Construction and Building Materials 252 (2020) 119027

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Setting time and compressive strength prediction model of concrete

by nondestructive ultrasonic pulse velocity testing at early age
Taegyu Lee a, Jaehyun Lee a,⇑
a
Technology Research & Development Institute, Daelim Industrial, Jongno-Gu, Seoul 03152, Republic of Korea

h i g h l i g h t s

The nature change in concrete at early ages was examined using the ultrasonic pulse velocity.

W/C ratio, curing conditions, aggregate, and ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete was analyzed.

The relationship among the abovementioned parameters were examined.

Setting times and initial compressive strength development were related to the ultrasonic pulse velocity.

An exponential function prediction model was proposed for modeling the condition change.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study proposes a new model for estimating the setting and compressive strength development
Received 6 December 2019 times, which involve changes in the concrete condition at early ages, using the ultrasonic pulse velocity
Received in revised form 3 April 2020 testing. To this end, various effects, such as the effects of the water-to-cement (W/C) ratio, curing condi-
Accepted 5 April 2020
tions (air-dry curing and curing at constant temperature and humidity), and aggregate, were experimen-
tally examined to meet the specified concrete strength, i.e., 18–45 MPa. We found that varied as the W/C
ratio of concrete decreased, which are affected by the hydration reaction, and that the ultrasonic pulse
Keywords:
velocity was somewhat higher in concrete than in mortar. The samples cured under constant tempera-
Early age concrete
Setting
ture and humidity exhibited a smaller error range than those that underwent air-dry curing. In addition,
Compressive strength the relationships among parameters in different concrete samples were found to be linear during the ini-
Ultrasonic pulse velocity tial and final setting periods and parabolic after the final set at early ages; subsequently, an exponential
Exponential function prediction model function prediction model was proposed for modeling the relationships.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
At construction sites, it is very important to examine the com-
pressive strength development of concrete and shoring structures
before dismantling formwork within the target quality manage-
ment range to improve productivity in formwork and reinforced
concrete construction that requires concentrated manpower and
equipment [1–3]. For testing the strength development of concrete,
the required formwork removal strength is usually checked by
conducting a fracture test with small specimens collected from
sites in accordance with quality management standards [4,5].
The compressive strength of concrete, however, is developed
through the physical combination of compounds generated from
chemical reactions among water, cement, and admixture and
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: archi0528@daum.net (J. Lee).
aggregate [6], and it may not be feasible to examine the strength
development by the fracture test within the required period due
to the influence of environmental factors, such as materials used,
temperature, humidity, and solar radiation, and site construction
factors such as pumping, compaction, curing, and construction
environment [7].
Nondestructive ultrasonic pulse velocity testing has been
widely used to examine the mechanical properties and integrity
of concrete structures [8–12]. It can be easily used at construction
sites and provides results promptly. For homogeneous materials
such as concrete, mechanical properties and relationships can be
derived based on elastic theory [13,14], but they need to be cor-
rected using data derived from various conditions because they
can be affected by factors such as cement, aggregate, admixture,
and water content [15–20].
Previous researchers have mainly conducted studies on the
quality management of hardened concrete, such as the prediction

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119027
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 T. Lee, J. Lee / Construction and Building Materials 252 (2020) 119027

Table 2
Physical properties of the used materials.

Material Property
OPC ASTM Type-I ordinary Portland cement
Density: 3150 kg/m3, fineness: 320 m2/kg
Fine aggregate Washings sand
Fineness modulus: 2.90, density: 2590 kg/m3,
absorption: 1.00%
Coarse aggregate Crushed granitic aggregate
Size: 25 mm, density: 2600 kg/m3, absorption: 0.90%
Super plasticizer (SP) Polycarboxylic-based super plasticizer

Table 3
Experimental plan.

ID W/C Curing condition Test item

WC 55 0.55 Air Curing & Slump (mm)& Air contents
WC 48 0.48 Room temperature (%)& Penetration resistance
WC 41 0.41 20 ± 2 °C and value (MPa)& Ultrasonic pulse
Fig. 1. Previous study [26–28]. WC 33 0.33 humidity 60 ± 5% velocity (km/s)& Compressive
strength (MPa)

grows. Therefore, it is deemed possible to predict the condition

change and strength development using the ultrasonic pulse veloc-
ity testing based on the elastic theory [13,14].
Therefore, this study aims to propose a new model for estimat-
ing the setting (initial set and final set) times and the compressive
strength development time required for vertical formwork removal
[4,5], which involve changes in the concrete condition at early
ages, using the ultrasonic pulse velocity testing. To this end, the
effects of the water-to-cement (W/C) ratio, curing conditions
(air-dry curing, constant temperature and humidity), and aggre-
gate on the ultrasonic pulse velocity as well as various effects on
interrelationships were examined to meet the specified concrete
strength, i.e., 18–45 MPa.

2. Experimental work
Fig. 2. Setting and hardening process on concrete [6].
2.1. Materials

of soundness and compressive strength, and many studies have
been conducted on the effects of parameters on the ultrasonic
pulse velocity [21–25]. Previous studies have predicted compres-
sive strength according to the ultrasonic pulse velocity as shown
in Fig. 1, but the predicted strength values according to the ultra-
sonic pulse velocity are somewhat different and most of the results
were obtained in the hardening phase of concrete. In addition, few
studies have been conducted on the ultrasonic pulse velocity
according to the concrete condition at early ages [26–28].
The compressive strength of concrete is developed when the
initial fluid is hardened through the setting processes (initial set
and final set), as shown in Fig. 2 [6]. In the setting processes, the
compressive strength development begins as the concrete nature
changes from plastic to elastic. After the final set, the compressive
strength significantly increases as the concrete structure rapidly
Tables 1 and 2 show the physical properties of the materials
used in this study. As for cement, type-1 ordinary Portland cement
(OPC; density: 3150 kg/m3, fineness: 320 m2/kg) was used.
Sea sand (FM: 2.90, density: 2590 kg/m3, absorption: 1.00%)
was used as fine aggregate, and crushed granite (Size: 25 mm, den-
sity: 2600 kg/m3, absorption: 0.90%) was used as coarse aggregate.
To improve the constructability of concrete, a polycarboxylic-
based superplasticizer was used as admixture. Mineral admixture
was not used because it could affect the experiment results by
chemical reaction with cement.
2.2. Experimental plan and concrete mix proportion
Table 3 shows the experimental plan of this study. The W/C
ratio was set to 0.55, 0.48, 0.41, and 0.33 considering the high

Table 1
Chemical composition of the used binders.

Materials Chemical compositions (%)

CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO K2O Na2O TiO2 SO3
OPC1) 60.20 21.60 5.15 3.30 2.30 0.99 0.53 1.50

1) OPC: ordinary Portland cement.

 T. Lee, J. Lee / Construction and Building Materials 252 (2020) 119027 3

Table 4
Mixture proportions and properties of fresh and hardened concrete.

Concrete type WC 55 WC 48 WC 41 WC 33
3
Cement content Type-1 (kg/m ) 300 340 400 500
Fine aggregate (kg/m3) 885 863 802 714
Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) 963 913 918 950
Water (kg/m3) 165 165 165 165
Water–Cement ratio 0.55 0.48 0.41 0.33
Fresh concrete
Slump-flow (mm) 160 165 170 165
Air contents (%) 3.5 4.0 4.1 3.8
Hardened concrete
Compressive strength (MPa)
7 days 14.5 29.9 33.4 50.1
28 days 22.0 33.6 41.1 63.1

compressive strength of concrete. Concrete specimens for evalua-
tion were subjected to air-dry curing and curing at constant tem-
perature and humidity (room temperature 20 ± 2 °C and
humidity 60 ± 5%). Then, the slump (mm), air contents (%), pene-
tration resistance value (MPa), ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/s),
and compressive strength (MPa) were evaluated, and their correla-
tions with the ultrasonic pulse velocity were analyzed.
Table 4 shows the mixture proportions and properties of fresh
and hardened concrete of this study. The unit quantity of the con-
crete mix was fixed at 165 kg/m3, while those of cement were set
to 300, 340, 400, and 500 kg/m3 according to the W/C ratio. The
slump of concrete was targeted at 150 ± 25 mm and the air con-
tents (%) were set to 4.5 ± 1.5% considering the site construction
conditions so that sufficient workability could be met.
velocities in the mortar and concrete specimens were calculated
using Eq. (1).
L
Vp ¼ ; ð1Þ
Dt
where V p is the ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/s), L is the distance
(km), and Dt is the transit time (s).
In addition, the hydration heat of concrete was measured at 10-
min intervals by inserting a thermocouple (K type) into the center
of each specimen, and the correlation between maturity [35] and
ultrasonic pulse velocity according to the temperature was ana-
lyzed. The compressive strength was evaluated at 120-min inter-
vals after six hours considering the initial setting time, and the
average value of three specimens was calculated.

2.3. Test methods 3. Results and discussion

The mortar setting test was conducted based on ASTM C403/
C403M [29]. To evaluate the properties of fresh concrete, slump
test was conducted using ASTM C143/C143M [30] and the air con-
tent test was conducted using ASTM C231/C231M-17a [31].
Fig. 3 shows a method for measuring the compressive strength
of early age concrete. The loading surface of concrete is soft from
setting (initial setting, final setting) to hardening, and grinding
the concrete surface is difficult. Therefore, this study used an
unbonded cap for loading in accordance with ASTM C1231 [32].
The compressive strength of concrete was calculated by first
preparing a Ø100 mm  200 mm specimen according to ASTM
C39/C39M [33] and measuring the maximum load using a 300-
ton UTM within certain periods.
The ultrasonic pulse velocity was obtained using direct trans-
mission according to ASTM C597-16 [34]. The equipment used
was the portable ultrasonic nondestructive digital indicating tester
(PUNDIT).
The setting times of the specimens and the ultrasonic pulse
velocity were measured at 60-min intervals in the 0–6 h range
and at 30-min intervals in the 6–24 h range. The ultrasonic pulse
3.1. Relationship between the setting and compressive strength of
concrete
The penetration resistance value is a reference value that repre-
sents the setting and hardening process of concrete. Fig. 4 shows
the penetration resistance value of the mortar extracted from con-
crete over time. The concrete condition changed when the penetra-
tion resistance value exceeded the initial set point of 3.5 MPa and
the final set point of 28 MPa [28].
The initial and final setting times of concrete significantly
decrease as the W/C ratio decreases, and the final set occurred
within a short period of time after the initial set. The initial setting
times of concrete were found to be W/C 33 (5 h) > W/C
41 (7 h) > W/C 48 (8 h) > W/C 55 (9.5 h), and the final setting times
of concrete were W/C 33 (8.5 h) > W/C 41 (9.5 h) > W/C 48
(11.5 h) > W/C 55 (12.5 h).
Fig. 5 shows the penetration resistance values and compressive
strengths of concrete. The compressive strength development of
concrete began after the initial setting time, and the compressive
strengths ranging from 0.5 to 1.6 MPa were observed at the final
setting time according to the W/C ratio. The rate of compressive
strength increase was higher as the W/C ratio was smaller, and
the compressive strength increased faster as the unit quantity of
cement increased. This result is similar to the report that the set-
ting of concrete occurred faster as the unit quantity of cement
increased as the initial hydration reaction of cement caused the
nature change during the setting period [9].

3.2. Ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength of mortar and

concrete

Fig. 6 shows the ultrasonic pulse velocity of mortar and

Fig. 3. Test method for compressive strength on early age concrete [32]. concrete over time. The ultrasonic pulse velocity of mortar and
4 T. Lee, J. Lee / Construction and Building Materials 252 (2020) 119027
Fig. 4. Penetration resistance value on mortar at elapsed time.
concrete showed a tendency to continuously increase over time,
and the velocity was higher as the W/C ratio was lower, as with
the results of the penetration resistance value.
The ultrasonic pulse velocity of mortar ranged from 1.1 to
3.2 km/s and that of concrete from 1.3 to 3.7 km/s. The ultrasonic
pulse velocity of concrete was approximately 16% higher than that
of mortar on average. This appears to be because coarse aggregate
represented approximately 35% of concrete and the specific gravity
of coarse aggregate was higher than that of mortar [16,20,36].
Fig. 7 shows the relationship between ultrasonic pulse velocity
and compressive strength according to the curing method. The
compressive strength of concrete significantly increased when
the ultrasonic pulse velocity exceeded approximately 2.0 km/s.
This was the moment when the final set of concrete was
completed.
The relationship between the ultrasonic pulse velocity and
compressive strength of concrete significantly differed depending
on the W/C ratio when air-dry curing was performed. The differ-
ence, however, was relatively smaller when curing was performed
Fig. 6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of mortar and concrete at elapsed time.
Fig. 5. Result of penetration resistance value and compressive strength on concrete.
at constant temperature and humidity chamber. This appears to be
because the compressive strength of concrete increased due to the
surface hardening caused by air-dry curing; previous studies have
also reported the effect of temperature on this relationship [37,38].
The difference in ultrasonic pulse velocity between air-dry curing
and curing at constant temperature and humidity is judged to be
not significant because the internal moisture content is sufficient
even if the outside of the specimen is dried. Therefore, in this
study, the relationship between ultrasonic pulse velocity and com-
pressive strength was analyzed using the results obtained under
the constant temperature and humidity condition.
3.3. Relationship between the ultrasonic pulse velocity, set, and initial
compressive strength of concrete in the setting and hardening phases
Fig. 8 shows the relationship between the hydration heat, set-
ting time, and ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete over time.
Although there were differences depending on the W/C ratio after
the mixing of concrete, the initial set generally occurred at the
 T. Lee, J. Lee / Construction and Building Materials 252 (2020) 119027 5

Fig. 7. Relation between ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength on concrete with curing method.

Fig. 8. Relation between hydration heat, set, and ultrasonic pulse velocity on concrete at elapsed time.

moment when the generation of hydration heat began and the final
set occurred in the highest hydration heat range. Afterwards,
strength development occurred due to hardening. Based on this
relationship, it was deemed possible to evaluate changes in the
concrete matrix due to the hydration reaction using the ultrasonic
pulse velocity.
Moreover, although the hydration heat decreased after the
final set, the maturity of concrete continuously increased due
to the hydration heat. Fig. 9 shows the relationship between
the maturity and ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete consider-
ing the initial set, final set, and compressive strength develop-
ment. The ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete after the initial
setting time showed a tendency to increase in a similar manner
to the pattern of maturity, and it sharply increased after the final
setting time.
The results of this study indicated that it is possible to analyze
the condition change in the internal matrix during the initial set,
final set, and hardening processes using the ultrasonic pulse veloc-
ity [39]. Fig. 10 shows the relationship between the penetration
resistance value and ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete. An
almost straight-line relationship can be observed in the range
between the initial and final set points.
Fig. 11 shows the prediction model on the initial set, final set,
and strength development at early ages. It can be seen that the pre-
diction model can be expressed as a parabolic function. Although
ultrasonic pulse velocity prediction models in linear and parabolic
forms have been proposed by previous researchers and national
standards [7,13–19,26–28,40–43], the parabolic form appears to
be the most suitable for precisely predicting strength development
at early ages due to the condition.
However, standard building code for form removal time are dif-
ferent for different countries. In the United States of America and
Europe, form removal time is defined as the elapsed time for each
curing temperature (typically 10 °C or higher, 12 h), and in Asia
(Japan and Korea), 5-MPa concrete strength is defined as the verti-
cal form removal time.
The judgment of form removal time cannot be clearly defined
due to different national standards. However, we referenced the
6 T. Lee, J. Lee / Construction and Building Materials 252 (2020) 119027
Fig. 9. Relation between maturity, set, and ultrasonic pulse velocity on concrete after initial setting time.
Fig. 10. Relation between penetration resistance value and ultrasonic pulse
velocity on concrete during setting.
Asian (Korea, Japan, etc.) standard, as it provides detailed strength
standards for form removal on concrete. Based on this study, the
range of 5-MPa form removal of concrete in the setting time (initial
setting, final setting) can be presented at an ultrasonic speed of
1–3 km/s.
Fig. 12 shows the results of conducting regression analysis
based on the data of this study to predict the ultrasonic pulse
velocity and compressive strength of concrete. The results were
also compared with those of previous studies [26–28]. The pro-
posed model exhibited sufficient reliability when it was used to
identify the change in the nature of concrete based on the data
at early ages, and it exhibited a value similar to those of the models
proposed by previous researchers at an ultrasonic pulse velocity of
approximately 3.4 km/s. The estimated compressive strength at
the velocity was approximately 11 MPa, which indicated signifi-
cant strength development after the sufficient hydration reaction.
Strength development at higher ultrasonic pulse velocity is
Fig. 11. Prediction model of ultrasonic pulse velocity at early age.
expected to converge to the models of previous studies within
the margin of error.
The proposed model for estimating the setting times (initial set
and final set) and strength development of concrete at early ages
can be expressed in the form of an exponential function shown
in Eq. (2). It has a high (0.90) coefficient of determination (R2).
F etm ¼ 1:25e0:04V p ð2Þ
where F etm is the estimated compressive strength (MPa) and V p is
the ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/s).
Concrete can be affected by the aggregate particle shape, effi-
ciency of the interface between cement paste and aggregate, vari-
ability in particle distribution, and changes in matrix properties
with hardening time [44–47]. Moreover, this study may have lim-
itations in terms of data because only cement was used in the
examined mixtures. It is necessary to accumulate experimental
data considering various influence factors, such as aggregate
 T. Lee, J. Lee / Construction and Building Materials 252 (2020) 119027
Fig. 12. Proposal design model of compressive strength estimation on concrete
with ultrasonic pulse velocity value at early age.
conditions and admixture replacement, to improve the reliability
of the proposed model that used the ultrasonic pulse velocity of
concrete.
4. Conclusion
In this study, the prediction model of setting time and compres-
sive strength of concrete was proposed by nondestructive ultra-
sonic pulse velocity testing at early age, and the following
conclusions were drawn.
1) The initial and final set of concrete occurred faster as the
water-to-cement (W/C) ratio decreased. This is because the
change in the nature of cement due to the hydration reaction
became different as the unit quantity of cement increased
while that of unit weight of water was constant.
2) At early ages, the ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete was
16% higher on average than that of mortar. This appears to
be due to the influence of coarse aggregate with higher
specific gravity than mortar. While examining the relation-
ship between the ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive
strength of concrete over time, the curing conditions of con-
stant temperature and constant humidity exhibited a smal-
ler error range.
3) The hydration heat, set, and ultrasonic pulse velocity of con-
crete exhibited similar patterns with the nature change of
concrete at early ages, thereby confirming the possibility of
examining the relationships between them. The relation-
ships according to the concrete nature were found to be lin-
ear during the initial and final setting periods and parabolic
after the final set, and a prediction model could be proposed
in the form of an exponential function.
4) The proposed model exhibited sufficient reliability when
used to identify the nature change of concrete at early ages
because its coefficient of determination (R2) was as high as
0.90. It exhibited a value similar to those of the models pro-
posed by previous researchers at an ultrasonic pulse velocity
of approximately 3.4 km/s, but strength development at
higher ultrasonic pulse velocity is expected to converge to
the models within the margin of error.
This study may have limitations in terms of data because only
cement was used in the examined mixtures. It is necessary to accu-
mulate experimental data considering various influence factors,
such as aggregate conditions and admixture replacement, to
improve the reliability of the proposed model.
7
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Taegyu Lee: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology,
Resources, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Jaehyun Lee: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology,
Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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