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What happens during vocal warm-up?

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Journalof Voice
Vol.9, No. 1, pp. 37--44
1995RavenPress, Ltd., New York

What Happens During Vocal Warm-Up?

Ninni Elliot, Johan Sundberg, and *Patricia Gramming

Department of Speech Communication and Music Acoustics, KTH, and *Department of Phoniatrics, Karolinska
Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden

Summary: Most singers prefer to warm up their voices before performing.

Although the subjective effect is often considerable, the underlying physiolog-
ical effects are largely unknown. Because warm-up tends to increase blood
flow in muscles, it seems likely that vocal warm-up might induce decreased
viscosity in the vocal folds. According to the theory of vocal-Told vibration,
such a decrease should lead to a lower phonation threshold pressure. In this
investigation the effect of vocal warm-up on the phonation threshold pressure
was examined in a group of male and female singers. The effect varied con-
siderably between subjects, presumably because the vocal-fold viscosity was
not a dominating factor for the phonation-threshold pressure. Key Words: Sub-
glottal pressure--Warm-up--Phonation threshold pressure--Vocal folds--
Singing.

Phonetograms, or voice-range profiles, are fre-
quently used in phoniatric practice to assess vocal
function (1-8). Gramming (8) o b s e r v e d that the
lower phonetogram contour was significantly ele-
vated in male patients who had nonorganic dyspho-
~lia, and returned to normal after recovery. As these
differences agreed with differences in the associ-
ated subglottai pressures, Gramming speculated
that they reflect changes in the mobility in the mem-
branous portion of the vocal folds.
Because vocal loudness is regulated by means of
subglottal pressure, the lower contour in a phone-
togram is obviously related to the lowest subglottal
pressure capable of bringing the vocal folds to os-
cillation, the so-called phonation threshold pressure
(PTP). This pressure has been the object of several
studies (9-15). Based on a theoretical model of the
vocal fold oscillator, Ishizaka and Matsudaira (12)
predicted that the PTP is proportional to the trans-
Accepted January 4, 1994.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to J. Sundberg
at Department of Speech Communication and Music Acoustics,
KTH, Box 70014, S-10044 Stockholm, Sweden.
This investigation was first presented at the 22nd Annual Sym-
posium Care of the Professional Voice, Philadelphia, Pennsylva-
nia, June 1993.
glottal pressure coefficient, the viscous damping of
the vocal folds, the surface wave velocity, the pre-
phonatory glottal width, and the inverse of the vo-
cal-fold thickness. In other words, PTP can be ex-
pected to rise if the vocal folds b e c o m e less mobile,
if the surface wave velocity or the glottal adduction
are increased, and if the vocal fold thickness is de-
creased.
As the vocal-fold thickness decreases with voice
fundamental f r e q u e n c y , the PTP increases with
pitch. This prediction has been repeatedly corrob-
orated by measurements, e.g., by Gramming (16).
Titze (14) derived a theoretically based function for
this dependence:
Pth = ktBc~o/T (1)
where Pth is the lung pressure at phonation thresh-
old, k t is a transglottal pressure coefficient, B is the
mean damping coefficient for mechanical vibration
in the tissue, c is the mucosal wave velocity in the
vocal-fold cover, ~0 is the prephonatory glottal half-
width, and T is the vocal fold thickness. Applying
this relation to results from models, he found that
the best fit was obtained using the equation with the
following constants:

37
38 N. E L L I O T E T A L .
Pth = 0.14 + 0.60 (F0/F0)2 (2)
where Pth is measured in kPa and F0 is the mean F 0
for conversational speech, or, 120 Hz for males and
190 Hz for females in Titze's applications.
Finkelhor and collaborators (I0) studied the de-
pendence of the PTP on the vocal-fold viscosity. By
bathing the vocal folds and adjacent tissues in var-
ious osmotic solutions, they manipulated this vis-
cosity in excised canine larynges and found changes
of the PTP that were in accordance with the theo-
retical prediction. Thus, when they reduced the vis-
cosity, the PTP tended to drop, and vice versa. Ver-
dolini-Marston et al. (17) carried out a related ex-
periment on living adult subjects. By changing the
relative humidity of the air, by ingestion of decon-
gestant mucolytics, and by varying the amount of
liquid intake, they induced changes of hydration in
their six subjects. They found that the average PTP
dropped significantly in the " w e t " conditions of
their six subjects, although the effect varied with
pitch and between subjects. The greatest effect of
decreased viscosity was observed at the highest
pitch.
In neither of these experiments the precise effects
of the manipulations on the tissue viscosity were
analyzed. In particular, it is hard to predict to what
extent the different layers of the vocal folds were
affected. It seems reasonable to assume that the
bathing of the vocal folds in the first mentioned ex-
periment caused a more superficial effect than the
more global manipulations used in the second ex-
periment. It can be assumed that the glottal mucosa
was affected in both experiments, whereas the ef-
fects on the viscosity of the vocalis muscle is hard
to predict. Consequently, it seems unclear whether
the observed changes of the PTP were caused by a
decrease of the vocalis muscle viscosity or merely
by a change in the characteristics of the mucosa, or
both.
According to Safran et al. (18), the viscosity in a
muscle can be decreased by means of a warm-up.
After warm-up, the muscle temperature is raised
and hence the viscosity of the muscle tissue is de-
creased. It seems reasonable to assume that vocal
warm-up has the same effects on laryngeal muscu-
lature as on other muscles. Hence, a vocal warm-up
should reduce the viscosity of the vocalis muscle.
An interesting question then is whether a warm-up
induces a lowering of the PTP. The purpose of the
present investigation was to investigate this ques-
tion in a pilot study of a group of amateur singers.
Journal of Voice, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1995
EXPERIMENT
Ten subjects participated in the experiment:
seven female and three male, with age range of 22-
44 and 32-57, respectively. They all had a consid-
erable amount of voice training but were all amateur
singers in the sense that they did not earn their liv-
ing from singing and typically practiced singing
once or twice per week, mostly in choirs. The rea-
son we chose amateurs was that the warm-up ap-
pears to typically have a greater effect on the voice
in such subjects compared with professional sing-
ers, who seem to be more or less constantly warmed
up, perhaps because of the frequent use of their
professional voice.
Data were collected for all subjects in an anecho-
ic chamber, and, in addition, also in a sound-treated
booth for three of the subjects. In ascending order
they sang the pitches C, E, G, and A in each octave
throughout their ranges, starting from the lowest
pitch they could produce. Each pitch was given to
the subjects from a synthesizer. On each pitch the
subjects repeated the syllable [pa] at least six times,
as softly as possible. They held a plastic tube, ID 4
mm, connected to a calibrated pressure transducer
(Glottal Enterprises) in the corner of their mouth,
and the subglottai pressure was captured as the oral
pressure during the [p] occlusion. The pressure data
were recorded on a TEAC multichannel FM DAT
recorder with the audio signal picked up by a high-
fidelity microphone at a constant distance of 30 cm
on a second channel.
To ensure a constant subglottal pressure for all
syllables sung at each pitch, the subjects were in-
structed to sustain a tone of constant loudness in-
terleaved with the [p] consonant, avoiding emphasis
on the consonant. The subjects first sang a com-
plete series of pitches as softly as possible. When-
ever needed, the subjects were reminded to pro-
duce the softest possible phonation. Then the same
procedure was repeated using a degree of vocal
loudness that the subjects perceived as "comfort-
able."
After the first recording, the subjects had a warm-
up session with a professional singing teacher (co-
author NE). The warm-up exercises started with a
descending melodic pattern, sung softly on the syl-
lable [mu:] and commencing in the middle of the
subject's pitch range. The procedure continued
with various exercises involving pitch changes, dif-
ferent vowels, and different degrees of vocal loud-
ness, consistently avoiding extremely loud singing.
 WHAT HAPPENS DURING VOCAL WARM-UP? 39

The entire warm-up program took 30 min, approx-
imately. Thereafter, the subjects repeated the re-
cording procedure.
ANALYSIS
The analysis of the pressure data was carried out
by means of an oscillograph. Mostly, the pressure
data appeared as a series of peaks of similar ampli-
tudes and with flat tops. This suggested that the
subjects managed to keep a constant subglottal
pressure for each pitch, typically varying within
10% of the mean. However, some of the soprano
subjects tended to produce edged peaks, particu-
larly at their top pitches, possibly because of a par-
ticular articulatory behavior acquired during train-
ing. All such data were discarded, as they could be
assumed not to reflect subglottal pressure accu-
rately (19). For this reason, the data from two of the
female subjects had to be eliminated from further
analysis. The mean over the repeated attempts to
produce a given pitch was accepted as the pressure
value for that pitch.
RESULTS
All subjects reported that the warm-up session
was successful, so that they felt the voice to be in
better condition during the second part of the ex-
periment. The subjects felt the voice timbre to be
better, that it was easier to sing, particularly at high
pitches, and that the voice appeared as a more obe-
dient instrument. However, one of the subjects
(HH) was clearly disturbed by the unusual acous-
tics in the anechoic room, particularly after the
warm-up. One of the subjects (coauthor JS) made
the experiment about a week after recovery from
laryngitis. In this case, the warm-up session did not
bring his voice to what he conceived as typical for a
warmed-up condition, his pitch range being ex-
tended a few semitones below his normal lower
limit after the warm-up, thus suggesting an atypical
vocal-fold status. He repeated the experiment three
times, thus providing comparative data.
Figure 1 shows the PTP data from his three rep-
etitions of the experiment. Also shown are Titze's
(14) theoretically derived PTP values, computed
with the values in Eq. 2 and using 120 Hz for the
mean F0 in conversational speech. Two of the sub-
ject's curves are rather similar showing a mean ab-
solute difference from the theoretically predicted
values of ---0.5 and ---0.8 cm of H20 before warm-up
and ±0.5 and ---0.8 cm after the warm-up. The de-
viations from the theoretical curve were greatest in
the lowest and highest parts of the pitch range. For
the third curve the corresponding mean difference
is 1.6 and 1.2 cm of H20, respectively, mainly be-
cause of great discrepancies at intermediate and at

BEFORE AFTER

;/
I 0.00 / jf I o.o0
JS

B.OO . . ..oo

6.00 g 6.00

,.oo ,.oo

9
N 2.00 ~ 2.00

0.00 0.00
0 I0 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
FOre C2 (semitones) FOre C2 (semitones)
FIG. 1. Phonation threshold pressures for male subject JS before and after vocal warm-up (left and fight panels) as function of voice
fundamental frequency F 0 expressed in semitones relative to the indicated pitch reference C2 (65 Hz). Symbols refer to different
experimental sessions; filled diamonds refer to the occasion when the subject was recovering from an acute laryngitis. The heavy curve
represents Titze's theoretically derived prediction of the phonation threshold pressure.

Journal of Voice, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1995

40 N. ELLIOT ET AL.

high fundamental frequencies. This curve, which TABLE 1. Absolute values of the difference between
constantly showed higher values both before and the individual subjects' phonation threshold pressure
(PTP) and Titze's theoretically derived PTP, assuming
after the warm-up, pertains to the subject's post- a mean fimdamentalfi'equency of 120 and 190 Hz for
cold session. By and large, these results suggest the male and female subjects, respectively (the numbers
that the data obtained were reasonably reproducible represent the means overall pitches; the group means
and support the assumption that they reflect vocal- and standard deviations are given below the values for
fold status. the individual subjects)
Figure 2 presents the corresponding PTP values Before After
for all subjects before the warm-up. Again, Titze's Mean SD Mean SD
theoretically predicted curve is shown for compar- Subject (cm H:O) (cm H20) (cm H20 ) (cm H20)
ison, calculated with an assumed mean fundamental Females
frequency for conversational speech of 190 and 120 GM 1.7 1.7 2.2 1.9
Hz for the female and male subjects, respectively. EL 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.5
GB 1.8 1.7 0.8 0.4
The data for the female subjects show a great inter- PG 1.9 1.6 2.0 1.6
individual scatter. One of the subjects (HH) had HH 4.3 2.5 3.5 2.3
PTP values that were mostly at least - 2 cm H20 AMHB 1.2 0.9 1.4 1.1
J1 1.0 0.7 2.0 1.1
above the group average and another subject (EL) Mean 1.9 1.7
showed exceedingly low values, apparently void of SD 2.0 !.5
a pitch dependence. The mean absolute value of the Males
ST 1.5 1.1 1.3 1.1
difference b e t w e e n the individual curves and SH 0.9 0.6 2.2 1.3
Titze's curve are listed in Table 1. Before warm-up, JS 1.6 1.2 1.7 0.9
this difference amounted to 1.9 cm H20, SD 2.0 cm Mean 1.4 1.8
SD 1.1 i.I
H20, for the female subjects and to 1.4 cm H20, SD
1.1 cm H20, for the male subjects. The differences
among the male subjects were smaller, the data ap- To examine the effect of vocal warm-up on the
proximating the theoretical curve rather closely. PTP, the ratio was computed between PTP after
Similar values were observed after the warm-up. and before the warm-up procedure. The data for the
We conclude that our experiment yielded reason- entire group of subjects are shown in the two panels
ably realistic estimates of the PTP of our subjects. of Fig. 3, the left showing data for female and the

PTP FEMALE SUBJECTS, PRAE PTP MALE SUBJECT5, PRAE

I0.(10 10.00

8.00 D 8.00

6
g
=E
6.0o 6.00

~ 4.0[3 4.00

2110 o 2.00

0.00 I I I I 1 ] 0.00 ] I [ l I I I
0 5 ~0 15 2o 25 3o 35 s zo 15 20 25 3o 35 40
Fo re c3 (wmltones) FOre C2 (zemllones)

FIG. 2. Phonation threshold pressures (PTP) before vocal warm-up for the female and male subjects (left and tight panels) as function
of voice fundamental frequency F 0 expressed in semitones relative to the indicated pitch references (C3 i 30 Hz, C2 65 Hz). Symbols refer
to subjects as follows. Left panel: HH open triangles; GB open diamonds; AH filled circles: PG filled triangles; GM filled diamonds; EL
open squares. Right panel: SH filled triangles; ST open squares; JS open diamonds. The open circles with heavy dashed curve in the left
panel represent the group mean and the heavy solid curves in both graphs represent Titze's theoretically derived prediction.

Journal of Voice, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1995

 W H A T H A P P E N S D U R I N G VOCAL WARM-UP?
2.00
1.50
1.00
~ MEAN
~2
0.50
0.0o ! I I
0 10 20
PITCH (st re C3)
FIG. 3. Subglottal pressure ratio after and before vocal warm-up in female and male subjects as function of voice fundamental frequency
expressed in semitones relative to the indicated pitch references (left and right panels, respectively). Symbols refer to subjects. Left
panel: HH open triangles; GB open diamonds; AH filled circles; PG filled triangles; EL filled diamonds; GM open squares. Right panel:
JS open triangles; ST filled triangles; SH open diamonds. The heavy curves represent the group averages.
right for male subjects. The heavy curve represents
the average. The interindividual variability in the
female group is considerable, the values varying be-
tween 0.5 and 1.5. However, for most subjects the
ratio showed a clear although individual pitch de-
pendence. For example, for male subject JS, the
ratio tended to increase with pitch, whereas for fe-
male subject GB, it tended to decrease with pitch.
In female subject GM, it remained in the vicinity of
1.3 throughout most of her pitch range, approaching
1.0 for her top pitches. The heavy average curve is
close to the horizontal unity line for the female sub-
jects and mostly somewhat above this line for the
male subjects.
Summarizing, we found a great variability with
respect to the effect of vocal warm-up on the PTP.
This pressure increased with pitch in some subjects,
decreased in others, and remained basically unaf-
fected by pitch in yet other subjects. No clear dif-
ference was found between female and male sub-
jects.
Adopting the idea of Titze, the subjects' pres-
sures at the loudness level, which they perceived as
"comfortable," were related to the PTP. The re-
suiting pressure ratios are shown in Fig. 4. Among
the female subjects one showed exceptionally high
ratios. The reason was that her PTP remained low
and constant throughout her range, whereas at her
comfortable voice level she increased her subglottal
pressure with pitch. Disregarding this subject, the
typical pressure ratio used for the comfortable vo-
41
2.00
MALE
1.80
1.60
1.40
M E A ~
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
I 0.00 I I I
30 40 0 10 20 30 40
PITCH (st re C2)
cal loudness remained at slightly below twice the
PTP throughout the pitch range both before and af-
ter warm-up. The same applies to the male subjects.
DISCUSSION
The reproducibility of our PTP data seemed ac-
ceptable for many reasons. First, when subject JS
repeated the experiment, quite similar values were
obtained. Furthermore, his PTP values seemed con-
sistently higher than normal during his postcold
condition. Also, for most subjects the shift in PTP
after warm-up showed a systematic pitch depen-
dence, and Ps observed for neutral loudness ap-
proximated a constant ratio to the PTP. All these
observations suggest that the random variation in
our PTP data was reasonably small.
In many subjects the warm-up effect varied with
pitch. In only a few subjects we found a PTP effect
that remained similar in extent throughout the sub-
ject's entire pitch range. A comparable variability in
pitch dependence was found by Verdolini-Marston
et al. (17) in their investigation of PTP shifts in-
duced by hydration and dehydration. Only in rare
cases did the results for intermediate pitches in that
investigation show a coherence with those observed
at low and high pitches.
The aim of the present investigation was to test
the hypothesis that vocal warm-up induces a low-
ering of the PTP. We assumed that vocal warm-up
has the same effects on laryngeal muscles as on
Journal of Voice, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1995
42 N. E L L I O T E T A L .

FEMALE MALE
10.00 10.00

9.00 9.00

BEFORE BEFORE
8.00 8.00

7,00 7.00

6.00 6.00

5.00

4.00 .--.
/ .=..
z
~
5.00

4.00

3.00 3.00

2.00 2,00

1.00 1.00

0.00 0.00 I I I

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40

10.00 I0,00

9.00 AFTER 9.00 AFTER

8.00 8.00

7.00 7.00

6.00 6.00
._./'~
,,=.
z
5.00

4.00
/ \ .=..
Z
5.00

4,00

3.00 3.00

2.00 2.00

1.00 1.00

0.00 I J ! 0.00 I [ I

0 I0 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
PITCH (st re C3) PITCH (st re C2)
FIG. 4. Ratio of the subglottal pressure between softest and "comfortable" vocal loudness as function of voice fundamental frequency
expressed in semitones relative to the indicated pitch references for female and male subjects (left and right panels, respectively) before
and after vocal warm-up (upper and lower panels, respectively). Symbols refer to subjects. Left panels: AH plus signs; GM open
triangles; GB open circles; EL filled circles; PG crosses; HH stars. Right panels: ST open triangles; JS open circles; SH filled circles.
The heavy curves represent the group averages.

other muscles, i.e., a rise of the temperature result-
ing in a lowering of the viscosity. The results
showed a great interindividual variability. What
may have caused this variability?
One possibility is that the effects of vocal warm-
up are not equivalent to that of a warm-up of other
muscles. However, this does not seem likely. First,
all subjects reported that they felt in good and im-
proved vocal shape after the warm-up session. Sec-
ond, the vocalis muscle is participating in the vocal-
fold vibrations and is active in control of pitch.
Hence, it is vibrated and also it alternately con-
tracts and is stretched during singing exercises. It is
hard to doubt that this muscle is subject to a warm-
up effect similar to that in other muscles. In other
words, we see no reason to doubt that the vocalis
muscle possessed a lower viscosity after vocal
warm-up in our experiment.
Our results suggest that the reduced viscosity in
the vocalis muscle did not consistently induce a
lower PTP. The PTP is, however, dependent on a
number of other factors as well, which might be
influenced by a vocal warm-up. A decrease of the
vocal-fold thickness leads to an increase of PTP,
but it is not obvious why a vocal warm-up should
result in a reduced vocal-fold thickness. Other fac-
tors are the surface wave velocity and the prepho-
natory glottal width. Also in these respects, an ob-

Journal of Voice, Vol. 9, No. I, 1995

 W H A T H A P P E N S D U R I N G VOCAL WARM-UP?
vious effect of vocal warm-up is hard to see. Still,
because there are several factors of relevance to the
PTP, our results seem to demonstrate that the re-
duced viscosity was not a dominating factor in all
our subjects. It may be of relevance that the vibra-
tional involvement of the vocalis muscle is minute
in the softest possible phonation; rather, the vibra-
tions seem to be limited mainly to the surface layer.
According to Hirano (20), the various layers of the
vocal folds have different mechanical properties.
Our PTP data were in good agreement with and
thus supported Titze's theoretically derived predic-
tion, even though the PTP seems to typically in-
crease slightly toward the lowest part of the pitch
range. This increase was probably the reason why
Holmberg et al. (11) found that subglottal pressure
in their subjects was higher not only for high pitches
but also for low pitches as compared with the indi-
vidual subject's neutral speaking pitch.
Many subjects experience the effects of vocal
warm-up as rather physical. The instrument is felt
to function in a better way. In view of this, it is quite
interesting to note the great interindividual variabil-
ity that seems to exist with respect to the physical
correlates of a warm-up. The variability suggests
that the mechanical properties of the vocal fold dif-
fer significantly between individuals. Such a vari-
ability is likely to produce voice timbre differences.
The tendency of our subjects to use a constant
factor for the PTP when singing at a comfortable
vocal loudness strongly supports the idea of Titze
(14) that subglottal pressure should be related to the
PTP. In future experiments we plan to induce
changes of the mechanical properties of the mucosa
by medication of patients with acute laryngitis. It
would also be interesting to analyze the shifts in the
PTP caused by starting the voice with a warm-up as
compared with a vocally demanding song. It may be
assumed that in the latter case, remaining muscular
tonus will be created in the vocal folds inflicting on
the vocal-fold viscosity and, thus, perhaps prevent-
ing the singer's access to pitches that demand a
great vibrating mass.
Because all subjects felt a clear difference in their
voice function after the warm-up, and because the
concomitant changes in PTP differed between sub-
jects, the physical essence of the warm-up does not
seem to dwell in the effects on the PTP. A warm-up
can be assumed to be associated with many other
effects. For example, the amplitudes of the higher
voice source partials may increase for a given sub-
glottal pressure, or the periodicity of the vocal-fold
43
vibrations may increase. Also, a vocal warm-up
may affect the nervous control system of phonation
and optimize the vibratory conditions, e.g., the mu-
tual tuning to subglottal pressure, vocal-fold longi-
tudinal tension, and glottal adduction (E. Knutsson,
personal communication). Such effects would be
worthwhile to examine in future research.
CONCLUSIONS
Clear effects of vocal warm-up on the PTP were
observed. However, they differed from subject to
subject. This suggests that the decrease of the vo-
cal-fold viscosity, which presumably accompanies a
vocal warm-up, is not a dominating factor for the
PTP in all subjects.
Acknowledgment: Valuable comments on the manu-
script were provided by Dr. Ron Scherer. The kind as-
sistance of Gunilla Berndtson and Sten Ternstr6m as well
as of the subjects of the experiments is gratefully ac-
knowledged. The research was supported by a grant from
the Swedish Research Council for Engineering Sciences.
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