™

A Bi-Monthly Newsletter for the Real Estate

Volume 16, Issue 5 Inspection Professional September - October 2003

Structural Inspections- Part IX -EXTERIOR WALLS

Exterior walls fall into two distinct
structural categories: loadbearing walls,
(carrying structural loads); and nonbearing
walls (carrying only their own weight ).
Exterior walls are made of a wide variety of
materials, including wood, masonry
materials, and metal. We will start this
discourse with masonry exterior walls.

EXTERIOR MASONRY WALLS

As we state over and over in these newsletters,

one word that must be part and parcel for your
home inspector vocabulary is the word inaccessible.
Such is the case with figure # 1. In this picture you are
looking at an old two story brick single family home.
The only reason that I know it is brick is because I
pulled back some of the overgrowths of ivy from the
exterior to satisfy my curiosity. Be sure to make it
very clear to your homebuyinjg clients that you
cannot tell what condition the exterior walls are in.
And to be on the safe side take some pictures for
your own files just in case in the future they find that Figure 1
the exterior walls need major repairs, and they
claim you failed to inform them of that fact. Believe
me it can happen.

Masonry exterior walls such as block and brick

require less frequent maintenance than most outside
wall materials. But in some cases failure of the
masonry material does occur. In this article we will
discuss some of the common masonry failures that
you as a home inspector may come across during
the course of your home inspections. During your
inspections be on the lookout for both shrinkage
and structural cracks, open and deteriorated mortar
joints, spalling, settlement evidence, efflorescence,
water stains, damaged masonry units, bowed wall
(Continued on page 3)
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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Page 1)
areas, as well as the deterioration of surface coverings such as stucco and paint.

A variety of masonry materials can be used to build exterior walls. Most common among them
would be brick, cinder block, concrete block, as well as glass block, clay tile and stone. The most
common material that we find here in New England is brick. Brick exteriors can be found on single
family homes, as well as in new condo developments, old apartment buildings and brick row houses.
Since brick is the predominate masonry material on homes in this area, the emphasis of this article will
deal almost exclusively with brick
exterior walls. Figure 2

Here in New England, and I’m sure

elsewhere, there are companies that
can make a house look like it has real
brick or stone for exterior coverings, but
in fact the exterior material that you are
looking at is really only a stucco coating
made to look like brick or stone. Fig # 2
shows a house that appears to have a
combination of brick and stone, when
in fact all that it is a stucco finish over the
original wood clapboard siding.

Such exterior claddings in most instances are difficult to detect and to identify. And in most cases
the inspector might assume incorrectly that what they are looking at is real brick or stone - when in fact
it is not. As noted, the home inspector in most cases may not be able to correctly identify this type of
exterior masonry siding.

Before we get into brick wall construction let’s review some of the brick wall terminology that you
as a home inspector should know. The following terms along with the illustration in figure # 3 describes
their various positions in a wall.

Figure 3

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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)

Brick Terms
C OURSE
One of the continuous horizontal layers ( or rows ) of masonry which, when bonded together,
form the masonry structure.

W YTHE
A continuous vertical 4-inch or greater section of thickness of masonry as the thickness of
masonry separating flues in a chimney.

S TRETCHER
A masonry unit laid flat with its longest dimension parallel to the face of the wall.

H EADER
A masonry unit laid flat with its longest dimension perpendicular to the face of the wall. It is
generally used to tie two wythes of masonry together.
R OWLOCK
A brick laid on its edge (face).

B ULL -STRETCHER
A rowlock brick laid with its longest dimension parallel to the face of the wall.

B ULL -HEADER
A rowlock brick laid with its longest dimension perpendicular to the face of the wall.

S OLDIER
A brick laid on its end so
that its longest dimension is
parallel to the vertical axis of
the face of the wall.

S AILOR
Although not shown here if
you take a soldier brick and turn
it sideways you will end up with
what is called a Sailor.

Exterior masonry walls can

either be solid masonry or brick
veneer on wood framing. Fig. 4
shows these two types of walls
and gives you some clues to look
for in identifying them. With few
exceptions most homes built with Figure 4
brick since the early 1970’s are
brick veneer on wood framing.

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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)

S OLID M ASONRY W ALLS

Solid brick walls can often be

identified by their header rows. These Figure 5
header rows act as ties in order to hold
the bricks together. Header rows can
often be found every 5th, 6th or 7th
course up on a wall. You won’t find
header rows in a brick veneer wall.
Figure # 5 shows such a solid brick wall
with headers installed every 6th course.

Often solid masonry walls may be built with two different

types of materials. These compound walls will have a
different material for the outer and the inner wall layers.
Metal ties are used to tie the two different masonry materials
together. Headers are also often used for this purpose, but
Figure 6 may be randomly installed. These compound walls may
have thicknesses of anywhere from 8 to 12 inches, with 8
inches being more the norm. Very old masonry walls may be anywhere from 16 inches to 20 inches
thick. Fig # 6 shows a compound wall with an exterior brick face and an interior masonry block layer.

A cavity wall is a wall where an air space is left between Figure 7

the layers of masonry units. Cavity walls provide a means
of creating a watertight wall. From the exterior they appear
the same as a solid masonry wall without header courses.
No headers are required because the two tiers of brick are
held together by metal ties which are installed every sixth
course 24 inches on center. Figure # 7 is an example of such
a cavity wall.

The 2 inch cavity between the two tiers of brick

provides a space down which water that penetrates
the exterior wall can flow out of the wall without
passing through the interior wall and into the structure.
The bottom of the cavity is above grade level and is
provided with weap holes by which trapped water
can drain out of the wall.

B RICK V E N E E R W ALLS

Most brick constructed houses built today, and

particularly since the early 1970’s, are generally brick
veneer over wood framed walls. Unlike solid masonry
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 Masonr y Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
walls, brick veneer supports only its own weight and does not carry structural loads. A brick veneer
wall is supported from the foundation up on a foundation shelf or on a special metal lip. Figure # 8
illustrates both types of brick veneer support systems.

Figure 8

In new construction foundations are constructed wide enough to provide for a 4 inch shelf to carry
the brick veneer. Sometimes a steel angle iron is bolted onto an existing foundation wall. Such steel
angles can support a brick veneer wall up to 14 feet in height. These steel shelves should be installed
above grade level as seen the previous illustration.

We often find in older homes a brick

veneer system that was added sometime
after the house was built. Frequently we
find that the construction is faulty, as seen
in figure # 9. In this picture you can see my
clipboard going directly under the veneer
wall. In this case the contractor who built
the add-on brick veneer wall did not
provide for a proper support pad under it.
Part of the wall had a stone footing under
it and some of it, like where my clipboard
is, had nada under it. A sure-fire formula Figure 9
for failure.

Brick veneer is attached to the wall sheathing by metal ties. The type of metal ties used for veneer
work are usually crimped accordion-style ties that allows for the expansion and contraction of the
wood frame, and helps to keep the brick veneer from cracking. Metal ties are typically installed 16
inches on center horizontally and 24 inches on center vertically, and nailed through wall sheathing and
directly into wall studs. Often this proper installation practice is not followed which results in dire
consequences to the wall. Since no header courses are typically installed in a brick veneer wall, a home
inspector can usually differentiate between a solid masonry wall and a brick veneer wall.

Between the brick veneer and the wall sheathing is an air space of at least a minimum of 1 inch.
This air space allows for water to pass down and out weep holes at the base of the wall. Flashing is
installed behind the base section of brick to help channel any trapped water out through the weep
holes. Figure # 10 is a good example of how a brick veneer wall is constructed.
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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)

COMMON PROBLEMS FOUND WITH MASONRY WALLS

Defective mortar joints are probably the most common fault in

block, brick walls and stone walls ( no matter if solid masonry or brick
veneer ). The solution often is simply to correctly repoint the defective
joints. I said correctly repoint because many amateur handymen/
masons do not know all of the correct procedures for repointing brick
or block walls.

As an example, when old, soft brick walls are repointed with modern, hard,
portland cement mortar the end results often is damaged brick surfaces. Also,
most of us know that when working with brick it is important to wet down the brick
or mortar joints prior to laying or repointing them. However, the same is not
true of masonry blocks. Wetting concrete or cinder blocks before they
are set in place is a major error that an amateur would make. Their
is a misconception by some uninformed amateur masons that
saturating masonry block prior to laying them will improve their
bonding to mortar. However, the opposite is true. A block that is
wet before being laid or repointed will in time shrink enough to
create weak mortar joints.

Efflorescence is another problem that can be easily detected

during an inspection. Efflorescence usually appears as a light
white powder or crystallization caused by water-soluble salts
deposited as water evaporates within the mortar or the masonry
unit. Aside from the fact that these stains on the masonry surface
detracts from the appearance of the wall, efflorescence may
indicate that moisture has penetrated into the wall to the
extent that it may have caused some damage. Often the
damage may not be clearly visible on the interior of the
building since such damage may be concealed in the voids
between the exterior and the interior walls of a building. Figure 10
Be sure to point out to your clients any efflorescence
stains that you see, and the likelihood of some water
penetrations into the masonry wall, as well
as to the possibility of some interior wall
damage. Figure 11

Spalling refers to the loss of the surface

of masonry units. We often find spalling on
brick, block and sometimes even on concrete
surfaces. In our experience spalling appears
to occur mostly on brick. Figure # 11 is a good
example of a spalled brick surface.

There are any number of good reasons

why masonry surfaces will spall. Often, over
a period of time, water will find its way
behind brick or block, work its way into the
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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
material, and when temperatures drop, the water can freeze, expand and push off the face of the brick
or block. In the case of brick, (which is a permeable product) water trapped behind and in the brick
will evaporate and draw salt from within the brick to the surface. Generally the salt will accumulate
behind the surface of the brick face and form crystals. In time the expanding salt crystals will exert
enough force to break through and spall the brick surface.

Evidence of either efflorescence stains or spalling are red flags indicating water/moisture problems
with the exterior masonry walls.

Weep Holes ,which should be found in

brick veneer walls and in cavity walls, Figure 12
allows for the drainage of accumulated
water and condensation behind these
walls. They also help to equalize air
pressure on both sides of the wall, making
it less likely that wind driven rain can
penetrate the wall. Weep holes can be
small plastic tubes installed in the brick
mortar joints, or they can be simply
openings left in brick mortar joints of the
bottom course of bricks. Obviously in order
for them to work properly they must not be
blocked. Figure # 12 shows where you
would find them in a brick wall.

Sometimes these openings were never originally installed,

or over time someone decided that they should be caulked
and sealed. As a home inspector if you find missing weep
holes or plugged up weep holes bring it to the attention of
your homebuying clients as to something that they should
have corrected.

Don’t be surprised if sometime during your inspections

you find what looks like the ends of rope sticking out of every
3rd or 4th mortar joint at the bottom of a brick wall. These are
➘
rope wicks which are a variation of weep holes. If you see
either rope wicks or weep holes at the bottom of a brick wall
you are most likely looking at a brick veneer wall.

A bow (a vertical curve) and a sweep (a horizontal

Figure 13
curve) in combination can create a bulge in a masonry
wall. This combination of bow and sweep can cause a
wall to distort and figure # 13 is a good example of
such a leaning wall. The picture as shown in this figure
is of a small one story commercial property which we
were hired to inspect. As you can see the solid
masonry wall has substantially pulled out and away
from the building.
(Continued on Next Page)
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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
There are many possible reasons for such buckling. Some common causes would be the
deterioration of mortar joints and the expansion and contraction of the wall. A brick wall such as seen
here may also bow or lean because of foundation settlement.

Another cause of bowing in a solid masonry wall is that the wall had not been laterally restrained.
This often is the case where the floor joists run parallel to the wall. And yet another possible reason
for bowing in solid masonry walls is because the metal ties bonding the two wythes together have
failed. This would cause the outer wythe to pull away from the inner wythe, resulting in a bulge or bow
in the wall.

No matter what the cause of the problem you as a home inspector must warn your clients of
possible consequences. The ultimate danger of such a wall is that it may fall and injure or kill someone
that might be walking by the property. The more immediate problem, however, is that when a wall
leans or kicks out to any degree it is always possible that the rafters and joists resting on this wall may
have slipped out of their original support positions. When this happens there is the chance that the
roof framing system may collapse. As a note of interest, walls that are out of plumb by 1/3 of its
thickness, measured from top to bottom, are considered as unsound.

Cracks are visible evidence that some movement has occurred. Since all buildings move to some
degree cracks are not necessarily a sign of trouble. Cracks found in masonry walls may be the result
of foundation settlement, excessive floor loadings, temperature expansion and contraction in structural
members, moisture, structural failure, or from poor materials and poor workmanship during the
original construction. The types of cracks that you will encounter during your inspections may include
horizontal movement cracks, vertical and diagonal movement cracks, step cracks, pyramid cracks and
shrinkage cracks.

Horizontal Movement Cracks usually are long, wide

cracks in mortar joints. These type of cracks usually occur along
the line of a floor, ceiling or along the lines of lintels over
windows. When these cracks turn the corner of a building, they
frequently rack down. Observe figure # 14 which clearly Figure 14
illustrates a typical horizontal movement crack and a racked-
down corner.

Racked-Down corners, as previously noted, occur when the horizontal movement cracks along the
side and the end of a building meet. Frequently horizontal
cracks not only continue around the corner of a building but they
will also form part of a diagonal step crack pattern that turns in
a downward direction and meets a similar crack from the other
side. When this happens you end up with a V pattern. The bricks
that are inside this V pattern are usually loose and must be reset.
The same type of failure also occurs with masonry block walls.

Step Cracks in and of themselves may not be a serious issue.

Some cracks are very serious while others are not. Generally
speaking when you see cracks that go through mortar joints
they are usually considered as less serious than cracks that go
directly through brick or block. Of course as with anything there Figure 15
are exceptions. In figure # 15 you can see a closeup of some
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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
serious step cracks that cut right though SPREI
brickwork. These type of step cracks warrant Parking
Figure 16
further evaluation by a structural engineer.

Diagonal cracks that crack at a 45 degree

angle directly through brickwork and block walls,
as well as through their mortar joints, are a
serious structural issue, and are always
structurally related. These types of cracks always
indicate that the wall in question has moved in
the past or has active movement now.

The diagonal crack shown in Figure # 16

shows such a true diagonal stress crack in an
exterior brick wall. The crack that you are looking
at is the result of a phenomenon called shear.
What this means is that when a solid material,
like a brick wall, is pushed or pulled enough it will
shear or break along a 45 degree angle and
shift to a new position.

Figure 17 Look closely at the next picture seen in figure # 17

and you can see that this same crack has been
patched and repaired previously - possibly multiple
times. Upon close scrutiny you can see that the
previously repaired diagonal crack has reopened.
This should leave only one conclusion in your mind,
and that is that perhaps this diagonal crack is still
moving. When your client asks you if it is still moving
you know that your only answer should be that the
client will now have to seek the help and advice of a
structural engineer.

Diagonal cracks occur when the bearing or the

foundation under a wall is not adequate. In many
such cases the wall will settle and sink at the weak
area. Conversely, adjacent wall areas that are
properly supported will resist the settlement
movement. As an inspector there is no way for you
to determine if such a crack is active or will open up
and move again. The best that you as a home
inspector can do is to point out any of the defects that
you see to your clients. And where you feel that it is warranted - suggest that a structural engineer be
called in to further evaluate visible structural concerns.

Vertical Cracks, such as seen in figure # 18, are most often related to wall failure below the crack.
In this picture you can see that the wall areas below the vertical crack have experienced a series of
multiple step cracks. What you can’t clearly see in this picture is a failed lintel below the step cracking,
which in my opinion likely precipitated the stress cracks and the structural failure.
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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
Vertical cracks can also occur near the ends
or offsets of buildings, as well as elsewhere in
Figure 18
➘ long brick walls. In these cases the cracks are
due to clay brick expansion. Long masonry walls
should be constructed with control joints for
cement products and expansion joints for brick
and other types of clay products. These types of
expansion joints are rarely, if ever, seen in
residential construction. A long clay brick wall
can get longer when the bricks expand and the
end results are vertical cracks. Figure # 19 is an
example of a vertical crack in a long brick wall
which had no expansion joints.

Figure 19

Figure 20

Similarly vertical cracks are often found

➘
in the party walls of attached brick row
houses. In this case the culprit may be
shrinkage of the vertical mortar joints
between the townhouses. Also culpable
would be a lack of maintenance to these
vertical joints. Open and deteriorated
mortar joints will allow in water with the

➘
end result of expansion of the joint. No
matter what the cause if you see something
like what is seen in figure # 20 point it out
to your clients.
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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
Shrinkage cracks are the fine hairline cracks that are found in mortar, as well as in concrete and
stucco walls. In most cases hairline cracks, or those that are not that much larger, can be directly related
to some normal shrinkage and contraction. The most noticeable ones are those running vertically, but
a close examination may also show them in the horizontal mortar beds of brick and block walls. Such
cracks under most circumstances should not be of any major structural concern.

B RICK V ENEER P ROBLEMS

Half wall brick veneer as seen in figure # 21 can sometimes

develop problems. When you have a brick veneer wall that
only extends part-way up a wall there is always the chance
of differential shrinkage and expansion in the wood framing
behind the wall and above the wall. What can really
exacerbate the problem is when newly installed bricks get
wet. Wet bricks expand irreversibly every time that they get
wet. Since bricks cannot compress, the upper framing which
is affected by this expansion may push down and outward.
Figure 21
This outward pressure and movement could cause the
brick veneer to kick outward. The illustration seen in figure #
21 is an example of this type of failure. The good news is that
this type of movement usually only takes place during the first few years of construction. In any event,
point out such movement to your clients, caution them to monitor for any future movement and a
possible need for repair work.
Figure 22
Poorly installed flashing is a major concern for brick
veneer walls. Of course we know that flashing is paramount
in any aspect of construction, and it is especially critical when
it comes to masonry
➘
Figure 23
wall construction.
When, as you can see
in figure # 22, the
flashing is faulty then
water can get behind
the brick veneer.
➘ Lifted and poorly
installed flashing as
seen in this picture
often is the precursor to failure problems with veneer brickwork.
Water is probably the greatest enemy of masonry walls and
therefore you as a home inspector must educate your
homebuying clients as to this, and to also discuss with them
proper maintenance and repairs that will avoid future problems
from water entry into the building.

Failed brick veneer walls can be the result of any number

of reasons. When a brick veneer wall pulls and separates
substantially from its inner wall connection, as seen in fig. # 23,
you can assume that perhaps the builder didn’t add sufficient
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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
metal ties or possibly did not use any at all, and/or that the metal ties deteriorated - for whatever
reasons.

In order for a brick veneer wall to remain stable it has to be properly attached and secured to the
wall behind it. As a home inspector you cannot see if the ties are in place and properly installed or if
they are damaged or defective. All you can do, if a client asks about the condition of the wall, is to
summize as to the possible cause.

One possible cause of older brick veneer wall failures would be what builders used to use for metal
ties. Years ago builders did not use metal ties but rather just used regular framing nails. The end results
are many of the bowed out veneer walls that we see today.

Many older brick veneer buildings suffer from excessive water intrusion. This often is the end result
of inadequate weep holes, or simply from aging and deterioration of the brickwork. When this
happens water/moisture can get to the metal ties and rust them out. This occurrence is very common
below openings such as windows and doors which are common leakage areas, particularly with
windows.

Inadequate brick shelfs are sometimes the cause of brick veneer wall failures. A brick veneer wall
must be adequately supported. Traditional construction usually consists of a foundation wall that was
built wider where the brick veneer is to be installed. This additional lip creates a shelf to support the
brick. Newer construction technology sometimes uses a metal bracket attached to the wood framed
wall , or better yet - installed directly into the foundation wall, in order to support the brick veneer wall.

LINTEL PROBLEMS

Inadequate, missing or damaged lintels will allow for cracking of

brickwork that is directly above or below the lintel area. Every section of Figure 24
brick veneer that is over a door or window must be properly supported.
Typically a steel angle iron (a piece of steel shaped like an L) will be
attached to the adjacent framing in order to support the brickwork over
a door or window. In an 8 inch solid brick wall, as seen in figure # 24,
a double steel lintel is used.
➘
➘
When the lintel is
missing, undersized or deteriorated
a pyramid crack pattern will form over
the window or door opening. Such sagging is also
associated with aging. Like us humans some lintels will sag
as they grow older. As a consequence the crack pattern
that develops from the sagged lintel will form a triangle
above the opening. Figure # 25 demonstrates such a
pyramid crack pattern associated with lintel problems.

Figure 25 A step crack pattern related to lintel problems may be

found extending down from the corner of a window sill to
a lintel or a door or window on a lower floor. Often the
cause of these cracks is due to past water entry into lintel
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13
 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
joints. These cracks vary in size from 1/8 to 3/8 of an
inch in width and tend to follow the mortar joints. In Figure 26
some instances the cracks may break through bricks
or other masonry units. Such a step crack pattern is
illustrated in figure # 26.

Now it is important to remember that some cracking

in brick veneer is to be expected, particularly in areas
considered as weak spots, i.e. door and wall openings.
Such cracking is common in most residential construction, and
in most cases are not considered as serious.

However, cracks that extend through large areas of masonry or

if there is evidence that the brick veneer has shifted away from the
underlying framework, are reasons to suspect that the stability of the wall has been compromised. As
such recommending a specialist, such as a structural engineer, would be an appropriate decision for
a home inspector to make.

Figure 27
In figure # 27 you see a step crack in a solid
brick wall of an apartment building. You will
notice that the step crack does not emanate
from a corner of the window lintel but rather it
starts almost halfway under the window concrete
lintel. In this case the cause of this step crack is
the failure of the lower horizontal concrete lintel
supporting the brickwork under the window.
You see that the step crack works its way down
to the right side of the lower lintel. Here you also
see that someone in the past has cemented up
the vertical joint in the concrete lintel. Additional
mortar repairs can be seen in the brick step
cracks.

Figure # 28 is a closeup shot of this Figure 28

step cracking. In this closeup picture of
the step cracking under this window
you can see that this is a major structural
crack. In some sections the width of the
open joints are at least 1 inch wide and
they cut right through the bricks. The
previous pointing up of these open joints
does not appear to have succeeded. In
this case it seems that the underlying
causes of the wall failure have not been
properly addressed. As a home
inspector explain to your clients the
seriousness of something like this, and
recommend that a structural engineer
be called in to evaluate the problem.
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 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)

A horizontal crack over a lintel often is a result of the metal lintel rusting up and expanding. Lintels
that rust up will eventually get larger because of the additional thickness of the rust. As lintels
progressively get thicker from their rust accumulations they start to spread apart the adjacent masonry
units. In time wide open lintel joints develop and adjacent masonry becomes damaged.

Figure 29 Figure # 29 shows

such an example. Here
the lintel is rusted and
expanded causing a
horizontal crack to
appear on both sides
(the left side is not shown
here but it also showed
a similar open horizontal
crack). And in addition,
the expansion of the
horizontal cracks have
caused a step crack
pattern to develop on
both sides of this rusted
lintel area.

As a point of interest never recommend to a client that the open masonry joints above and below
rusted metal lintels be sealed. Water needs to escape through these open joints. Sealing these open
joints only compounds the problem. However, repointing the ends of the lintels where they enter the
brick wall is ok. In the final analysis, if the lintel that you see is badly rusted up and damaged then
replacement of the lintel is probably the only best option.

Undersized and sagging Figure 30

lintels are also responsible for
horizontal cracks that appear in
masonry units that are being
supported by them. In the case of
what you see in figure # 30, we
have a sagged glass block wall
over a door that has a previously
patched horizontal crack. The
important lesson here is to
remember that all of the kings
men and all of the kings horses,
as well as all of the patching in the
world, cannot put this humpty,
dumpty wall back together again.
The recommendation here is that
the wall should be rebuilt with a
properly sized lintel to support it.
15
 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)

M ASONRY F ACADES

Ornamental masonry facades are

something that we often find on
detached garages of older residential
properties and small commercial
buildings. Figure # 31 is a prime
example of a badly failed brick facade
and ornamental concrete cornice
found on a small commercial building.

As you can see in this picture the

entire brick facade wall and its
concrete cornice looks like it is ready
to fall down on some unsuspecting
passerby. Check out the major wide
open mortar joints and the obviously
loose concrete cornice pieces.

Be quick to point out to your client

the need for immediate repairs to
anything that looks like this.
Unfortunately due to the tough
physical condition of this facade,
rebuilding would likely be needed
rather than just repairs. Also it is
equally important to tell your clients
that they should get cost estimates for

Figure 31

any work that would be required, preferably before they

buy the property. Repairs and rebuilding of something like
this is going to cost big bucks.

Usually masonry facade failure is due to the typical

lack of maintenance and repairs that often goes along
with high and out of the way areas of a building. However,
the cause of facade failures may be directly related to
some poor original construction. A great deal of the
facades that we come across are corbelled out to give
them a distinctive appearance. Often the problem with
the facade may be with the way that the corbel was built.

Corbelling consists of courses of brick set out beyond

Figure 32
the face of the wall. This type of construction is shown in
figure # 32. In corbelling, brick can be offset (corbelled)
(Continued on Next Page)
16
 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
only about 1 inch beyond the brick directly below it. The total amount of corbelling cannot exceed one-
third of the thickness of the entire wall.

Going beyond this limit may lead to structural failure. Sometimes a mason may get carried away
with his masterpiece and forget the basic rules required in corbelling. Often this is the case in those
failed facades that we come across.

WINDOW S ILLS

An interesting and sometimes forgotten Figure 33

area to check in masonry walls are the
window sills. When you have a masonry
building be sure to check to see if the window
sills have been installed correctly. Figure #
33 is a good example of how a window sill
should be installed in a masonry wall.
Window sills should be pitched down and
away from the window. In this illustration
you can see that the rowlock course is tilted
down in order to drain off water. Often we
find window sills that have been installed on
a flat surface with absolutely no pitch. When
sills lay flat they will tend to collect and hold
water. In time the brickwork will loosen up
and the window wood trim will rot out. During your inspections be sure to check for wood rot and for
deterioration in the brickwork and the mortar joints. Also point out to your clients if the brick window
sill does not pitch down and away from the window.

A NCHORING Figure 34

Stars, similar to the ones shown in figure # 34,

when seen on the outside of a brick building is a
signal that the building has had serious wall bowing
concerns in the past. These anchor plates tell you
that the walls have been tied back into the building.
Similar stars, to those that you see on the front of this
3 story brick townhouse, can also be seen on the
back wall of this building.

There are a variety of ways to stabilize a brick

wall, to relieve any movement pressure and to prevent
any further movement in these exterior walls. In
some cases, brick walls can be tied back into a
building using steel rods or pulleys which are
connected to steel anchor plates on the outside of
the building - both front and rear.

Another method (often used when the joists run

parallel to the brick wall) would be to bolt steel straps
(Continued on Next Page) 17
 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
to floor and roof joists. These straps extend through the wall
in the form of a bolt which is then tied into a metal washer
or a steel plate. The steel plate is then bolted into joists
or other framing which is capable of resisting the
outward pulling of the brick. An example of this can
be seen in figure # 35.

The exterior washer is often made of cast iron

Figure 35
fabricated in the form of a star, as seen in the closeup
shot in figure # 36. In this picture you can see that the
lintel under it is made up of the remains of an old and
original stone lintel and a newer
addition of a concrete lintel. In this Figure 36
case the original stone lintel had
failed and a major repair of the
lintel was made using concrete.
Similar repaired lintels were also
found on the exterior of this
building, both front and rear. It is
possible that the need for the star
treatment had something to do
with previous lintel failures in this
building.

A note of interest for our readers

is that stress concentrations are
dramatically increased when
weight is transferred from one
material to another. Most buildings
are constructed using different Figure 37
materials, and cracks tend to occur
in those areas where there is a
change in the structural system.
As an example, cracks will tend to
develop around stone window sills
and lintels surrounded by
brickwork. I have a feeling that is
exactly what happened in this
building.

Figure # 37 shows a brick arch

in a solid brick wall that has
experienced some movement. In
order to prevent any further
movement in the walls a tie - rod
system is employed. This system
consists of two steel rods which
are threaded on each end and
(Continued on Next Page) 18
 Masonr y Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
which are connected in the middle by a turnbuckle. Steel plates are threaded on the ends of each rod
and are located on the exterior as close to the arch as possible. Inside the building the steel rods are
concealed in the joist spaces between floors. In most cases the purpose of these tie - rod systems is
merely meant as a means to relieve the
force pushing on the walls, therefore Figure 38
the turnbuckles are only turned hand
tight. Looking at this picture you can see
where some past repairs have been
made in a step crack and which now
shows a slight hairline crack reopening.

When the problem with a wall is a

combination of both horizontal
movement, and ground settlement or
foundation problems than all the star
and steel plate work that can be done
will not correct the problem. What is
needed is a structural analysis by a
structural engineer in order to determine
the exact cause of the problem and to
decide the appropriate remediation for
it.

In figure # 38 we see a solid brick

wall that has shifted outward
dramatically, and which shows some
evidence of the past use of stars. This
particular building is located in the old
and staid neighborhood of the Beacon
Hill section of Boston. Most, if not all, of
these old brick buildings were built and
supported directly on wood piles, which
were sunk deep into the ground and
into the water table under the buildings. These old pillings for many years did their job of supporting
these high rise brick structures. Sometime in the 1980’s owners of these buildings started to notice signs
of cracks and evidence of settlement movement.

At first, repairs were made using stars and steel plates as described previously, in a vain attempt
at halting the unexpected and unprecedented movement in these buildings. When these methods
failed and the walls started to kick out, as seen in the previous picture, engineers decided to dig further
(no pun intended).

What they found, after digging down under these buildings, was that the support piles were rotting
out. The interesting point was not so much that they were rotting out, but why they were rotting out.
(Continued on Next Page)
19
 Masonry Wall Structures (Continued From Previous Page)
It was discovered that these wood support piles which had been buried in the ground water under
these buildings for all of these years had fallen victim to the cities deteriorating sewer drain system.
What the engineers uncovered was that the old city sewer drain lines were so badly deteriorated that
they were allowing ground water to drain into them, thereby drying out the sunken piles. Which in turn
allowed for the decay process to start.

We all know that a wood pilling, such as for a dock, when it remains submerged in water will not
rot out. But when you remove that protective cover of water then the wood pilling will rot out, and that
is exactly what happened in this part of the city.

In our next issue we will continue with a look at brick arches and the many problems associated
with them.

Some Reader Submitted Links for Masonry

Walls and Related Information
(Please note: All links found here are not from SPREI and the contents of most -if not all- of the
pages are usually copyrighted, and the links are presented here merely to illustrate what readers
have sent in for informative links. No claims are made about information on other people's or
organization's sites.)

Colorado Brick Council - What Is Masonry?

http://www.rmmi.org/WhatIsMasonry.html

Building America.Org - An online museum of all types of construction.

http://www.building-america.org/

Masonry Institute of Washington (Alot of information here)

http://www.masonryinstitute.com/

Design Guide for Structural Brick Veneer

http://www.masonryinstitute.com/struct_veneer/pp5-6.html

Case Study: Brick Wall Reconstruction and General Renovation of a 3-Story Building (Canada)
http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/imquaf/himu/bebufa_030.cfm

Masonry Construction Information from Integrated Publishing

(An EXCELLENT source for all types of construction information:
http://www.tpub.com/content/construction/14043/css/14043_207.htm

Main Integrated Publishing Site:

http://www.tpub.com
20
 TID BITS A Matter Of Ethics
One of my favorite classes during my undergraduate studies was a course called Ethics. And my
favorite philosopher was an 18th century German by the name of Immanuel Kant. Kant proposed
and developed a philosophical doctrine which is now referred to as Kantianism.

The basic premise of this ethical doctrine was what Kant called the Categorical Imperative. Simply
put it is a doctrine that says that one’s behavior should be governed by principles which one would have
govern the behavior of all people. Put in simple layman terms, it is a code of ethics which is based on
moral judgements and moral conduct. Put in even simpler terms it means being capable of making
a distinction between right and wrong behavior and conduct, and doing the right thing at all times.

All of the above brings me to the point of this writing. I recently received a phone call from a real
estate agent in upstate New York requesting information about a SPREI member. While I was on the
phone chatting with him I had one of the staff check the computer files for the name of the member.
While we were talking I asked him why the interest in this person. He responded that the individual
claiming to be a member of SPREI, also claimed to be a member of NAHI and ASHI. And that he
advertised in various real estate agent newsletters and magazines using all 3 inspection organization
logos.

I didn’t think that this was strange since we have many members who belong to various national
and state trade organizations. I told him that it was common for home inspectors to use as many
professional designations as possible in order to better market their home inspection services. Of
course only if they legitimately belonged to those organizations and did have such designations.

In a matter of minutes I found out that the individual we were discussing was in fact not a member
of SPREI, nor had he been a member for the past 3 years. After relaying this information to the real
estate agent, he then informed me that he had checked with ASHI and NAHI and found out that this
person also was not a member of either organization.

He then asked me if I would be willing to write a letter to the county Board of Realtors to inform them
of the misleading and fraudulent advertising. He informed me that the other two trade organizations
both had agreed to do the same. I said that I not only would do that but I would also call up this errant
individual and tell him to cease and desist in using our logo unless he wanted some legal action taken
against himself and his inspection company. Both of those offers were acted upon, and hopefully this
unscrupulous individual will mend his ways and follow the straight and narrow path. I personally tend
to think that this weasel will continue in some way or another to hustle and flim-flam the homebuying
public.

The bottom line was that this highly unethical individual and previous short-term member called
me directly to see if he could rejoin our organization. My answer to him was a short and curt - “ Thanks,
but no thanks!”

I NSPECTION T IP

When pulling up to a house that you are about to inspect and you notice that the roof of this house
looks like it is brand new, and recently installed, etc. - do yourself a big favor and don’t under any
(Continued on Next Page)
21
 TID BITS (Continued From Previous Page)
circumstances park in the driveway.

During a recent home inspection after driving into a circular driveway and getting out of the truck
I noticed to my horror that the driveway was loaded with discarded roofing nails. I couldn’t believe it.
It was like some nightmare where in my dream I had fallen into a snake pit full of venomous serpents.
I yelled out at the top of my lungs to make sure that anyone in the house could hear me, “What idiot
would leave all of these nails in a driveway.” There was no response from the house.

After checking my tires, I made sure that I picked up all the visible nails that I could find in front of
my truck and on the end of the driveway that I would be leaving from. I also carefully checked under
my truck and particularly around the truck tires for any additional errant nails.

After checking not once, but several more times to make sure that no additional nails were on the
driveway I carefully pulled out of it and parked on the street. Again I double-checked my tires for any
evidence of them going flat. Luckily I had missed the nails and had been spared the pain-in-the-ass
chore of changing my tires. This was nice since I only had one spare in my truck and with the amount
of nails in that driveway I could have easily had 4 flats.

When the agent came I made sure to warn her not to park on the driveway. After seeing all of the
nails she thanked me several times over. I also asked her why the owners allowed the roofers to leave
all of the spent nails in the driveway. The agent said that the owners had moved to California and were
unaware of any such problems. She then said that the owners had asked her to make arrangements
to have the roof stripped and then reroofed - of which she did.

Her final statement made me wish that I hadn’t warned her about all of those roofing nails in the
driveway, and the strong potential for her tires all going flat. She concluded the conversation by saying
that she would let her husband know about all of the nails that he had left in the driveway after he had
reroofed this house. She then smiled at me, oblivious to my pent up anger and unlocked the front door
of the house for me to start my inspection.

D UMB I DEAS

During the course of an inspection of a house with brick veneer siding I pointed out to the buyers
that all of the weep holes had been caulked shut. And then explained why this is a dumb idea. The
agent who had been listening intently to my discussion with the client interrupted me, and said that
she would call the owner at his office to find out why the holes had been sealed.

A few minutes later she came back with the answer that the owner had volunteered. According
to the owner, as relayed by the agent, he had caulked up the weep holes in the brick veneer after
watching a TV cable show on how to save energy. He said that after watching the show he was under
the impression that any holes or openings in the outside walls would allow costly energy to escape
from a house. So he went out and bought a caulking gun and several tubes of caulking, and caulked
up everything that he could see that was open, including all of the brick veneer weep holes.

I guess he not only made it energy tight, but also water tight. Unfortunately for his house, he made
it so water tight that any trapped moisture can no longer escape through the brick veneer wall. Real
Dumb! (Continued on Next Page)

22
 TID BITS (Continued From Previous Page)

A NALYZE T HIS

As usual we got a great response from our members to our last quiz. And also as usual our
members scored very high in their quiz results. However, one picture, as shown here, did provide for

some misinterpretation.
One thing that I have learned over the years is not to focus in 100% on the obvious. When you focus
in 100% on the obvious you often ignore other possible more critical clues, and thereby miss the real
problem. In some instances what appears to be the obvious problem may not really be the problem
at all, or may be only part of the problem. As such it is always best to look at something initially as a
whole and then to break it down into its various parts for further evaluation and analysis. This scientific
approach often can better determine what the real problem is. Such is the case with the above picture.

In this picture you can see that some amateur has badly cut and notched the wood framing in this
basement in order to install the new PVC drain. Every one of you that submitted your quiz for evaluation
got this part right. However, the majority of you missed the other and perhaps more important, or at
least equally important problem. Take another good look at this picture. Do you now see what the
problem is?

The amateur who cut the framing also installed the plumbing Y fitting in the wrong direction. The
fitting should have been installed in the direction of the drain line and not in the direction of the cleanout
cap. I hate to be the guy that has to open up that cleanout cap in the future.

With that in mind remember that during your home inspections to take your time, don’t rush to
conclusions, and to fully analyze the whole, as well as all of its parts, in order to come up with the correct
and complete answer to the problem.
23
SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL REAL ESTATE INSPECTORS
M E M B E R S H I P A P P L I CA T I O N
Name (Please Print) Date:

Company
Address
City State Zip
Home Phone Business Phone
Fax Phone E-Mail Address
Annual Dues: ❏
$205.00 First Year, ❏ $95.00 Per Year Thereafter ™
(Check One) ❏ $75.00 Per Year at 5 tthh Year - Registered Senior Members
❏ $60.00 Per Year at 10 Year - Lifetime Charter Members
Please enclose a resume and your check payable to:
SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL REAL ESTATE INSPECTORS Society of Professional
Real Estate Inspectors
993 Summer Street, Lynnfield MA 01940 NLSO03

NEXT ISSUE
STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS - PART X - SIDEWALLS
T h e November - December i s s u e o f t h e S P R E I B u l l e t i n w i l l c o n t i n u e w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r a l i n s p e c t i o n s
of exterior walls of buildings. We will complete our reporting on brick arches and then continue
on with wood framed exterior walls. As usual we will also include other inspection topics of
general interest.

NOTE: The SPREI Bulletin is free to all SPREI Members. If you would like to receive the SPREI Bulletin then join us today!
The SPREI Bulletin is but one of the many benefits of membership in the Society of Professional Real Estate Inspectors!

B ACK T O S CHOOL
For those of you wishing to increase your inspection insights and understandings of the inspection
profession SPREI will be offering a series of five day instructional programs.
These five day training programs are intensive educational encounters with several different faculty
members of the SPREI staff. All instructors are practicing home inspectors as well as specialists in their
respective fields of heating-air conditioning, etc. Classes are held Monday through Friday and a variety
of inspection topics are covered in-depth. Emphasis is always on what the student really needs and
wants, and typically topics covered are heavy in heating, air conditioning, electrical, and the various
other mechanical systems as well as legal issues, report writing and marketing skills needed to succeed
in the inspection business.
The five day program includes most of the SPREI library as well Classes will be held on the
as inspection contracts, report writing formats and inspection
field-notes - basically everything that one would need to start a following dates:
business.
November 10th through November14th
COSTS FOR THE FIVE DAY PROGRAMS ARE: November 24th through November 28th
Members: $1,200 Non-Members: $1,495 December 1st through December 5th

Interested persons should call or write to reserve space in the program. December 15th through December 19th

24