materials
Article
Mechanical Properties and Fracture Microstructure of
Polycarbonate under High Strain Rate Tension
Sai Zhang 1 , Bingqian Wang 2 , Xianming Meng 1, * and Yajun Chen 2
Citation: Zhang, S.; Wang, B.; Meng,
X.; Chen, Y. Mechanical Properties
and Fracture Microstructure of
Polycarbonate under High Strain
Rate Tension. Materials 2023, 16, 3386.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma16093386
Academic Editors: Paola Rizzarelli,
Maria Chiara Mistretta, Francesco
Paolo La Mantia and Daniela
Kovacheva
Received: 25 March 2023
Revised: 20 April 2023
Accepted: 21 April 2023
Published: 26 April 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2023, 16, 3386. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093386
1 China Automotive Technology and Research Center Co., Ltd., Tianjin 300300, China; zhangsai@catarc.ac.cn
2 Sino-European Institute of Aviation Engineering, Civil Aviation University of China, Tianjin 300300, China
* Correspondence: tigerchunggoing@outlook.com
Abstract: In this paper, static and dynamic tensile tests were conducted on two kinds of polycar-
bonate (HL6157 and A1225BK), combined with the digital image correlation (DIC), for guiding the
development of the battery pack of new energy vehicles. The mechanical properties of polycarbonate
at low-speed (0.01/s) and high-speed (1/s, 100/s) tension were investigated and the microstructure
of the fracture for polycarbonate at different speed tensions was also investigated. The fracture
microstructure of two kinds of materials was also investigated in this paper. The tension results
showed that as the strain rate increased, the yield strength and modulus increased, and the yield
strength of the two materials increased by 30% under high-speed tension. In addition, the fracture
strain increase was greater than 10% as the strain rate increased. Meanwhile, for polycarbonate, the
strain rate increased, and the fracture toughness increased.
Keywords: polycarbonate; composite material; high-speed tensile testing
1. Introduction
At present, new energy vehicles and other new energy projects are developing rapidly.
At the same time, the weight of new energy vehicles will affect the endurance of new energy
vehicles. Therefore, the lightweight design of vehicles is the focus of current research. In
addition, lightweight new energy vehicles need to consider the safety problems during
driving, such as the stone impact of the battery pack; it is the key to the current research to
find new materials to reduce the overall weight of new energy vehicles while ensuring safety
during driving [1,2]. Composite materials have excellent specific strength and stiffness,
which can achieve the goal of reducing the overall weight of the structure [3–5]. As an
important class of composite materials, carbon fiber composite materials can be applied to
the battery pack shell to meet the weight reduction requirements of new energy vehicles,
but the impact resistance of traditional carbon fiber composite materials is poor [6,7], and
carbon fiber is a brittle material, so in order to improve the impact resistance of carbon fiber
composite materials, resin with better impact resistance is the key research object. In the
impact process, such as stone impact, the strain rate is high, and the mechanical response,
failure mode, and static state of the material are completely different under high strain
rate. In order to be closer to the actual impact condition, it is worthwhile to investigate the
performance of resin under high strain rates. Therefore, a high-speed tensile test was used
to study the performance of the resin at a high strain rate.
Polycarbonate (PC material) is a typical thermoplastic resin. Compared with ther-
mosetting resins, thermoplastic resins have the following remarkable characteristics in
terms of mechanical properties: 1 they have obvious mechanical relaxation; 2 elongation
at break; and 3 good impact resistance. As such, PC material can be used as a composite
material matrix to improve the impact resistance of the material. At present, there has
been a large number of studies on the high-speed tensile properties of PC materials and
thermoplastic resins [8–10]. Sarva et al. [11] used a separate Hopkinson rod to conduct
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2023, 16, 3386 2 of 11

dynamic tensile experiments on PC materials at room temperature and high strain rates and
proposed that PC materials are pressure sensitive. Wang et al. [12] studied the compressive
properties of polycarbonate at different strain rates and proposed a ZWT constitutive model
for describing the compression of medium strain rates. Li et al. [13] used the improved
split Hopkinson rod test combined with digital image correlation (DIC) to study the tensile
properties of polycarbonate. Zhu et al. [14] studied the high-speed tensile properties of
traditional thermoplastic resin polypropylene, and believed that the tensile strength of
polypropylene resin increased linearly with the logarithm of the strain rate. Yu et al. [15]
summarized the high-speed test methods and corresponding damage forms of polycarbon-
ate. Liu et al. [16] studied the SHPB technique for the measurement of the dynamic strength
of polymers, and used an iterative correction methodology to identify the actual strain-rate
effect. Yang et al. [17] studied the relationship between temperature and strain rate and
gave the expression which can be used to describe the relationship between yield strength
and strain rate. At present, although people have fully studied the mechanical properties of
PC-based amorphous polymer materials, the data from tensile experiments at high strain
rates are still relatively scarce, which limits the wide application of PC-based resins. The
dynamic mechanical properties are still lacking comprehensive and systematic research.
In order to guide the follow-up lightweight design of new energy vehicles and build a
battery pack with composite materials using PC materials as the matrix, this paper used a
high-speed tensile testing machine and two candidate polycarbonate resins and conducted
tests at low and high speeds. In addition, digital image correlation (DIC) was used to
capture the strain field for analyzing the difference of the strain distribution at different
strain rates. The comparison of the tensile properties of the PC material, the tensile failure
behavior, and the change of the mechanical properties of the PC material at high strain
rates was studied.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
Polycarbonate has good impact resistance, heat distortion resistance, good weather
resistance, and high hardness, so it is suitable for the production of various parts of
cars and light trucks, mainly in lighting systems, instrument panels, heating panels, and
polycarbonate alloy bumpers, etc. This paper mainly studied the mechanical properties of
two PC materials, HL6157 and A1225BK, under different strain rate conditions.
HL6157 material has the following advantages: (1) Extremely low impurity content:
the unique reaction and devolatilization technology can significantly reduce the impu-
rity content, increase PC material transmittance (≥90% ASTM D1003), and reduce haze
(≤0.5% ASTM D1003). (2) Excellent aging resistance: unique high end-capping rate and
special additive system, with excellent UV resistance and heat and humidity resistance,
and long-term use without performance degradation and other problems. (3) Excellent
mechanical and heat resistance properties: notched impact strength up to 850 J/m (ASTM
D256), and heat distortion temperature ≥ 130 ◦ C (ASTM D648).
A1225BK material has the following advantages: (1) High impact: the notched impact
strength can reach 750 J/m (ASTM D256), and it has excellent falling ball impact strength.
(2) High gloss (gloss ≥ 105GU ASTM D523) and no pitting: professional dyeing technology
and high-quality mixing production line are adopted, the colorant is evenly distributed, and
the brightness is higher; the product has no pitting and defects are not visible to the naked
eye. (3) High fluidity: high-flow PC material is adopted, with narrow molecular weight
distribution and excellent product fluidity. (4) High heat resistance: the heat resistance is
3–5 ◦ C higher than that of the same grade of trans-esterified PC, and the heat distortion
temperature is ≥128 ◦ C (ASTM D648), which meets the requirements of use.
Both materials have high impact resistance and can be used as candidate materials
in an automotive lightweight design. The basic information and process parameters are
shown in Table 1.
 Both materials have high impact resistance and can be used as candidate mate
an automotive lightweight design. The basic information and process paramete
shown in Table 1.
Materials 2023, 16, 3386 3 of 11
Table 1. Process parameters of two materials.

Density Processing Temperature Mold Temperature

Table 1. Process parameters of two materials.
(g/cm3) °C °C
1.18~1.20
Density
(g/cm3 )
Processing Temperature
◦C240~250
Mold Temperature
◦C
Time
50~80h
1.18~1.20 240~250 50~80 8~10
2.2. Methods
The high-speed
2.2. Methods tensile test of the resin refers to the standard WSS-M99D68-A
geometric dimensions
The high-speed oftest
tensile theofsample
the resinare shown
refers to the in FigureWSS-M99D68-A1.
standard 1; the thickness Theis 3.0 mm
the tensile strain rates of the specimen are 0.01/s, 1/s, and 100/s. Five specimen
geometric dimensions of the sample are shown in Figure 1; the thickness is 3.0 mm, and the
tensile strain rates of the specimen are 0.01/s, 1/s, and 100/s. Five specimens were tested
tested under each tensile condition, and the average was selected as the final resul
under each tensile condition, and the average was selected as the final result.

Figure 1. Geometry
Figure 1. Geometry of of
thethe tensile
tensile specimen.
specimen.

The quasi-static tensile test was carried out on the SANSI universal material testing
The (SANSI,
machine quasi-static tensile
Shenzhen, testThe
China). was carried
loading outofon
frame thethe SANSI
SANSI universal
electronic material
universal
machine (SANSI,
testing machine wasShenzhen, China).
jointly controlled byThe
bothloading
sides, so frame
that theofload
thecould
SANSI be electronic
loaded un
testing machine was jointly controlled by both sides, so that the load could be load
relatively smoothly, and it also ensured that the sample had a good simultaneous loading
atively
process.smoothly,
In addition,and it also tension
high-speed ensured wasthat the out
carried sample
underhad a good simultaneous
the high-speed tension lo
machine Zwick-HTM-16020 (ZwickRoell, Ulm, Germany). The upper fixture of the high-
process. In addition, high-speed tension was carried out under the high-speed t
speed tension machine was a squirrel cage fixture for high-speed displacement loading,
machine Zwick-HTM-16020
and the lower fixture was a load (ZwickRoell,
sensor. In orderUlm, Germany).
to capture the load The upper
changes fixture
during the of the
speed tension
test, the machine
cold light lamps onwas both asides
squirrel cage
provided thefixture for high-speed
light source displacement lo
for the DIC shooting.
and the lower fixture was a load sensor. In order to capture the load changes duri
The strain rate in this paper is calculated according to Equation (1),
test, the cold light lamps. on∆εboth∆lsides1 provided
∆l 1 thev light source for the DIC shoot
ε= = × = × =
The strain rate in this paper
∆t l0is calculated
∆t ∆t according
l0 l0 to Equation (1), (1)
.
Δ𝜀𝜀 Δ𝑙𝑙 ∆t1 is time
where ε is strain rate, s−1 ; ∆ε is strain increment; Δ𝑙𝑙 increment,
1 𝑣𝑣 s; ∆l is the de-
𝜀𝜀̇
formation increment in ∆t, mm; l0 is initial
= = × = × = v is the loading
Δ𝑡𝑡 length
𝑙𝑙0 Δ𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙0 mm;
of specimen, 𝑙𝑙0
speed, mm/s.
where Due is the
𝜀𝜀̇ to strain rate, stensile
high-speed
−1
; Δεtest,
is itstrain increment;
is difficult t iseffective
to captureΔthe time increment,
strain, so DICs; ∆𝑙𝑙 is t
formation increment in Δt , mm; 𝑙𝑙0 is initial length of specimen, mm; v is the lo
technology is used to collect the s strain during the tension. The DIC-based high-speed
speed, mm/s.
tensile test platform is shown in Figure 2. We sprayed white paint and black spots on the
front and back of the sample. We used a DIC device camera (ZwickRoell, Ulm, Germany)
Due to the high-speed tensile test, it is difficult to capture the effective strain,
to collect scattering image information fixed on the side of a high-speed tensile testing
technology
machine. Weis used
used the to collect
strain cloudthe
mapsand strain during
obtained the tension.
the strain during the The DIC-based high
tension.
tensile testspraying
Gold platform wasisapplied
showntointheFigure
fracture 2.surface
We sprayed white paint
of the specimen at lowand
and black
high spots
front and back of the sample. We used a DIC device camera (ZwickRoell, Ulm, Ger
speed; the Hitachi S-3400N scanning electron microscope (Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan) was used
toforcollect
micro-appearance characterization. The fracture morphology of resins at various scales
scattering image information fixed on the side of a high-speed tensile
under different material types and different strain rates was observed, and we analyzed
machine. We used the
the effects of different strainand
materials cloud mapstrain
different and rates
obtained
on thethe strain
tensile during
fracture the tension
of resins.
Materials2023,
Materials 16,3386
2023,16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 44 of 12
of 11

Figure 2. High-speed tensile test platform based on DIC technology.

Gold spraying was applied to the fracture surface of the specimen at low and high
speed; the Hitachi S-3400N scanning electron microscope (Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan) was
used for micro-appearance characterization. The fracture morphology of resins at various
scales under different material types and different strain rates was observed, and we an-
alyzed the effects of different materials and different strain rates on the tensile fracture of
resins.
Figure 2.
Figure 2. High-speed
High-speed tensile
tensile test
test platform
platform based
based on
on DIC
DIC technology.
technology.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results
Gold and Discussion
spraying wasofapplied
3.1. Stress-Strain Curves Resins attoDifferent
the fracture surface
Materials and of the specimen
Strain Rates at low and high
3.1. Stress-Strain
speed; the Hitachi Curves of Resins
S-3400N at Different
scanning Materials
electron and Strain
microscope Rates Tokyo, Japan) was
(Hitachi,
Figure 3 depicts the stress–strain curve of PC material, which is a typical thermo-
usedFigure
for micro-appearance characterization.
3 depicts the stress–strain curve ofThe fracture morphology
PC material, which is a typicalof resins at various
thermoplastic
plastic resin, divided into four stages: initial tension, softening after local yield, plastic
scales under different material types and different strain rates was observed,
resin, divided into four stages: initial tension, softening after local yield, and we
plastic an-
strain
strain expansion, and fracture. The global mechanical response was consistent with the
alyzed the effects of different materials and different strain rates on the tensile fracture of
expansion, and fracture. The global mechanical response was consistent with the results of
results ofThis
Liu [16]. This phenomenon
was morewas more pronounced during static(0.01/s)
tensionand (0.01/s)
resins.
Liu [16]. phenomenon pronounced during static tension less
and less observable
observable at the final at broken
the finalstage
broken stage
during during
high strainhigh strain
rates (1/srates (1/s andThe
and 100/s). 100/s). The
possible
possible reason is that the break mode of the resin changed due to different strain rates.
3. Results
reason and
is that theDiscussion
break mode of the resin changed due to different strain rates. Additionally,
Additionally,
the yield strength the yield
of thestrength of the resinincreased
resin significantly significantly
with increased
the strain with the strain
rate, while rate,
the yield
3.1. Stress-Strain
while the yield Curves
strain of Resinsaat
exhibited Different
rising Materials
trend. The and rate
strain Strain Ratesalso affected the bro-
effect
strain exhibited a rising trend. The strain rate effect also affected the broken strain of
ken Figure
strain
the resin, of3the
with depicts
anresin, the
withstress–strain
approximately curve ofobserved
an approximately
10% increase PC material,
10% increase
for the which
observed
A1225BKis afortypical thermo-
the A1225BK
material and a
plastic
material resin,
24% increase divided
and afor24% into
theincrease
HL6157 forfour stages:
the HL6157
material initial tension,
materialfrom
when shifting softening
when shifting
static after
tensionfrom local yield,
static tension
to dynamic plastic
to
tension.
strain
dynamic expansion,
tension. and
These fracture.
results The global
indicate thatmechanical
an increase response
in strain was
rate
These results indicate that an increase in strain rate enhances the anti-fracture capacity of consistent
enhances with
the the
anti-
results
fracture
the of
material Liuand
capacity[16].of This
the
that the phenomenon
material
A1225BK wasthe
andmaterial
that more pronounced
A1225BK
possesses material
better during staticcapabilities
possesses
anti-fracture tension
better (0.01/s)
anti-frac-
than
and
ture less observable
capabilities than at
thethe final
HL6157 broken stage
material, during
despite
the HL6157 material, despite their similar mechanical properties. high
their strain
similar rates
mechanical(1/s and 100/s).
properties. The
possible reason is that the break mode of the resin changed due to different strain rates.
Additionally, the yield strength of the resin significantly increased with the strain rate,
while the yield strain exhibited a rising trend. The strain rate effect also affected the bro-
ken strain of the resin, with an approximately 10% increase observed for the A1225BK
material and a 24% increase for the HL6157 material when shifting from static tension to
dynamic tension. These results indicate that an increase in strain rate enhances the anti-
fracture capacity of the material and that the A1225BK material possesses better anti-frac-
ture capabilities than the HL6157 material, despite their similar mechanical properties.

Figure 3. Stress–strain relationship curves of different materials at different strain rates (a) A1225BK
(b) HL6157.

3.2. Effect of Strain Rate on the Mechanical Performance

Since the performance of PC material changes as the strain rate increases, the overall
trend is that as the strain rate increases, the mechanical properties of PC material such as
tensile modulus and yield strength will increase. In order to study the change of elastic
modulus and yield strength with strain rate, the logarithm of elastic modulus, yield strength,
and strain rate were plotted, and the function fit was performed.
 3.2. Effect of Strain Rate on the Mechanical Performance
Since the performance of PC material changes as the strain rate increases, the overall
trend is that as the strain rate increases, the mechanical properties of PC material such as
Materials 2023, 16, 3386
tensile modulus and yield strength will increase. In order to study the change of5 elastic
of 11
modulus and yield strength with strain rate, the logarithm of elastic modulus, yield
strength, and strain rate were plotted, and the function fit was performed.
As shown in Figure 4, the logarithm of the elastic modulus of the PC material and
As shown in Figure 4, the logarithm of the elastic modulus of the PC material and
the tensile strain rate was basically linear, and the basic form of the fitting formula is
the tensile strain rate was basically linear, and the basic form of the fitting formula is
Equation
Equation(2),
(2),which
whichisisin
in consistent with the
consistent with theformula
formulaininReference
Reference [17],
[17],
. )+b
y = a × log(𝜀𝜀̇ (2)
y = a × log ε + b (2)
where a and b are obtained by numerical fitting. It can be obtained from the form of Equa-
tion (2), awhere
where and bb are
canobtained
reflect the
bytensile modulus
numerical of PC
fitting. material
It can at a strain
be obtained fromrate
the of 1/s,of
form and
a can reflect the tensile modulus of PC material and the sensitivity to the strain rate, that
Equation (2), where b can reflect the tensile modulus of PC material at a strain rate of 1/s,
and
the a canthe
larger reflect
valuethe
oftensile modulus
a, the more of PCthe
sensitive material andisthe
material to sensitivity to the
the strain rate, strain
and the rate,
tensile
that the larger the value of a, the more sensitive the material is to the strain rate, and the
modulus changes more obviously with the strain rate. Therefore, it was concluded that
tensile modulus changes more obviously with the strain rate. Therefore, it was concluded
the value of a for the A1225BK material was 174.95 and the value of a for the HL6157
that the value of a for the A1225BK material was 174.95 and the value of a for the HL6157
material was 28.75, so the A1225BK material was more sensitive to the strain rate than the
material was 28.75, so the A1225BK material was more sensitive to the strain rate than the
HL6157 material.
HL6157 material.

Figure
Figure4.4.The
Therelationship
relationshipof
of the
the modulus of different
modulus of differentPC
PCmaterials
materialsand
andthe
the logarithm
logarithm of of
thethe strain
strain
rate
rate(a)(a)A1225BK
A1225BK(b)
(b)HL6157.
HL6157.

Similarly,
Similarly,the
the yield strengthofofthe
yield strength thePCPCmaterial
material waswas treated
treated with
with the same
the same astensile
as the the ten-
sile modulus, and the numerical fitting was carried out again. Results similar to the
modulus, and the numerical fitting was carried out again. Results similar to the tensile
tensile
modulus
moduluswere wereobtained,
obtained,as as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5.5. ItItshould
shouldbe benoted
notedthat
that the
the yield
yield strength
strength
ofofthe
thePC
PCmaterial
materialhad
had aa linear
linear relationship
relationship withwiththe thelogarithm
logarithmofofthe thestrain
strainrate, which
rate, which
increased with the increase of the strain rate; the function of Equation (2) was used to fit,
increased with the increase of the strain rate; the function of Equation (2) was used to fit,
and the corresponding parameters a, b were obtained, where b corresponded to the yield
and the corresponding parameters a, b were obtained, where b corresponded to the yield
strength of the PC material at a strain rate of 1/s. It can be seen that the yield strength of
strength of the PC material at a strain rate of 1/s. It can be seen that the yield strength of
the two materials was basically the same, and the sensitivity to the strain rate was basically
the two materials was basically
the same. In addition, the same,material,
for the A1225BK and the sensitivity to the strain
the yield strength was rate was basically
increased from
the same. In addition, for the A1225BK material, the yield strength was
62.87 MPa to 81.68 MPa, and the yield strength was increased by 29.91%. Similarly, for the increased from
62.87
HL6157MPamaterial,
to 81.68 the
MPa, andstrength
yield the yieldwasstrength wasfrom
increased increased by 29.91%.
62.51 MPa to 81.52Similarly,
MPa, andfor thethe
HL6157
yield strength was increased by 30.41%. Overall, the A1225BK material and the HL6157the
material, the yield strength was increased from 62.51 MPa to 81.52 MPa, and
yield strength
material was increased
increased by 30.41%.
the yield strength and Overall, the A1225BK
tensile modulus material
when the and increased,
strain rate the HL6157
material
but the increased the yield
tensile modulus strength was
of A1225BK and more
tensile modulus
sensitive to when the strain
the change raterate,
of strain increased,
and
the sensitivity of the two materials in yield strength was roughly the same.

3.3. DIC Diagram

DIC technology is used to visualize the strain of materials at different rates, and
explore pick points at different rates, as shown in Figure 6: 1 the initial stage of elasticity,
2 initial stage of yield (corresponding to yield strength), 3 strain softening stage, 4 plastic
expansion stage, and 5 fracture stage.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12

Materials 2023, 16, 3386 but the tensile modulus of A1225BK was more sensitive to the change of strain rate, and
6 of 11
the sensitivity of the two materials in yield strength was roughly the same.

Figure 5. The relationship of the yield strength of different PC materials and logarithm of the strain
rate (a) A1225BK (b) HL6157.

3.3. DIC Diagram

DIC technology is used to visualize the strain of materials at different rates, and ex-
plore pick points at different rates, as shown in Figure 6: ①the initial stage of elasticity,
②
Figure initial
Figure stage
5.5.The
The of yieldof
relationship
relationship (corresponding
of the
the yield toof
yield strength
strength yield
of strength),
different
different ③strain
PCmaterials
PC materials softening
and
and stage,
logarithm
logarithm of of
thethe④plas-
strain
strain
tic
rate expansion
rate(a)
(a)A1225BK stage,
A1225BK(b) and
(b)HL6157.
HL6157.⑤ fracture stage.

3.3. DIC Diagram

DIC technology is used to visualize the strain of materials at different rates, and ex-
plore pick points at different rates, as shown in Figure 6: ①the initial stage of elasticity,
② initial stage of yield (corresponding to yield strength), ③strain softening stage, ④plas-
tic expansion stage, and ⑤ fracture stage.

Figure 6. Schematic
Figure 6. Schematicdiagram
diagramofofDIC
DICselection
selection point.
point.

Figure
Figure 77 illustrates
illustratesthe thestrain
straindistribution
distribution diagram
diagram of of
thethe A1225BK
A1225BK material
material at two
at two
different strain rates, 0.01/s and 100/s, taking A1225BK as an example.
different strain rates, 0.01/s and 100/s, taking A1225BK as an example. At higher strain At higher strain
rates, the
rates, thereflected
reflectedmacroscopic
macroscopic stiffness differed
stiffness due todue
differed the to
inability of molecular
the inability segmentsseg-
of molecular
of the PC material to move or rearrange in time, leading to a distinct strain distribution
ments of the PC material to move or rearrange in time, leading to a distinct strain distri-
gradient. In the elastic stage, the strain distribution on the surface of the specimen was
bution
Figure 6. gradient.
Schematic In the elastic
diagram of DICstage, the point.
selection strain distribution on the surface of the specimen
uniform at low strain rates (0.01/s), whereas a strain gradient appeared at high strain
was uniform at low strain rates (0.01/s),
rates (100/s), indicating non-uniform strain distribution whereas a strain gradient
and appeared
inconsistent at high
reaction timesstrain
rates (100/s),
Figure
in different indicating
7parts
illustrates
of the thenon-uniform
strain during
specimen strain
distribution distribution
diagram
high-speed and
of
tension. inconsistent
the A1225BK
However, reaction
material
after the end times
atoftwoin
different
different
the elastic parts
strain
region, of the
rates, specimen
the 0.01/s during
and 100/s, taking
strain distribution high-speed
patternA1225BK tension. However,
as anofexample.
of the surface after
the specimen the
At higher end of
strain
at the two the
elastic
rates,
strainthe region,
reflected
rates the strain
tendedmacroscopic distribution
to be the same stiffness pattern
and wasdiffered of
basicallythe
due surface of the
to the inability
consistent, specimen
of molecular
with a similar at the
degree of two
seg-
strain
ments
neckingofrates
the tended
PC
observed intoboth.
material betothe same
move
The orand
initial was basically
rearrange
position ofinthe
time, consistent,
neckleading towith
shrinkage a similar
a mostly
distinct strain
occurreddegree
in of
distri-
bution gradient.
the middle of the Inspecimen,
the elasticsuggesting
stage, the strain
that thedistribution on the surface
primary difference between of high-speed
the specimen
was uniform at low strain rates (0.01/s), whereas a strain gradient appearedofatplasticity,
tension and low-speed tension lies in the elastic region. Following the onset high strain
the regular pattern for expansion of plasticity was substantially
rates (100/s), indicating non-uniform strain distribution and inconsistent reaction timesthe same, indicating that in
the molecular chain movement and rearrangement in high-speed tension mainly occurred
different parts of the specimen during high-speed tension. However, after the end of the
in the elastic region.
elastic region, the strain distribution pattern of the surface of the specimen at the two
strain rates tended to be the same and was basically consistent, with a similar degree of

Materials 2023, 16, 3386
necking observed in both. The initial position of the neck shrinkage mostly occur
the middle of the specimen, suggesting that the primary difference between high-
tension and low-speed tension lies in the elastic region. Following the onset of plas
the regular pattern for expansion of plasticity was substantially the same, indicatin
the molecular chain movement and rearrangement in high-speed tension 7 of mainly
11 occ
in the elastic region.

Figure 7. Strain
Figure 7. Strain distribution distribution
diagram of each diagram of each node
node of A1225BK of A1225BK
material material
(a) 0.01/s (a) 0.01/s (b) 100/s.
(b) 100/s.

3.4. Microscopic3.4. Microscopic

Morphology Morphology
of the Fracture of the Fracture
The fractures inThe fractures and
the A1225BK in the A1225BK
HL6157 and HL6157
specimens specimens
under different under
strain different
rates were strain
were scanned by electron microscopy to observe the differences in fracture morph
scanned by electron microscopy to observe the differences in fracture morphology under
under
different materials anddifferent
differentmaterials
strain rates, andanddifferent strain rates,
the mechanism and the was
of fracture mechanism
analyzed.of fractur
analyzed.
Figure 8 shows the tensile fracture morphology of the A1225BK material at different
Figure Figure
strain rates. Specifically, 8 shows8(Ia) the tensile
presents fracture morphology
the overall fracture of morphology
the A1225BK of material
the at dif
specimen, while strain
Figure rates. Specifically,
8(Ib–Id) shows Figure 8(Ia) presents
the microscopic the overalloffracture
morphology different morphology
regions. of the
The fracture of imen, while Figure
the A1225BK material8(Ib–Id) showsmore
exhibited the microscopic
residual resin morphology
and a rough of different
overall region
texture after thefracture of the A1225BK material exhibited more residual resin and a rough overall te
static tension, as observed in Figure 8(Ia). The distribution of the radioactive
stripes formed after
by the the static resin
overall tension,
bulge as on
observed in Figure
the surface of the8(Ia). Theindicated
fracture distributionthatofthethe radio
stripes formed by the overall resin bulge on the surface of the fracture indicated th
source area of the fracture originated from the region shown in Figure 8(Ib), expanded into
Figure 8(Ic), andsource
finallyarea
led toof the
the final
fracture originated
fracture in Figure from theComparing
8(Id). region shown in Figure 8(Ib), expa
the microscopic
morphology ofinto the Figure 8(Ic), and
three regions, finally
it can led tothat
be seen the the
finalprotruding
fracture in part
Figureof 8(Id). Comparing the m
the specimen
scopic morphology of the three regions, it can be seen that the protruding
fracture in the Figure 8(Ia) region was the smoothest. In contrast, the final fracture areapart of the
exhibited obviousimen fracture in the Figure 8(Ia) region was the smoothest. In contrast, the final fra
tear-shaped remains of the PC material protrusion.
As shown area exhibited
in Figure obvious
8II, an increase tear-shaped
in the strain remains
rate ledofto
the PC material
a smoother protrusion.
fracture of the
specimen. The crack initiation was clearly observed in the region shown in Figure 8(IIb),
followed by extension to the region shown in Figure 8(IIc), and ultimately resulted in
fracture in the region shown in Figure 8(IId). The fan-shaped residual resin in the region
shown in Figure 8(IId) indicated that the fracture occurred in this region. Moreover, the
residual resin on the fracture surface in Figure 8(IIe) exhibited a more pronounced tear
shape, confirming the ductile fracture behavior of the specimen at this location. These
observations demonstrate that PC materials maintain their ductile fracture behavior even
under high-speed tension and do not undergo brittle fracture. Therefore, the elongation at
break of PC materials does not decrease after high-speed tension.
Compared with the results in Figure 8II, the fracture of the PC material did not show
a further smooth trend when the strain rate was further increased, but also showed a more
obvious surface bulge, which indicated that the PC material still showed obvious ductile
fracture law at this strain rate. The protrusion at the fracture of the PC material started
from the source area of the fracture, as shown in Figure 8(IIIb), and it was observed that the
obvious crack or the source area of the hole-shaped nucleus was the surface of the specimen,
which then extended to the entire fracture surface of the specimen; the smoothness of the
fracture of the specimen also gradually increased with the direction of the stripe, but up to
the final fracture area of the specimen, shown in Figure 8IIIe, the roughness of the fracture
 Materials 2023, 16, 3386 8 of 11

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12

surface of the specimen increased, and the edge of the stripe showed obvious residual
material caused by the ductile fracture.

Figure
Figure8.8.Fracture
Fracturemicrostructure
microstructureofofthe
theA1225BK
A1225BKmaterial
material(I)(I)0.01/s—(a)
0.01/s—(a)Global
Globaldiagram;
diagram;(b)(b) source
source
area; area; (c) growth
(c) growth area;area; (d) fracture
(d) fracture area;area;
(II) (II) 1/s—(a)
1/s—(a) Global
Global diagram;
diagram; (b)(b)source
sourcearea;
area;(c)
(c)growth
growth area;
area; (d) (d) fracture
fracture area;
area; (e) (e)enlarged
local local enlarged
view ofview of (d);
(d); (III) (III) 100/s—(a)
100/s—(a) GlobalGlobal
diagram;diagram; (b) area;
(b) source
source area; (c) growth area; (d) fracture area; (e) local enlarged view of (d).
(c) growth area; (d) fracture area; (e) local enlarged view of (d).

AsThe
shown in Figure
tensile fracture8II, an increaseof
morphology inthe
theHL6157
strain rate led to aunder
material smoother fracture
different of rates
strain the
specimen.
is shownThe crack initiation
in Figure 9. Compared was with
clearly
theobserved
results ofinFigure
the region
9I, itshown
can bein Figureobserved
clearly 8(IIb),
followed by extension to the region shown in Figure 8(IIc), and ultimately
that the fracture of HL6157 material was smoother and flatter, and the fracture did resulted in frac-
not
ture in the region shown in Figure 8(IId). The fan-shaped residual resin
show the PC material residue of obvious tear such as the A1225BK material. Similarly, in the region
shown in Figure
in Figure 8(IId)
9(Ib–Id) indicated
of the HL6157that the fracture
material, occurred
the fracture alsoin this region.
behaved fromMoreover,
the rough the
fault
residual
source region shown in Figure 9(Ib) to the smooth crack growth zone shown in Figuretear
resin on the fracture surface in Figure 8(IIe) exhibited a more pronounced 9(Ic)
shape, confirming
and finally to the the
roughductile fracture
fracture zonebehavior
shown inofFigure
the specimen at this location.
9(Id). Meanwhile, These
the source ob-of
area
servations
fracture wasdemonstrate
located in that PC materials
the corner maintain their ductile fracture behavior even
of the specimen.
under high-speed tension and do not undergo brittle fracture. Therefore, the elongation
at break of PC materials does not decrease after high-speed tension.
Compared with the results in Figure 8II, the fracture of the PC material did not show
a further smooth trend when the strain rate was further increased, but also showed a more
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 12
Materials 2023, 16, 3386 9 of 11

Figure
Figure9.9.Fracture microstructure
Fracture microstructureofofthe
theHL6157
HL6157material
material(I)(I)0.01/s—(a)
0.01/s—(a)Global diagram;
Global diagram; (b)(b)
source
source
area; (c) growth area; (d) fracture area; (II) 1/s—(a) Global diagram; (b) source area; (c) growth
area; (c) growth area; (d) fracture area; (II) 1/s—(a) Global diagram; (b) source area; (c) growth area;
area; (d) fracture area; (e) local enlarged view of (d); (III) 100/s—(a) Global diagram; (b) source
(d) fracture area; (III) 100/s—(a) Global diagram; (b) source area; (c) growth area; (d) fracture area;
area; (c) growth area; (d) fracture area; (e) local enlarged view of (d).
(e) local enlarged view of (d).
The
Thefracture
fractureresults
resultsofofthethetwo
tworesins
resinsshowed
showedthatthatunder
underdifferent
differentstrain
strainrates,
rates,the
the
fracture
fracture form of the A1225BK and HL6157 PC material was different, and the fractureofof
form of the A1225BK and HL6157 PC material was different, and the fracture
the
thePCPCmaterial
materialatata alower
lower rate was
rate wasmainly
mainly manifested
manifested asas
ananobvious
obvious ductile fracture
ductile fracturelaw.
law.
However, the ductile fracture degree was not reduced with the increase of
However, the ductile fracture degree was not reduced with the increase of the strain rate,the strain rate,
but
butininthe
thecase
caseofofa ahigher
higherstrain
strainrate,
rate,both
bothresins
resinsobviously
obviouslyshowed
showedthe thelaw
lawofofductile
ductile
fracture,
fracture, so the fracture effect of both resins showed good energy absorption at a highhigh
so the fracture effect of both resins showed good energy absorption at a strain
strain
rate. rate.
It wasIt was beneficial
beneficial to improve
to improve the impact
the impact resistance
resistance of corresponding
of the the corresponding com-
composite
posite material.
material. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, the mechanical
the mechanical performance
performance of A1225BK
of A1225BK was more
was more sensitive
sensitive to the
tostrain
the strain effect. Overall, the stiffness and fracture strain in A1225BK were
effect. Overall, the stiffness and fracture strain in A1225BK were bigger than those bigger thanin
those in HL6157
HL6157 meaning meaning
A122BK A122BK
is moreissuitable
more suitable for improving
for improving the impact
the impact resistance.
resistance.
Materials 2023, 16, 3386 10 of 11

4. Conclusions
1. In the case of high strain rate, the yield strength and modulus of PC material were
significantly improved, and the modulus was proportional to the logarithm of strength
and strain rate. At the same time, for the A1225BK and HL6157 materials, with the
increase in strain rate, the fracture strain increase was greater than 10% and the yield
strength increased by 30%.
2. The microscopic characteristics of the fracture of PC material showed that the A1225BK
and HL6157 materials still followed the law of ductile fracture at high strain rates,
such as the resin residue at the break, which proves that they have good energy
absorption ability and good fracture toughness at high strain rates.
3. As the matrix for composite materials, A1225BK and HL6157 have good fracture
toughness, which can be used to improve the overall impact resistance while meeting
the lightweight design of automotives. Additionally, the higher stiffness and higher
fracture strain make A1225BK more suitable for the design.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.Z. and B.W.; methodology, S.Z. and B.W.; validation,
S.Z. and B.W.; formal analysis, S.Z. and X.M.; investigation, B.W. and Y.C.; resources, X.M. and Y.C.;
data curation, S.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, S.Z. and B.W.; writing—review and editing,
X.M. and Y.C.; project administration, Y.C.; funding acquisition, X.M. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Key R&D program of China—the specific project
of intergovernmental international science and technology innovation cooperation (2019YFE0124100).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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