base, and in any
interposed screed or overslab, that are to be subject to continued movement should be
reflected through to the finished flooring surface. For unbonded screeds and
overslabs in particular all construction joints should be considered as having the
potential for continued movement. Joints in the flooring over construction joints in the
base, screed or overslab may be either preformed non-compressible strips incorporated
during laying or, more usually, saw-cut through the flooring after laying and
subsequently filled with a proprietary filler and matching grout. It is essential that the
coordination of these joint requirements is resolved at design stage.
BS 5385 Part 5 Clause 7.4 gives guidance on reducing stresses within the flooring and
bed by provision of intermediate joints. Perimeter joints are not normally required
unless there is a perimeter joint in the screed or base construction. While these joints
will minimise the risk of cracking and other types of movement-induced disruption,
they must be detailed correctly. The joints should pass completely through the flooring
and bed depth to the structural base, including the screed depth where applicable. This
will also control stresses within the screed. These intermediate joints are normally
compressible sealant type joints at 30–35 mm intervals and saw-cut contraction joints
at 5–10 m intervals filled with a proprietary filler and matching grout. Guidance should

be sought from the manufacturer of the flooring on the suitability of sealants and joint
fillers for the particular application.
Unlike all other types of rigid tile installation, composition blocks are butt jointed to
give a minimum joint width. Remaining gaps at joints are filled with a proprietary
ready-mixed grout supplied by the manufacturer of the composition block.
Lipping between flooring units, although removed by subsequent sanding, should be

kept to a minimum to avoid localised significant reductions in finished block thickness.
old prior to laying of the flooring or screeds, and that screeds should be at least 3 weeks
old prior to overlaying with flooring. These limitations are related to reductions of
potential drying stresses rather than to any moisture sensitivity of the flooring.
Manufacturers of composition blocks usually state that a dpm is not normally required
for this type of flooring. Notwithstanding this, due regard should be paid to the
recommendations of BS 5385 Part 5 that ground-bearing concrete bases should be
protected against moisture capillary rise to reduce the potential for efflorescence or
mould formation, or to protect against deleterious salts in the groundwater.
The most common usage for composition block flooring is for sports halls, gymnasia
etc., but it is not ideal for prolonged use for some sports activities because of its
rigidity. It can provide good resistance to wear for non-sporting activities. Suitability
for specific combinations of sports and/or non-sporting activities should be referred to
the Sports Council and/or the flooring manufacturer.
The flooring should be sealed after sanding with two or more coats of proprietary sealer
supplied by the block manufacturer. The most widely used sealer is a moisture-cured
polyurethane, but other types of seal are available. The manufacturer’s advice should be
sought on the most appropriate type of seal for the particular floor usage.
Laying of composition block flooring is normally only carried out by the suppliers of
blocks or through their appointed specialist contractors. The installer should provide a
full method statement covering all aspects of supply, storage and installation.
Specification
Where screeds are to be interposed between the structural base and flooring, these
should preferably be installed by the flooring contractor, or under his control. Where
this is not possible, it is essential to ensure that the screed is laid with due regard to the
need to fully coordinate joints between the base, screed and flooring. Failure to achieve
this coordination may result in a high risk of cracking and/or disruption of the flooring.

Structural base
The two most common problems arising with regard to structural bases or screeds to
receive the bed and flooring are inadequate surface accuracy for adhesive beds, and
incorrect position and alignment of movement joints.
Where surface accuracy problems exist, simple thickening-up of adhesive beds should
not be used. This may induce higher stresses in the bed, which may result in cracking
of flooring units, and possibly in poorer achieved finished surface accuracy. Advice
should be sought from the adhesive manufacturer on appropriate remedial action. In
some cases levelling screeds may be formed by prior application of an adhesive layer,
bulked out with a fine sand where necessary. These should be allowed to harden prior
to laying of the normal thin bed adhesive plus flooring units. In extreme cases of poor
accuracy, specialist advice should be sought.
Where structural movement joints, or other joints expected to move in the base or
screed, do not coincide with planned joints in the flooring, then the bedding systems
used leave no option other than re-aligning the joints in the flooring and accepting any
effect on finished appearance.
Screeds
Laying of flooring
For adequate serviceability of composition block flooring, void-free bedding and full
penetration into the dovetail keyways are essential regardless of the bed type and laying
method used. For adhesive beds, the notched solid bed trowel used should be selected to
give a maximum 3 mm bed overall, with sufficient surcharge to fill the keyways. For
cement/sand mortar beds, a plastic-consistency mortar must be used with sufficient
workability for mortar to squeeze into the keyways as the blocks are tamped into
position. (This should generally be a higher workability than the stiff plastic
consistency mortar used for cement/sand bed fixing of ceramic or stone tiling.)
Whichever bed method is used, regular checks should be made for complete bedding by
occasional random removal of blocks for visual inspection prior to setting of the bed.
Blocks should be butt jointed so that, after tamping, the joint widths are kept to a
minimum.
Formation of joints
Particular attention should be paid to the methods used for installation of movement or
contraction joints in the flooring.
Structural movement joint sections should preferably be pre-installed to allow tile

bedding to be continued uninterrupted to the joint line. Omission of a strip of flooring
and bed either side of the joint to allow post insertion can create difficulties in ensuring
the same quality of preparation and workmanship, which may lead to inferior
serviceability.
Proprietary movement joint sections that are designed to be anchored to the base should
be fixed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions to provide a rigid
installation capable of resisting the designed imposed loading. The most common
problems with this type of joint are inadequate number of mechanical fixings, and

incomplete support to the underside of the section. Both of these may lead to deflection
of the section under load, which commonly results in a gradual deterioration of the
flooring and/or bedding either side of the joint through traffic-induced impact loading.
To avoid these problems, the type and number of mechanical fixings should be as
specified by the joint section manufacturer. Continuous support should be achieved
either by fixing the section over a wet mortar bed to the required finished level, or by
fixing with shims to the finished level for subsequent filling beneath with a ‘dry-pack’
mortar or grout.
Intermediate joints of either the compressible sealant type or non-compressible

preformed strip type should extend to the full depth of block and bedding, and should
continue through the screed where applicable. These joints are installed in the bed and
block as work progresses, and for the cement/sand mortar bed method it is common
practice to finish a day’s work one or two blocks beyond the joint, thus providing
support for the joint section while the bed sets. This practice leads to the formation of a
day joint in the bed, which may be subject to a degree of movement sufficient to disrupt
the grouted joint line. It is preferable for day joints in block laying to be coincident with
intermediate joints.
Where intermediate contraction joints are to be sawn through the flooring after laying,
these should be sawn through the full depth of block and bed. Where they are aligned
to construction joints in the structural base or screed, a positive method of ensuring
correct alignment should be devised.
Grouting
Block joints are kept to a minimum width for subsequent application of a pre-blended
purpose-made grout. The grout should be supplied by the manufacturer of the
composition blocks, and mixed and applied strictly in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
Grouting should not normally commence for at least 24 hours after laying of the blocks.
Thereafter it should be completed as soon as possible. If grouting is unduly delayed,
effective protection should be provided to prevent ingress of dirt into the joints.
Sanding and sealing
Prior to sanding, the completed flooring should be left for a minimum period of 3 days
for adhesive-fixed blocks, or 14 days for cement/sand mortar-fixed blocks.
Sanding should be carried out with a mechanical drum sander fitted initially with a
40 grit abrasive belt to remove any lipping between blocks. Sanding should be repeated
with a 60 grit belt and finally with an 80 grit belt to produce a smooth, uniform surface.
After sanding, the surface should be thoroughly cleaned by sweeping with a soft broom
and treated with two or more coats of sealer. The sealer should be approved by the
block manufacturer and used strictly in accordance with the sealer manufacturer’s
recommendations. Different types of sealer are available. Check that the correct grade
is used. The completed floor should be left for a minimum period of 3 days for the seal
to harden and cure.
The time delay between completion of laying and sanding may be extended to permit
continuation of other works to take place and reduce the risk of damage to finished
flooring. Although finishing at a later date may be capable of removing a degree of
contamination from following trades, protection should always be provided against

severe contamination and against mechanical damage and traffic loading in excess of
service loads.
Protection

• checks for completeness of bedding and filling of dovetail keyways by occasional
lifting of blocks for visual inspection
flooring
7.3 TIMBER-BASED FLOORING
Timber flooring normally consists of solid wood, often laid in a decorative design, and
can be categorised as follows:
• Wood block
These may be softwood or hardwood and usually 200–500 mm long, width up to
90 mm and thickness not less than 20 mm.
• Wood mosaic
Fingers of wood, usually hardwood, are bonded to a flexible backing to form a small
panel. The panel may alternatively be held together with a removable facing material.
The wood fingers are usually 100–165 mm long, 6–10 mm thick, and 20–25 mm wide.
• Parquet
Traditional parquet is strips of square-edged hardwood in long or short lengths.
Parquet panels consist of parquet strips bonded to a plywood backing.
• Board or strip
Hardwood or softwood laid in long lengths; boards have a width greater than 100 mm
and strips less than 100 mm.
•Cork
Tiles are cut from compressed and heated granular cork. Cork carpet is a sheet material
having an open texture.
• Panel products
Panel products such as chipboard and plywood are widely used in floor constructions as
substrate materials, but should be covered with a wearing layer such as a resilient floor
finish. Further details of the timber-based floorings are given in Section 2.3.5.
Information concerning timber floors can be obtained from BS 8201 : 1987.
Timber quality
Solid timber flooring should preferably be from a sustainable source and be free from
the following natural defects:

•decay
• insect attack
• splits
• loose knots
• wane
The presence of firm or tight knots is acceptable in tongued and grooved softwood
flooring but subject to the limitations given in BS 1297 : 1987. The presence of any
knots is generally unacceptable in hardwoods, unless with prior agreement with the
purchaser.
Moisture content and movement
One of the most common problems with timber floors is dimensional movement as a
result of the absorption or release of moisture. Timber is a hygroscopic material, and
will swell should it absorb moisture from contact with a damp material or exposure to a
humid environment. The moisture may then be released and shrinkage take place when
the timber is subsequently exposed to a dry environment. The timber flooring may also
cup when swelling takes place and not fully return to its original shape when re-drying
takes place.
Flooring timber should preferably be delivered to site at the moisture content it will
achieve in the conditions expected in the completed building. Table 7.1 gives suitable
moisture contents according to the degree and type of heating expected in the
completed building. Timber for heated buildings will need to be kiln-dried to achieve
the appropriate moisture contents. In practice, moisture contents may vary, and a
48 hour acclimatisation period in the intended laying area under normal finished
conditions is recommended.
Table 7.1 Moisture contents of flooring timber (from BS 8201 : 1987) .
Expected condition in completed building Suitable moisture content
Unheated building 15–19%
Building heated intermittently* 10–14%
Building heated continuously** 9–11%
Building with underfloor heating 6–8%
* intermittent heating implies that the temperature drops substantially

between periods of heating
* Continuous heating implies that the temperature is maintained day and

* night throughout the year at a reasonably constant level
It is important that flooring timber is not laid until the relative humidity of the air on
site approximates to the conditions expected in service. Furthermore, the timber should
not be laid in direct contact with a wet-trade material such as concrete or a screed.
Once the timber has been received on site it should be stored and installed under
controlled conditions to ensure that the moisture content remains unchanged. On dry
sites, the appropriate relative humidity may be achieved by providing ventilated
background heating during cold weather. Dehumidification may be necessary on sites
where wet trades have been used. It is important that the building is kept well
ventilated once the floor has been laid and the heating system is in operation. On no

account should unoccupied new buildings be kept closed up, because residual moisture
from the structure will be absorbed by the timber and the floor will expand.
Dehumidification
The relative humidity inside the building should be measured with a calibrated
hygrometer to determine which method of atmospheric control will be required. It is
important that the dehumidification system matches the dimensions of the rooms
concerned and that the area is sealed off. Dehumidification is an expensive operation
but costs can be minimised by drying the building out as far as possible by natural
ventilation and leaving the installation of the floor near to the end of the building
programme.
The dehumidification should continue until the internal conditions are controlled by
the permanent heating and ventilation system. Once the building has been handed over
it should not be closed up, because residual moisture in the structure may cause a
humid environment and result in the floor’s absorbing moisture.
An alternative approach is to leave the construction of the timber floor until the heating
system is in operation or the final operating conditions are known to have been
reached. This, however, is rarely possible with tight building programmes.
Timber conversion
The way in which the timber has been converted from the tree can affect the amount of
movement that will occur. Almost all flooring timber is plain sawn, which means the
majority will be cut tangentially. Quarter-sawn timber is more dimensionally stable but
is not easily available, and some of the timber is wasted (see Fig. 7.9).
Species
The amount by which timber expands and contracts varies from species to species.
BRE Technical Note 38 gives movement data for a wide range of different timbers and
groups them into small, medium and large categories. A list of timber with small
movement values that are suitable for flooring is given in BS 8201 : 1987.
Methods of accommodating movement
Actions can be taken to minimise changes in moisture content, but in practice it is not
possible to prevent movement. An allowance should therefore be provided to enable the
timber to expand/contract without creating any obvious signs that movement has
occurred.
Timber will not expand or contract to any significant degree in a direction parallel to
the grain. Provisions for movement are, therefore not essential along the two sides of a
floor running at 90° to the direction of a strip or board floor. Movement may occur,
however, across the width and the thickness of each piece and an unfilled joint
10–12 mm in width should be provided around the perimeter of floors where the timber
lies in more than one direction. The joints can be masked by the skirting board.
Alternatively, a resilient joint can be provided, which must run through the entire
thickness of the timber floor. It should be positioned approximately 150 mm from the
edge of the floor and be filled with a compressible material such as cork or foam
rubber.

P l a i n s a w n t o ngued and grooved t i m ber st ri p fl oori ng
Q u a r t e r s a w n t ongued and grooved t i m ber st ri p fl oori ng
Fig. 7.9 Conversion of timber.
The amount of movement for large areas of timber flooring is potentially very high and
may be much greater than the width of a gap that can be realistically provided around
the perimeter of the floor. In these cases a space for a small amount of movement
should be provided between each board, strip or block.
Joints around the perimeter of the floor should also be taken around columns or other
fixed penetration through the floor.
Structural movement joints of the base should be carried through the entire thickness of
the flooring. It is important that movement joints in the base coincide precisely with
joints in the timber flooring. The top of the joint in the timber flooring should be sealed
with a flexible sealant or proprietary jointing system.

Protection against moisture
All types of timber floor should, wherever possible, be fully protected against moisture.
The absorption of moisture can cause the timber to swell and distort. Subsequent drying
out will cause the timber to shrink but it may remain in a distorted condition.
Decay may result if the moisture content remains above 20% for long periods. Further
information can be obtained from BRE Digest 364 Design of timber floors to prevent
decay.
Groundwater and vapour
All ground-floor walls should be provided with fully effective damp-proof courses so
that the timber components such as joists, bearers and boards do not come into direct
contact with parts of the structure wetted by groundwater.
A concrete base used to fully support a timber floor should also have a continuous dpm,
which may be in the form of a hot-applied material, a cold-brush-applied material or a
sheet material. A bituminous adhesive should not be regarded as an effective dpm, but
may inhibit the transfer of water vapour.
Further details of damp-proofing can be obtained from CP 102 : 1973, BS 8102 : 1990
and BS 8215 : 1991.
Construction moisture
Part of the water added to concrete and screed mixes is used in the hardening process,
but it is important that a concrete base is allowed to dry down to an acceptable limit
before laying the timber flooring. Timber flooring should, wherever possible, be
protected from direct contact with a cement/sand screed or concrete by a vapour check
separating layer.
The method of assessing the dryness of a concrete base recommended in

BS 8201 : 1987 is a hygrometer test where it is stated that the relative humidity reading
should be 75% or less.
Preservative treatment
Timber floors should ideally be designed and constructed to maintain the moisture
content of all timber components below 20%, which is the maximum limit to ensure
that decay will not occur. In situations where there will be a risk that moisture pick-up
may occur, even in the short term, preservation treatment should be considered.
Examples of situations where a decay hazard may exist are:
• battens set into a sand/cement screed
• joists set into thick walls likely to be damp
• where underfloor ventilation is restricted
Details of preservative treatment can be obtained from BS 5268 Part 5. Treatment of

this kind will also give protection against insect attack.
The resistance of timber to decay varies from species to species. An alternative to

preservative treatment is to use a timber species having a high resistance to decay. For
further information reference should be made to BRE Technical Note 40 The natural
durability classification of timber.

Accuracy of base
It is not possible to eliminate significant unevenness of the base when a bonded timber
flooring system is laid. The base, whether concrete or timber, must therefore be laid at
the same flatness tolerance required for the floor finish, which according to
BS 8201 : 1987 is ± 3 mm from the mean over a 3 m distance. A tamped concrete base
will normally need to be screeded to achieve the required degree of flatness. The
concrete base of a floating floor comprising sheets of extruded or expanded polystyrene
and plywood or chipboard may be levelled with a layer of sharp sand.
Timber flooring systems that use fixing clips, battens or proprietary supports should be
levelled using suitable packing pieces.
7.3.1 Block, mosaic and parquet
Relevant documents

BS 8201 16 Design and site work
NBS K21 29 Specification
Design criteria
Timber blocks, mosaic and parquet should all be laid fully supported on a concrete or
timber base. The concrete base would normally be screeded or power-trowelled to
obtain a suitable level of flatness, which according to BS 8201 : 1987 should be
± 3 mm from the mean over a 3 m distance. The timber base must be free from
excessive deflection, and can be of joist/deck construction or a rigid floating raft.
Movement can be controlled by making sure both that the base is in a dry condition
prior to laying the flooring and that changes in moisture content of the timber are
minimised by environmental control as described in Section 7.3. Movement joints
should be provided along all sides of the floor as indicated in Section 7.3. The
exception is where all the timber has been laid in a single direction, in which case
joints running parallel with the floor need only be provided.
Suitable adhesives for timber flooring where bonded to the base are given in Table 7.2.
Parquet may be nailed to a timber base, and parquet laminated on plywood may be
loose laid over bitumastic paper and cork granules forming a floating floor.
Bituminous adhesives may provide some protection against timber flooring absorbing
moisture from a damp base but should not be regarded as a reliable dpm for ground
floors.
Table 7.2 Suitable adhesives for bonded timber flooring.
Floor type Adhesive
Block Bitumen emulsion. End grain blocks may be laid in hot

bitumen
Mosaic Bitumen emulsion or synthetic resin to BS 1204 type

MR or BS EN 204 Class D3 or D4
Parquet and parquet panels Synthetic resin to BS 1204 type MR or BS EN 204

Class D3 or D4

Site work
The base must be checked to ensure it is smooth and level. The dryness of the base
should be measured using a hygrometer as recommended in BS 8201 : 1987. Flooring
timber is normally sent to site at a suitably low moisture content, but it is advisable to
take measurements with a suitable electrical moisture meter prior to commencement of
the work and at regular intervals as the work proceeds. The environmental conditions
in the storage area and the part of the building where the floor is to be constructed
should be checked and appropriate action taken to avoid the timber’s absorbing
moisture.
Timber blocks should be dipped into the adhesive and placed onto the base without
undue sliding action. The blocks should not be dipped too deeply because an excess of
adhesive may exude between the joints and stain the surface of the timber.
Adhesives used to fix timber mosaic should be applied to the base using a serrated
trowel to form ribbons 3 mm deep by 3 mm wide and spaced at 8 mm centres. The

mosaic panels and parquet flooring should be laid while the adhesive is wet, thus
limiting the size of areas completed in any one time. Once laid, the mosaic panels
should be rolled with a 65 kg roller within 30 minutes of being laid to improve
adhesion. Any paper facing should then be removed.
Parquet laminated onto plywood can be laid as a floating floor on any level surface.
The panels should have glued tongue and groove joints and be laid on an isolating
paper with cork granules. When laid on a timber base comprising joists and plywood or
chipboard, the panels may be secret nailed through the bottom lip of the grooves.
Proprietary parquet flooring should be laid in accordance with the manufacturer’s

instructions.
7.3.2 Board and strip
Relevant documents

BS 8201 16 Design and site work
NBS K21 29 Specification
Design criteria
The boards and strip can be fixed by face or secret nailing to timber joists or battens,
although proprietary clip systems are also available. The joists are structural elements
and must be designed accordingly: guidance on dimensions, spacings and spans of
joists together with the strength properties of different timber species are given in
BS 5268 : Part 2.
Timber battens may be laid directly onto the base, normally concrete, and held in place
with metal clips. The base should be smooth but the battens can be levelled with
packing pieces. The packing pieces must be glued in position. The battens for fixed
floors should have a width of at least 36 mm and have a square section. The width of
battens for floating floors should be at least 50 mm.
The space between the battens may be infilled with a cement/sand screed, in which case
the batten may be tapered and must be preservative treated. A vapour check should be

laid over the bearers to isolate the flooring from residual moisture contained in the
screed. One feature obtained by infilling is that the floor does not sound hollow
underfoot.
Guidance for maximum spans and thickness of tongued and grooved softwood board is
given in Table 7.3. which was taken from BS 8201.
Table 7.3 Maximum spans for tongued and grooved softwood board.
Finished thickness of Maximum span,

board (mm) centre to centre (mm)
16 505
19 600
21 635
28 790
Further information regarding the laying of board and strip flooring can be obtained
from BS 8201.
Care should be taken to ensure that the moisture content of the timber flooring is
within the limits given in Section 7.3 when delivered to site and that it remains largely
unchanged during storage and construction. Movement joints should be provided along
the sides of the floor running parallel with the direction of boards and strips and
around penetrations through the floor.
Proprietary systems are available for acoustic or sports floors. The timber bearers sit on
rubber pads or cradle support systems to provide acoustic isolation and resilience to
cushion dynamic loading.
The joists and battens and the timber flooring may require preservation to prevent
decay where a moisture hazard or specific risk of insect attack is present.
See Section 7.3 for further details.
Site work
All joists should have adequate bearing and be constructed with good alignment. The
moisture content of the supporting timbers should not exceed 20% when the flooring is
fitted. The spacing of the floor clips depends on the service load conditions of the
finished floor and the size of the battens but should be within the range 300–600 mm.
The clips may be packed to level the battens but the packers should be glued to the
base.
The boards or strips should be positioned carefully so that the tongues and the grooves
fit tightly together. A nail fixing should be made at each intersection with a joist or
batten except where the boards or strips are fitted with a clip system. The tongues and
grooves should not be glued together.

7.3.3 Cork
Relevant documents

BS 8203 – Design and site work
Design criteria
Cork is available in tile form. The manufacture is covered by BS 6826 and should be
laid in accordance with BS 8203. The performance of cork varies with its density and
thickness. Refer to Section 2.3.5 for information on the grades of cork available.
Cork flooring is warm and quiet underfoot but has an open texture and an absorbent
nature and can be difficult to maintain when subjected to heavy use.
The requirements for cork tiles are similar to those for other flexible applied flooring,
and reference should be made to Section 7.1. Particular care should be taken, however,
with the following items.
Base materials
Cork tiles will not mask significant unevenness, and the surface of the base should be
smooth and flat. Concrete or timber bases are both suitable provided they are dry and
dust-free. Other base materials such as clay tiles and concrete tiles should be suitable,
but may need to be overlaid with a smoothing compound.
Moisture
Ground-bearing base materials must be fully protected against water and water vapour
from the ground by having an effective damp-proof membrane. All base materials must
be given sufficient time for residual construction water to dry down to the limits given
in BS 8203 : 1987. Appendix A – Dampness testing (hygrometer). See Section 7.1
(Flexible applied flooring) for information concerning dampness in floors and surface
damp-proof membranes.
Adhesives
Cork tiles are normally bonded to the base with an adhesive applied by serrated trowel.
Information for suitable adhesives taken from BS 8203 : 1987 is given in Table 7.4.
Cork tiles with a vinyl backing should be bonded with an adhesive recommended by the
manufacturer.
Table 7.4 Adhesives for cork.
Adhesive type Nominal notch depth Nominal notch centres

(mm) (mm)
Water borne 1.5–2.5 5–6
Gum/spirit 1.5–2.5 5–6
Contact adhesive 1–2 4–6

Site work
The cork must be stored in warm dry conditions, otherwise moisture may be absorbed
and shrinkage occur after laying. The area where the cork is to be laid should be
maintained at a minimum temperature of 18 °C throughout the installation period.
The adhesive should be applied with a serrated trowel having notch dimensions given
in Table 7.4. The open time for the adhesive recommended by the manufacturer should
be left and the cork flooring placed carefully in position. The floor should then be
rolled along and across the area using a roller weighing 65 kg. Cork tiles may need to
be fixed with additional steel pins.
Further details of flooring adhesives are given in Section 7.1.
7.3.4 Surface treatments

Most timber floors require a surface treatment to facilitate cleaning and maintain an
attractive appearance. Some flooring timbers have a hard finish applied in the factory
and require no further treatment on site. Self-finished floors of this kind to be installed
in partially completed buildings usually require temporary protection to prevent soiling
while the remainder of the work in the area is completed.
It is recommended in BS 8201 : 1987 that timber flooring should be sanded and

finished with a seal. Subsequently, it should be either wax polished or given an oil
treatment.
Untreated cork should be vacuum cleaned and wiped with a mop dampened with a
neutral detergent solution. When dry, three coats of a solvent-based seal should be
applied. Each coat should be allowed to dry and be burnished with a fine-grade fibre
web pad or brush. Once the seal has fully dried, two coats of an emulsion polish should
be applied.
7.3.5 Testing (see also Section 8)
The moisture content of the timber should be checked during and immediately after
construction of the floor. An electrical conductivity meter should be used to take the
readings. If the readings do not conform to the moisture content range given in
Section 7.3, action should be taken to change the relative humidity/temperature of the
surrounding air. This may involve increasing ventilation, providing background
heating or dehumidification to match the conditions expected in service. Any changes
should be carried out slowly to avoid rapid movement of the timber.
The flooring should be inspected regularly before and after completion to check for
defects, which include:
• inadequate bonding or fixing

• gaps at joints
• damage to the surface
• adhesive residues on the surface
• flatness outside specified tolerance
• inadequate provision for movement.

8 Testing
The required finished quality and performance of any particular type of flooring should
be achieved by correct selection, specification and construction of the various
component parts of the flooring system. The actual quality achieved may, however, be
influenced by a number of factors, including variations in:
• quality of raw materials and components

• standards of workmanship
• particular site conditions during and after flooring construction
To ensure that actual quality matches required quality it is advisable to monitor the
quality of materials, construction and finished flooring by inspection and testing, and to
take appropriate action in the event of non-compliance. This section identifies where
testing and inspection may be required.
The actual need for testing or inspection on any particular project will depend on
a number of factors. The requirements for testing and inspection should be agreed
between the parties concerned at the design/specification stage, bearing in mind
the standards required, the likely time and costs involved, and the consequences of
failure. It is not intended that the testing and inspection included in this section
should be applied in all cases.
Testing may take a variety of forms, depending upon the type of flooring and/or
flooring system, and can usually be split into three categories:
• proof testing of materials and components prior to and during installation to
ensure that the quality is above a minimum standard or within an acceptable range
• proof testing of installed elements of the flooring system construction to ensure
that certain criteria have been met prior to overlaying with further elements
• performance/acceptance testing of those properties of the finished floor that can be
satisfactorily determined only after construction
These three categories are dealt with separately in the following format:
• 8.1 Proof testing
8.1.1 Materials and components testing
8.1.2 Constructional monitoring on site
• 8.2 Finished performance/acceptance testing
8.2.2 Abrasion/impact resistance
8.2.5 Bond testing
8.2.6 Inspection for appearance, cracking and detachment
8.2.7 Sports floorings

8.1 PROOF TESTING
8.1.1 Materials and components testing
Materials or component parts of flooring systems should have been selected on an

assessment of their individual characteristics and properties in relation to the particular
service conditions. This assessment will usually be assisted by guidance from
documents such as this Guide, codes of practice, manufacturers’ data, and evidence of
past usage. In many cases it is necessary to quantify required properties by some form
of testing and then control quality variations to within acceptable limits by proof
testing. The form of proof testing required will be largely dependent upon the particular
flooring or flooring system in use, and on the extent of quality assurance offered by the
manufacturer or supplier. For example, a preformed material supplied in accordance
with a British Standard Specification with appropriate manufacturers’ certification of
conformance may require only random sampling and independent testing during usage
on site, whereas an in-situ-applied material, such as concrete, although supplied to a
BS Specification, would require continuous sampling and proof testing of some

properties on site.
The following schedules provide guidance on the typical minimum requirements for
testing and inspection of flooring and screeding materials prior to their inclusion in the
works. Consideration should also be given to additional properties, necessary for
specific applications, which may be measured prior to installation but are not included
in the basic properties normally measured for the particular material. This may include
properties such as slip resistance, abrasion resistance, chemical resistance, and
flammability. For example, the supply of terrazzo tiles to BS 4131 guarantees a
minimum quality, although actual quality is normally higher than the minimum
standard requirements. Where this higher quality is essential to performance,
additional tests such as abrasion resistance may be necessary initially to select the best
tile for the purpose, and subsequently to control the property within acceptable limits.
Direct-finished structural concrete wearing surfaces
Structural concrete may be supplied ready mixed or site batched. In either case, all
aspects of materials, production and quality control should be in accordance with
BS 5328 Parts 1–4, and the producer should be capable of demonstrating conformance
to these requirements. In the vast majority of cases, structural concrete would be
supplied ready mixed. Certified quality assurance procedures should be accepted as
demonstrating adequate control over materials and production methods. For site-
batched concrete a project-specific quality plan should be used, incorporating all of the
requirements of BS 5328.
Where concrete grades of C40 and above are used, special aggregate qualities may be
needed to provide the desired flooring characteristics (refer to Table 4.1). These
properties may not always be provided by the supplier’s standard aggregates. In such
cases the supplier should introduce additional sampling and testing to verify:
• the use of a natural sand to BS 882 Grade M
• maximum impact value of 25%
• minimum 10% fines value of 150 kN
• maximum flakiness index 35
Apart from the above materials and production test requirements, the following proof
testing should be carried out.

Concrete workability
Sampling of fresh concrete at the point of delivery for workability assessment, as

required in BS 5328 Part 4, preferably on each load. Test method should be either
slump or flow table test, depending upon workability range specified. Reject any
concrete outside the specified range.
Concrete grade
Compliance with the specified grade should be verified by the appropriate methods as
given in BS 5328 Part 4. The method will be dependent upon whether the concrete is a
designed, designated, standard or prescribed mix. Where strength testing is required,
the sampling rate should not generally be less frequent than one sample per 20 m3 of
concrete delivered.
High-strength concrete toppings (monolithic or separate construction)

Concrete for high-strength toppings is generally site batched by the flooring contractor.
Testing of the raw materials as delivered to site should therefore be a high priority.
Mixes specified are normally prescribed proportions, and so strength testing is not
normally required. It may, however, be used where necessary as a monitor of batching
consistency.
Proof testing should normally comprise the following.
Cement quality
Certification by the manufacturer of compliance with the relevant BS Specification

(usually BS 12).
Fine aggregate quality
Site sampling of stockpile and laboratory testing for compliance with natural sand to
BS 882 Grade M. Sampling should preferably be carried out on each delivery.
Coarse aggregate quality
Site sampling of stockpile and laboratory testing for compliance with BS 882 10 mm
single-size. Sampling should preferably be carried out on each delivery.
Certification from the aggregate supplier of conformance to impact value, 10% fines
value and flakiness index requirements (refer to Table 4.1). Random sampling from the
site stockpile for independent testing for these properties is also advisable.
Mix proportions
Site sampling of sand stockpile on a daily basis to determine either moisture content or
bulking factor, to enable adjustment of batched sand quantities.
Random observation of site-batching operations to assess conformance to specified

proportions.

Special proprietary toppings or dry shake finishes
The formulation of these proprietary materials is determined by the manufacturer and

is not governed by any specific standard. Reliance is normally placed, therefore, on the
manufacturer’s own production and testing procedures for providing a consistent and
adequate quality. Proof testing should normally comprise the following.
Materials quality
Certification by the manufacturer of compliance with a predetermined formulation and

with appropriate quality control tests during manufacture.
Usage on site
Monitor site gauging and mixing where appropriate, and monitor application rates, to
confirm usage strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Cementitious screeds
Testing of the finished quality of screeds forms part of constructional monitoring on

site (see Section 8.1.2). There is a need, however, to ensure that the quality of the
constituent materials used is in accordance with specified requirements. Proof testing of
cementitious screeds should normally comprise the following.
Cement
Certification by the manufacturer of compliance with the relevant BS Specification

(usually BS12).
Site sampling of stockpile and laboratory testing for compliance with BS 882 Grade C
or M, with not less than 10 % passing 150 mm sieve. Sampling should preferably be
carried out on each delivery.
Coarse aggregate quality
Site sampling of stockpile and laboratory testing for compliance with BS 882 10 mm
single size. Sampling should preferably be carried out on each delivery.
Mix proportions
Site sampling of fine aggregate stockpile on a daily basis to determine either moisture
content or bulking factor, to allow adjustment of batched quantity.
Random observation of site-batching operations to assess conformance to specified mix

proportions. For semi-dry cement/sand and fine concrete, forced-action mixers
must be used.
Workability
For semi-dry screeds, random checks on workability by the ‘snowball’ test.

Ready-mixed screeds
Certification by the producer of compliance with the requirements of BS 4721.
No-fines basecoat
Site sampling of lightweight coarse aggregate stockpile, and laboratory testing to verify
compliance of grading with the specified grade.
In some cases, notably where aggregates of ideal gradings are not available, or where
the mix proportions are determined by the screeding contractor, there may be a need to
initially lay trial areas to ensure that the screed soundness specified is achievable.
Testing of these trial areas could be classified as proof testing. In such cases soundness
should be tested by the methods described in Section 8.1.2.
Anhydrite screeds
The formulation of these materials is normally determined by the specialist contractor,

and is not currently governed by any UK standard. Reliance is normally placed,
therefore, on the specialist contractor’s production procedures and on the quality of the
raw materials for producing the required finished quality. Proof testing should
normally comprise the following.
Anhydrite quality

Site sampling of stockpile and laboratory testing for compliance with the specialist
contractor’s declared grading limits. Sampling should preferably be carried out on each
delivery.
Mix proportions
Site sampling of fine aggregate stock pile on a daily basis to determine either moisture
content or bulking factor, to allow adjustment of batched quantities.
Random observation of site-batching operation to assess conformance to declared mix

proportions.
Flow-applied screeds
The formulation of these materials is determined by the manufacturer for pre-blended

bagged materials, and by the specialist contractor for anhydrite-based screeds produced
off-site from the raw materials.
Proof testing for pre-blended bagged products should normally comprise the following.
Materials quality


Shelf life
Continuous checks to ensure that material used on site is within any shelf life
limitations.
Consistency
Regular checks to confirm that the quantity of water added during mixing is within the
manufacturer’s stated range, and/or regular tests for workability to verify that flowing
characteristics are within the manufacturer’s stated range.
Proof testing for anhydrite-based flow-applied screed produced off-site should normally
comprise the following.
Anhydrite quality
Certification by the anhydrite manufacturer of compliance with a predetermined

formulation and with appropriate quality control tests during manufacture.
Screed quality
Sampling of screed at the point of placement and manufacture of specimens for

determination of compressive strength, to verify that the strength grade is in
compliance with the declared strength range.
Consistency
Regular tests for workability to verify that the flowing characteristics are within the
declared range.
Smoothing and levelling compounds
The formulation of these materials is determined by the manufacturer, and is not

governed by any specific standard. Proof testing should normally comprise the
following.
Materials quality

Shelf life
Continuous checks to ensure that the material used on site is within any shelf life
limitations.
Consistency
Regular checks to ensure that the quantity of added water, or aggregate where
appropriate, is within the manufacturer’s recommended ranges.

Bituminous/asphaltic screeds
Mastic asphalt used for screeds should be supplied to a British Standard Specification,
and should be either Grade I Special hard flooring, or Grade II Light duty (standard)
flooring.
Material grade
Certification by the manufacturer of compliance with the specified BS grade.
Temperature
Regular checks to confirm that the temperature of re-melted asphalt does not exceed
240 °C.
Polymer-modified cementitious floorings
Recommendations for the quality of these types of floorings are given in the Code of
Practice BS 8204 Part 3 (Bibliography 20). Since it is not a specification, strict
compliance with its recommendations is desirable but not mandatory. Formulation and
quality is therefore at the discretion of the manufacturer. Proof testing should normally
comprise:
Materials quality (pre-blended mixes)

Materials quality (site-blended mixes)
Certification of cement quality by the manufacturer of compliance with the relevant

BS Specification (BS 12, BS 4027 or BS 915 Part 2).
Certification of polymer quality by the manufacturer for compliance with a

predetermined formulation and with appropriate quality control tests during
manufacture.
Regular sampling from site stockpiles of all aggregates, with laboratory testing for
compliance with the recommended grades given in BS 8204 Part 3.
Shelf life
Continuous checks to ensure that polymers or pre-blended mixes are used within any
shelf life limitations.
Mix proportions (pre-blended mixes)
Regular checks to ensure that the correct combination of materials is used in two-pack
product.
Regular checks to ensure that the added water content is within the manufacturer’s
stated range.

Mix proportions (site-blended mixes)
Random observation of site batching operations to assess conformance to the declared

or specified mix proportions.
Density
Regular sampling of the wet mix prior to laying, with tests to confirm a density greater
than 2100 kg/ m3. Test method to BS 1881 Part 107.
Flow-applied cementitious flooring
The formulation of these materials is determined by the manufacturer, and is not

governed by any specific standard. Proof testing should normally comprise the
following.
Materials quality

Shelf life
Continuous checks to ensure that material used on site is within any shelf life
limitations.
Consistency
Regular checks to confirm that the quantity of water added during mixing is within the
manufacturer’s stated range, and/or regular tests for workability to verify that flowing
characteristics are within the manufacturer’s stated range.
Mastic asphalt flooring
Mastic asphalt used for flooring should be supplied to a British Standard Specification
and may be of Grades I–IV or of special grades. Proof testing should normally comprise
the following.
Material grade
Certification by the manufacturer of compliance with the specified BS grade, or special

grade.
Temperature
Regular checks to confirm that the temperature of re-melted asphalt does not exceed
240 °C.
Proprietary bituminous flooring
The formulation of this type of flooring is determined by the manufacturer/specialist

flooring contractor, and is not governed by any specific standard. Proof testing should

Bituminous emulsions

Cement quality
Certification by the manufacturer of compliance with the relevant BS specification

(normally BS 12).
Aggregate quality
Regular sampling of site stockpiles of all aggregates, with laboratory testing to confirm
compliance with the properties declared by the specialist contractor.
Mix proportions
Regular checks on batching operations to ensure that the declared proportions are
achieved.
Resin floorings
The formulations of these types of flooring are determined by the manufacturer, and are
not governed by any specific standard. Proof testing should normally comprise the
following.
Materials quality

Regular checks to confirm that the correct combination of component materials is used.
Regular checks to confirm that the materials are thoroughly mixed in accordance with
the manufacturer’s recommended procedures.
In-situ terrazzo flooring
Recommendations for the quality of this type of flooring are given in the Code of
Practice BS 8204 Part 4 (Bibliography 21). Since it is not a specification, strict
compliance with its recommendations is desirable but not mandatory. Selection of
materials and mix proportions is therefore at the discretion of the specialist contractor
to provide the quality required by the specification.
Cement quality
Certification by the manufacturer of compliance with class 42.5 N of BS 12.

Aggregate quality
Certification by the aggregate supplier of conformance to the recommended ranges of

mechanical properties given in BS 8204 Part 4 Table 1. Random sampling from site
stockpiles for independent testing for these properties is also advisable.
Trial area
Where appropriate, a trial area should be initially laid and finished to ensure that the
combination of materials used produces the required appearance.
Magnesium oxychloride flooring
Recommendations for the quality of this type of flooring were given in the BS Code of
Practice CP 204 Part 2 (now withdrawn). Since it was not a specification, strict
compliance is desirable but not mandatory. Selection of materials and mix proportions
is therefore at the discretion of the specialist contractor to provide the quality required
by the specification. Proof testing should normally comprise the following.
Materials quality
Certification by the manufacturer of conformance to the requirements of BS 776 Part 2

Materials for magnesium oxychloride (magnesite) flooring.
Regular sampling of the mixed materials and manufacture of test specimens to confirm
compliance with the recommended limits for setting time, strength and linear change
given in CP 204 (refer to Section 6.7 for limiting values).
Flexible applied floorings
The quality of flexible applied floorings of thermoplastics, PVC, linoleum and rubber is
specified in various BS specifications (refer to Section 2.3.3). The quality of carpet
floorings is less easily defined, and the contract specification should clearly identify the
type/quality/grade required.
Proof testing should normally comprise:
Materials quality
Certification by the manufacturer of conformance to the relevant BS specification, or to

the contract specification in the case of carpets.
Pre-conditioning
Regular checks to ensure that pre-conditioning prior to laying is carried out to the
manufacturer’s recommendations and at the correct ambient temperatures.
Adhesives
Check with the flooring manufacturer and adhesive manufacturer for confirmation of
compatibility of flooring/adhesive.

Ceramic tile
The quality of ceramic tiles is split into groups according to water absorption and
manufacturing method, and the required properties for each group are specified in
BS 6431 Parts 2–9. (Refer to Section 2.3.4 Ceramics). Proof testing should normally
Tile quality
Certification by the manufacturer of conformance to the requirements of the relevant

sections of BS 6431 Parts 2–9, or the European Standards equivalent.
For large, contracts, or where tile quality may be under suspicion, sample sets of tiles
may be taken for independent testing. Sampling and testing should be in accordance
with the relevant sections of BS 6431 Parts 10–23.
Natural stone
The quality of natural stone delivered to site can be controlled only by selective
quarrying, sample testing and visual inspection. Properties most commonly tested in
the UK are:
• compressive strength
• flexural strength
• density
• water absorption
• abrasion resistance
There are currently no standardised UK test methods for these properties. ASTM
(American) or DIN (German) test methods are commonly adopted by suppliers, but
depend upon the country of origin of the stone. It is necessary, therefore, to ensure that
comparisons of quality are based on comparable test methods. The type of test, test
method, sampling rate, and limits of acceptable variation must be agreed at the initial
selection stage. Limits of acceptable dimensional variation should also be agreed.
Appearance and colour variation limits should be agreed, and represented by samples
both at source and on site. Proof testing should normally comprise the following.
Materials quality
Continuous sampling and testing by the supplier, at source, at the agreed sampling rate
and test method, to confirm compliance with the agreed limits of variation for the
specified physical properties. Certification of compliance.
For large contracts, or where material quality may be under suspicion, random
sampling on site for independent testing for the specified properties.
Dimensions
Continuous sampling and testing by the supplier, at source, at an agreed sampling rate
to confirm compliance with specified dimensional tolerances. Certification of
compliance.

Appearance
Continuous comparison of production flooring units with samples held at source

representing the limits of acceptable appearance variations.
Continuous comparison of flooring units on site, prior to laying, with samples held on
site representing the limits of acceptable appearance variation.
Terrazzo tile
Tile quality is covered by BS 4131 Specification for terrazzo tiles. Proof testing should
Tile quality
Certification by the manufacturer of conformance to the requirements of BS 4131.

For large contracts, or where tile quality may be under suspicion, random sets of
sample tiles may be taken for independent testing for compliance with BS 4131.
Where tiles are not supplied to BS 4131 (e.g. imported tiles), they should be either
certified as complying with an equivalent acceptable standard, or sample sets of tiles
should be taken by the supplier or user for independent testing to BS 4131.
Conglomerate tile
Conglomerate tile is not governed by any specific standard, and so the quality and
composition are determined by the manufacturer. Proof testing should normally
Tile quality
Certification by the manufacturer of conformance to a predetermined composition and

quality, and with appropriate quality control tests during manufacture.
Composition block
Composition block is not governed by any specific standard, and so the quality and
composition are determined by the manufacturer. Proof testing should normally
Block quality
Certification by the manufacturer of conformance to a predetermined composition and

quality, and with appropriate quality control tests during manufacture.
Timber-based flooring
Recommendations for the quality of solid timber floorings are given in the Code of
Practice BS 8201 (Bibliography 16). Since it is not a specification, strict compliance
with its recommendations is desirable but not mandatory.

Moisture content
Check moisture content of timber with an electrical resistance meter to verify that the
moisture content is within the specified limits. Typical limits recommended in BS 8201
are:
Unheated 15–19%
Intermittent heating 10–14%
Continuous heating 9–11%
Underfloor heating 6–8%
Heating conditions apply to time of laying and service conditions.
Species
The timber supplier should provide independent certification of compliance with the
specified species.
Preservative treatment
Certification by the supplier that any preservative treatment specified has been done.
Grain orientation
Visual check to confirm that the grain orientation is as specified.
Sports flooring (refer also to Section 2.1.14)
Some of the floorings included in this Guide are suitable for multi-sports or dedicated
sports, either in their own right or in combination with a specialised flooring system.
The foregoing information on proof testing relates to floorings used for non-sports
activities. Where floorings are to be used for sports activities, additional physical
properties may be necessary (refer to list in Section 2.1.14).
Unless the flooring type is produced specifically for sports floors, and has been certified
as complying with the relevant parts of BS 7044 by the manufacturer, additional proof
testing may be necessary. In such cases, reference should be made to the test schedule
given in Table 6 of BS 7044 Part 4, or advice should be sought from the Sports
Council.
8.1.2 Constructional monitoring on site
Constructional monitoring on site is that testing which is necessary to ensure that the
substrate or component parts of the flooring system are in a suitable condition to
receive overlaid floorings. The types of test required will be dependent upon the nature
of the substrate and the type of flooring or flooring system, and guidance should usually
be sought from the specification/Codes of Practice/manufacturers of proprietary systems
on appropriate forms of testing and acceptance criteria. The most common forms of
testing and assessment are covered in this Section and include:
• substrate quality
• screed tests
• moisture condition of bases and screeds

Substrate quality
Requirements for substrate quality can be divided into two separate aspects: first the
dimensional condition with regard to flatness and level, and second the physical
condition with regard to contamination, surface strength and texture.
Dimensional condition
For structural bases or screeds that are to receive types of flooring direct that allow no
adjustments to substrate dimensional accuracy, it is necessary to confirm that the
substrate has the same dimensional accuracy as that required for the finished flooring.
In such cases, the substrate should be checked by the methods given in Section 8.2.3.
Types of flooring permitting little or no adjustment of accuracy are:
• In-situ applied floorings
— thinner types of polymer-modified cementitious system
— flow-applied cementitious systems
— asphaltic systems
— resin systems
— magnesium oxychloride (magnesite)
• Applied floorings
— flexible floorings
— rigid tiles bedded in adhesives
— timber-based floorings
In situations where the required dimensional accuracies have not been achieved,
appropriate forms of action will be dependent upon the nature of the substrate and
flooring. Unless gross inaccuracy is encountered, it is normally possible to correct
inaccuracies satisfactorily by selective grinding and/or application of levelling
compounds. In all cases it is necessary to check for compatibility of any proposed
remedial material with the flooring material.
For structural bases that are to receive flooring systems or screed that do permit some
adjustment to substrate dimensional accuracy, it is necessary to confirm that the
substrate is of sufficient accuracy so as not to interfere with recommended maximum or
minimum thickness. In such cases the substrate should be checked by a standard grid
level survey, normally on a 3 m grid. Where the results of the level survey indicate that
the thickness of overlaid screed, flooring or flooring system would be outside the
recommended limits, remedial action will be desirable. Appropriate forms of remedial
action will be entirely dependent upon the type of overlaid material, the type of
substrate and the degree of inaccuracy, and can therefore be assessed only on an
individual contract basis.
Physical condition
The physical condition of the substrate should be checked to confirm that the specified
relationship with overlaid screeds, flooring or flooring system is achievable. The
attributes that should be assessed are as follows.
• Surface texture/preparation
Visually examine all areas of the substrate to ensure that the specified texture or surface
preparation has been achieved. (Refer to Section 4.2.2 for further guidance on the
surface texture or preparation required on concrete bases prior to overlaying with
flooring or flooring system elements. Refer to Section 5 for further guidance on surface
texture for screeds.) In all cases where the specified texture or surface preparation has

not been achieved, full consideration should be given to the most appropriate means of
upgrading the surface to that specified without jeopardising serviceability. Where
proprietary materials are to be applied to the substrate, such as adhesives, bonding
agents or dpm systems, the manufacturer’s advice should be sought on appropriate
remedial techniques. Where a smoother surface must be achieved to receive a dpm
system, ensure that any smoothing or levelling compounds used beneath the dpm are
suitable for use in damp conditions.
• Surface contamination
Visually examine all areas of the substrate to check for evidence of contamination with
materials likely to adversely affect the overlaid flooring. For existing bases, check on
prior uses of the floor, and the likelihood of the presence of materials that may be
detrimental to the new flooring construction. Where physical contaminants are present,
such as paint, mortar or plaster droppings, these should always be mechanically
removed prior to the start of flooring construction. Readily identifiable liquid
contaminants such as oils and diesel should be removed by an appropriate cleaning
procedure. For other types of chemical or liquid contaminant the nature of the material
should be identified by sampling and laboratory analysis, and a full assessment made of
its potential for damage to the base construction or the flooring system, or the
relationship between the two. Specialist advice will normally be required for this type
of assessment, and for formulation of appropriate remedial measures.
(General advice on the potential effects of contaminants on elements of the flooring

system is included in Section 4.2.2.)
• Surface strength and integrity

Visually examine all areas of substrate to identify any areas of cracking or damage that
may adversely affect the flooring system. (General advice on the potential effect of
these defects on elements of the overlaid flooring system is given in Section 4.2.2.)
Where defects are present, remedial works should take into account the relationship
between the base and the flooring. For isolated flooring systems on a separating layer,
cracks will generally require no further treatment, but loose areas should be cut out and
replaced with a repair material of similar quality to the base, and finished flush and
smooth. For bonded overlays, cracks should be repaired to limit continued movements,
and loose areas should be cut out and replaced with a repair material capable of giving
a high bond strength to the base and suitable to receive the same surface preparation as
the surrounding base.
The surface strength of all of the substrate areas should be assessed in relation to any
specified requirements. In many cases this may be a visual assessment by the contractor
for evidence of weakness or friability of the prepared surface, and should be based on
experience or comparison with approved areas. Unless particular parameters have been
specified, such as surface hardness or bond tests, physical testing is not usual. In cases
where a visual inspection raises some doubt over surface strength, testing may be
justifiable. Such tests would normally be either in the form of a direct measurement of
surface hardness, or an indirect measurement of surface strength by pull-off testing
(refer to next paragraph for further details). Whichever method is used, it is essential
that agreement is reached by all parties concerned as to the exact test method,
frequency of sampling, and acceptance/rejection levels. Where possible, it is preferable
to make such tests on a comparative basis with areas of substrate with known adequate
quality.

For polymer-modified cementitious toppings, BS 8204 Part 3 (Bibliography 20)
recommends testing to verify the surface quality of concrete bases and screeds prior to
laying of the fully bonded flooring. The tests used are the rebound hammer (see Fig.
8.1), which measures the concrete surface hardness, or the pull-off test (see Fig. 8.3),
which measures the surface tensile strength. While this is the only type of flooring
currently covered by BS Codes of Practice for which such testing is recommended, the
test methods should be considered as suitable for assessing substrates to receive other
types of bonded flooring, such as resins, and for the comparative testing mentioned in
the previous paragraph. Where used for flooring other than polymer-modified
cementitious toppings different limits of acceptance may be applicable. Advice should
be sought from a specialist.
The test methods for rebound hammer value and pull-off test, and for limiting values
suitable for receiving polymer-modified toppings, are given in BS 8204 Part 3, and are
summarised in Section 6.2.
BS 8204 Part 3 does not give any guidance on sampling rates for these tests.
Where inadequate substrate surface strength is indicated, as assessed either visually or

by testing, the cause should be investigated prior to formulating remedial proposals. If
the cause is a weak surface laitance that can readily be removed mechanically, then
further mechanised surface preparation may be appropriate. In the event that the
substrate is weak or friable to considerable depth, then specialist advice should be
sought.
Screed tests
Requirements for screed testing and assessment can be divided into two separate
aspects: first, soundness, which is the property required of a screed as laid to withstand
the crushing effects of the imposed loads and traffic in service; second, assessment of
cracking, detachment from the base, and curling, which may detract from the
serviceability of either the screed or of the overlaid flooring.
Soundness – cement/sand and fine concrete screeds
The major factor influencing the property defined as soundness is the degree of
compaction of the screed mix, although other factors including binder content,
aggregate grading, water content, and curing will have an effect.
The need for, and method of, soundness assessment will be dependent upon the type of
screed material and the method of construction. The material that, historically, most
commonly suffered from unsoundness was semi-dry consistency cement/sand or fine
concrete screed. The soundness assessment methods currently included in BS Codes of
Practice were developed for these types of screed, but may be applied to some other
screed types.
For solidly supported (bonded or unbonded) cement/sand or fine concrete screeds,

soundness is assessed using the BRE tester (see Fig. 8.3) as described in BS 8204
Part 1 Appendix B (Bibliography 18). The test measures the indentation left in the
screed surface by four drops of a 4-kg weight through 1 m vertically onto a standard
area anvil. The test method and sampling plan are comprehensively presented in
BS 8204 Part 1. Further guidance on sampling and interpretation of results is given in
Building Research Establishment Information Paper IP 11/84 (Bibliography 23).

Fig. 8.1 Rebound hammer assessment of concrete substrate surface hardness.
Fig.8.2 Pull-off test assessment of concrete surface tensile strength.

306
Fig. 8.3
BRE screed soundness tester and depth gauge.
CIRIA Report 184

The requirements for BRE screed soundness testing of solidly bedded cement/sand or
fine concrete screeds are summarised as follows:
• Sampling
– age of screed at least 14 days
– minimum three tests in areas of 20 m2 or less
– minimum three tests per 20–25 m2 in areas greater than 20 m2
– tests at 3–5 m intervals in corridors
– test positions to be at random, but including vulnerable areas adjacent to bay
joints, cracks, and in doorways
– additional tests where non-complying results are indicated, to ascertain the
area of non-compliance
• Acceptance limits
Specified Maximum
category indentation depth
(mm)
A 3
B 4
C 5
D 6
Notes: Category D applies to screeds to receive rigid tiling. Refer to BS5385 Part
3. Appendix C3.
Tests on screed with a rough texture surface may increase measured
indentation by up to 1 mm.
• Results interpretation
– Plot results on floor plan, and colour code to indicate compliance/non-
compliance with specified category.
– Reject areas of screed outside compliance limits.
– Carry out further tests in areas of marginal quality.
– Seek specialist advice in marginal quality situations.
In situations where inadequate soundness has been found, unsatisfactory areas should
be cut out and replaced. Alternatively, there are systems available that can be used to
upgrade unsound screed. These may be either impregnation with an ultra-low-viscosity
resin, or a fibre-reinforced flow-applied cementitious screed overlay. In all cases where
removal is to be avoided, specialist advice should be sought.
Although the BRE soundness test is not normally carried out until 14 days after screed
laying, experience suggests that a well-compacted screed can be capable of passing the
soundness test after only 3–4 days. Since large areas of screed can be laid in 14 days,
there can be some merit in testing screeds at earlier than 14 days to gain an indication
of likely quality. Such earlier testing should be entrusted to a specialist, and the results
should be interpreted with caution.
Soundness – floating screeds
For cement/sand or fine concrete screeds laid on insulation board or quilt, the BRE
screed test can be inappropriate, since the impact can result in punching a section of
screed through into the insulation. However, the BRE has, during preparation of this
Guide, developed a proposal for a modified BRE screed test suitable for use on floating

cement/sand screeds. The test is the same as the standard test for Categories A and B,
with the same limits as for solidly supported screeds, provided the minimum depth is
75 mm. For Category C screed, with a minimum thickness of 65 mm, a
2-kg weight is used in lieu of the standard 4-kg weight, and the proposed indentation
limit is 2.5 mm. The proposals will be incorporated as a Draft for Development in the
next revision of BS 8204 Part 1. The current method of assessing soundness of floating
screeds is given in BS 8203, BS 8204 Part 1 and BS 5385 Part 3, and is summarised as:
• Sampling of the in-situ screed for determination of mix proportions to the method
given in BS 4551, and for assessment of uniformity of mixing and compaction
achieved in the screed.
• Analysed mix proportions should be, on average, within the range 1:3–l:4.5, with
no individual result leaner than 1:6. If any part of the screed gives results outside
these limits, further tests should be carried out to identify the extent of the
defective area, taking into account the assessment of uniformity of mixing and
compaction achieved.
No guidance is given in the Codes of Practice on initial sampling rates or methods of

sampling, or on how the uniformity of mixing or compaction is assessed. The cost of
the mix proportion analysis is relatively high, and judgement should be exercised in
determination of initial sampling rates, taking into account the cost of testing and the
confidence in the batching and mixing methods in use. Samples should normally be
core-drilled from the hardened screed, and visually inspected for evidence of mixing
uniformity. Particular features to be aware of are cement pellets and neat sand pockets
or streaks. Compaction is difficult to assess visually, and reliance should be placed on
measurement of sample density. The procedure for testing and interpretation of results
requires expert knowledge, and should be entrusted to a specialist.
One other method of soundness assessment is sometimes used, notably for floating
screeds, and is based on the ease or difficulty of driving a nail into the screed. It is an
‘ad hoc’ test that is not included in BS Codes of Practice. While it can give a relatively
good indication of soundness, it is recommended that it should only be used by a
specialist in situations where other forms of testing are impractical.
Soundness – other types of screed
Screeds of other than semi-dry cement/sand or fine concrete may require confirmation
of soundness by testing, depending upon their composition. Requirements are
summarised as follows:
• Flow-applied screeds are inherently fully compacted, and not normally prone to
unsoundness. Testing is not normally applicable.
• Plastic-consistency fine concrete screeds (>25 mm slump) are normally sufficiently
well compacted during laying to provide adequate soundness. Testing is not
normally applicable, but if required should be to the same method and acceptance
criteria as for semi-dry cement/sand screeds.
• Synthetic anhydrite screeds (excluding flow-applied) rely on in-situ compaction for
soundness. For solidly bedded construction, BRE screed testing should be used,
with the same acceptance criteria as for semi-dry cement/sand screeds. For floating
construction, samples may be cut from the in-situ screed for determination of
compressive and flexural strength, and for density, for comparison with
manufacturers’ declared properties. Seek specialist advice on test methods and
sampling rates.
• No-fines screeds with a cement/sand topping form a composite material in which
the lower ‘basecoat’ is never fully compacted. Despite this condition, experience

indicates that soundness of up to Category A can be achieved with the BRE screed
tester. Failure to achieve such results, however, does not necessarily indicate
inadequate quality since punching through into the basecoat may occasionally
occur, particularly with lower-density lightweight aggregates. For this particular
type of screed it is recommended that where soundness testing is performed, results
should be interpreted with caution.
• Mastic asphalt screeds are fully compacted during the laying process, and do not
suffer from unsoundness. Testing is not required. The use of the BRE screed test
on mastic asphalt may induce damage.
Cracking/detachment/curling
The implications of cracking, detachment (debonding) and curling of screeds (see

Fig. 8.4) and their potential effect on screed serviceability or on overlaid floorings are
discussed in Section 5. Although in some cases such symptoms may be noticed and
sometimes reported by various parties, they are all too commonly ignored, or left to a
stage in construction too late to take any necessary remedial action. It is important,
therefore, that constructional monitoring should include regular formal inspections of
screeded areas to identify whether these symptoms are present, and whether the degree
is such as to jeopardise serviceability.
Fig. 8.4 Curling and lipping of cement/sand screed.
Screeds based on synthetic anhydrite, flow-applied screeds and mastic asphalt screeds
rarely suffer from these defects. Where they do occur, specialist advice should be
sought on the risks to serviceability and on remedial options.
Recommendations for inspection of cementitious screeds for these potential defects are
given in BS 8203, BS 8204 part 1 and BS 5385 Part 3. These Codes of Practice
indicate that checks should be made as late in the construction programme as possible
when the maximum effect of drying shrinkage has taken place. While this approach is
technically justified, there is some merit in instigating earlier checks, particularly in
larger contracts where, by early identification of a problem, consideration may be given
to improvements or modifications to screeding techniques to reduce the risk of defects

occurring in subsequent areas. Ideally, inspections should commence within l–2
months of laying, and continue on a regular monthly basis either until no further
extension or severity in the defects are noticed, or until a point in time where repair or
replacement must be effected to fit in the programme time.
Inspections should include:

• Cracking – visual inspection
• Detachment of bonded screeds – tapping of the screed with a rod or hammer,
particularly at perimeters, day joints or cracks. A hollow sound indicates loss of
adhesion.
• Curling – visual inspection for lifting, lipping or vertical deflection under load at
joints or cracks in unbonded, floating, or detached bonded screeds.
If any of these symptoms are present, then consideration should be given to their
potential for adverse effects on serviceability. The Codes of Practice recommend that
remedial action is necessary where visible or measurable lifting (curling) is present
adjacent to cracks, joints or perimeters to an extent that the screed may deflect and
break under the imposed loads in service, and affected areas should be cut out and
replaced. In addition to these Code recommendations, consideration should also be
given to the potential for effecting overlaid floorings. Even if the degree of lifting is
insufficient to cause potential screed fracture, deflection of the screed may induce
disruption of rigid floorings. Differential movement across ‘live’ cracks may result in
reflected cracking in rigid floorings. Slight uncurling of the screed either side of the
crack or joint after overlaying with thin flexible floorings can result in reflective
rippling of the flooring. Analysis of these potential risks should preferably be left to a
specialist in situations where the Code of Practice recommendations indicate that the
symptoms are insufficient to warrant remedial works.
The remedial works advised in the Codes of Practice also require careful consideration
since:
• cutting-out operations may extend the defective area
• surface preparation techniques are less easily carried out in small areas
• replacement may introduce more joints, each with its own potential for defects
• replacement areas may further extend drying programmes, unless rapid-drying
proprietary materials are used.
Provided that the screed is well compacted and otherwise sound, specialist repair
techniques such as resin injection to re-bond or fill gaps beneath detached or curled
screed can frequently be used economically to reinstate serviceability. Specialist advice
should be sought on the suitability of such repairs.
No-fines screeds should be assessed in a similar manner as for cement/sand screeds.

Defects normally occur only in the cement/sand surfacing mix but, because of the
nature of the basecoat material, specialist repair techniques such as resin injection are
inappropriate. Cutting out and replacement of the cement/sand surfacing is normally
the only option, which usually disrupts the basecoat and results in a repair depth in
excess of the recommended 13 mm nominal thickness. Use of a water-reduced or
polymer-modified repair material is advisable to offset the shrinkage potential of the
increased depth.

Moisture condition of bases and screeds
The subject of moisture retained in screeds and concrete bases, its potential for causing
disruption to moisture-sensitive floorings, the difficulties involved in measurement of
or prediction of drying rates, and alternative methods of construction for avoiding
drying time problems have been discussed in Section 3.
Measurement of the moisture condition of concrete bases and/or screeds forms an

essential part of constructional monitoring if problems through the effects of moisture
are to be avoided. Some form of moisture measurement is normally necessary for
flexible applied floorings and for some types of resin flooring. Where surface-applied
damp-proof membranes are to be laid, measurement of moisture condition will usually
be required to establish whether a single- or two-coat system will be necessary.
The most commonly used method of moisture assessment is by measurement of relative

humidity (RH) to the hygrometer method described in BS 8203 Appendix A1. This test
is normally used where flexible floorings of vinyl, linoleum, rubber, cork or carpet are
to be laid. There are, however, other test methods that may be specified or
recommended by manufacturers of proprietary floorings, notably resin-based materials.
These other test methods may not have any direct correlation with RH values, and
include:
• Conductivity testing – indirect moisture content measurement by electrical
conductivity using the gel bridge method (described in BS 8203 Appendix A2).
Accuracy can be affected by many factors, but can provide an approximate
indication of the drying rate. Should not be used as a substitute for RH
measurement, unless it is specified by the flooring material manufacturer.
• Carbide method – measurement of the moisture content of samples drilled from
the concrete or screed using a carbide moisture meter. Sampling method can alter
moisture content. Should only be used when specified by the flooring material
manufacturer.
• Direct moisture content – measurement of the moisture content of samples
removed from the concrete or screed. Samples dried by heating. Extraction of
samples without changing moisture content is difficult. Should only be used when
specified by the flooring material manufacturer.
In all cases where moisture assessment is to be other than by the hygrometer method, it
is essential to establish with the specifier or flooring manufacturer, well in advance of
testing:
• the precise test method
• the validity of the test method for the type of flooring
• the sampling rate or distribution of tests
• acceptable limits for test results
• procedures to be adopted in the event of unsatisfactory test values in the
programme time
Hygrometer test method to BS 8203 Appendix A1
The principle of this test is to measure the relative humidity of a small volume of air
entrapped over the concrete or screed surface, which has reached a moisture
equilibrium with the base construction. Suitable apparatus for the test and the test
procedures are fully described in BS 8203 Appendix Al, to which full reference should
be made (see Fig. 8.5).

e x p a n d e d p o lyst yrene l i d
( p r e f e r r e d 2 5m m t hi ck)
pol yet hyl ene sheet

seal ed t o base
expanded pol yst yrene

base (preferred 50m m
t hi ck)
seal ant
screed or concrete base

calibrated hygrometer
(hair type preferable to
paper type)
Fig. 8.5 Schematic diagram of BS 8203 hygrometer test.
Although BS 8203 recommends the use of this particular test, experience in recent
years, particularly where thick constructions are used, indicates that there are inherent
problems with the test procedure, which may lead to incorrect moisture assessment.
The general view of specialists is that there is a need for considerable research to
develop a more suitable assessment method, and that extreme care should be exercised
in the use of the current test method. Where the hygrometer test method is used, the
following points are of particular concern:
1. The use of paper hygrometers in a rubber casing, simply placed in the substrate
for a few hours, has traditionally been applied by many flooring contractors. This
will not provide an accurate estimation of the RH. The insulated sealed box
recommended in BS 8203 must be used.
2. Hygrometers are sensitive instruments, and require regular calibration to verify
accuracy. Prior to use, evidence of current calibration should be available.
3. Hair hygrometers are inherently more accurate and stable than paper hygrometers,
and are preferred.
4. Electronic instruments are available for measurement of RH. If used, they must be
calibrated, and suitable for inclusion within the insulated sealed box described in
BS 8203.
5. BS 8203 offers no guidance on sampling rates. The rate of sampling should be
aimed at giving a representative assessment of individual areas of flooring. This
should take into account the likelihood of certain areas’ being inherently wetter
than average. For example, a proportion of tests should be situated in positions
where the floor may be expected to take longer to dry, such as rooms with little or
no ventilation, areas where the floor has been covered with protection against
traffic, or areas of floor that have not been fully protected from the weather since
installation.
6. The moisture gradient in a base may be affected by artificial drying aids. Heating
and de-humidifiers should be turned off at least 4 days prior to final RH
measurements.

7. BS 8203 indicates that equilibrium can be assumed when two consecutive readings
at hourly intervals show no change when measuring RH on a screed over a dpm, or
when two consecutive readings at 4 hourly intervals show no change when
measuring on thick constructions where the dpm is below the slab. These are after
an initial period of 4 hours and 72 hours respectively. A warning is given that, for
construction thicknesses of over 200 mm, considerably longer than 72 hours may
be necessary before reaching equilibrium. To minimise the time required for the
instrument to be in position, impervious mats of 1 m × 1 m may be taped to the
floor for at least 3 or 7 days respectively for screeds on a dpm or on thick
constructions.
Experience has shown that the rate of change of RH during the test may be very
slow, particularly for thick constructions, and that the suggested 1 or 4 hourly
intervals may not be long enough to accurately confirm whether equilibrium has
been reached. Confidence on whether equilibrium has been reached can only be
increased by increasing the time interval between readings. In addition to this, the
rate of change may also be affected by the condition of the substrate surface. A
dense power-trowelled finish on a concrete slab, for example, may greatly reduce
the rate of change of RH to an extent where equilibrium may be indicated in a
relatively short test period. Continued monitoring, however, frequently shows that
true equilibrium may not be reached for several weeks. Where tests are to be
carried out on power-trowelled slabs, mechanical removal of the dense surface
prior to testing is recommended.
8. Strict adherence to the method described in BS 8203 can, in some circumstances
as outlined above, lead to an optimistic assessment of moisture condition. This
may result in an increased risk of failure of the flooring. In all cases, and in
particular where thick constructions are tested, it is essential to ensure that those
responsible for the moisture assessment are experienced in the test method and are
aware of the potential problems in results interpretation.
Action in the event of non-compliance
Where the BS 8203 hygrometer test method has been used and values in excess of 75%
RH (or other specified value as appropriate) are indicated, flooring should not be laid.
In such cases, the following actions may be necessary:
• Wait for continued drying, if the programme time permits. It should be noted,
however, that prediction of drying time, even with continued moisture assessment,
may not be accurate. For effective continued drying, a balanced combination of
warm conditions and ventilation is essential.
• Use a surface-applied dpm system to isolate the flooring from the substrate, where
the flooring is to be a flexible applied material.
• Where the flooring is to be an in-situ applied resin, consult with the manufacturers
on the availability of moisture-tolerant primer systems.
• Consult with manufacturers of adhesives for flexible applied floorings on the
availability of adhesives with greater moisture tolerance. Some manufacturers can
supply adhesives suitable for use on substrates up to 80% RH.
Other RH test methods
There are other test methods based on measurement of relative humidity that are used
for moisture condition assessment. These commonly involve drilling a hole into the
base construction and measuring the RH in the sealed hole with an electronic
instrument. The exact procedures may vary. In Sweden, for example, the hole depth is
standardised as a percentage of the construction depth, the percentage being either 40%

or 20% respectively for constructions that can dry from the top only or from both the
top and soffit. The limiting values are either 85% or 90% RH, depending upon the type
of flexible applied flooring. There is no guidance currently available on whether this
alternative method of RH assessment has any specific relationship to the BS 8203
method.
8.2 FINISHED PERFORMANCE/ACCEPTANCE TESTING
The requirements for these types of test or assessment will vary considerably,
depending upon the type of flooring and specified properties. This section identifies
those types of in-situ test or assessment that are most commonly required after
completion of the flooring.

Factors affecting slip resistance are discussed in Section 2.1.1, and recommended slip-
resistance values (SRV) as determined by the TRL pendulum tester are given in
Table 2.1.
As indicated in Section 2.1.1, although the pendulum test (see Fig. 8.6) is generally
considered as suitable for assessment of all types of flooring, some authorities suggest
that the Tortus test (see Fig. 8.7) may be more appropriate for hard floorings such as
ceramic tile. Currently, slip-resistance test methods and acceptance criteria are
incorporated in British Standards only for a limited number of flooring types, and are
based on the pendulum test. For floorings not included in British Standards, or for
those where a test method is not specified, advice should be sought from a specialist on
the most appropriate form of test method, on the acceptance criteria and, where the
pendulum test is used, on the type or grade of material to be used in the slider.
Fig. 8.6 TRL pendulum slip-resistance tester.

Fig. 8.7 Tortus slip-resistance tester.
Current BS test procedures
Flooring type Test procedure
Polymer-modified cementitious In accordance with BS 8204 Part 3 Annex C

wearing surfaces (TRL pendulum tester method)
In-situ terrazzo In accordance with BS 8204 Part 4 Annex B
(TRL pendulum tester method)
Mastic asphalt In accordance with BS 8204 Part 5 Annex B

(TRL pendulum tester method)
Sports flooring In accordance with BS 7044 Part 2. Section 2.2

Method 3* (TRL pendulum tester method.)
*Note: The rubber used in the slider is of different
properties from that used in BS 8204 Parts 3, 4 and 5
Recommended sampling rates
BS recommendations are for tests to be carried out on a grid or random pattern basis at
a minimum rate of four per area, or one test per 250 m2 in large areas. The sampling
rate may be decreased in very large areas where there is a consistency between results,
or may be increased in small areas if there is a wide variation in results. In addition to
these BS recommendations, consideration should be given to additional testing or an
increased sampling rate in critical areas.

Acceptance criteria (also refer to Table 2.2)
Flooring type Slip-resistance value acceptance limits
Polymer-modified cementitious Not less than 40, both in the wet and dry state, or not
wearing surfaces, and in-situ less than 33 where ease of cleaning is more critical
terrazo than slip resistance and/or where all who use or are
likely to use the floor will wear specially provided
slip-resistant boots or shoes
Mastic asphalt Not less than 40 in both the wet and dry state
Multi-use sports flooring 60–140 generally. Flooring for specific sports may
require a substantially different range. Seek specialist
advice
Non-compliance
In the event of non-compliance with specified slip-resistance criteria for any type of
flooring, corrective action will normally be necessary, but the form of remedial action
will be highly dependent upon the individual circumstances and the degree of non-
compliance. In many cases non-compliance is most likely to occur when the flooring is
in the wet condition. For floors that are only wet in service during cleaning, it may be
sufficient to simply provide hazard warning signs during cleaning operations, whereas
floors that are frequently wet during service may require a permanent solution. The
type of flooring will also have a large bearing on potential remedial measures. For
example, concrete wearing surfaces in industrial premises may be gritblasted to provide
a texture, or treated with a resin coating incorporating a non-slip grit, whereas more
decorative flooring such as natural stone or ceramic tile may be upgraded only by
proprietary treatments that do not affect their appearance. In all cases of non-
compliance, it is recommended that specialist advice should be sought on appropriate
methods of upgrading of slip resistance, and final selection should be based on an
assessment of:
• trials to determine effectiveness
• the effect on finished appearance
• the effect on ease of cleaning
• their longevity (or frequency of re-treatment)
8.2.2 Abrasion/impact resistance
General discussion on abrasion and impact properties is included in Sections 2.1.2 and
2.1.3 respectively. For most floorings these properties are not normally subject to
assessment by in-situ testing of the completed floor. In-situ testing is normally limited
to:
• polymer-modified cementitious wearing surfaces
• concrete wearing surfaces
Polymer-modified cementitious wearing surfaces
BS 8204 Part 3 recommends that the flooring should be checked for surface hardness
after laying, by the use of either the rebound hammer test or the BRE screed tester.
Although not a direct test, these methods do provide an indirect indication of likely
performance under the effects of abrasion and impact.

Test method Acceptance criteria
Surface hardness, as Minimum rebound hammer value of 25, 30, 35 for light,
described in BS 1881 medium and heavy-duty flooring respectively
Part 202 1986
BRE screed test as described Maximum indentation of 1.0 mm after four drops of the
in BS 8204 Part 1 weight
BS 8204 Part 3 offers no guidance on minimum age of the flooring at test or on

sampling rates. In the absence of contrary information from the manufacturer or
supplier of the flooring, tests should normally be carried out after at least 14 days.
Initial sampling rates for both tests, equivalent to those used for BRE soundness testing
on screeds, are considered as suitable for use on this type of flooring. i.e. three tests per
20–25 m 2 of flooring. Depending upon the level and consistency of measured values,
increased or decreased sampling rates may be applicable.
In the event of non-compliance with the specified acceptance values, further testing on
a close-grid basis will be necessary to identify unsatisfactory areas, which should be cut
out and replaced.
Concrete wearing surfaces
The abrasion resistance of concrete wearing surfaces (both direct-finished concrete

slabs and high-strength toppings) can be directly assessed in-situ by use of the abrasion
test machine developed by the Cement and Concrete Association (refer to Section
2.1.2) (see Fig. 8.8). Concrete Society Technical Report No. 34 (Bibliography 24)
recommends that this test method should become the mandatory standard for
assessment of abrasion resistance of concrete flooring, and proposes limiting wear
depth values (see Table 2.3). It is, however, not yet included within British Standards,
and the equipment is not yet widely available. Until such time as the test has been fully
standardised, and sampling rates and acceptance criteria have been fully established,
use should be limited to situations where comparative assessments are required against
an existing agreed quality, or where effectiveness of remedial action on known poor
quality requires assessment. In such cases, the advice of a specialist should be sought.
In situations where the abrasion resistance of concrete surfaces is assessed as

unsatisfactory, the type of remedial works necessary will be largely dependent upon the
cause of the unsatisfactory quality.
Causes may include:

• inadequate concrete quality
• incorrect finishing technique
• incorrect curing
Depending upon the cause or combination of causes of the unsatisfactory quality,

remedial works may comprise:
• removal and reinstatement
• surface grinding
• application of a within-surface hardener/sealer (refer to Section 4.1.5)
• addition of a bonded cement or resin-based topping

Fig. 8.8 Concrete abrasion tester.

Top – Test apparatus
Bottom – Measurement of wear depth.

It is advisable to seek the advice of a specialist to investigate the cause of the
unsatisfactory quality and advise on the most appropriate form of remedial works for
the particular situation. Due regard should be paid to the potential for remedial works
to affect other properties such as appearance and slip resistance.
General discussion on levels and flatness is included in Section 2.1.6.
The requirements for testing of completed floors, or of screeds or bases to receive thin
floorings, can be broadly split into three elements:
• departure from specified datum
• lipping at joints
• surface flatness or regularity
It is essential that these tests are initiated shortly after laying of the flooring (or shortly
after laying of screeds or bases to receive thin floorings) to establish that the
construction methods adopted can achieve the specified parameters, or to enable
modification of methods to be made where necessary. Testing should not be left until
all the flooring is completed.
Sampling rates are not generally specified within the BS Codes of Practice. It is
essential, therefore, that the sampling rate should be agreed prior to installation of the
flooring. The agreed sampling rate should take into account the end usage of the floor,
the degree of confidence required, and the costs of testing. For example, in a very
narrow aisle warehouse where accuracy is critical, it would normally be appropriate to
check every aisle for flatness, but in an office development random testing may be
applicable overall, with an increased rate of tests in critical areas.
Departure from specified datum
For all types of screed, base, or flooring, the levels to specified datum should be
checked on a 3 m grid basis using standard surveying methods. In the event of non-
compliance, remedial options will be dependent upon individual circumstances.
Lipping at joints
Where appropriate, lipping at joints should be checked using a straightedge and feeler
gauges. Slip gauges, as used for surface flatness or regularity assessment, are not
generally suitable for measurement of the 1 or 2 mm limits normally specified for
lipping at joints. A straightedge length of 300 mm is suitable for most applications,
although for ceramic tile module sizes of less than 150 mm a shorter length may be
necessary.
In the event of non-compliance with specified limits for lipping at joints, remedial
options will depend upon the type of flooring or flooring system. Where excessive
lipping is present in screeds or bases to receive a flexible applied flooring, localised
grinding or application of a smoothing compound will be necessary. For all other types
of flooring the need for grinding or pre-levelling of the screed or base should be
considered in relation to the ability of the flooring and/or adhesive to accommodate the
lipping. Consideration must also be given to the compatibility of any pre-levelling
material with the flooring and/or adhesives. Where excessive lipping is present at joints
in cementitious wearing surfaces and toppings, localised grinding is the most
appropriate remedial option, provided that the change in appearance is acceptable.

Localised cutting out and repair is not generally recommended. Where excessive
lipping is present in joints between flooring units of natural stone, ceramic tile, and
conglomerates, the cause may be either poor workmanship or inadequate dimensional
accuracy of the flooring units, and this should be established prior to remedial works.
Replacement to a higher standard of workmanship and/or with units of adequate
dimensional accuracy is normally the only remedial option. It should be noted that
localised in-situ grinding and repolishing of natural stone or conglomerates, although
remedying lipping, do not generally provide adequate uniformity of appearance.
Surface flatness or regularity
Surface flatness is normally specified by either:

• limitation of deviations in slope or elevation in defined movement paths for high-
accuracy floors (refer to section 7 of the Concrete Society Technical Report No. 34
(CSTR 34) and Section 2.1.6 of this Guide)
or
• limitation of deviation beneath a straightedge for normal accuracy floors

(SR1, SR2 and SR3 as defined in Section 2.1.6)
High-accuracy floors
For high-accuracy floors specified to the limitations of CSTR 34, which will typically
be of in-situ concrete, assessment of compliance should be by use of proprietary
electronic inclinometers (see Fig. 8.9). The use of this equipment and interpretation of
results is a specialised activity, and should be entrusted to a specialist contractor. The
tests should be carried out as soon as the concrete has hardened, normally the following
day. The results should be assessed for compliance with the defined movement and free
movement properties for the appropriate accuracy category as given in CSTR34. Areas
of flooring outside the 95% and 100% allowable limits should be subject to remedial
grinding, and to re-testing to confirm compliance.
Fig. 8.9 The ‘profilergraph’ for measurement of high-accuracy floors.

Table 8.1 BS Code of Practice recommendations on measurement of normal accuracy floors.
Type of flooring or base Measurement criteria
Direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces and BS 8204 Part 2. 3-m straightedge laid in direct contact with the
high-strength concrete toppings flooring
Maximum gap measured with a slip gauge
SR1 3 mm
SR2 5 mm
SR3 10 mm
Greater accuracies to be assessed by CSTR 34 criteria
Polymer-modified cementitious wearing BS 8204 Part 3. 3-m straightedge laid in direct contact with the
surfaces flooring
SR2 5 mm
SR3 10 mm
Greater accuracies to be assessed by CSTR 34 criteria
In-situ terrazzo flooring BS 8204 Part 4. 3-m straightedge laid in direct contact with the
flooring

SR1 3 mm
Mastic asphalt flooring BS 8204 Part 5. 3-m straightedge laid in direct contact with the
flooring
SR1 3 mm
SR2 5 mm
SR3 10 mm
Screeds and bases to receive applied flexible BS 8203. 3-m straightedge laid in direct contact with the screed or
floorings base
SR1 3 mm
SR2 5 mm
SR3 10 mm
Screeds and bases to receive toppings and in- BS 8204 Part 1. 3-m straightedge laid in direct contact with the screed
situ applied floorings or base
SR1 3 mm
SR2 5 mm
SR3 10 mm
Screeds and bases to adhesive fixed rigid tile BS 5385 Part 3. 2-m straightedge laid in direct contact with the screed
applied floorings or base
SR1 3 mm
SR2 5 mm
SR3 10 mm
Ceramic tile floorings BS 5385 Part 3. 2-m straightedge with 3-mm feet at each end laid on
the flooring
Maximum deviation in gap 0–6 mm i.e. ± 3 mm
Rigid tile applied floorings BS 5385 Part 5. 2-m straightedge laid in direct contact with the
flooring
Maximum gap 3 mm.
Screeds and bases to receive timber floorings BS 8201. Localised variations in level should not exceed ± 3 mm
from the mean when measured over a 3-m distance using a
straightedge
Sports floorings BS 7044. Part 4. 3-m straightedge laid in direct contact with the
flooring
Maximum gap measured with a slip gauge 6 mm plus
300 mm straightedge laid in contact with the flooring
Maximum gap measured with a slip gauge 3 mm.

Normal accuracy floors
For normal accuracy floors with flatness limited by specified deviation beneath a
straightedge, care must be exercised in ensuring that the method of measurement is
commensurate with the specification, since both straightedge lengths and configuration
of measurement can vary. Table 8.1 summarises the BS Codes of Practice
recommendations on the methods of measurement and compliance requirements.
(Electronic equipment is currently available for use in lieu of straightedge surveying.
Manufacturers’ advice on use and results interpretation should be followed.)
It can be seen from Table 8.1 that there are significant differences between the methods
given in Codes of Practice. It is essential, therefore, that the precise method required is
fully specified and understood by all parties. For those floorings not covered by
BS Codes of Practice, an appropriate method from those listed above should be
selected.
Advice on action in the event of non-compliance of bases and screeds is given in

Section 8.1.2. Provided irregularities in bases and screeds are remedied correctly prior
to laying of the flooring, problems with flatness should not arise for applied flexible
floorings, adhesive-fixed rigid tile applied floorings, timber floorings, and the thinner
types of in-situ applied floorings. Problems with finished flatness are most likely to
arise in thicker types of in-situ applied floorings such as concrete toppings,
cement/sand-bedded rigid tile applied floorings, in-situ terrazzo, and direct-finished
concrete wearing surfaces. Remedials for direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces and
cementitious toppings would normally be based on localised grinding, provided that the
effect on appearance is acceptable. For in-situ terrazzo or cement/sand bedded terrazzo
tiling, again localised grinding may be suitable, but the effect on appearance and on the
reduction in thickness of the wearing layer must be considered. For other cement/sand-
bedded floorings such as ceramic tile or natural stone, the only option is to remove and
replace defective areas. In all cases, it is strongly recommended that the degree of non-
compliance and its potential effect on the performance of the floor should be carefully
weighed against the costs, delays and potential effect on appearance associated with
remedial works. In many cases, some deviation outside specified flatness will have a
negligible effect on actual performance.
General discussion on electrostatic properties is included in Section 2.1.8.
Electrostatic properties required may be static dissipative, conductive or super

conductive (refer to Table 2.8). Reference should be made to the particular specification
for confirmation of the test method and compliance limits.
The most common requirement is for floors to be conductive, and is normally required
where flammable or potentially explosive materials are in use, e.g. anaesthetics in
operating theatres, flammable liquids, gases or fine powders in industrial processes. For
hospitals, conductive floors should be checked in accordance with the test method and
compliance limits given in Health Technical Memorandum 2 Anti-static precautions:
Flooring in anaesthetising areas (HTM2). For other types of building the
recommendations of BS 5385 Part 4 Clause 13 are usually adopted. In fact, both test
methods and compliance requirements are the same, and are summarised as follows:
• Test instrument – insulating testing ohmmeter with an open circuit
voltage of 500 V d.c. capable of measuring resistance
values between 10 000 ohms and 50 megohms

• Test electrodes – approximately 1 kg in weight with a flat dry contact
area of 2500 mm 2, surfaced with tin foil or tin-faced
lead foil of 0.012û0.025 mm thick. The foil should be
backed with 6 mm thick soft rubber not more than 50
IRHD
• Floor preparation – surface to be wiped clean with a dry cloth before
applying electrodes. Newly laid terrazzo flooring
should be preconditioned by daily washing for at
least a week. For all types of flooring, the surface
should be in a dry condition
• Testing – measure the resistance between two electrodes placed
on the floor surface approximately 600 mm apart
• Sampling rate – one test per 2 m2 of new flooring. Not less than five
locations for routine testing on floors in service
• Results – compare the average and individual results for each
individual floor area with the compliance

requirements
• Compliance – average value upper limit 2 megohms
requirements for individual value upper limit 5 megohms
HTM 2 and BS 5385 average value lower limit 50 000 ohms
Part 4 individual value lower limit 20 000 ohms
Provided that the flooring is designed and constructed to the appropriate methods for
conductive requirements, the risk of non-compliance with these limits is small. In the
event of non-compliance, specialist advice should be sought. Terrazzo flooring in
particular can be sensitive to moisture condition at the time of test. HTM2 states that
terrazzo may show low resistivity during the initial drying-out period, but satisfactory
values should normally be achieved within 6 months of laying. It also states that
terrazzo showing high resistance values above the upper limit is unlikely to improve
with time, and should be regarded as unsatisfactory.
8.2.5 Bond testing
Loss of adhesion, or inadequate initial bond, of flooring types that are bonded to a
substrate may adversely affect serviceability. The degree of serviceability loss will
depend on a number of factors including the type of flooring, the extent of adhesion
loss, and the nature and frequency of traffic. It is necessary, therefore, to ensure that the
bond achieved is sufficient to preserve serviceability. In many cases adequate
assurances can be achieved by rigorous supervision over materials and workmanship,
followed by visual inspection of completed areas. This would generally include applied
flexible floorings and timber-based floorings. For other types of bonded flooring, the
need for checking for loss of adhesion should be based on knowledge of the inherent
risks associated with the particular type of flooring and the fixing method. The risks
can be categorised as follows:
• CHigh risk of adhesion loss – concrete toppings
– rigid tile floorings bedded in cement/sand
– in-situ terrazzo
• Medium risk of adhesion – thicker types of polymer-modified
loss cementitious topping
– thicker types of resin flooring

• Low risk of adhesion loss – thinner types of resin flooring
– flow-applied cementitious floorings
– rigid tile floorings bedded in adhesive
Assessment for loss of adhesion should generally comprise visual inspection combined
with tapping with a metal rod or hammer, and would normally be part of the
cracking/detachment/appearance inspection procedures given in Section 8.2.6. Physical
measurement of bond strength would not normally be carried out for most of these
flooring types, although it may be required for special circumstances, or in cases where
investigation into the cause or extent of debonding is necessary. In such cases the form
of test would normally be a pull-off test, and the precise method of test and acceptance
criteria should be agreed between all parties involved.
to pressure measurement gauge

loading device
(hydraulic ram)
hydraulic pressure.
reaction frame
metal disc fixed to
bonded flooring substrate with
epoxide adhesive
Fig. 8.10 Schematic diagram of pull-off test to determine bond strength to BS 8204
Part 3 Annex B2.
To date, pull-off test measurement of bond strength is only included in BS 8204 Parts 3
and 4, the Codes of Practice for polymer-modified cementitious flooring and in-situ
terrazzo flooring (see Fig. 8.10). It is, however, recommended as an alternative to the
more commonly used check for adhesion by tapping with a rod or hammer. No
recommendations are given in the BS for the sampling rate for bond strength testing or
action in the event of non-compliance. Where this type of test for bond strength is
deemed as necessary, agreement should be reached by all parties on the sampling rate,
taking into account the costs of testing, and the potential effect on appearance of the
inevitable repair patches at the test positions. The test method is given in full in
BS 8204 Part 3, Annex B.2, and is summarised as follows:
• Isolate an area of flooring 55 mm square by disc-cutting through into the base or

screed. Flooring to be at least 14 days old.

• Fix metal disc to the sample area with an epoxide adhesive.
• Attach pull-off test reaction frame and load gauge to the metal disc.
• Apply tensile load to the test area until failure.
• Calculate the maximum tensile stress at failure, and note the mode of failure.
Failure may occur in the flooring, screed or base, or at any of the interfaces.
• For both polymer-modified cementitious and in-situ terrazzo floorings, 0.8 N/m m2
minimum bond strength is usually considered satisfactory.
In situations where bond strength has been measured, and values below a specified or
agreed limit have been achieved, remedial action should be considered with care.
Unlike detached areas, which may be remedied by removal and replacement, or by
resin injection, bonded areas may be relatively difficult to remove even though bond
strength is lower than is desirable. In such cases a judgement is necessary on the risks
of the low bond strength’s leading to ultimate detachment in service. The risks will be
higher where heavy wheeled traffic or impact loading is expected, or where high
variations in temperature or moisture may occur in service. The age of the flooring or
structural base should also be taken into account, since continued drying or thermal
changes in the structure during construction or commissioning of the building may
induce greater stresses, which may lead to ultimate loss of adhesion. It is recommended
that expert advice should be sought to assist in evaluating these risks.
8.2.6 Inspection for appearance, cracking and detachment
General advice on appearance of floorings is given in Section 2.1.15.
Advice on cracking and detachment of screeds is included in Section 8.1.2, and any
inspection for cracking and detachment of the finished floor should consider the
possibility that screed defects may be reflected into the flooring.
Appearance
Section 2.1.15 recommends that where finished appearance of a floor is important,

which is usually the case, sample areas of flooring should be laid for approval of
appearance and for subsequent comparative assessment. Comparison of finished
flooring with sample areas should ideally be made as soon as possible after laying so
that any differences induced by materials quality or workmanship can be rectified, thus
reducing the extent of flooring at risk of rejection. A ‘rolling’ programme of inspection
is therefore preferred. Although early inspection is preferred for some types of flooring
there are factors that may influence judgement of appearance compared with later-age
inspections. The following factors may have a significant effect, and should be taken
into account:
• Lighting conditions – flooring and sample areas should be viewed under
similar lighting conditions to make a fair assessment
of colour and texture
• Moisture condition – colour, shading and uniformity of appearance can
change during drying out of all cementitious floorings
and of applied rigid tile floorings
• Surface treatments – application of final surface treatments, where
required, can change colour, sheen and reflectance
Assessment of appearance should include: variability of colour and texture; distribution

of aggregate, veining or other surface features as appropriate; workmanship aspects
such as formation, line and neatness of joints and filling of grouted tile joints. Physical

testing is rarely used, except in special cases where factors such as light reflectance are
critical. Acceptance or rejection of appearance is subjective, and it is advisable that
inspections are made by a team comprising representatives of all parties involved.
Since appearance is such a subjective matter, it is not possible to offer precise guidance
on acceptability limits.
Action to be taken in the event of rejection of appearance will vary depending upon the
nature of the defects and type of flooring, and so no specific guidance can be offered. In
general, however, if localised remedial work is deemed as necessary, rather than total
replacement, initial trial areas are advisable. In many cases it is likely that attempts to
effect localised improvements may have an adverse effect on overall appearance or
uniformity.
Cracking and detachment
Unintentional detachment or debonding from the base or screed can adversely affect
serviceability of floorings. Cracking, or opening of joints within the flooring, affect

appearance, and if sufficiently wide may be subject to deterioration under impact
loading from traffic. Cracks or open joints may permit ingress of liquids that could
adversely affect the flooring or underlying construction, and may also present a hygiene
problem in some situations. It is necessary, therefore, to inspect completed flooring for
cracking and detachment to confirm that the degree of either of these defects is within
acceptable limits.
Rigid-type floorings are those most at risk of detachment. The degree of risk of loss of
adhesion has been categorised in Section 8.2.5. Cracking is largely related to floorings
or beds of cementitious materials, although cracking of other types of flooring may
occur where detachment occurs or where uncontrolled movements take place in the
screed or base. The timing of the inspection should therefore take into account the
likelihood of continued movement. For example, concrete slabs, cementitious toppings,
in-situ terrazzo and cement/sand beds may take many months for the effects of drying
shrinkage to reduce to a minimum level, whereas resin floorings laid on a mature base
may be dimensionally stable after a few hours or days. Although the general rule
advocated by BS Codes of Practice for cementitious floorings is to delay inspection for
as long as possible to allow the maximum effects of drying to take place, earlier
inspections can sometimes detect defects, allowing modifications to be made to
materials or workmanship to reduce the risks of defects in areas of flooring not yet laid.
As with inspections for appearance, assessment of cracking and detachment and the
likely affect on serviceability can be subjective. It is recommended that inspections
should be made by a team comprising representatives of all parties concerned. In the
event of dispute over the likely affect on serviceability or remedial options, advice may
be sought from a specialist.
Outline inspection procedures and acceptance criteria recommendations are as follows.
Resin floorings
Visual inspection for cracking or opening of joints in the flooring. Tapping with a
metal rod or hammer for detection of detachment. All defects found should be subject
to remedial action to seal cracks and reinstate bonded construction. Remedial methods
should be advised by the flooring manufacturer or specialist contractor.

Direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces
Visual inspection for cracking or excessive opening of construction joints. Visual

inspection for evidence of surface delamination, which may occur where timing of
finishing or application of dry shake finishes has been incorrect.
All delaminated areas should be subject to remedial action. Specialist advice should be
sought on appropriate repair methods and materials. The cause of any cracking should
be established, and the likelihood of continued movement evaluated. Stable hairline
cracks (<0.3 mm) are unlikely to require treatment. Wider cracks may be subject to
gradual deterioration of arrises, particularly under the effects of hard-wheeled traffic.
Filling with low-viscosity epoxide resin can reinstate continuity of surface of stable
cracks. For cracks subject to continued movement, seek specialist advice on repair
techniques.
High-strength concrete toppings

Refer to BS 8204 Part 2 Clause 9. Inspect for detachment by tapping with a metal rod
or hammer. Defects are most likely to occur at flooring bay joints and corners, or at any
cracks. Some loss of adhesion is to be expected with this type of flooring, regardless of
workmanship quality, although the better the workmanship, the lower the risk.
Where adhesion loss is accompanied by visible or measurable curling or deflection at

cracks or joints, to the extent that fracture may occur under imposed loads, cutting out
and replacement is recommended (see Fig. 8.11).
Other repair techniques, not included in BS 8204 Part 2, may be viable. These include
epoxide resin injection and/or drilling through the topping into the base, and pinning
the topping with resin fixed steel dowels. Specialist advice should be sought for these
types of repair.
Fig. 8.11 Severe cracking and curling of high-strength concrete topping adjacent to
day joint.

BS 8204 Part 2 does not comment on the significance of cracking. Cracks should
generally be dealt with as for direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces. Cracks with
associated curling require special attention since they will not be stable, and may be
subject to rapid deterioration. If such areas are not to be cut out and replaced, resin
injection to cure the curling is advisable prior to resin filling of the crack.
Polymer-modified cementitious floorings
Refer to BS 8204 Part 3 Clause 10. Assessment procedures for detachment are as for
high-strength concrete toppings. BS 8204 Part 3 does, however, include resin injection
of detached areas as an alternative to removal and replacement.
Cracking should be assessed as for high-strength concrete toppings.
In-situ terrazzo floorings

Refer to BS 8204 Part 4 Clause 8. Assessment procedures for detachment are as for
polymer-modified cementitious floorings.
BS 8204 Part 4 does not comment on the significance of cracking. The potential for
degradation at cracks is similar to that for high-strength concrete toppings, and should
be assessed in a similar manner. Where remedial work is required for cracking in
terrazzo, consideration must be given to the effect on appearance. The specialist
subcontractor should advise on suitable repair techniques, and trials are advisable.
It should be noted that with in-situ terrazzo, cracking and/or detachment may occur in
the terrazzo topping mix, the integral screed, or both. Where the topping mix has
detached from the screed, resin injection techniques may not be effective because of
inherent porosity of the underlying screed. Trials are recommended.
Rigid tile floorings
Where rigid tile floorings are adhesive-fixed to a screed or base, detachment is rare
provided that full bedding in achieved. This is normally controlled by random
inspection during laying. In finished floors, it is advisable to make random checks for
detachment or incomplete bedding by tapping with a light metal rod or hammer,
particularly at tile edges and corners. To the experienced tester, differentiation can be
made between detachment immediately beneath the tile and detachment lower down in
the construction. Where detachment or incomplete bedding is found, specialist advice
should be sought on the likely effect on serviceability and appropriate remedial action.
Cracking in adhesive-fixed rigid tiling is most likely to be reflected through from the
base or screed.
Where rigid tile floorings are bedded in unbonded or isolated cement/sand mortar or
semi-dry mix, hollowness between the bed and the base will invariably be detected
when the flooring is tapped with a rod or hammer, and this should be considered as
inherent in the design. A degree of slight curling or differential deflection under load
may also be apparent adjacent to movement joints or any cracks. Again, these are
inherent in the design, and should not interfere with serviceability unless subjected to
heavy traffic. In the event that curling or deflection is considered excessive, specialist
advice should be sought on the need for, and form of, remedial action.
Where rigid tile floorings are bedded in bonded cement/sand mortar or semi-dry mix,
the inspection should include tapping with a metal rod or hammer to check for
detachment. Flooring should be considered as unsatisfactory if curling or lipping

adjacent to cracks or joints is sufficient to cause fracture of the flooring and/or bed,
disruption of the bed/flooring interface bond, or disruption of grouted joints, under
imposed service loadings. If such defects are found, remedial works will be required.
These may comprise either cutting out and replacement, or resin injection techniques.
The latter should be subject to confirmation of suitability by trials.
For rigid tile floorings bedded in cement/sand mortar or semi-dry mix, bonded or
unbonded, the visual inspection should include an assessment for detachment between
tile and bed. This may be readily detected by an experienced tester, by tapping with a
light metal rod or hammer. Any hollowness detected, which is most likely at tile edges
or corners but may be all over in some cases, indicates incomplete bedding, and may
comprise a risk of damage under impact loading, or of disruption of grouted joints.
This type of defect is largely avoidable where strict control is maintained over
workmanship during laying. Where this type of defect is found in completed floors,
specialist advice should be sought to quantify the risks. Removal and replacement is
usually the most effective remedial method, although resin injection techniques can be
successful but dependent upon individual factors such as bed porosity.
Where cracking is found in rigid tile floorings bedded in cement/sand mortar or semi-
dry mix, it may be related to a number of factors, including:
• movement of the base or screed
• movement of the bedding material
• incorrect joint provision
• malformation of joints
• immature terrazzo tiles
• incomplete bedding
The cracking may follow grouted joint lines, may be in the tiles, or may be a
combination of both. Depending upon their width and disposition, and on the presence
of any curling or lipping, they may or may not have a detrimental effect on
serviceability and appearance. It is important to determine the cause of any cracking
and the likelihood of continued movements prior to taking decisions on remedial
works. Remedial options will be dependent upon specific conditions, and specialist
advice should normally be sought.
Hairline transverse cracks (ladder cracks) are common in the grouted joints of terrazzo
tile flooring. Although visually undesirable, they pose no threat to serviceability
provided that joints are well filled, that there is no significant longitudinal cracking
between grout and tile, and that there is no detachment between tile and bed.
8.2.7 Sports floorings
The required finished properties of sports floorings are dictated by the sport or ranges
of sports activities for which they are to be used. Specification for the full range of
performance requirements for multi-use flooring is given in BS 7044 Part 4
(Bibliography 13). Table 6 of BS 7044 Part 4 gives a schedule of tests that may be
carried out on flooring after installation. The tests, test methods, and performance
requirements for indoor floorings are summarised below. For further information, or
for floorings dedicated to single sports activities, specialist advice should be sought
from the Sports Council.

Dimensions
Maximum overall slope in any direction 1 in 100.
Flatness – refer to Section 8.2.3. of this Guide.
Deviation from the finished plane no greater than ± 6 mm at any point
Rebound resilience
Method 1 of BS 7044 Section 2.1. A ball, relevant to the specific sporting activity, is
dropped through 3 m in a standard manner, and the rebound distance is measured.
Percentage rebound is classified as the rebound resilience. Performance limits may vary
depending upon the type of sport.
Ball roll
rolled down a 45° slope from a height of 1 m, using a standard apparatus. The ball roll
is the distance in metres that the ball travels before coming to rest. Tests in more than
one direction may be necessary for surfaces with directional patterns or textures.
Performance limits may vary depending upon the type of sport.
Velocity change of a rolling ball
propelled over a measured distance from a known initial velocity and the change in
velocity over the measured distance is calculated. Performance limits may vary
depending upon the type of sport.
Spin
Method 4 of BS 7044 Section 2.1. A standardised synthetic bowls jack is dropped from
a height of 2 m from a standard apparatus that imparts a standard degree of spin to the
ball. The horizontal distance between the first and second impacts of the ball on the test
surface is the spin distance. The test is primarily for assessing suitability of surfaces for
cricket, but may be applicable to other sports.
Traction coefficient
Method 1 of BS 7044 Section 2.2. A weighted disc fitted with a sports shoe sole
material (unspecified) is placed on the test surface, and the force required to twist the
disc is measured with a torque wrench. The calculated median traction coefficient
should be within 1.1–2.0.
Slip resistance
Method 3 of BS 7044 Section 2.2 (refer to Section 8.2.1 of this Guide).
Peak deceleration
Method 4 of BS 7044 Section 2.2. The maximum deceleration of a weighted striker is

measured during impact with the test surface. The test uses a ‘severity index apparatus’
as specified in Section 2 of BS 7188 : 1989 Methods of test for impact absorbing

playground surfaces. Surfaces should either give a peak g of 200 from a drop height of
not less than 1.0 m, or should be designated ‘Not impact energy absorbing’.
Colour and reflectance
The colour and reflectance of the flooring surface should be checked, where necessary,
against manufacturers’ stated values and/or specified values. The Sports Council
advises that a reflectance value of 40% is preferred for indoor multi-sports surfaces.
Advice on appropriate assessment methods for colour and reflectance should be sought
from the Sports Council.

9 Failure, repair and refurbishment
This section is split into three parts as follows:
• 9.1 Failure investigations

• 9.2 Common types of failure and repair
9.2.1 Collapse of cement/sand screeds
9.2.2 Delamination in no-fines screeds
9.2.3 Cracking and detachment of high-strength concrete toppings
9.2.4 Osmosis in resin floorings
9.2.5 Disruption of flexible floorings over cracks or joints
9.2.6 Loss of adhesion of impervious flexible flooring through moisture

effects
9.2.7 Impact damage of adhesive-bedded ceramic tiling
9.2.8 Terrazzo tile grouted joint disruptions
• 9.3 Refurbishment
9.3.1 Structural requirements
9.3.2 Moisture condition
9.3.3 Contamination and hazardous materials
9.3.4 Physical condition of screeds and bases
9.3.5 Site or time restrictions
In the context of this Guide, repair is defined as remedial work arising from failures or
defects in the flooring, and refurbishment is defined as works arising from the need to
either change the usage of the floor or change the type of flooring. Both are distinctly
different from maintenance (refer to Section 10), which is defined as works necessary
to maintain a flooring in a satisfactory condition, and would include replacement of
those types of floorings with a known limited life span.
9.1 FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS
Unlike most other elements of a building, the failure of a floor has the potential to
cause severe disruption of normal usage of the building. With careful selection, design
and installation, it is possible to minimise the risks of failure and hence minimise the
high costs associated with failure situations. Nevertheless, in reality failures do occur;
they normally require rapid rectification to minimise down-time, and frequently have to
be completed within restricted times or areas. For those responsible for the repair work,
and for the sake of achieving adequate serviceability of the repaired flooring, it is
essential to ensure that the general approach adopted is secure and that undue
restrictions do not prevent correct execution of the work.
The first stage in any failure situation should be an investigation to establish the cause
or causes of the defect, and this should take place ahead of any consideration of repair
methods. Investigations should normally be carried out by an experienced authority,
and should include:

• on-site inspection to determine the nature of the failure and its potential effect on
future serviceability
• consideration of the specification, construction details, materials, workmanship, site
conditions etc., and opening-up of the construction, sampling for site or laboratory
testing, where appropriate, to establish the cause of the failure
• consideration of the actual floor usage in relation to its designed service conditions
• extended investigations or testing, as appropriate, of unaffected areas to establish

the potential for further problem areas
• consideration of the potential for site conditions to exacerbate the failure or

remedial works to the failure (for example, are moisture or thermal conditions
sufficiently stable to prevent continued failure or to permit effective repair?)
Only when these basic factors have been investigated or considered can a proposal for
remedial works be formulated. Proceeding to remedial works without adequate initial
investigation can constitute a high risk of unsatisfactory repair or future failure. For
example, rigid repairs to cracks are unlikely to be successful if further movement takes
place. It is therefore necessary to either establish that no further movement will occur,
or use a repair technique that will accommodate future movement. Similarly,
replacement of a failed unsound area of cement/sand screed may be only a short-term
solution if surrounding screeds are of low or marginal quality.
Thorough investigation of all relevant factors is essential.
Although repair materials and procedures are reasonably well established for many
types of failure, suitability may well be influenced by the particular site conditions.
Restrictions imposed in operational buildings, such as limited time or area access,
hygiene, noise, health and safety, may all lead to the use of different repair techniques
or materials to those used in unoccupied buildings. Appropriate repair options can only
be formulated on an individual situation basis. Advice on repair options should be
given by the investigating specialist authority, and/or manufacturers of proprietary
materials.
9.2 COMMON TYPES OF FAILURE AND REPAIR
As outlined in the introduction to this Guide, there are many and varied types of
flooring failure that have been recorded over the years, and causes range through the
full spectrum of factors, including:
• selection
• design
• materials quality
• workmanship
• incorrect usage
• incorrect maintenance
Failures may be attributable to a single factor, or more commonly to a number of

factors. Some types of failure occur at an all-too-frequent regularity; others may occur
only very rarely. Some defects may have an immediate effect on serviceability, thus
inducing failures very soon after the flooring is put into use. For other defects, such as
screed unsoundness, it may take many months or years before failure is evident.

The remainder of this Section outlines some of the more common types of failure, and
gives typical repair procedures that may be adopted in unoccupied buildings. In
operational buildings, imposed restrictions may significantly affect remedial solutions.
In many cases, removal and/or repair of flooring will involve significant noise and dust
emissions. Control of emissions must be subject to health and safety regulations (refer
to Section 11). Some types of mechanical removal/preparation machinery, such as
enclosed shotblasting or surface planing/scarifying equipment, can be fitted with
integral dust-extraction systems. Where available, such equipment is preferred.
The list of failures included is not intended to be exhaustive, nor is it intended to

provide a 'self-diagnosis' for the non-specialist. It is strongly recommended that
where failures arise, specialist investigation and advice is sought.
9.2.1 Collapse of cement/sand screeds
Semi-dry cement/sand screeds poorly mixed, under compacted or used at too dry a
consistency can lead to screed collapse under applied traffic loading (see Fig. 9.1).
Failures largely occur beneath flexible applied floorings, but may also occur where
overlaid with rigid floorings such as ceramic tile. Collapse is most likely in positions of
regular high point loadings, such as beneath chairs and desks, or in areas of
concentrated traffic such as corridors or doorways. After initiation of collapse,
continued traffic can rapidly extend the affected areas. Where materials have not been
efficiently mixed, collapse may be limited to isolated areas of cement-deficient pockets
in otherwise sound screed.
The time at which collapse occurs, and its severity, are largely dependent upon the
degree of screed unsoundness and the type, weight and concentration of traffic. It is
possible, therefore, that collapse may not occur for several years in some cases. In all
cases where collapse does occur, the overlaid flooring will be damaged. Severely
collapsed areas may present a trip hazard to pedestrian traffic, and should be given
priority attention.
Fig. 9.1 Collapse of cement/sand screed due to inadequate soundness.

The introduction of the BRE screed soundness test (refer to Section 8.1.2) and the
increasing insistence on the use of forced-action mixers or ready-mixed supply have
greatly reduced the occurrence of collapse-type failures in recent years. They do still
occur, however, both in older buildings and in new construction. Increased traffic
loadings in existing buildings may induce collapse in screeds that have performed
satisfactorily for many years under light traffic. In new construction, use of the BRE
soundness test gives assurances of general quality, but it does not test the whole of the
screeded area. Given the inherent variability of manually laid screeds, some small risk
of localised unsoundness will always be present.
Repair
Prior to repair, it is necessary to investigate the cause of the collapse, verify the quality
of adjacent screeds, and determine the extent of inadequate soundness by use of the
BRE screed test. Repair procedures will be largely dependent upon the cause of the
failure, the extent of defective quality, the type of flooring, and the time available prior
to normal usage.
1. Collapsed cement-deficient pockets or localised poorly compacted patches in
otherwise sound screed are normally cut out to full depth to a minimum area of
100 × 100 mm and filled with a proprietary rapid-drying cement/sand screed mix.
Where a high concentration of separate defects exist, it may be necessary to
consider replacement of larger areas.
2. Larger areas of unsound screed either collapsed or otherwise verified as inadequate
quality, may be repaired by:
– Total replacement with a cement/sand screed of adequate quality, and of a
rapid drying quality where time limitations dictate.
– Impregnation with a proprietary ultra-low-viscosity epoxide resin system.
This method should be subject to suitability trials for both application
techniques and soundness improvement. For some screeds of marginal
original quality, significant soundness improvements may not be achievable.
Seek specialist guidance.
– Overlaying with a proprietary flowing renovation screed. Systems are
available for use at a nominal overlay thickness of 10 mm. Generally only
suitable for large room-sized areas and where the increase in level, ramps
with adjacent floorings and changed door heights are acceptable. Seek
specialist guidance.
9.2.2 Delamination in no-fines screeds
Lightweight aggregate no-fines screeds with a nominal 13 mm thick cement/sand

surfacing are commonly used where relatively large thicknesses are to be made up. For
example, this type of screed may be required where raised access floors are installed,
the composite screeds being used in adjacent areas such as toilets, lift and stair lobbies
and foyers. Delamination of the cement/sand surfacing has been a common problem,
largely because of the use of thicknesses in excess of the nominal 13 mm
recommended. The resulting delaminated cement/sand surfacing (usually in the range
25–40 mm), which is frequently also cracked, can induce cracking and general
disruption of overlaid rigid floorings such as ceramic or stone tiling, which is
commonly used in toilets or reception areas. It can also induce continued disruption of
the screed and overlaid flexible floorings in concentrated traffic areas such as lobbies.
Although in the situation of buildings with raised access floors, such failures may
represent only a small proportion of total floor area, they are usually the most used

areas and can cause maximum disruption to normal operations when repairs are
required.
Repair
Investigation of this type of failure should include an assessment of unaffected areas to

determine the extent of delamination and cracking, and hence the risk of future
potential disruption.
The most satisfactory method of repair for localised failures is to remove the affected
cement/sand surfacing, cut back to a soundly bonded repair perimeter, and replace it
with a polymer-modified cement/sand mortar. Any loose no-fines basecoat should first
be removed and the surface of the basecoat thoroughly coated with a cement/polymer
bonding slurry prior to repair. The polymer modification of the repair material is
considered as necessary to control the shrinkage potential of the over-thick surfacing, a
factor that may well have initiated the original failure.
If large areas of replacement are necessary, there may still be some risk of cracking or
detachment of a new cement/sand surfacing even with polymer modification,
particularly if thickness is greater than 25–30 mm. In such cases repairs should
normally consist of total replacement of the full screed depth (including basecoat) with
a correctly specified no-fines screed and cement/sand surfacing. Partial depth
replacement with unbonded cement/sand screeds of at least 50 mm thickness may be
suitable in some limited situations. Specialist advice should be sought.
It should be noted that resin injection to stabilise delamination of the cement/sand

surfacing is not feasible, because of the open texture of the no-fines.
9.2.3 Cracking and detachment of high-strength concrete toppings
Separate bonded concrete toppings have a relatively high risk of cracking and
detachment, and it is rare to find this type of flooring without such defects. In many
situations, although defects exist, serviceability may remain unaffected. Failures
normally arise only where cracking is sufficiently wide to promote degradation of
arrises under heavy trafficking, or where detachment is accompanied by significant
curling adjacent to cracks or joints (refer to Section 8.2.6). In many cases where
failures do occur, investigation commonly reveals that the severity of the defect has
been affected by factors including:
• over-thick topping (see Fig. 9.2)
• inadequate substrate preparation

• oversize or inappropriately shaped bays
• lack of isolation joints
• inadequate initial curing
• incorrect aggregate properties
Repair
If these defects are detected early in the life of a flooring, before significant damage has
occurred, serviceability can frequently be reinstated by resin injection to fill the gap
beneath curled sections, including resin-anchored dowels to re-bond the topping to the
structural base where necessary (see Fig. 9.3). Once stabilised by these methods, cracks
or opened joints can be resin filled to protect arrises against impact-induced fretting. If
damage has already occurred to an extent where total or partial replacement is

Fig. 9.2 Void beneath severely curled section of over-thick high-strength concrete
topping.
topping loaded to 20mm diameter steel dowel

original condition restore contact resin fixed into 25mm diameter
at joint or crack with base hole through topping into
base concrete
base concrete
resin inject remaining

voidage and crack/joint,
if necessary, after completion
of dowel anchoring.
Fig. 9.3 Resin-bonded dowel anchorage of curled high-strength concrete topping

adjacent to cracks or joints.
necessary, careful consideration must be given to the replacement techniques and

materials to prevent recurrence of the failure.
It is important to ensure that factors affecting the original failure are avoided or taken
into account in the remedial works. Control of shrinkage-induced stresses is the most
important factor, and this can be more difficult in repair situations where ambient
conditions may not be ideal for controlling the initial curing and the subsequent drying
rate. Introduction of water-reducing admixtures or polymers into the topping mix, or

D49 or D98 rei nforci ng m esh
t o p p i n g d a y j oi nt
8–10m m di am . cranked st eel bar
overt hi ck t oppi ng
m echani cal l y prepared

subst rat e
resi n fi xi ng i nt o
hol es dri l l ed i n
concret e base
st ruct ural base

Fig. 9.4 Mechanically anchored reinforcement provision for replacement of over-

thick high-strength concrete toppings.
the use of proprietary topping mixes can be beneficial in reducing shrinkage potentials,
and their use should be encouraged.
Where the initial failure has been attributed to the use of an over-thick topping (i.e.
significantly greater than 40 mm), simple replacement, even with the use of admixtures
or polymers, can still comprise a high risk of subsequent debonding. Unless thickness
can be reduced to an appropriate value for bonded construction (20–40 mm), or
increased to at least 100 mm to allow the use of an isolated overslab, consideration
should be given to the introduction of mechanical anchorage to the structural base. This
is normally achieved by incorporation of a BS 4483 D49 or D98 reinforcing mesh at
mid-depth of the replacement topping, anchored to the structural base with resin-fixed
cranked bars. The spacing of these anchor bars will vary depending upon individual
circumstances, but would typically be at a grid spacing of 2-m centres in both
directions overall and at a spacing of l-m centres along all topping bay perimeters
and/or day joints (see Fig. 9.4).
9.2.4 Osmosis in resin floorings
The cause of blistering of resin floorings through the effects of osmosis, and methods of
avoidance, are outlined in Section 6.5. Further guidance on this subject is given in the
FeRFA Technical Report Osmosis in Flooring. Blisters formed by osmosis commonly
appear between 3 months and 2 years after laying, and may vary in size from a few
millimetres’ diameter up to 50 mm diameter, and may be of heights up to 12 mm
(see Fig. 9.5). When drilled into or broken they are normally found to contain an
aqueous solution under pressure. In floorings that are several years old the blisters may
be dry inside because the solution has been re-absorbed into the substrate. Blistering
most commonly occurs in relatively thin resin coatings of up to 6 mm thickness. The
problem has not been observed in trowel-applied resin mortar floorings, probably
because of their higher resistance to deformation, and to a degree of lateral
permeability that permits relief of osmotic pressure. Some limited cases of blistering
have been noted in rubber and PVC floorings fixed with epoxy adhesives.

Fig. 9.5 Failure of resin flooring due to osmosis.
Repair
Where failure of the flooring has occurred through the effects of osmosis, it is essential
that specialist advice is sought from the manufacturer of the existing flooring and/or
any proposed remedial flooring material.
In general, where osmosis has occurred, it will be necessary to remove the affected
flooring and mechanically prepare the concrete substrate by gritblasting or planing to
provide a clean exposed aggregate finish, as is normally required for new construction.
Techniques for replacement that have proved successful to-date include:
• the use of a thicker trowel-applied resin mortar flooring
• double-priming the substrate to ensure complete coverage and maximum adhesion,
before replacing the flooring
• hot compressed air blast coupled with a penetrating primer, before replacing the
flooring
9.2.5 Disruption of flexible floorings over cracks or joints
Movement at cracks or joints in screeds or bases after laying of flexible floorings such
as vinyl sheet or tile can cause disruption.
Rippling over curled screed
The most commonly reported failure is rippling of the flooring directly over the line of
a crack or joint in unbonded screeds (see Fig. 9.6). Investigations into this type of
failure were made by the Building Research Establishment (BRE) in the 1970s and
reported in BRE Current Paper CP94/74 The rippling of thin flooring over
discontinuities in screed. This work established that screeds of unbonded construction,
typically over a dpm, suffered from significant curling if allowed to dry out over
extended periods of time. Moisture introduced into the screed surface during laying of
the flooring, either from smoothing compounds or from adhesives, resulted in a degree
of uncurling. Uncurling was also considered as possible due to re-distribution of any

residual moisture in the screed after covering with the impervious flooring. The net
result of this uncurling was a slight closing of the gap at cracks or joints, which locally
compressed the flooring, causing it to rise and form a ripple. Once formed, the ripple is
subject to excessive wear and eventual rupture through the effects of traffic (see Fig.
9.7).
Fig. 9.6 Rippling of vinyl sheet over crack in screed.
flooring
screed
curling of screed adjacent

to crack or joint.
Immediately after laying of flooring
flooring
screed
uncurling of screed after

covering results in closing of
After uncurling of screed joint or crack, and compressive
force in flooring causing
raising of ripple.
Fig. 9.7 Diagrams of mechanism leading to rippling of flooring over curled screed.

Repair
Although the cause of this type of defect is well established, it remains relatively
unpredictable. Where cement/sand screeds are laid, either unbonded or bonded with
subsequent detachment, and curl significantly at cracks or joints, there will be some
risk of rippling of thin overlaid flexible floorings. Where such curling is noted prior to
laying of the flooring, the risks can be reduced by completely filling the crack or joint
with a rigid material. This may be either a thermosetting resin for narrow gaps or a
cement/sand mortar for wider gaps or gaps which can be made wider. Where the failure
has already occurred, the same gap-filling procedure should be used after removal of
the flooring.
Other types of disruption
The BRE paper (CP 94/74) suggested that thermal movements did not play a
prominent role in the rippling phenomenon. In more recent years, however, similar
types of failure have been reported where the disruption had not been related to curled
screeds, and the most likely cause of disruption over cracks or joints was related to
thermal movements. These cases include the following:
1. Rippling of sheet vinyl over continuously reinforced day joints in heated

cement/sand screeds. Investigation indicated that significant curling was not
present, but that closure of the slightly opened day joints through expansion of the
screed during the heating cycle was the most likely cause of the rippling.
2. Rippling of vinyl tiles over cracks that had reflected through a fully bonded
cement/sand screed from construction joints in the suspended in-situ concrete
structural base. Investigation indicated that the screed had remained fully bonded
adjacent to cracks, and concluded that the rippling had been caused by closure of
the crack during the initial raising of the building to service temperature.
3. Rippling of vinyl tiles fixed directly over a power-trowelled ground-bearing in-situ
concrete slab laid by the long-strip method with tied induced transverse joints.
Investigation concluded that thermal expansion of the concrete slab had resulted in
slight closure of the induced joints causing the flooring to ripple.
4. Arching or hogging of relatively rigid vinyl type tiles and the underlying 5–15 mm
levelling compound over cracks and construction joints in both in-situ ground-
bearing concrete slab and suspended in-situ concrete on permanent metal decking.
The failures occurred within a few weeks of commissioning of the heating system.
Investigation showed that failures fully coincided with cracks or joints, and
concluded that closure of the cracks or joints was directly related to thermal
expansion of the structural floors. The arching or hogging-type failure, rather than
rippling, was related to the thickness and rigidity of the flooring plus levelling
compound.
Repair
In cases where thermal movement at cracks or joints is considered as the primary factor
contributing to the failure, it is important to determine the potential for continued
movement. This will be dependent upon the type of building and usage. In cases 2 and
4 above the operating temperatures of the buildings were expected to remain consistent,
in which case simple replacement of the flooring would be advisable. In cases 1 and 3
continued significant changes in temperature were expected, in which case movement
provision in the flooring would be advisable. In fact, failure of the latter two cases
would have been predictable at design stage, and movement provision in the flooring
should have been detailed for the original construction.

9.2.6 Loss of adhesion of impervious flexible flooring through
moisture effects
The need to limit the moisture condition of screeds and/or concrete bases prior to
laying moisture-sensitive floorings such as vinyl, linoleum or rubber, or floorings fixed
with moisture-sensitive adhesives, has been emphasised in preceding sections of this
Guide. Adherence to the recommendations for damp-proofing, drying times, use of
alternative methods and materials and monitoring of moisture condition should largely
eliminate the risks of failure through moisture effects. In practice, however, failures do
occur, and these tend to be either due to a failure to observe one or more of the normal
recommendations, or due to unforeseen circumstances such as flooding, or leakage of
water pipes.
Loss of adhesion through the effects of excessive residual moisture in the base or screed
most commonly arises through a gradual re-emulsifying of water-based adhesives. This
causes softening of the adhesive and loss of bond. Initial signs of this type of failure are
typically slight rippling in the flooring surface over localised areas, particularly in
positions of concentrated traffic. Ultimately, continued traffic causes stretching of the

flooring, forming blisters and rupturing. 'Tenting' or slight 'hogging' may also occur
along joints in the flooring (see Figs 9.8 and 9.9).
Failures with a similar outward appearance can occur through other causes including:
inadequate initial adhesive coverage or surface preparation

incompatibility between adhesive and flooring
failure of poor quality smoothing compound
Fig. 9.8 Adhesion loss of rubber tiling caused by moisture in the base.

Fig. 9.9 Re-emulsification of adhesive beneath vinyl sheet caused by moisture

entrapment.
Repair
Prior to repair, it is necessary to determine the cause of the failure and, where moisture
is implicated, to investigate the source of the moisture and assess the existing moisture
condition in affected and adjacent areas. Such investigations are best left to a specialist.
In all cases details of the construction specified and/or installed, and any historical
information or test data, can be very helpful to the investigator.
Clearly, where leakage of services or accidental flooding are identified as the moisture
source, these must be rectified, or precautions must be taken to prevent recurrence,
prior to any remedial works. Where defective construction such as omission or
incorrect installation of waterproofing systems is identified as a cause of moisture
ingress, repair implications may be more far-reaching than simple repair of the affected
area. For example, application of a surface dpm system may adequately protect the new
flooring, but could encourage moisture migration to other areas. Suitability of repairs
for such areas can only be decided upon individual circumstances.
Once the construction has been isolated from any potential external moisture sources,
leaving only residual moisture in the screed and/or structural base, and any residual
adhesive has been removed, it is necessary to measure the moisture condition of the
substrate. This will most commonly be by the hygrometer method (refer to
Section 8.1.2). Once the moisture condition has been established, the repair options
should be advised by a specialist and will normally be limited to the following:
• Allow the construction to dry to a suitable moisture condition, and re-lay the
flooring by normal methods. (This option will not normally be viable in typical
repair programme times.)
• Where applicable, remove screed and replace with a proprietary rapid-drying screed
laid over an impervious membrane. Drying times may be from 24 hours upwards,
depending upon the type of screed used.
• Apply a surface dpm system plus 3 mm smoothing compound to isolate the new
flooring from moisture in the substrate. Choice of system should be based on the

measured moisture condition of the base. Depending upon the condition of the
existing screed surface, mechanical preparation and the use of an initial smoothing
compound may be necessary before applying the dpm system.
• Fix the new flooring with a moisture-resistant adhesive. This option may only be
suitable for situations where the moisture condition is marginally above the 75%
RH level, and must be subject to manufacturers’ recommendations.
9.2.7 Impact damage of adhesive-bedded ceramic tiling
The growing popularity of ceramic tile flooring in public areas subject to heavy
pedestrian traffic, such as shopping malls, has resulted in the need to lay large areas in
relatively short programme times. Such tiles are commonly in the 8–12 mm thickness
range, up to 300 mm square, and are typically fixed with a bed of cement-based
adhesive onto a mature base or screed. Achievement of solid bedding and a strong
interface bond is crucial to tiles of this thickness to provide the necessary resistance to
inevitable impact loadings in service. Adequate supervision over workmanship and

regular checks on efficiency of bedding during construction can largely eliminate the
risk of failure. Nevertheless, failures do occur, and usually take the form of cracking of
individual tiles, particularly at edges or corners (see Fig. 9.10). Once cracking is
initiated, continued disruption and degradation of the tile unit can be rapid, leading to
poor appearance and possibly a trip hazard where pieces of tile become detached.
Depressions or holes may also lead to impact damage to adjacent edges of otherwise
sound tiles.
Investigation of such failures commonly finds that inadequate bedding is attributable

to:
• use of incorrect bedding technique and/or adhesive type for the type or size of tile
used
• fixing of tiles into adhesive after its recommended ‘open time’
• practical difficulties in achieving uniform bedding imposed by the use of differing

tile thicknesses to form complex patterns
• leaving the adhesive bed short of tile edge to avoid obscuring setting-out lines
Repair
Repairs to this type of failure are necessary to reinstate appearance and serviceability,
and to remove any potential trip hazard. Temporary repairs may be necessary for safety
reasons, and would normally be made by filling any holes with a proprietary rapid-
setting cementitious mortar.
Before considering permanent repair methods, the investigation should include an

assessment of the failure potential of surrounding areas. This is normally made by
tapping the tiles with a light metal hammer or rod. The experienced investigator should
be able to detect significant voidage or detachment. This extended survey is important
since, in many cases, the cause of the failure will be far more widespread than actual
failure, and should enable repairs to be aimed at minimising the risk of future
serviceability problems.
Affected tiles should be removed and replaced with new tiles, using materials and
methods that will guarantee full bedding. Individual tiles or small areas of tiling will
normally require isolation by saw cutting through the grouted joints prior to removal to
reduce damage to adjacent satisfactory tiles. In all cases, after removal of affected tiles,

Fig. 9.10 Impact damage of ceramic floor tiling due to inadequate bedding.
the adjacent satisfactory tiles should be checked for evidence of damage or detachment,
and removed if necessary.
Prior to tile replacement, the substrate surface must be free from loose areas, relatively
flat and smooth, and at the correct level to provide adequate adhesive bed thickness. In
many cases damage induced by tile removal will necessitate initial repairs to the
substrate prior to tile fixing. Adhesive manufacturers’ advice should be sought on
suitable compatible repair materials. In some cases cement-based adhesives may be
used as an initial levelling/smoothing coat, which is allowed to harden prior to laying
the adhesive bed. Adhesive beds thicker than recommended by the manufacturer can
lead to failure, and must not be used to avoid substrate repairs.
The adhesive selected for fixing new tiles, the bedding technique, and bed thickness
must all be selected to ensure void-free bedding when tiles are fixed to the required
finished level. A very high standard of workmanship is necessary to ensure that this
parameter is met in conjunction with matching to surrounding existing tile levels.
Thorough checks should be made for voidage or detachment on completed repair areas
prior to joint grouting.
9.2.8 Terrazzo tile grouted joint disruptions
There are several factors that can lead to cracking and disruption in grouted joints in
precast terrazzo tiling. Differential movements between the base and bed, shrinkage
stresses within the base, and reflection of joints or cracks in the base through the tile
and bed may all lead to opening of occasional grouted joints with associated grout loss.
Such defects commonly tend to be accepted as inherent for the type of flooring, and
may be subject to localised re-grouting of affected joints from time to time to maintain
serviceability. Where a more permanent solution to this type of defect is required,
investigation should establish the cause of the movements and the potential for
continued movements prior to formulating remedial proposals. Remedial action will
vary depending upon individual circumstances.
CIRIA Report 184

345
A more serious form of grouted joint disruption can arise through inadequate contact
area or bond at the tile/bed interface when tiles are incorrectly bedded in cement/sand
semi-dry mortar. Although this is perhaps less common than the opening of occasional
joints, the potential for reducing the service life of the flooring is much greater. The
symptoms are widespread longitudinal cracking in a high proportion of the grouted
joints combined with significant loss of grout and, in the longer term, fretting or
breaking away of tile arrises (see Fig. 9.11). Investigation of this type of failure
commonly finds that the bed/tile interface contact area is incomplete at tile edges and
corners, or that the tile is completely detached from the bed. These can be detected by
tapping with a rod or hammer.
Factors leading to this condition are:
• application of bonding slurry to the tile centre only, leaving tile edges and corners
unsupported by the bed
• very poor compaction of the top section of the bed, leading to shear failure in the
top few millimetres of bed under the effects of differential movement stresses
If either of these occurs, tiles can be subject to slight vertical deflections under heavy
loading, thus inducing strain in the grouted joint. Cracking of grouted joints may also
be exacerbated by initial tile shrinkage, which would be maximised by the reduced
restraint offered by the bed. The use of immature tiles may also exacerbate this
problem. This cracking and slight deflection will rapidly induce loosening of the grout,
and since joints are rarely completely filled, grout may either drop into the joint or be
plucked out by cleaning machines. Once grout is removed, protection of the tile arrises
is lost, and traffic-induced damage occurs.
Repair
Remedial works to this type of failure must be based on rectifying the loss of bond or
voidage beneath tile edges. Simple re-grouting is not likely to provide a satisfactory
long-term solution if tiles remain subject to slight vertical movements under load.
Fig. 9.11 Longitudinal joint cracking in terrazzo tile flooring, with some grout loss.

Where tiles are voided at edges and corners, but are otherwise firmly bonded, treatment
with a low-viscosity epoxide resin to fill the gap can be successful. Resin would
normally be injected through holes drilled to tile depth at joint intersections. Success is
highly dependent upon the porosity of the bed, and trials should always be used to
establish the suitability of the method. If this stage is successful, removal of existing
cracked or loose joint grout is necessary to enable joints to be refilled to maximum
depth. This is normally achieved mechanically by sawing with a narrow diamond
blade. Again, trials are recommended since this operation can significantly widen
joints to a degree that has a marked effect on finished appearance. If either resin
injection or re-grouting trials are unsatisfactory, total replacement of the flooring and
bed is the only alternative option.
Where tiles are detached from a poorly compacted bed through shear failure, resin
injection is unlikely to be effective because of bed porosity. In such situations total
replacement of tile and bed is the most appropriate remedial option.
9.3 REFURBISHMENT
The information in this Guide relates primarily to selection, design and construction
for new-build situations. Refurbishment of existing floors may be required to either
change the usage of the floor, or change the type of flooring or flooring system. The
potential number of combinations of conditions in refurbishment situations are almost
infinite, and specific details of correct methods and materials can only be formulated on
an individual contract basis. In many cases, extensive investigations of the existing
floor may be necessary to confirm suitability for receiving the new flooring or the
new service loadings, or to define limitations imposed by the existing floor
condition. Such investigations should be a preliminary to any other considerations
including costings. In all cases, unless the conditions required for new construction
can be achieved, there may be some risk of unsatisfactory or reduced
performance. In some cases where these ‘ideal’ conditions cannot be achieved,
alternative methods of construction may be more appropriate. For example, for existing
concrete bases to which a bond cannot be reliably achieved because of surface friability
or contamination, use of unbonded screeds or concrete overslabs may provide a
satisfactory or lower-risk solution in many circumstances. It is recommended that
specialist advice should normally be sought to evaluate the various options that may be
appropriate for refurbishment, particularly where the recommendations for new-build
flooring cannot be achieved.
Investigations for assessment of suitability of existing floors for refurbishment may be

based on inspections and/or testing as appropriate. In some cases the history of the
floor may be known, and may provide valuable information for the overall assessment.
Details of previous failures or serviceability problems and their causes may provide an
initial guide to qualities of parts of the flooring system. Details of previous usages,
particularly in industrial process areas, can provide useful information on types of
potential contaminant that could be present and may adversely affect new flooring or
flooring systems.
The major factors that will normally require consideration for refurbishment situations
are:
• structural requirements
• moisture condition
• contamination and hazardous materials

• physical condition of screeds and bases
• site or time restrictions
9.3.1 Structural requirements
In many cases of refurbishment, a change of use can result in higher loadings on the
structural base in the form of increased traffic, loadings from machinery, and dead load
from new screeds or overslabs. Assessment of the suitability of the structural base for
accepting increased loadings, assessment of the significance of any increased
deflections, and the design of any structural improvements necessary should be carried
out by a structural engineer.
For structural bases where the integrity of the base material is in doubt or where
construction details are unknown, there may be a need for trial holes, sampling and
testing, and structural load testing. Assessments should include the potential of known
contaminants for long-term effects on structural capacity: for example, corrosion of
steel reinforcement in concrete bases subject to chloride contamination, or degradation

of concrete subject to sulphate attack.
For existing timber structural bases, stiffening may be necessary by providing

additional noggings and close-centre screw fixing ply sheet to the surface, particularly
where rigid finishes such as ceramic tile are to be laid (refer to Section 4.2.1).
9.3.2 Moisture condition
For most types of flooring laid over ground-bearing bases, an effective barrier is either
recommended or essential to isolate the base from groundwater. In refurbishment
situations it is necessary to consider the effectiveness of such barriers. In some cases of
older buildings, waterproofing systems may not be installed. In others, they may be
present but not fully effective. For porous types of existing floorings, such as
cementitious toppings, terrazzo, stone, and ceramic tile, the lack of effective
waterproofing may not have caused a failure. If they are replaced with a moisture-
sensitive flooring or a flooring fixed with a moisture-sensitive adhesive, however, a risk
of failure may arise. It is advisable, therefore, that if there is any doubt at all over the
presence or effectiveness of a waterproofing system, further investigations should be
made. These should include monitoring of the moisture condition of the base by the
hygrometer test method (refer to Section 8.1.2). Where necessary, isolation from
inadequately waterproofed bases may be provided by incorporating a dpm over the
structural base and interposing a screed or concrete overslab between the flooring and
dpm.
Where bases are adequately protected against groundwater, moisture-related problems

may still arise: for example, from previous wet process areas, services leaks or
rainwater penetration. Again, monitoring of moisture condition is advisable where
moisture-sensitive flooring or flooring systems are to be installed.
9.3.3 Contamination and hazardous materials
Residual contamination of existing bases or screeds is most likely to occur in industrial

process buildings. Depending upon the type of contamination, problems may arise in
refurbishment through the effect of the contaminant on bonding of subsequent flooring
or flooring systems, or through its potential for affecting the properties of the flooring
or adhesives. For example, oils may prevent adequate bond, and may migrate from the
base and cause staining in PVC flooring. All contaminants should be identified and

assessed for potential detrimental affect, and appropriate measures should be taken to
either remove them, or isolate them from the new flooring.
Although not strictly contaminants, materials such as surface sealers and dustproofers
that are commonly applied to concrete wearing surfaces may adversely affect the bond
of overlaid adhesives, smoothing compounds etc. Where the presence of such materials
is known or suspected, and direct bonding of an overlaid new material is required,
removal will be necessary unless adequacy of bond can be demonstrated by testing.
Magnesium oxychloride flooring (magnesite) should always be removed. Covering with

a new flooring can comprise a risk of chloride migration into concrete bases, which
may promote corrosion of steel reinforcement.
In some refurbishment situations, materials incorporated in the flooring or flooring

system to be removed may be considered as hazardous to health, requiring special
precautions for removal and disposal. In all cases, the COSHH and CDM requirements
must be strictly adhered to. Materials likely to require special precautions include:
• vinyl/asbestos tiling
• asbestos from old services passing through the floor
• some types of chemical contaminant from industrial processes

• biological hazards from operating theatres, laboratories etc.
9.3.4 Physical condition of screeds and bases
Following any necessary removal of existing flooring or flooring system, it is important

to ensure that the remaining substrate is of adequate quality to receive the new flooring
or flooring system. The basic requirements should be as for new construction, and are
given in previous sections of this Guide. The major points are summarised as follows:
• The surface strength of screeds or concrete bases should be sufficient to afford the
necessary bond for subsequent bonded layers of adhesives, screeds, toppings, beds
etc. Weak or friable surfaces should be investigated using visual assessment and/or
bond testing where necessary, to ascertain suitability. Where unsuitable, overlaying
with isolated screeds or overslabs may be required.
• Cracking or movement at joints should be assessed for their potential for further
movement and for reflection through or causing disruption of overlaid flooring or
flooring systems. Repairs to stabilise cracks or joints may be possible in some cases,
depending upon their cause and nature. Where stabilisation is not possible, risks to
the new flooring may be reduced by the use of isolated new construction.
• Flatness and level deviations should be measured to assess their suitability for the
new flooring or flooring system, with particular regard to maintaining these within
any specified or recommended thickness criteria. Where flatness or level are not
commensurate, screeds or levelling compounds will be necessary.
• Where existing screeds are to be retained for continued service, they should be
assessed for quality and suitability. Checks should be made for detachment,
cracking and curling, and these should be considered in relation to their potential
effect on the new flooring. Soundness of cement/sand screeds should be assessed
using the BRE screed tester (refer to Section 8.1.2). Evidence of past satisfactory
performance may not be sufficient, particularly if the new floor is to be subjected to
an increase in traffic frequency or weight.

9.3.5 Site or time restrictions
The nature of refurbishment works may be restricted by time limitations, in both

operational and vacant buildings. Further limitations may be imposed in operational
buildings to control noise, dirt and dust, disruption to normal operations, safety etc.,
and to maintain access. These restrictions may affect the selection of methods and
materials to be used. Proprietary rapid-hardening or drying screeds, adhesives etc. are
commonly used. It is essential to ensure that the full system is checked for compatibility
and suitability for practical application.
Refurbishment in operational areas frequently results in installation in limited areas,

using a greater number of joints than would normally be used. Consideration should be
given to the potential for such joints to cause future problems.
Refurbishment may require construction operations to continue or take place outside

normal working hours. Where this is the case, precautions should be taken to ensure
that supervisory control or inspections are maintained. Failures commonly arise in

unsupervised work, particularly where time limitations are tight.

10 Cleaning and maintenance
Floor maintenance is defined as the work necessary to maintain a floor in a satisfactory

condition
Consideration should be given to the development of a full and systematically

monitored programme of floor maintenance. In addition to those work elements
necessary to retain appearance, a floor maintenance programme should provide for
periodic inspection of specific safety features, such as slip resistance, and elements of
the floor or finish that may be expected to have a limited service life, such as joints and
joint sealants. Periodic inspection is essential to identify deterioration or damage before
it becomes a safety hazard and more costly to repair. Maintenance inspections should
also monitor operating procedures for changes in traffic conditions, loading or
handling causing impact damage or accelerated rates of wear. In such circumstances
maintenance should provide for local protection and/or early replacement or upgrading.
Slip resistance
Most surfaces have poorer resistance to slip when wet, and in particular some polished
natural stones and glazed tiles may become very dangerous. When it is known that
slippery conditions may arise in service and can present a significant hazard, tiles or
sheet with slip-resistant finishes should be used. Slip resistance is often determined by
the materials themselves and how they are put together. Some improvement of
resistance is obtained by incorporating non-slip materials, such as aluminium oxide or
silicon carbide in the surface (see Section 2.1.1).
Floor joint fillers and sealants
Excessive machine scrubbing and the use of highly alkaline cleaners as well as solvent-
based systems can have a detrimental effect on floor joint sealants. Joint sealants can
also break down and/or lose adhesion to the substrate as a result of normal service.
BS 6093, BS 6213 and CIRIA Special Publication 80 Manual on good sealant

application 1991 all give guidance on maintenance. Periodic inspection is
recommended to identify deterioration or damage before it becomes more serious and
more costly to repair. BS 6213 gives the expected service life of sealants as between
10 and 20 years depending on the material, while BS 6093 recommends that joints be
inspected at intervals of one-fifth of the expected service life, with an additional
inspection after one year’s service for joints subject to movement.
The expectation that all sealants will need replacement – and probably more than
once – within the building lifespan should concentrate the designer’s attention on
ensuring accessibility to joints for inspection and sealant renewal.
The remainder of this section considers the essential maintenance of floors in the
following format:
• 10.1 Cementitious-based flooring
• 10.2 Polymer-modified cementitious toppings
• 10.3 Resin flooring
• 10.4 Flexible (resilient sheet and tile) flooring

• 10.5 Textile flooring
• 10.6 Rigid tile flooring
• 10.7 Timber-based flooring
• 10.8 Asphalt flooring
• 10.9 Magnesium oxychloride flooring (magnesite).
10.1 CEMENTITIOUS-BASED FLOORING
Cementitious-based flooring may generally be expected to provide extended service

life; however, particular attention must be paid to operating procedures, e.g. avoiding
the use of steel-wheeled vehicles, the provision of protection against impact damage,
and the expected service life of joint sealants.
Certain of these floorings, e.g. concrete, benefit from a floor surface treatment to
prevent dusting and to close the pores to reduce dirt retention. (Synthetic resin sealing
treatments based on epoxy and polyurethane provide a degree of chemical resistance.)
All such treatments are likely to require more frequent re-application to maintain
performance.
Cleaning and maintenance of cementitious based flooring is extensively covered in

Floors and their maintenance by J K P Edwards (Cresta Publishing, 1972).
Essential maintenance includes:

• sealing the floor to prevent dusting and reduce deterioration resulting from
exposure to oil and grease
Sealers based on sodium silicate or zinc or magnesium fluorosilicate penetrate into
the surface and react chemically with the free lime forming an insoluble, glass-like
material, calcium silicate.
Alternative seals, which provide a chemically resistant finish, are based on
synthetic resins such as polyurethane and epoxy
• routine cleaning carried out effectively with a neutral or mildly alkaline detergent in
water on the easily cleaned sealed floor
• the removal of oil and grease stains with a degreasant, which may be either water or
solvent-based, i.e.
– detergent crystals based on sodium metasilicate used in hot water
– solvent-based detergent oil remover
• steam cleaning of extremely dirty floors using an alkaline detergent
• repair as and when necessary by a specialist contractor
Note: Highly alkaline cleaners may be detrimental to calcium aluminate cement-based

floors.
10.2 POLYMER-MODIFIED CEMENTITIOUS TOPPINGS
Cleaning and maintenance of polymer-modified toppings is covered in:
BS 8204 : Part 3 : 1993 In-situ floorings. Code of practice for polymer-modified

cementitious wearing surfaces.
Essential maintenance considerations include:

• reduction of porosity by sealing with an acrylic water-based seal. This will also
make routine maintenance easier
• regular brushing to remove surface dust and soilage followed by periodic mopping
with a solution of neutral detergent in water
• removal of grease stains with aqueous solutions of alkaline salts, e.g. caustic soda,
sodium metasilicate, tribasic sodium phosphate or an appropriate proprietary
product
• repair as and when necessary by specialist contractors
Note: Highly alkaline cleaners may be detrimental to calcium aluminate cement-based

floorings.
10.3 RESIN FLOORING

Regular cleaning to remove oil, grease and reactive chemicals will increase the service
life of resin floors. A water emulsion floor wax can be used to protect decorative floors.
Repair and replacement must be carried out by specialist contractors.
Details of the maintenance and care of resin-based flooring are adequately covered in
Floors and their maintenance by J K P Edwards (Cresta Publishing 1972), and
FeRFA Application Guide No.4 Synthetic resin flooring.
The resin types covered are:

– epoxy
– polyester
– polyurethane
– methyl methacrylate
Essential maintenance considerations for the above range of resin-based floorings

include:
• a planned maintenance programme to be agreed at the time when the particular
resin flooring is chosen
• a cleaning regime that is likely to be implemented by in-house operators, e.g. in a
manufacturing process area
• training for in-house staff in the materials and procedures to be adopted in the
general cleaning
• general cleaning consisting of washing or scrubbing with warm water and a
neutral detergent
• the avoidance of harsh scouring powders on smoother, decorative finishes
• the use of a solvent-based detergent to remove spillage of oil or greasy materials as
soon as it occurs to prevent floors from becoming slippery
• the use of boiling water or live steam only on those resin systems that can
withstand the shock, e.g. certain polyurethanes and methacrylates
• repair as and when necessary by specialist contractors
10.4 FLEXIBLE (RESILIENT SHEET AND TILE) FLOORING
The correct initial treatment of these floorings, such as a seal or other surface finish, is
important in that dust, impacted dirt and scuff marks are kept on the surface and are

thus more readily removed. Any maintenance programme should consider the planned
replacement of the flooring as it wears and/or becomes damaged. Replacement should
be carried out by specialist contractors.
The methods of surface treatment for resilient sheet and tile flooring are adequately
covered in BS 6263 : Part 2 : 1991 Care and maintenance of floor surfaces Part 2.
Code of practice for resilient sheet and tile flooring.
The materials covered are:

– cork tiles and carpet
– linoleum
– rubber
– thermoplastics tiles
– vinyl semi-flexible tiles
– flexible PVC flooring
– static controlled flooring

– conducting flooring
– textured flooring
Further information is available in the CFA Guide to Contract Flooring.
The essential maintenance considerations are as follows:

• The planned maintenance programme should be delayed until 24 hours after
installation of the flooring, which should remain covered and protected during this
period.
• A maintenance programme should be established as recommended in BS 6263,
and should specify cleaning and polishing materials.
• The maintenance programme should follow the flooring manufacturer’s
recommendations.
• Maintenance can be carried out by in-house operators.
• The correct initial treatment of the flooring such as a seal or other surface finish is
important, and the success of the subsequent maintenance may depend on its
having been carried out correctly.
• A mop-sweeper or dry-suction machine should be used to remove surface debris.
• Mops should be used with an aqueous solution of a neutral or mildly alkaline
detergent for the removal of spillage or surface impacted dirt.
• Pine gel cleaners should be used selectively. Continuous use may cause damage to
PVC floorings. They also attack protective emulsion polish film, and cause
softening of natural rubber flooring.
• Emulsion polishes are commonly used to provide a protective finish to a clean
floor surface.
• At regular intervals the accumulation of polish film should be totally removed and
new polish should be applied.
• Slip-resistant flooring should not be treated with polish, but should be kept clean
by washing or scrubbing using a neutral or low-alkali detergent solution.
• Slip-resistant flooring may be less than satisfactory under wet conditions.
• Dust-retaining mats should be used at all entrances, and should be vacuum-cleaned
on a regular basis.
The maintenance programme should consider the planned replacement of flooring as it

wears and/or becomes damaged.

Maintenance in particular environments, special areas and buildings is again covered
by BS 6263. The essential considerations are:
• maintenance of underfloor heated surfaces
• greater frequency of maintenance where density of foot traffic is high
• effect of abnormal air temperature on the use of polishes
• areas where accidental spillage of oil and grease can occur
• areas where accidental spillage of chemicals or bacteriological or radioactive
materials may occur
• maintenance of dust-free floors in clean rooms including computer rooms
• treatment of sports and leisure playing surfaces
• maintenance of standards of hygiene in health care buildings and the food industry
10.5 TEXTILE FLOORING

The maintenance programme should consider the planned replacement of the flooring
as it wears and/or becomes damaged. Maintenance should be carried out by specialists,
and should include the use of dirt-retaining matting to reduce the amount of grit being
brought into the building.
Details of the maintenance and care of textile flooring is available in the CFA
publication Guide to Contract Flooring, and in Floors and their maintenance by
J K P Edwards (Cresta Publishing, 1972).
The essential maintenance considerations are as follows:

• The planned maintenance programme should be established at an early stage in the
planning following the recommendations of the textile flooring manufacturer
• The maintenance can be carried out by in-house operators
• Anti-static agents can be applied to the carpet by mechanical spray. Because of
their moist nature, they tend to hold dirt and soilage, with the result that the carpet
may lose its clean appearance quicker than if it had not been treated. Most anti-
static agents lose their effect each time the carpet is shampooed, and have to be re-
applied.
• The textile flooring should be surrounded with dirt-retaining mats wherever soil
and water can be tracked in. Stairs, lift lobbies and lift floors can also be fitted with
these mats to prevent soil being taken upstairs.
• Dirt-retaining mats should be cleaned on a regular basis.
• Dust and dry soil should be removed regularly using a high-powered vacuum
cleaner.
• Spots and stains should be dealt with as quickly as possible. Spots are concentrated
near the carpet surface, and can usually be removed with a proprietary cleaner.
Stains penetrate the carpet fibres, and removal may require professional advice.
• Daily vacuum cleaning will not pick up sticky dirt, and dry powder cleaners have
to be used to absorb and dry the dirt, which then can be picked up by vacuuming.
• In the longer term, textile flooring will need deep cleaning to remove deep-seated
soil at the bottom of the pile, plus residues of other cleaning agents used. This will
involve the services of a professional following the instructions of the carpet
manufacturer using a combination of shampoo and hot water extraction.

10.6 RIGID TILE FLOORING
This covers the range of flooring:

– natural stone
– terrazzo tile
– ceramic
– cement/resin-based conglomerates
– composition block
Details on the cleaning and maintenance of the above flooring are adequately covered
in one or more of the following publications:
• BS 5385 : Part 3 : 1989 Wall and floor tiling. Code of practice for the design and
installation of ceramic floor tiles and mosaics. BS 5385 : Part 5 : 1994 Wall and
floor tiling. Code of practice for the design and installation of terrazzo tile and
slab, natural stone and composition block floorings.

• British Ceramic Tile Council The cleaning of ceramic tile
• Floors and their maintenance by J K P Edwards (Cresta Publishing, 1972)
Essential maintenance considerations for the above range of rigid flooring tiles should
include:
• a planned maintenance programme that will include dry sweeping to remove all
loose dirt and soilage followed by normal washing or scrubbing with warm water
and a neutral sulphate-free detergent
• the removal of greasy deposits using a detergent incorporating an organic solvent
or an alkaline detergent, but only for occasional cleaning
• the use of abrasive cleaners where required but not on polished marble, polished
granite or glazed tiles
• a recommendation not to use seals and polishes except for the particular case of
composition blocks
• the use of proprietary products to remove oil staining, which could be a problem
for terrazzo and natural stones
• the removal of any efflorescence by frequent washing
• replacement of cracked or damaged tiles
10.7 TI M B E R - B A S ED F L OORING
Timber is divided into two classes: softwoods and hardwoods. In general, softwoods are
not as resistant to abrasion or impact as hardwoods. They are more suitable for light
traffic, and are frequently protected with a floor covering, such as carpet.
Hardwoods wear longer and more evenly, and many will withstand heavy traffic
successfully over a long period. Because of their improved resistance to abrasion and
their decorative appearance, hardwoods are usually protected with a seal rather than
with a floor covering. In spite of their abrasion resistance, however, hardwoods can still
be damaged by stiletto heels.
Details on the cleaning and maintenance of timber-based flooring are covered in

Floors and their maintenance by J K P Edwards (Cresta Publishing, 1972).
In general wood floors can be divided into four main types:

– strip and board
– wood block
– parquet and mosaic
– end-grain paving
A general knowledge of the construction of each type of floor is important when

considering methods of maintenance. This is particularly important when sanding of
the floor is contemplated, as this removes about 2 mm of floor. A thin parquet or
mosaic floor could be ruined by this level of sanding.
Typical maintenance procedures for a new wood floor should include:

• sanding to remove any imperfections and to level its surface (the exception being
parquet) and finishing with sandpaper
• vacuuming and damp-mopping to remove dust
• treatment of wood block or parquet floors with liquid solvent wax

• treatment of wood strip and board floors with a sealer for protective, hygienic and
decorative reasons using, for example, an oleo-resinous, one-part or two-part
polyurethane
• daily cleaning with a dilute solution of a neutral detergent in water
• regular maintenance of the sealed floor with a floor wax although this is largely a
personal preference and can reduce slip resistance of the floor
• regular maintenance of the seal, particularly in entrances and heavy traffic areas
• periodic wax stripping operations using a solvent-based detergent wax remover
• replacement of flooring as and when required
10.8 ASPHALT FLOORING
Asphalt flooring benefits from an acrylic water-based seal to improve ease of cleaning.
The flooring is easy to repair as a result of being thermoplastic, but requires a specialist
subcontractor.
Cleaning and maintenance of mastic asphalt and pitch mastic flooring is covered in
Floors and their maintenance by J K P Edwards (Cresta Publishing, 1972), and in
BS 8204 : Part 5 : 1994 Code of practice for mastic asphalt underlays and wearing
surfaces.
While mastic asphalt and pitch mastic floors vary in their composition and properties,
for maintenance purposes it is convenient to treat them both in the same way under the
general heading of asphalt.

• the use of acrylic water-based seals followed by a water emulsion floor wax to
provide a basis for further maintenance
• periodically removing all old floor wax with an alkaline detergent in water, rinsing
the floor with water and allowing it to dry; resealing and waxing the floor
• a planned maintenance programme of dry sweeping to remove loose dirt and
soilage followed by normal washing or scrubbing with warm water and a neutral
sulphate-free detergent
• repair of the floor by a specialist mastic asphalt contractor as and when required

10.9 MAGNESIUM OXYCHLORIDE FLOORING (MAGNESITE)
Reference should be made to Floors and their maintenance by J K P Edwards (Cresta

Publishing, 1972).
The most important single factor to be considered in the maintenance of magnesite

floors is the highly absorbent nature of the wood flour or sawdust filler. Magnesium
oxychloride flooring requires a surface seal to prevent water from coming into contact
with the magnesite. Repair should be carried out by specialist contractors. Washing
and scrubbing should therefore be avoided and as little water as possible allowed
to come into direct contact with the floor.

• treatment with a solvent-based seal to improve the appearance; prevent water, dirt
and stains penetrating into the floor and provide a surface for subsequent
maintenance
• resealing worn surfaces
• maintaining a well-sealed magnesite floor with a solvent-based or water emulsion
wax
• periodically removing all old floor wax with a mild alkaline detergent, rinsing the
floor with the minimum amount of water and allowing it to dry; resealing and
waxing the floor
• a planned maintenance programme of dry sweeping to removed loose dirt and
soilage followed by mopping with the minimum of warm water and a neutral
sulphate-free detergent
• repair of the floor by a specialist contractor as and when required
• checking of other parts of the structure for possible contact and contamination by
the magnesite

11 Health and safety
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The Construction Design and Management (CDM) Regulations 1994 will have a direct
effect on a designer’s working relationships with clients and other consultants.
CIRIA Report 145 CDM Regulations – case study guidance for designers: An interim
report (1995) gives further guidance. Five key players are involved in the CDM
regulations: the client, the planning supervisor, the designer, the principal contractor,
and subcontractors. The planning supervisor, who is employed directly by the client, is
ultimately responsible for the health and safety plan during the design process, while
the principal contractor has the ultimate responsibility during the construction phase.
At the onset of the job, or as soon as is reasonably practicable, the client will need to
appoint two of the five key players whose roles are legally defined in CDM
Regulation 6: the planning supervisor and the principal contractor. They must be
competent, and the client must ensure that they have sufficient resources for the project
to be completed safely.
The third key player, the designer, must develop a design that avoids, or at least
minimises, risks to health and safety during the construction and maintenance phases
of the contract.
Under the CDM regulations the designer will be required:

• to avoid foreseeable risks to health and safety
• to combat risks at source and to give priority to measures providing overall
protection
• to include adequate information in the design on matters affecting health and
safety
• to cooperate on health and safety matters with the planning supervisor and other
designers.
Examples of the information that the designer must provide would include:
• contamination of existing flooring and sub-floors by industrial processes
• dust hazards arising from the removal of existing finishes by scabbling, or similar,
machines
• hazards arising from the removal of lead- or asbestos-based floorings
However, the designer is entitled to assume that the contractor working on the project
is competent, and is not required to provide information on hazards and risks that the
contractor would be expected to know about.
The planning supervisor and the designer initiate the preparation of the health and
safety plan, which is to be incorporated into the health and safety file and then
developed by the principal contractor. The plan will include details of all identified
materials, substances and construction methods used in the project by both main
contractor and specialist subcontractors. In addition, manuals outlining operating and
maintenance procedures and schedules will also be included.

Regulation 17 of CDM requires that the health and safety plan should also be used as
the basis for the provision of information by employers to their employees about the
emergency procedures required under Regulation 7 of the Management of Health and
Safety at Work Regulations 1992. Similarly the arrangements for the provision of
training by employers should be covered in the health and safety plan – see the COSHH
Regulations. (CIRIA Report 125 A guide to the Control of Substances Hazardous to
Health in Construction Regulations, 1993, gives further guidance.)
The planning supervisor appointed for any project will ensure that a health and safety
plan is prepared in sufficient time to ensure that it can be provided to any principal
contractor before arrangements are made to carry out the work. In order to prepare this
plan the planning supervisor will consult with both the client and the project designers.
The pre-tender health and safety plan should be prepared in time so that it is available
for contractors tendering or making similar arrangements to carry out or manage
construction work. The pre-tender plan should include:
• a general description of work

• details of timings within the project
• details of risks to workers so far as possible at that stage
• information required by potential principal contractors to demonstrate competence
or adequacy of resources
• information for preparing a health and safety plan for the construction phase, and
information for welfare provision
Once appointed, the principal contractor will develop the pre-tender plan for use during
the construction phase. This plan should include:
• arrangements for ensuring the health and safety of all who may be affected by the
construction work
• arrangements for the management of health and safety of construction work and
monitoring of compliance with health and safety law
• information about welfare arrangements
The health and safety file will contain information about
1. the project, e.g. type and level of contaminants in contaminated ground; possible
asbestos contamination in a refurbishment
and
2. specified materials being used on the project, e.g. paint containing harmful
ingredients.
The main contractor and specialist subcontractors will add information to this file as
and when necessary – e.g. demolition procedures, permits to work systems.
For flooring applications the hazards would include certain adhesive types and
chemically reactive floor toppings. The severity of harm in using a particular chemical
type will be equated against the likelihood of harm occurring and the risk assessment
determined.
The risk assessment would be determined from information obtained from the
assessment carried out under the COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health)
Regulations.

Finally the file will also contain details of all hazards that were not able to be fully
eliminated during the contract.
It should be noted that the regulations affect all projects that last longer than 30 days,
involve more than 500 person-days, or involve more than four construction or
maintenance workers at any one time. It is likely that small projects concerned with the
repair, replacement or refurbishment of floors and floor finishes will fall outside this
category.
The general requirements of the Health & Safety at Work Act 1974 have been
strengthened by the Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations 1992. The
duties imposed by these regulations are, in most cases, ‘absolute’: that is, not qualified
by the terms ‘practicable’ or ‘reasonably practicable’. The regulations require that
every employer shall make a suitable and sufficient assessment of the risks to the health
and safety of his employees to which they are exposed while they are at work, and the
risk to the health and safety of persons not in his employment arising out of or in
connection with the conduct of his undertaking.
This requirement is for the purpose of identifying the measures that the employer needs
to take to comply with the regulations, and will entail the assessment and the
elimination, if possible, of risks associated with the manual handling of flooring
products and materials, hazardous materials and hazardous processes involved in
laying flooring materials.
The COSHH Regulations were consolidated by the Control of Substances Hazardous to

Health Regulations 1994. The new regulations incorporate the original 1988 COSHH
Regulations and a range of amendments and new additions.
These new COSHH Regulations still require that any substance that could be a risk to
employees health should be assessed to:
• identify the hazards
• select controls to eliminate or at least minimise the hazard to employees
• substitute if there is an alternative and safer material
• provide personal protection
• provide information and training needed to do the job safely
At the end of the contract the health and safety file is handed over to the client,
together with the operating and maintenance manuals, and has to be kept available by
the client or any future owner for reference by designers, planning supervisors etc. of
future works.
11.2 THE HAZARDS
11.2.1 Removal of existing flooring
It is possible that the existing flooring may contain substances that, when dispersed by
scabbling, are harmful to the operative or the occupants of the building. In such a
situation:
• a controlled vacuum system of dust collection should be instigated
• the working area should be shrouded to prevent the escape of dust
• workers should wear appropriate respiratory protection.

11.2.2 Laying new flooring
The principal hazards that can result from laying new flooring arise mainly from
chemically reactive floor toppings and the use of some adhesives.
Particular hazards include:

• contamination of the skin and eyes, and skin absorption
• harmful effects caused by inhalation of vapours/dusts
• ingestion
• fire and explosion
Eye and skin contamination, including skin absorption
Hazard
All reactive resin and cementitious formulations contain constituents that can cause
irritation of the skin and eyes.
Cements contain alkalis, and can cause chemical burns to the skin.
Epoxy and polyurethane formulations contain constituents that can cause skin
sensitisation.
Solvents, e.g. xylene, can be absorbed through the unbroken skin.
Handling precautions
Handling procedures should be such that adhesive and resin components never come
into contact with the skin or eyes.
Hand cream should be used, and impervious gloves worn with cotton liners.
Goggles to BS 2092/1/C should be worn where there is a risk of eye contamination.
There should be no smoking, drinking or eating in working areas. Personal hygiene

should be observed.
Inhalation of vapours/dusts
Hazard
All the resin-based formulations contain volatile compounds such as solvents,

hardeners and/or diluents.
The volatile free isocyanate monomer present in polyurethane formulations can cause
immediate or delayed respiratory problems on inhalation. Exposure to extremely low
concentrations can produce asthmatic symptoms of varying intensity in persons
sensitised to the isocyanate monomer.
All cement-based products contain fine alkaline particles, which can cause irritation to
the respiratory system.

The work area must be sufficiently ventilated to ensure that control limits for any
solvents or monomers present are not exceeded. In addition, levels of dust arising from
batching cements must not exceed control limits: i.e. 10 mg/ m 3 8-hour TWA total
3
inhalable dust and 5 mg/ m 8-hour TWA respirable dust.
In areas where adequate controls cannot be guaranteed, suitable respiratory protection

must be worn.
Ingestion
Hazard
Many chemical products are to some degree harmful if swallowed. Any transfer to the
mouth would be usually brought about by smoking, eating or drinking in work areas.
Do not smoke, eat or drink in working areas. Ensure personal cleanliness at all times.
Fire and explosion risk
Hazard
The risk of fire and explosion with many chemical products is as a result of their
improper storage or use. Many of these products, e.g. ‘contact’ adhesives, contain
flammable solvents.
The manufacturer’s safety datasheets and labels will provide details on the constituents
present and the degree, if any, of their flammability.
Handling and storage precautions
Chemicals should be kept in sealed containers in a dry well ventilated store out of
direct sunlight within a temperature range of 5–25 °C and away from possible sources
of ignition.
When the flash point of the chemical product is between 21 °C and 32 °C the
requirements of the Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied Petroleum Gases
Regulations 1972 apply.
When the flash point is below 21 °C the conditions of licence required under the
Petroleum (Consolidation) Act 1928 apply.
No potential sources of ignition should be present in the working area where flammable
products are applied and where tools are cleaned by flammable solvents.
11.3 SPILLAGE
Major spillages of liquid products should immediately be confined using inert, non-
combustible materials such as sand or earth. The main objective is to restrict spillage
spreading further and particularly from contaminating any drainage system or
waterways.

For spillages of solvent-borne products it may be necessary to evacuate personnel and
to eliminate all sources of ignition.
11.4 WASTE DISPOSAL
Care should be taken in the disposal of emptied containers or waste materials.

Containers with only dried residues of solvent-based products or small amounts of
water-based products can usually be disposed of with builders’ waste. Partially filled
containers, contaminated cleaning rags and residues from major spillages – see above –
should be disposed of through a specialist waste disposal contractor.
Advice can be obtained from the local waste disposal officer or the National
Association of Waste Disposal Contractors.
11.5 SAFETY ASPECTS IN SERVICE
The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992 are now in force for
new buildings, and will be retrospectively applied after 1 January 1996 for existing
places of work.
Clients and owners of floors will be expected to carry out risk assessments of their work
places to establish whether the floor has adequate slip resistance or is in such disrepair
that it may cause accidents, and carry out work where this is considered necessary.
These requirements are covered in Regulation 12, which states that:
(1) Every floor in a workplace and every surface of every traffic route in
workplace shall be of a construction such that the floor of the traffic route is
suitable for the purpose for which it is used.
(2(a)) The floor or surface of the traffic route shall have no hole or slope or be
uneven or slippery so as in each case to expose any person to a risk to his
health or safety.
(2(b)) Every such floor shall have effective means of drainage where necessary.
and the Approved Code of Practice from the same document requires that:
90(a) The surface of floors and traffic routes shall be free from any hole, slope or
uneven or slippery surface which is likely to:
(a) cause a person to slip, trip, or fall
and
93. Surface of floors and traffic routes which are likely to get wet or to be subject
to spillage should be of a type that does not become unduly slippery. A slip-
resistant coating should be applied where necessary. Floors near to machinery
that could cause injury to anyone were to fall against it should be non slip and
be kept free from slippery substances or loose materials.

Appendix 1 Selection of preferred flooring
systems
Use of the selection information within this Appendix without prior reference to
the considerations of finished floor properties, flooring type and flooring systems
given in Sections 1, 2 and 3 is not recommended.
The following Tables (A1.1–A1.6) provide a selection reference number for each
combination of structural base type and flooring type.
A detailed list of ‘preferred flooring systems’ is provided for each selection reference
on the pages following the Tables (pages 369–391).
Finally, details of structural base type, flooring system reference and traffic-related
service categories are provided (pages 392–394).
Example of use
In-situ terrazzo is considered for application to a suspended precast concrete structural

base.
1. From Table A1.2 – the selection reference for this combination of finish type and
structural base type is identified as No. 11.
2. Selection No. 11 (page 377) – provides details of the preferred flooring system(s)
for a given maximum traffic classification.
Note: The maximum traffic type classification is offered as a general indication of

the maximum safe use of the selected system, and includes limitations of the
flooring and flooring system. In the example given above, selection No. 11 indicates
a traffic type classification P3. i.e. suitable for P1 up to and including P3.

Table A1.1 Selection of preferred flooring systems – direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces.
(Refer to Section 2.3.1)
Structural base Trowelled or early- Trowelled C60 or high- Special proprietary

type age grinding strength monolithic mixes or dry shake
topping finishes
C40 C50
A Ground-bearing 1 2 3 4
in-situ concrete
B Ground-bearing lean-mix N/A N/A N/A N/A

concrete
C Suspended in-situ 1 2 3 4
concrete
D Suspended composite 1 2 N/A N/A

concrete
E Suspended precast N/A N/A N/A N/A

concrete
F Suspended timber joist N/A N/A N/A N/A
G In-situ concrete 1 2 N/A N/A

overslabs over any other
type of concrete structural
base
H Partial access flooring N/A N/A N/A N/A

system
N/A Not applicable
Table A1.2 Selection of preferred flooring systems – cementitious toppings and in-situ applied floorings .
(Refer to Section 2.3.2A)
Structural base type High-strength Polymer-modified Flow-applied In-situ

concrete (including cementitious cementitious terrazzo
granolithic) systems systems
in-situ concrete
B Ground-bearing N/A N/A N/A N/A

lean-mix concrete
concrete
D Suspended composite 8 12 8 10
concrete
E Suspended precast N/A N/A N/A 11

concrete
F Suspended timber N/A N/A N/A N/A

joist
G In-situ concrete 9 8 8 7
overslabs over any
other type of concrete
structural base
H Partial access flooring N/A N/A N/A N/A

system
N/A Not applicable

Table A1.3 Selection of preferred flooring systems – non-cementitious toppings and in-situ applied floorings.
(Refer to 2.3.2B)
Structural base type Mastic Proprietary Epoxy, polyester Magnesium

asphalt bituminous polyurethane, oxychloride
methacrylate resins
A Ground-bearing in-situ 13 8 18 14
concrete
B Ground-bearing lean-mix N/A 8 N/A N/A

concrete
C Suspended in-situ concrete 13 8 18 14

D Suspended composite concrete 13 8 18 14
E Suspended precast concrete 16 N/A N/A 15
F Suspended timber joist N/A N/A N/A N/A
G In-situ concrete overslabs over 17 8 8 8

any other type of concrete
structural base
H Partial access flooring system N/A N/A N/A N/A
N/A Not applicable
Table A1.4 Selection of preferred flooring systems – applied flexible floorings. (Refer to Section 2.3.3)
Structural base type Thermoplastic Backed/ Heterogeneous (1) Linoleum Carpet

semi-flexible unbacked PVC Safety & and rubber
PVC tiles flexible PVC Static
A Ground-bearing 19 20 21 22 23
in-situ concrete
B Ground-bearing N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

lean-mix concrete
C Suspended in-situ 19 20 21 22 23
concrete
D Suspended 19 20 21 22 23
composite concrete
E Suspended precast 29 28 24 24 24
concrete
F Suspended timber 25 25 25 25 34
joist
G In-situ concrete 30 31 32 33 27
overslabs over any
other type of
concrete structural
base
H Partial access N/A 26 26 26 27

flooring system
N/A Not Applicable
General All floorings in this table may require incorporation of a traditional dpm or surface-applied dpm system to
notes: ensure a sufficiently low moisture condition in the base at the time of laying.
(1)
BS 3261:Part 2 Flexible PVC of heterogeneous composition

Table A1.5 Selection of preferred flooring systems – rigid tile applied floorings. (Refer to Section 2.3.4)
Structural base type Ceramic Natural Terrazzo Conglomerates Composition

tile stone (1) tile (1) block
A Ground-bearing 35 36 37 38 39
in-situ concrete
B Ground-bearing N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
lean-mix concrete
C Suspended 35 36 37 38 39
in-situ concrete
D Suspended composite 35 36 37 38 39
concrete
E Suspended precast 41 40 40 42 43
concrete
F Suspended timber 44 44 N/A 44 N/A
joist
G In-situ concrete 48 47 47 45 46
overslabs over any

structural base
H Partial access flooring 26 26 N/A 45 N/A
system
N/A Not applicable

(1)
Adhesive bedding on structural base 2b, or adhesive bed on screeds suitable only for thinner units of
calibrated thickness
Table A1.6 Selection of preferred flooring systems – timber floorings. (Refer to Section 2.3.5)
Structural base type Wood block Wood board and Parquet and Cork
strip (1) wood mosaic
in-situ concrete
B Ground-bearing N/A N/A N/A N/A

lean-mix concrete
concrete
D Suspended composite 49 50 52 53
concrete
E Suspended precast 51 51 51 54
concrete
F Suspended timber 57 56 55 30
joist
G In-situ concrete 8 27 26 30
overslabs over any
structural base
H Partial access flooring 26 26 26 30

system
N/A Not applicable

(1)
Methods of fixing/locating battens on base vary. Refer to Section 7.3.

PREFERRED FLOORING SYSTEMS SELECTION 1
Traffic type classification W1 – Pneumatic wheeled
1. Direct-finished concrete wearing surface.
Traffic type classification W2 – Solid rubber/plastics wheeled
Traffic type classification W3 – Steel wheeled

Traffic type classification W4 – Steel wheeled and severe impact
3. Flooring laid* on screed bonded to structural base
b. fine concrete screed
Traffic type classification P3 – Intense pedestrian, frequent light trolleys, occasional vehicular
traffic.
b. cement/sand or fine concrete screed
* laid by methods 2 ab as appropriate for flooring type

Direct finishing of concrete overslab to provide a wearing surface preferred.

traffic.
b. cement/sand or line concrete screed
4. Flooring laid* on screed debonded from structural base by either a dpm or separating layer
a. cement/sand or fine concrete screed. Reinforced fine concrete screed preferred.
traffic
4. Flooring laid* on screed debonded from structural base by either a dpm or separating layer
a. cement/sand or fine concrete screed. Reinforced fine concrete screed preferred.
b. bonded with adhesive/primer/bonding slurry as appropriate.
b. fine concrete screed

a. loose laid or mechanically anchored, as appropriate to material type.
Normally laid over isolating membrane of sheathing felt or glass fibre. May be laid direct where
mastic asphalt thickness exceeds 20 mm.
Normally laid over isolating membrane of sheathing felt or glass fibre. May be laid direct
where mastic asphalt thickness exceeds 20 mm.

b. cement/sand or fine concrete screed.
b. cement/sand or fine concrete screed.

Traffic type classification W4 – Steel wheeled and severe impact

Traffic type classification P1 – Light pedestrian
2. Flooring material laid direct on structural base
3. Flooring material laid* on screed bonded to structural base
c. no-fines screed
4. Flooring material laid* on screed debonded from structural base by either a dpm or separating
layer
a. cement/sand or fine concrete screed
c. no-fines screed
5. Flooring material laid* on floating screed over sound or thermal insulation
c. no-fines screed
6. Flooring material laid* on floating timber/insulation laminate boarding

Traffic type classification P3 – Intense pedestrian, frequent light trolleys
c. no-fines screed
Traffic type classification P2 – Moderate pedestrian, occasional light trolleys
layer

c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed
7. Flooring material laid as part of proprietary system for specialisd activities.

Proprietary systems for specialised sporting activities – consult with manufacturers.

Traffic classification P2 – Moderate pedestrian, occasional light trolleys (May be up to
P3 – intense pedestrian, for some types of safety flooring.)
a. flow-applied cementitious screed
c. no-fines screed
Traffic classification P2 – Moderate pedestrian, occasional light trolleys
layer

c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed
7. Flooring material laid as part of proprietary system for specialised activities.

Proprietary systems for specialised sporting activiti es – consult with manufacturers.

Traffic type classification P2 – Moderate pedestrian, occasional light trolleys.

(May be up to P3 – Intense pedestrian, for some types of rubber flooring)
c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed
7 Flooring material laid as part of proprietary system for specialised activities.


Traffic classification P2 – Moderate pedestrian, occasional light trolleys.
c. no-fines screed
layer

c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed


c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed
7 Flooring material laid as part of proprietary system for specialised activities. -

a. loose laid or mechanically anchored, as appropriate to material type.

c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed

c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed


7. Flooring material laid as part of proprietary system for specialised activitie.

(may be up to P3 for some types of safety flooring)
7. Flooring material laid as part of proprietary system for specialised activitie.
Traffic type classification P2 – Moderate pedestrian, occasional light trolleys (may be up to P3

for some types of rubber flooring)

Traffic type classification W1 – Pneumatic wheeled (up to W3 may be achieved with denser
thicker type of tile for 2bc. Consult with manufacturer.)
Traffic type classification P3 – Intense pedestrian, frequent light trolleys occasional vehicular
traffic
f. with unbonded semi-dry bed.
c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
Traffic type classification P2 – Moderate pedestrian. occasional vehicular traffic
c. no-fines screed

Traffic type classification P1 – light pedestrian
Traffic type classification – P3 Intense pedestrian, frequent light trolleys occasional vehicular
traffic.
2. Flooring laid direct on structural base.
f. with unbonded semi-dry bed – should be reinforced

c. no-fines screed
Traffic type classification – P2 Moderate pedestrian, occasional light trolleys
layer
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed

Traffic type classification – P3 Intense pedestrian, frequent light trolleys occasional
vehicular traffic.
c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed

d.with unbonded cement/sand bed
b.bonded with adhesive/primer/bonding slurry as appropriate
a.flow-applied screed
b.cement/sand or fine concrete screed

c. no-fines screed
layer
b.synthetic anhydrite screed
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed

traffic.
b.bonded with adhesive/primer/bonding slurry as appropriate
Flooring
3. material laid* on screed bonded to structural base
c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
7.Flooring laid as part of proprietary system for specialised activities. Proprietary systems for
specialised sporting activities -consult with manufacturer.
traffic.
layer
a.cement/sand or fine concrete screed
c. no-fines screed
c.no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed

traffic.
2 . Flooring laid direct on structural base
layer
c. no-fines screed
3 . Flooring laid* on screed bonded to structural base

c. no-fines screed
5 . Flooring material laid* on floating screed over sound or thermal insulation
c.no-fines screed
a.flow-applied screed
c.no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed

PREFERRED LOORING SYSTEMS SELECTION 43
a. flow-applied scr eed
c.no-fines screed
layer
c.no-fines screed
7. Flooring laid as part of proprietary system for specialised activities. Proprietary systems for
specialised sporting activities – consult with manufacturer.
Traffic type classification P1 – Light pedestrian.
b.bonded with adhesive/primer/bonding slurry as appropriate. Stiffness of base critical.

Domestic usage only.

c.with bonded cement/sand bed
traffic.


traffic.

e.with bonded semi-dry bed

b.
bonded with adhesive/primer/bonding slurry as appropriate. Stiffness of base critical.

Traffic type classification W2 – Solid rubber/plastic wheeled.
traffic.
c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
7 Flooring material laid as part of proprietary system for specialised activities including sports
flooring.
c. no-fines screed

c. no-fines screed
layer

c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed
7 Flooring material laid as part of proprietary system for specialisd activities including sports
flooring.
c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed

c. no-fines screed
layer

c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed
7 Flooring material laid as part of proprietary system for specialisd activities including sports
flooring.
Traffic type classification P1 – light pedestrian.
a. flow-applied speed
c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed

Traffic type classification P1 – light pedestrian.
c. no-fines screed
layer
c. no-fines screed
c. no-fines screed
Traffic type classification P1 – light pedestrian. Stiffness of base critical – domestic usage only.

STRUCTURAL BASE TYPE
The structural base over which a flooring or flooring system is to be laid will be one of
the following categories:
A. Ground-bearing in-situ concrete, including:
• reinforced
• unreinforced
• prestressed
B. Ground-bearing lean-mix concrete (sometimes used as a structural base for

proprietary bituminous floorings)
C. Suspended in-situ concrete, including:
• reinforced
• prestressed
D. Suspended in-situ concrete, including:
• permanent metal decking/in-situ concrete
• prestressed precast concrete unit/in-situ structural concrete topping
• hollow pot/in-situ concrete
E. Suspended precast concrete, including:
• prestressed planks
• prestressed beam and block
F. Suspended timber joist, including:
• floor boarding deck
• timber panel deck
Other bases which, although not strictly structural, should be treated as such when
considering an overlaid flooring system, including:
G. In-situ concrete overslabs over any type of concrete structural base.
H. Partial access flooring system.

PREFERRED FLOORING SYSTEM REFERENCES
1. Direct-finished concrete wearing surfaces.

c. no-fines screed
4. Flooring laid* on screed debonded from structural base by either a dpm or
separating layer
c. no-fines screed
5. Flooring laid* on floating screed over sound or thermal insulation
c. no-fines screed
6. Flooring laid* on floating timber/insulation laminate boarding.
7. Flooring laid as part of proprietary system for specialised activities, including:
a. sports flooring
* laid by methods 2 ab as appropriate for flooring type.

TRAFFIC-RELATED SERVICE CLASSIFICATION
For the purpose of classification, traffic-related related service conditions have been
referenced as follows, in order of increasing potential damaging effect:
classification Traffic type Typical floor usage
P1 Light pedestrian Housing
P2 Moderate pedestrian Offices, hospital wards,

occasional light schools, shops, etc.
P3 Intense pedestrian, frequent Public areas, hospital, streets, shopping

light trolleys, occasional malls, multi-use sports halls
vehicular
W1 Pneumatic wheeled Light-duty industrial and commercial
W2 Solid rubber/plastics Medium-duty industrial and commercial.

wheeled Roller skating. Bleacher seating.
W3 Steel wheeled Heavy-duty industrial and commercial,

workshops
W4 Steel wheeled and severe Very heavy-duty engineering workshops,

impact from heavy plant, etc.
etc.

Appendix 2 Examples of construction and
future costs
Refer to Section 3.3

Note: References shown ( ) in this Appendix are to items in Appendix 3 – Base data
EXAMPLE 1
Table A2.1 Construction cost of applied floorings.
Refer to Section 3.3.2
Applied flooring Base data Construction

Reference cost (£/m²)
1. Carpet (1.1.1.2) 42.89
2. Vinyl tiles (1.1.2.2) 16.69
3. Vinyl sheet (1.1.3.2) 21.19
4. Rubber sheet (1.1.4.2) 27.79
5. Ceramic tiles (1.2.1) 42.70
6. Terrazzo tiles (1.2.2) 55.90
7. Iroko blocks (1.3.1) 45.10
8. Granolithic 40 mm (1.4.2) 18.64
9. Softwood strip (1.3.2) 17.50
Notes:
The costs are inclusive of the stated appplied flooring and the following associated items:
Applied floorings 1–7
Movement joint: 10 mm wide compressible; 10 m grid (2.1)
Screed: Cementitious; 40 mm thick (3.1.2)
Base treatment: Steel trowelled (3.6.2)
Applied flooring 8
Movement joint: 10 mm wide compressible; 10 m grid (2.1)
Applied flooring 9

396
Table A2.2 Future costs of applied floorings.
Applied flooring Maintenance requirements Net present value of maintenance costs : 30 yrs
EXAMPLE 2
Cleaning Repair after: Replace after: Cleaning Repair Replace Total

(£/m 2 ) (£/m2) (£/m2) (£/m2)
1. Carpet (1.1.1.2) Vacuum (5.1.2) (5.2.1) 2 years 5 years 75.89 1.76 79.14 156.79
daily
2. Vinyl tiles (1.1.2.2) Sweep (5.1.1) (5.2.2) 3 years 8 years 91.07 0.25 8.41 99.73
daily
Wash (5.1.3)
weekly
3. Vinyl sheet (1.1.3.2) Ditto (5.2.3) 6 years 12 years 91.07 0.19 7.84 99.10
4. Rubber sheet (1.1.4.2) Ditto (5.2.4) 8 years 16 years 91.07 0.20 7.26 98.53
5. Ceramic tile (1.2.1) Ditto (5.2.5) 12 years 25 years 91.07 0.18 5.98 97.23
6. Terrazzo tile (1.2.2) Ditto (5.2.6) 15 years 30 years 91.07 0.19 5.69 96.95
7. Iroko block (1.3.1) Sweep (5.1.1) (5.2.7) 20 years 30 years 126.49 0.14 4.35 130.98
daily
Polish (5.1.4)
weekly
8. Granolithic Sweep (5.1.1) (5.2.9) 5 years 12 years 50.60 0.78 10.30 61.68
40mm (1.4.2) daily
9. Softwood Ditto (5.2.8) 3 years 6 years 50.60 0.51 30.23 81.34
CIRIA Report 184

EXAMPLE 3
INVESTMENT APPRAISAL OF ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS
Table A2.3 Payback periods.
For systems with higher initial cost and lower future cost than selected base system
All costs are for 500 m2
A B C D E F
Flooring Initial Additional Future Annual Payback

cost cost over annual saving period
system cost
(£) (£) (£) (£) (Years)

i. Vinyl tiles 8 345 – 4 430 – –

(model)
ii. Vinyl 10 595 2 250 4 400 30 75

sheet
iii. Rubber 14 895 6 550 4 375 55 119

sheet
iv. Ceramic 21 350 13 005 4 315 115 113

tiles
v. Terrazzo 27 950 19 605 4 305 125 157

tiles
Explanatory notes to Table A2.3
Column A The full construction and specification of the five identified systems
is as given in Table A2.1, Appendix 2.
Column B The initial construction cost of 500 m² of the five identified systems
based on the costs given in Table A2.1. Appendix 2.
Column C The additional initial construction cost of 500 m² of each of systems

ii–v over 500 m² of model system i.
Column D The total equivalent annual cost of future maintenance costs of

500 m2 of the five identified systems based on the costs given in
Table A2.2, Appendix 2.
Column E The annual saving on future costs produced by using each of systems
ii–v in lieu of model system i.
Column F The period in which the increase in initial construction cost

expended on systems ii–v is recovered by a saving in future cost.

EXAMPLE 4
CASE STUDY ILLUSTRATING EFFECT OF TIME REQUIREMENTS OF

FLOOR SYSTEMS ON CONSTRUCTION SITE OVERHEAD COST
PROJECT EXAMPLE DETAILS

Shopping mall New construction
2
Gross internal floor area 12 500 m
Total construction cost £15m
Construction period 52 weeks
Flooring construction cost £600 000
Site overhead costs – time related £750 000 (£14 423 per week)
Model floor finish item 5000 m 2 of vinyl tile paving on 40 mm cementitious

screed – as Appendix 2, Table A2.1, item (2).
ALTERNATIVES TO MODEL FLOOR SYSTEM PRODUCING PROGRAMME

REDUCTIONS
1. Rapid-drying screed (Appendix 3, item 3.5.2) in lieu of cementitious

(item 3.1.2). Construction period reduced by 4 weeks.
2. Flow-applied screed (item 3.4.3) in lieu of cementitious (item 3.1.2).
Construction period reduced by 3 weeks.
3. Granolithic 40 mm (items 1.4.2, 2.1.4 and 4.1.2) in lieu of vinyl tile on
cementitious screed. Construction period reduced by 2 weeks.
COST EFFECT OF ALTERNATIVE FLOOR SYSTEMS (for 5000 m 2)
System Construction Future (NPV) Site overhead +/-

£ £ £
Model 83 450 498 650 –
1. 89 450 498 650 –57 692

2. 133 200 498 650 –43 269
3. 93 200 308 400 –28 846

Appendix 3 Construction and future costs
Base data
The following are nominal, aggregate, unit rate prices for the described work items,
based on:
1. Work executed in 1995, second quarter

2. UK location
3. Construction costs incurred in new-build, major project (+ £3 million)
4. Construction cost of floor finishing work trade total + £100 000

5. Work executed in non-isolated areas (over 10m 2) on horizontal level surfaces.
Skirtings excluded.
6. General site facilities and overheads excluded from construction cost
7. Maintenance and cleaning costs for services provided in building facility of
+10 000 m2 floor area
UNIT RATE/PRICE
£
1 APPLIED FLOORINGS
1.1 FLEXIBLE FLOORING ON CEMENTITIOUS BED FIXED

WITH ADHESIVE
1. Carpet: edge fixed with underlay
1. Heavy duty m2 45.00
2
2. Medium duty m 33.00
2
3. Light duty m 28.00
2. Vinyl tiles; 250 × 250 mm

1. Heavy duty; 2.5 mm thick m2 7.75
2
2. Medium duty; 2 mm thick m 6.80
2
3. Light duty; 2 mm thick m 5.95
3. Vinyl sheet
1. Heavy duty; 2.5 mm thick m2 15.50
2
2. Medium duty; 2 mm thick m 11.30
2
3. Light duty; 2 mm thick m 8.90
4. Rubber sheet; 2.5 mm thick

1. Heavy duty m2 26.50
2
2. Medium duty m 19.90
2
3. Light duty m 14.00

1.2 RIGID TILE FLOORING ON CEMENTITIOUS BED
1. Ceramic vitrified tiles; m2 32.75

200 × 200 × 10 mm;
cement grout
2. Terrazzo tiles; marble aggregate; m2 45.80
300 × 300 × 28 mm;
cement grout
1.3 TIMBER
1. Iroko blocks; tongued and m2 35.00

grooved; 25 mm thick;
herringbone pattern; fixed with
adhesive on cementitious base
2. Wrot softwood; 100 mm wide m2 15.75

strips; 22 mm thick; on battens
1.4 GRANOLITHIC
1. 20 mm thick; one coat; on unset m2 7.95
concrete bed
2. 40 mm thick; two coat; on m2 14.85
concrete
1.5 ASPHALT ON CONCRETE

1. 20 mm thick; one coat m2 10.05
2
2. 30 mm thick; two coats m 19.50
1.6 RESIN OR POLYMER ON CEMENTITIOUS BED

1. Floor paint m2 2.95
2
2. Flow applied; 3 mm thick m 3.00
2
3. Trowel applied; 5 mm thick m 3.75
2
4. Cement/polymer; 10 mm thick m 6.50
2
5. Polyurethane; 10 mm thick m 12.35
2. FLOOR MOVEMENT JOINTS

2.1 COMPRESSIBLE; 10 mm WIDE, POLYSULPHIDE SEALANT;
TOTAL DEPTH:
1. 10 mm m 6.20
2. 20 mm m 6.40
3. 30 mm m 6.60
4. 40 mm m 6.80
5. 50 mm m 7.00
6. 75 mm m 7.50
7. 100 mm m 8.00

2.2 PREFORMED BRASS; 6 mm WIDE; TOTAL DEPTH:
1. 10 mm m 9.20
2. 20 mm m 9.45
3. 30 mm m 9.90
4. 40 mm m 10.35
5. 50 mm m 10.65
6. 75 mm m 10.80
7. 100mm m 11.30
2.3 PLASTIC; 3 mm WIDE; TOTAL DEPTH:

1. 10 mm m 1.70
2. 20 mm m 1.85
3. 30 mm m 2.00
4. 40 mm m 2.15
5. 50 mm m 2.30
6. 75 mm m 2.70
7. 100 mm m 3.10
3 SCREEDS
3.1 CEMENTITIOUS; NOMINAL THICKNESS:
1. 25 mm m2 4.50
2. 40 mm m 2
5.80
2
3. 50 mm m 6.70
4. 75 mm m 2
8.90
2
5. 100 mm m 11.10
3.2 ANHYDRIDE; NOMINAL THICKNESS

1. 25 mm m2 4.30
2. 40 mm m 2
5.60
3. 50 mm m 2
6.50
4. 75 mm m 2
8.70
2
5. 100 mm m 11.00
3.3 NO FINES LIGHTWEIGHT; WITH 13 mm CEMENT AND SAND

TOP; NOMINAL TOTAL THICKNESS:
1. 50 mm m2 8.10
2
2. 75 mm m 10.75
2
3. 100 mm m 13.40
3.4 FLOW-APPLIED SCREED; NOMINAL THICKNESS:

1. 5 mm m2 9.50
2
2. 15 mm m 11.80
2
3. 40 mm m 15.75

3.5 RAPID-DRYING SCREED; NOMINAL TOTAL THICKNESS:
1. 25 mm m2 5.40
2. 40 mm m 2
7.00
3. 50 mm m 2
8.00
3.6 SURFACE FINISH

1. Wood float m2 0.25
2
2. Steel trowel m 0.30
3. Latex; 3 mm thick m 2
4.25
4. Acrylic; 10 mm thick m 2
12.50
3.7 REINFORCEMENT MESH; BS 4483

1. D49 m2 2.50
2. D98 m 2
2.80
4. TREATMENT AND APPLICATION TO STRUCTURAL BASE

4.1 LEVEL AND SKIP FLOAT FINISH TO BS8204 PART 2
1. SR3 tolerance m2 1.75
2
2. SR2 tolerance m 2.00
3. SR1 tolerance m 2
2.45
4.2 LEVEL AND POWER TROWEL FINISH TO BS8204 PART 2

1. SR2 tolerance m2 1.25
2
2. SR1 tolerance m 1.75
4.3 EXPOSE AGGREGATE

1. Scabbling m2 3.30
2
2. Planing m 2.10
2
3. Gritblast vacuum m 2.90
2
4. Acid etching m 3.15
4.4 PREPARE PRECAST SURFACE

1. Clean and sweep m2 0.40
2
2. Wire brush m 1.80
4.5 DAMP-PROOF LAYER

1. Liquid m2 5.60
2
2. Bitumen m 6.40
2
3. Polythene m 3.20
4.6 INSULATION LAYER

1. Mineral wool quilt; 60 mm m2 2.30
thick
2. Expanded polyethylene; m2 1.75
10 mm thick
3. Polystyrene; 25 mm thick m2 4.50

5 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
5.1 CLEANING
1. Sweeping/brushing m² 0.02
2. Vacuum m² 0.03
3. Water detergent washing m² 0.08
4. Polish m² 0.15
5.2 REPAIR PATCHES OF WEARING OR DEFECTS IN AREA* OF:

1. Carpet m² 0.33
2. Vinyl tiles m² 0.07
3. Vinyl sheet m² 0.12
4. Rubber sheet m² 0.20
5. Ceramic tiles m² 0.33
6. Terrazzo tiles m² 0.46
7. Iroko wood blocks m² 0.65

8. Wrot softwood strip m² 0.15
9. Granolithic m² 0.40
10. Asphalt m² 0.50
11. Resin/polymer
1. Floor paint m² 0.03
2. 3 to 10 mm thick m² 0.08
* Note: The unit rates to repair are 1m² of the total area of the finish in which the
patches of wearing or defects occur.

Bibliography
Relevance
1 BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION Direct finished base slabs

Concrete ground floors. Their design, construction and high-strength
and finish. concrete toppings.
48.034 : 1986
2 BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION Direct finished base

Concrete ground floor construction for the man on slabs.
site. Part 1. For the site supervisor and manager.
48.035 : 1975
3 BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION Direct finished base

Concrete ground floor construction for the man on slabs.
site. Part 2. For the floor layer.
48.036 : 1974
4 BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION Workmanship – cement-

Construction guide. Laying floor screeds. sand screeds.
48.046 : 1979
5 BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION Testing screeds.

Testing cement-sand screeds using the BRE
screed tester.
40.057 : 1986
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Carpet floorin g.

Code of practice for installation of textile floor
coverings.
BS 5325 : 1983
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Ceramic floor tiling and

Wall and floor tiling. Code of practice for the supporting screeds.
design and installation of ceramic floor tiles and
mosaics.
BS 5385. Part 3 : 1989
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Ceramic floor tiling.

Wall and floor tiling. Code of practice for tiling
and mosaics in specific conditions.
BS 5385. Part 4 : 1992
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Terrazzo, stone,

Wall and floor tiling. Code of practice for the composition block.
design and installation of terrazzo tile and slab
natural stone and composition block floorings.
BS 5385. Part 5 : 1994
10 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Co-ordination of

Guide to accuracy in building. tolerances.
BS 5606 : 1990

11 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Definitions, other than
Glossary of building and civil engineering terms. those given in this guide.
BS 6100. Parts 0-6 : 1984-1992
12 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Maintenance and

Care and maintenance of floor surfaces. Code of cleaning.
practice for resilient sheet and tile flooring.
BS 6263. Part 2 : 1991
13 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Sports hall flooring

Artificial sports surfaces.
Classification and general introduction
Methods of test
Specification for surfaces for multi-sports use.
BS 7044. Parts 1, 2, 4 : 1989-1991
14 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Workmanship – screeds

Workmanship on building sites. Code of practice and high-strength
for cement/sand floor screeds and concrete floor concrete toppings.
toppings.
BS 8000. Part 9 : 1989
15 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Workmanship – rigid

Workmanship on building sites. Code of practice tiling.
for wall and floor tiling.
Section 11.1 Ceramic tiles, terrazzo tiles and
mosaics
Section 11.2 Natural stone tiles.
BS 8000. Part 11 : 1989-1990
16 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Woodblock, parquet and

Code of practice for flooring of timber, timber timber strip flooring.
products and wood-based panel products.
BS 8201 : 1987
17 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Screeds and flexible

Code of practice for installation of sheet and tile floorings.
flooring.
BS 8203 : 1987
18 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Floor screeds to receive

In-situ floorings. Code of practice for concrete rigid in-situ flooring.
bases and screeds to receive in-situ floorings.
BS 8204. Part 1 : 1987
19 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Direct finished base slabs

In-situ floorings. Code of practice for concrete and high-strength
wearing surfaces. concrete toppings.
BS 8204. Part 2 : 1987
20 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Polymer/cement

In-situ floorings. Code of practice for polymer toppings.
modified cementitious wearing surfaces.
BS 8204. Part 3 : 1993

21 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION In-situ terrazzo.
In-situ floorings. Code of practice for terrazzo
wearing surfaces.
BS 8204. Part 4 : 1993
22 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Mastic asphalt flooring.

Screeds, bases and in-situ floorings. Code of
practice for mastic asphalt underlays and wearing
surfaces.
BS 8204. Part 5 : 1994
23 BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT Testing screeds.

BRE screed tester: classification of screeds,
sampling and acceptance limits.
IP 11/84 : 1984
24 CONCRETE SOCIETY Direct finished base

Concrete industrial ground floors. slabs.
TR.034 : 1994 (3rd edn)
25 CONTRACT FLOORING ASSOCIATION Applied flexible

The CFA guide to contract flooring. floorings. In-situ applied
1991 floorings.
26 DEUTSCHE NORM Heated screeds and

Screeds in buildings. anhydrite screeds.
DIN 18560. Parts l-4 : 1992
27 FeRFA Resin flooring.

Synthetic resin flooring. Application guide no. 4.
1991
28 FeRFA Polymer/cement flooring.

Polymer flooring guide. Application guide no. 6.
1991
29 NATIONAL BUILDING SPECIFICATION

K20 Timber board flooring/sarking/linings/
casings. 1993
K21 Timber strip/board fine flooring/linings.
1993
M10 Cement:sand/concrete screeds/toppings.
1990
M13 Synthetic anhydrite screeds. 1988
M40 Stone/concrete/quarry/ceramic tiling/
mosaic. 1992
M41 Terrazzo tiling/in-situ terrazzo. 1988
M50 Rubber/plastics/cork/line/carpet
tiling/sheeting. 1993
M51 Edge-fixed carpeting. 1994
M60 1991 (relevant only to resin paint floor
coatings).
30 SPORTS COUNCIL Sports flooring

Handbook of sports and recreational building
design.
Vol 2 Indoor sports republished 1994

CIRIA
Core Programme Members
September 1998
Alfred McAlpine Construction Ltd Keller Foundations
AMEC Plc Kennedy and Donkin Environmental
Aspinwall & Co Limited Kvaerner Technology Ltd
BAA plc London Underground Limited
Bachy Soletanche Limited Miller Civil Engineering Ltd

Balfour Beatty Ltd Montgomery Watson Ltd
Binnie Black & Veatch Mott MacDonald Group Ltd
Cementitious Slag Makers Association National Power PLC
Charles Haswell and Partners Ltd Northumbrian Water Limited
Curtins Consulting Engineers plc North West Water Ltd
Dames & Moore Ove Arup Partnership
Davis Langdon & Everest Owen Williams Group
Department of the Environment, Posford Duvivier
Transport and the Regions Reid Crowther Consulting Limited
Dudley Engineering Consultancy Rendel Palmer & Tritton
Edmund Nuttall Limited Scottish Hydro-Electric plc
Galliford plc Scott Wilson
GIBB Ltd Sheffield Hallam University
Golder Associates (UK) Ltd South Bank University
Halcrow Group Limited Southern Water Services Ltd
Health & Safety Executive South West Water Services Ltd
Henry Boot & Sons PLC Tarmac Construction Ltd
HGB Higgs & Hill Taylor Woodrow Construction Holdings Ltd
Highways Agency, DETR Thames Water Utilities Ltd
HJT Consulting Engineers The Environment Agency
HR Wallingford Ltd Thorburn Colquhoun
Hyder Consulting Limited Union Railways Limited
IMC Consulting Engineers Ltd W ardell Armstrong
Institution of Civil Engineers WS Atkins Consultants Limited
John Laing Construction Ltd Yorkshire Water Services Limited

D E T R The Construction Directorate of the DETR
ENVIRONMENT
TRANSPORT
supports the programme of innovation and
REGIONS
research to improve the construction
industry’s performance and to promote more
sustainable construction. Its main aims are to
improve quality and value for money from
construction, for both commercial and
domestic customers, and to improve
construction methods and procedures.
In comparison with other building

components, flooring historically has had one
of the highest rates of failure. Satisfactory floor
performance can be assured only through
correct selection, specification and
construction.
This book provides co-ordinated guidance for

clients, designers, specifiers and contractors on
the selection and construction of internal
flooring systems. It looks at a variety of
applications, including stairs and floors in
specialised areas such as cold rooms and
foundries, taking into consideration the type of
structural base, service conditions,
performance requirements, capital and
maintenance costs, and health and safety
aspects during construction.
Major sections of the book consider:

• design
• specification, workmanship and
construction
• testing of materials and finished flooring
• failure, repair and refurbishment (including
examples of typical failures and their
remedies)
• cleaning and maintenance
• health and safety.
This is a comprehensive guide that will prove

invaluable to all involved with selecting,
installing and maintaining flooring systems.
R184

Ciria 184

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How you can join

Post 6 Storey’s Gate, Westminster, London SW1P 3AU

Details are available on CIRIA’s website: ciria.org.uk

List of figures ......................................................................................................................... 8

2 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS OF FINISHED FLOOR ............ 22

CIRIA Report 184 5

4 STRUCTURAL BASES ............................................................................... 114

5 SCREEDS ....................................................................................................... 140

5.1 Cementitious screed s......................................................................................... 141

6 TOPPINGS AND IN-SITU APPLIED FLOORINGS............................. 188

7 APPLIED FLOORINGS............................................................................. 240

6 CIRIA Report 184

8.2.7 Sports floorings ................................................................................. 329

9 FAILURE, REPAIR AND REFURBISHMENT ................................. 332

10 CLEANING AND MAINTENANCE ....................................................... 351

11 HEALTH AND SAFETY ............................................................................ 359

ClRlA Report 184 7

Appendix 1 Selection of preferred flooring systems ................................... 365

Appendix 2 Examples of construction and future costs ............................. 395

Appendix 3 Construction and future costs ................................................... 399

Fig. 1.1 Flow chart showing sequence of guide use ................................................ 21

8 CIRIA Report 184

CIRIA Report 184 9

Table 1.1 Terms and definitions................................................................................ 15

10 CIRIA Report 184

CIRIA Report 184 11

ASTM American Society for Testing of Materials

CSTR Concrete Society Technical Report

dpm damp-proof membrane

12 CIRIA Report 184

Alfred McAlpine Construction Ltd Keller Foundations

AMEC Plc Kennedy and Donkin Environmental

Aspinwall & Co Limited Kvaerner Technology Ltd

BAA plc London Underground Limited

Bachy Soletanche Limited Miller Civil Engineering Ltd

Balfour Beatty Ltd Montgomery Watson Ltd

Binnie Black & Veatch Mott MacDonald Group Ltd

Cementitious Slag Makers Association National Power PLC

Charles Haswell and Partners Ltd Northumbrian Water Limited

Curtins Consulting Engineers plc North West Water Ltd

Dames & Moore Ove Arup Partnership

Davis Langdon & Everest Owen Williams Group

Department of the Environment, Posford Duvivier

Transport and the Regions Reid Crowther Consulting Limited

Dudley Engineering Consultancy Rendel Palmer & Tritton

Edmund Nuttall Limited Scottish Hydro-Electric plc

Galliford plc Scott Wilson

GIBB Ltd Sheffield Hallam University

Golder Associates (UK) Ltd South Bank University

Halcrow Group Limited Southern Water Services Ltd

Health & Safety Executive South West Water Services Ltd

Henry Boot & Sons PLC Tarmac Construction Ltd

HGB Higgs & Hill Taylor Woodrow Construction Holdings Ltd

Highways Agency, DETR Thames Water Utilities Ltd

HJT Consulting Engineers The Environment Agency

HR Wallingford Ltd Thorburn Colquhoun

Hyder Consulting Limited Union Railways Limited

IMC Consulting Engineers Ltd W ardell Armstrong

Institution of Civil Engineers WS Atkins Consultants Limited

John Laing Construction Ltd Yorkshire Water Services Limited

Guidance is given in specification and workmanship aspects of screeds and floorings,