Systems Approach and System Analysis

Component-I (A) - Personal Details

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Masood Ahsan Siddiqui Department of Geography,

Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi
Paper Coordinator, if any Dr. Taruna Bansal Department of Geography,
Jamia Millia Islamia,

New Delhi

Content Writer/Author Dr. Janki Jiwan Department of Geography,

(CW) Shaheed Bhagat Singh
College, University of
Delhi, New Delhi

Content Reviewer (CR) Dr. Taruna Bansal Department of Geography,

Jamia Millia Islamia,

New Delhi

Language Editor (LE)

Component-I (B) - Description of Module

 Items Description of Module

Subject Name Geography

Paper Name Geographical Thought

Module Name/Title Systems Approach and System Analysis

Module Id GEOG/26

Pre-requisites System, Approach and System Analysis

Objectives To Study System Analysis

Keywords System, Elements, Components, Functions, and Analysis

Component II - e-Text

Systems Approach and System Analysis

Janki Jiwan, Ph.D.

I. Introduction
The word system has been derived from the Greek word “system” which means a set of rules
that govern structure and behaviours. In other words, the system is termed as a unified whole
(working body) which consists of interdependently functioning elements. The element is very
basic part of a unified whole. For example, the human body is a biological system involving
various elements (parts) like cells, tissues, blood, bones, and muscles. These elements (parts)
are functioning interdependently. Likewise, the Earth itself is the largest system which is
made of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. The biosphere is the largest
ecosystem made of interconnected sub-systems (both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems) viz.,
forest, grassland, desert, ocean, lake, pond etc. These systems vary greatly in size and scale
ranging from microscopic to micro, meso and macro. For instance, biosphere forms an
ecosystem of macro size and rivulet can form a micro one.

A. System Approach to Geography

The concept of the system approach has been fundamentally derived from the general
systems approach or theory. A biologist named Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s seminal paper on
open systems is attributed as a seedling for the rise of the system movement. He has
published various papers on a system approach to biology between the 1920s and 1950s. His
papers aimed at giving account for the key distinction between the organismic systems of
biology and the closed systems of conventional physics and understanding common laws that
govern the life of organisms. Through his general system approach, he comprehended
intrinsic unification of different streams of sciences and fusion between science and
environment. For von Bertalanffy, the main propositions of general systems approach or
theory were1:
1. Isomorphisms between the mathematical structures in different scientific disciplines could
integrate and unify the sciences;
2. Open systems require consideration of the flow of energy, matter, and information between
the system and its environment;
3. Within open systems, the same final system state may be reached from different initial
conditions and by different paths – open systems exhibit equifinality;
4. Teleological behaviour directed towards a final state or goal is a legitimate phenomenon
for systemic scientific inquiry;
5. A scientific theory of organization is required, to account for wholeness, growth,
differentiation, hierarchical order, dominance, control and competition; and
6. GST could provide a basis for the education of scientific generalists

As per the above-mentioned propositions, a general system is a unified whole of elements

bound together by specific linkages. It is higher order generalization of a multiplicity of
systems, their complex structures, and functions. This is an analytical framework to unify
various sciences. It has a self-sustaining mechanism. Such systems may be open or closed
and may change over the period of time. Most general systems, however, are open. As
discussed earlier the earth is an open system in which there are inputs, outputs, and energy
flow through a variety of mechanisms. The linkages, or connections, that bind entities
together into a system, are paths through which matter, energy, ideas, and people pass from
one element to another.

1
Alex J. Ryan (2008) What is a Systems Approach? Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850,
USA, available at https://arxiv.org/abs/0809.1698v1
As very early, Ludwig von Bertalanffy had realized the importance of system approach to
non-biological science. Over the period of time, geographers introduced system approach to
various geographical studies. R. J. Chorley, Leopold and Landbein, Wolderberg and Berry
were some prominent geographers who made its application possible in geography. In fact, it
was R. J. Chorley, who become the first geographer brought about this approach or theory to
geography. His paper “Geomorphology and General system theory” (1962) focused on the
mainly application of the concept of open and closed system in Geomorphology. In addition,
Leopold and Landbein applied entropy and steady state in the study of the fluvial system.
Berry developed a basis for the study of the city as a system within the system of cities in
spatial form by using the two concepts viz., organization and information. Wolderberg and
Berry have applied system concept to analyze central place and river system. Curry has tried
to use this concept to the spatial location of settlement. Even new age geographers solve
numerous spatial problems through a general systems approach in both human and physical
geography. They use the system as analytical models to understand and explain spatial
patterns and interactions. Human geographers, for example, use the system model to examine
human migration patterns, the diffusion of ideas, and the spread of information. Moreover,
researchers in physical geography trust this approach in understanding natural set up in which
physical system operates. In short, researchers in both physical and human geography are
interested in identifying, explaining, and predicting flows in human and physical systems.
They also search, identify, describe, and explain cycles and patterns of geographical
phenomena in different branches of geography.

In other words, the systems approach is used in a variety of applied branches of geography
viz., land-use planning, natural resource management, watershed management, regional
planning, management of pollution (water, air, soil, sound), environmental management,
climate change etc. These areas involve the study of elements and sub-system of general
environment like quantitative, qualitative, behavioural, socio-economic, and political
subsystems. The qualitative subsystem encompasses finite space including urban, rural,
empty or filled places, psychological spaces, and their various-use. It also includes a variety
of concepts like capability, carrying capacity and stability. The economic subsystem
comprises decision-making processes based on well-tested economic theories whereas
citizens, governments, civil administration, and civil societies form the political subsystem,
which plays a vital role in geopolitics of a state (nation) being studied in political geography.
The behavioural subsystem consists of attitudes, values, beliefs, customs, and traditions,
 which are integral parts of behavioural geography. A general systems model is a composite
one in which physical and socio-economic variables are intricately linked. Some of the
variables may be measured quantitatively and some may not. The systems approach involves
a number of relationships (links) between variables (elements). Now geographers use
statistical tools like multi-variable analysis, principal components analysis (PCA), probability
theory, Chi-Square and Gini-coefficient to analyze data on geographical variables explaining
interlinks between them in a system.

II. Systems Analysis

A. Basic Elements
System, as discussed earlier, is a unified whole or working body, which consists of
interdependently functioning elements. There are multiple variables or elements that form
a system. A system forming basic elements are as follows:
1. Inputs and Outputs: Every system requires a regular flow of inputs for producing an
amount of output. Without inputs, no outputs can be produced in a system. For example,
a fixed agricultural output needs a certain amount of inputs of seeds, water, fertilizers,
labor etc. in the assumed constant external environment.

2. Processors: It involves the actual transformation of input into output. It is the operational
component of a system. Processors may process the input totally or partially, depending
upon nature, amount, and requirement of the output.

3. Control: This is an important element, which guides and controls the system. It is
basically the decision-making subsystem that governs the pattern of activities like
processing input and producing output.
4. Feedback: Feedback is an indication for characteristics, amount of produced output
against the set parameters and standard. Feedback is conducted on the principle of
cybernetics which comprises communication and control. Feedback is of two types., viz.,
positive or negative. It is good to have positive feedback, which strengthens system’s
performance. Negative feedback gives the wrong signal if the system is not functioning
well and it also makes available the controller with information on actions required for its
correction.
5. Environment: Every system is operating in a unique environment. It is a broader
framework often called “supra-system”, Which affect operating system and determining
routes and rules of its functioning.
6. Boundaries and Interfaces: A system has delineated boundaries or limits through which
it identifies its components, processes, and interrelationships when it interfaces with
another system or with its environment.

B. Components of a System
A set of elements form component and a set of components form a system. All systems of
varying scales are having three basic components as follows:
1. A set of elements
2. A set of functioning links
3. A set of links between system and external environment
All systems have internal and external environments. The external environment influences
the internal environment of the system. Some systems are close and some are open. A closed
system can easily be created in science laboratories. In other words, the closed system exists
mainly in a controlled environment like chemical labs. For example, chemists conduct
chemical tests in their labs but such kind of total control is not possible in an open
environment like agricultural or forest land, but in open environments like agricultural land,
some elements can be partially controlled. Such partially controlled environments are of great
importance for semi-scientific experiments aiming at socio-economic development. This is to
be understood with this example. If farmers want to know impacts of certain inputs on a crop
production. Impacts of inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, high-yield seeds, labour on crop
production can be known by controlled and regulating inputs in a farm. With above
discussion, the basic characteristics of a system can be inferred as follows:
1. System is a well organized and an integrated ideal body;
2. Systems have multiple elements and components;
3. The components in a system are interdependently functioning;
4. Systems have a structure and pattern of behaviour;
5. Systems have a boundary and interfaces;
6. Systems are at balancing and enduring state;
7. Systems affect and are affected by their internal and external environment;
8. Systems exhibit feedback;
9. Systems are either closed and open and
10. Predominant systems in the environment are open-ended.

C. Essential Features

Above mentioned basic characteristics exhibit some interlinked essential features of a system
as follows:

1. Environment of a System
2. The Behaviour of a System
3. The State of a System
4. Organization and Information in System
5. Structure of a System

1. Environment of a System
The environment of a system is supra-structure in which system operates. There is countless
system and their sub-systems are working in our environment. The environment is classified
as physical environment, socio-cultural environment, political environment. Socio-cultural
environment and political environments operate in their physical environment. In fact, each
system has its own physical, socio-economic environment that affects the performance of that
system positively or negatively. For example, farmland is a system, its agricultural
productivity depends upon its physical, socio-economic environment. A system may have the
internal and external environment. For example, the productivity of an industry as a system is
affected by both internal and external environment.

2. The Behaviour of a System

It refers to all dynamic activities of a system like the introduction of new stimuli, flows, and
responses, inputs, and outputs etc. It studies the flow of energy between the elements of a
system and between a system and another system. Functions within a system are called
internal behaviour and outside a system is external behaviour. Internal and external
behaviours are interlinked. For example, an element of a system is the part of the external
environment, change in external environment will bring some behavioural change in one
element and change in one element will affect all inter-connected elements of that system.
Such behavioural change can be explained by its flow from input (simple stimulus) to the
output (response) (Fig.1).

SYSTEM
STIMULUS (INPUT) RESPONSE (OUTPUT)

Fig: 1

The input-output analysis in economics is a popular example for explaining the flow of
behavioural change. Increase in final demands (e.g. derived from exports, home consumption,
or another way around) is working as stimuli to rise in final outputs in various sectors in an
Indian economy (a system).

3. The State of a System

Each system wants to achieve its state of equilibrium. A slight change in one element of
system disturbs its equilibrium. A disturbed system may experience morphogenesis to gain a
complex level of equilibrium. ‘Equilibrium’ denotes maintaining a kind of balance in a
system. Equilibrium is two categories, viz. stable and dynamic. Further, the stable
equilibrium includes both homeostasis and steady states. A homeostatic system shows always
activity, but it does not alter the balance between the system’s components. A system in a
steady state is also stable, but it may change in an orderly way. Dynamic equilibrium
represents a process by which a slight disturbance causes a constant change in throughout the
system.

4. Organization and Information in System

Normally system is well organized, that’s why one can predict the possible amount of change
in all set of elements of a system if a change occurred to an element is known but such
prediction is not possible if the system is not organized. ‘Information’ is considered as ‘the
measure of the amount of organization’ (as opposed to randomness) in the system. Good
information means well-organized system. In addition, the word ‘entropy’ and ‘negentropy’
are associated with organization and information. Changing level of energy in a system
creates a disorder, hence disorganizing the system. In other words, entropy (a measure of
unavailable energy) is regarded to be a measure of disorder or disorganization of a system. In
the contrary, the negative entropy or negentropy, on the other hand, is a measure of order in a
system. The close system may have highest entropy hence making a system inactive. While
interacting with the environment, it is good for the open system to have the optimum level of
entropy creating a more complex system. As entropy brings disorder and negentropy brings
order, these concepts can be used in different branches of geography like an ecosystem, river
system, and socio-economic systems.

5. Structure of a System

Structure of a system depends on how element and components of a system are arranged and
interlinked. Therefore, the structure may vary in terms of its shape and size. The structure
could be hierarchal or parallel. For example, in Walter Christaller’s Central Place Theory,
settlements are hierarchal arranged in an urban system. Large urban cities in few number lie
at the top of the order and small cities in large number at the bottom (Fig. 2).

Huge Fewest

Size of Number of
Settlement Settlements

Tiny Most
 Source: Slideplayer.com

Fig. 2

D. Common Relationships

The links of elements shape components and structure of a system. A different pattern of
links between elements forms a variety of relationships, some of the most common
relationships are being illustrated through Figure no. 3, 4, 5, 6 to 7.

1. Cause and Effect Relationship: This is the simplest relationship which is also called
‘Series’ relationship in which elements are connected by an irreversible link.

Ai Aj

Fig.3: Cause and Effect Relationship

For instance, rainfall affects the rate of soil erosion but soil erosion directly does not have an
effect on rainfall.

2. Parallel Relationship: When two elements affect third element making relationship
called parallel one. For Example, rainfall and temperature affect vegetation and
vegetation, in turn, directly or indirectly affects the amount of rainfall and local
temperature.
 Ai

Ak

Aj

Fig.4 Parallel Relationship

3. Feedback Relationship: This is newly introduced relationship into analytical

structures. Two elements get mutually affected. For example, farmers grow pulses
(leguminous plants) which enriches nitrogenous fertilizer in the soil and in turn,
production of pulses increases because of enriched soil.

Aj

Fig.5 Feedback Relationship

4. Simple Compound Relationship: In a simple compound relationship, components

are modified by itself and influenced by a set of other external components. Both
processes operate simultaneously. For example, industries in India are removing their
old technologies and adapting new foreign technologies to increase low-cost
production in the competitive global market.

Ai

Aj

Fig.6 Simple Compound Relationship:

5. Complex Compound Relationship

This is the most complex relationship of elements in which elements of the internal
and external environment is mutually affected and influences each other. In our
environment, all real systems have complex compound relationships amongst their
element and complement. Our ecosystem is the best example of a complex compound
relationship, which is very difficult to interpret correctly.

Aj Ai

AK

Al An

Fig.7 Complex Compound Relationship

E. Classification of Systems

On the basis of above-mentioned relationships, salient features, and characteristics, Systems

can be classified as homeostatic, dynamic, self-regulatory, adaptive, controlled systems etc.

1. Homeostatic System: A constant balance maintained in a system is named as a

homeostatic system. Such system by its constant operating environment restores its
equilibrium or steady-state behaviour if it faces some external interventions. As per its
nature, it resists an alternation caused by internal environment but if it faces new change,
its processor restores previous equilibrium or steady-state. There are innumerable
homeostatic systems in our environment. For example, the human body is a homeostatic
system that maintains its equilibrium in its temperature at about 98.2 degrees Celsius.
Temporarily, it might change but body again restores equilibrium in its temperature.
 Likewise, innumerable geographical systems operating in our environment are known as
a homeostatic system which maintains equilibrium or steady-state. The geomorphic cycle
of erosion is the homeostatic system. In the cycle of erosion, if any element like the
amount of water, slope, suspended particles etc. changes, the entire system gets affected
but with certain changes, cycle maintains steady-state.

2. Adaptive System: It is a system which has adaptive capacity to changing external

environment. It’s some characteristics are similar to the homeostatic system. This system
sustains a constant operating environment to achieve the desired state which has been
emerged because of certain change in external environment. For example, our socio-
economic systems are becoming adaptive to climate change. New technologies are
introduced in agriculture and energy sector in wake of climate change. The direction of
the adaptive system depends upon the feedback, it is getting in form of increased or
decreased productivity.

3. Dynamic System: It is different from both homeostatic and adaptive systems which
experience some change over the period of time in achieving steady or desired states. The
dynamic System shows a chain of continuous changes along with a line behaviour in the
entire system over the period of time. For example, the vicious cycle of poverty and
cumulative causation as Economic growth models.

4. Controlled System: It is a system in which elements or inputs can be regulated to

achieve goals (results) for socio-economic development. Normally such kind of system
lies in the close environment like laboratories. For example, scientists, doctors, and
chemists conduct experiments to assess the impacts of certain chemicals as medicines on
animals or human bodies in a controlled environment. In a study of system engineering
and cybernetics (the study of communication and control mechanisms in machines and
living beings), partially controlled systems are of great importance. Even in geographical
subject matters like resource management, regional and economic planning, partially
controlled systems can be created and applied. Example, economically backward region
can be developed by pushing huge investment in infrastructures hence creating
employment opportunities for local people but such environments cannot be completely
controlled. Therefore, partially controlled environments are of great importance for
human well-being.
 In conclusion system approach and its analysis offers a simplified theoretical and
conceptual framework to study the subject matters of geography like study of landforms,
river system, ecosystem, regional and economic planning and social and economic
development etc. Geographers can apply this approach in all three stages of research viz.,
descriptive, analytical (explanation and seeking governing natural laws and undegrading
orders in the real world) and predictive (how existing orders are likely to change in
future?).

III . Advantages and Disadvantages

Application of system approach and analysis in geographical studied has various pros and
cons. It discloses inherent information on current state, structures and dynamic behaviours of
various geographical systems. Our open existing environment is so complex that it goes
beyond our understanding. Therefore, system approach simplifies existing environment in
order to make it easy for students to understand. In words, it is a technical tool to comprehend
interaction between elements of any complex geographical structure in simplified ways. It
also helps us to develop a variety of abstract geographical theories. More importantly, its
mathematical languages like geometry and probability theory are widely used in solving
numerous geographical problems like rising pollution and prediction of climate change and
understanding affecting factors. Despite these advantages, this approach is criticised because
its overemphasis on positivism and quantification social science (quantitative revolutions)
and avoiding normative values (beliefs, attitudes, desires, hopes, fears). Nevertheless, system
approach is still relevant in geography.