Personal identity

Identity or Identification means establishment of individuality of person. In medico legal cases

identification is very important in living as well as in dead.
1. In living persons: The identification is necessary of persons accused of any crime , such as murder, rape,
assault , in absconding soldiers in cases of inheritance, or adults who have lost memory.

2. In dead persons: Identification is important in cases of Mutilated, decomposed or fragmentary remains

of body such as in cases of bomb explosions, fire, air crash building collapse, railway accidents or bodies
recovered from sea rivers, canals, wells, or in mutilated bodies as already mentioned.

Complete identification means absolute fixation of individuality of a person and determination of exact
place in the community occupied by him whereas, partial identification means ascertainment of only some
facts about identity and others remain still unknown. E.g. identified as a male, Muslim, about 40 years of
age, about 6 feet height, but where about regarding his family, occupation etc are not known. The methods
of determination of personal identity are:
1. Third party method 2. Subjective method 3. Objective method

THIRD PARTY METHOD: It is most commonly used method. There are essentially two principal parties
during any medical examination i.e. an examinee and a medical examiner. If a relative or a friend is
accompanying the examinee, he is the third party of the case. Personal identity of the examinee is verified
by his relative or friend and his name, national identity card No; and relationship with the examinee is
entered in the medical certificate to establish personal identity of the examinee.

SUBJECTIVE METHOD: This method is applicable when third party is missing, here the examiner will
collect the physical data of examinee such as height, weight, congenital malformations, shape of nose eyes,
lips, chin, teeth, colour of iris, finger prints. These parameters can be classified by relating them to anatomy,
physiology and even genetics.
Anatomical parameters which are further divided in to primary, which are present at the time of birth and
secondary which develop subsequently at various stages of life such as cataract, arcus senilis in the eye due
to old age.
Physiological parameters, such as gait, voice, tone and manner of speech.
Pathological parameters, related to contracted diseases such as eczema, scar etc.

OBJECTIVE METHOD: here utilization of morphological and belongings data is analysed.

The points to be noted for identification:-
1. Race 2. Sex 3. Age 4. Complexion and Features.

5. Hair.
6. a) Anthropometry or Bertillon’ system. (Bertillonage).
b) Dactlylography or Galton’s system of Finger Prints (Galtonage).

c) Lucards System or Poroscopy.

d) Portrait Parley System e) Lip prints.
7. Foot Prints 8. Deformities and birth marks 9. Scars.
10. Tattoo marks 11. Occupational marks. 12. Hand Writing.

13. Clothes, ornaments and articles in pocket. 14. Speech, Voice, accent and language.
15. Gait. 16. Manners and Habits. 17. Mental power, memory and education.
18. Stature and weight. 19. Teeth, Dentures, filled cavities. 20. Dr. Sirinivas method.

21. Genetics. 22. Miscellaneous data.

 Medico legal aspects of hurt
There are different classifications given for injuries. Medico-legal classification is based on three grounds:
severity, mode of death and moment of death. Injuries based on severity: simple and grievous injuries,
based on mode of death: suicidal, homicidal and accidental injuries and based on moment of death: ante-
mortem and postmortem.

Incised injuries are made by sharp edged weapons and have clear cut separation of tissues. Length of the
injury is greater than the depth. The medico legal importance of incised wounds are:

1. The nature of weapon can be confirmed to be sharp edged.

2. Determination of the age of injury was possible.

3. The direction of application force can be determined from the tail of the wound.

4. Homicidal incised wounds are frequent.

Abrasion injuries are blunt force injuries and results in the destruction of superficial layers of epidermis. A
pure abrasion rarely bleeds and it is a two dimensional injury. The medico legal significances are as follows:

1. Age of the injury can be determined.

2. Pattern abrasion can help us identify the type of weapon used.

3. Abrasions on the face of suspect can indicate struggle.

4. Suicidal abrasions are rare. They are often seen in accidents and homicides.

Lacerations are tearing or splitting of skin, mucous membrane or internal organs. This is caused by blunt
force on the body tissue or skin. Lacerations are three-dimensional and the margins are uneven and
irregular. Following are the medico legal aspects:

1. These injuries can indicate the shape of the blunt weapon.

2. Determining age in uninfected lacerations is quite useful.

3. Foreign bodies found in the wound site might help us reconstruct the circumstances during the
commission of crime.

4. These wounds are generally seen in accidents and assaults.

5. Lacerations are generally considered grievous injuries.

Stab wounds are mechanical injuries where the depth is the greatest dimension when compared to the length
and breadth. They can be produced by knives, dagger and sword. The medico legal aspects of such wounds
are:

1. Stab wounds are majorly homicidal or suicidal. Accidental wounds are very infrequent.

2. The depth of the wound shall signify the penetration force.

3. Age of the injury can be estimated.

4. Shape of the wound helps to classify the type and class of weapon. For example, the length, width
and thickness of the weapon, whether it is single edged or double edged are the characteristics
studied.

Burn injuries are those that are produced on the body by the application of dry heat like flame, fire or
radiation. Medico-legal aspects of this category of injury are:

1. Presence of smoke in the respiratory passage of the victim indicates he or she was alive when fire
started.

2. Raised carboxyhaemoglobin in the blood. The percentage often exceeds 10%.

3. Presence of red line in the region adjacent to the burns.

A contusion is an effusion of the blood into the tissue due to the rupture of vessels, especially capillaries.
They are caused as a result of blunt force trauma.

1. Self-inflicted bruises are rare.

2. Contusions can be homicidal, suicidal or accidental.

3. Shape and size of bruise is similar to the nature of the weapon.

4. Age of the injury can be determined.

Firearm wounds include both the entrance and exit wounds. The wounds vary in shape and size depending
on the range of shooting, velocity of projectile and target site. Medico-legal aspects of firearm injuries
include:

1. Suicidal firearm wounds are often indicated by the firearm in the hands of the victim due to
cadaveric spasm.

2. Accidental firearm injuries are rare in occurrence.

 3. Nature of the firearm can be determined. For instance, whether it is smooth bore or rifled.

4. Homicidal or suicidal injuries are common.

5. Range and direction of firing can be calculated.

When electric current passes through the body, it causes various effects such as muscular spasms, contact
burns or severe charring. These are the effects of electrocution and some of their medico-legal aspects are:

1. Suicidal electrocution is rare but might occur in mentally unsound people.

2. Homicidal electrocutions are more frequent. Electrocution via occurs through accidents.

For instance, circuit may pass through any of the limbs to the head and lead to paralysis of respiratory
centre.

3. The site of entrance may be diagnosed histochemically by seeing deposition of metal particles on
the skin.

4. An arm to arm circuit or left arm to either leg involves heart. Death occurs due to ventricular
fibrillation or cardiac arrest without fibrillation.

Simple injury or hurt causes bodily pain, disease or infirmity to any person for a short period and it does
not endanger life. On contrary, grievous hurt is caused by certain conditions as mentioned under Section
320 of IPC.

Under Section 320 of IPC, grievous hurt is constituted by the following:

1. Emasculation

2. Losing the ability to see by either eye permanently

3. Losing the power of hearing of either ear permanently

4. Privation of any member or joint

5. Destruction or permanent impairment of power of any member or joint

6. Deformation of head or face permanently

7. Bone or tooth getting fractured or dislocated

8. Any hurt which endangers life or which causes severe pain to the individual or he is unable to do his daily
activities for 20 days

The medico-legal opinion with respect to injuries should contain the whole description and an opinion
regarding its legal state. These opinions help the court of law to decide the seriousness of the crime and
also in sentence evaluation of the suspect.

PRESUMPTION OF SURVIVORSHIP
“Section - 107. Burden of proving death of person known to have been alive within thirty years- when
the question is whether a man is alive or dead, and it is shown that he was alive within thirty years, the
burden of proving that he is dead is on the person who affirms it.”

It has been laid down under Section 107 of the Evidence Act that if a person is proved to have been living
within 30 years it shall be presumed that he is alive and the burden of proving he is dead lies on that person
who affirms that he is dead. This section provides that if it appears that a person, whose present existence
is in question, was alive within 30 years, and nothing whatever appears to suggest the probability of his
being dead, the court is bound to regard the fact of his still being alive as proved.

In the case of Surjit Singh v. Jhujhar Singh, honourable Supreme Court held if A was alive on 24th May,
1960, it shall be presumed that he was not dead on 24 th May, 1970. The appellant has alleged that A was
dead on that date. The onus to prove that fact shall be on appellant.

The presumption is not a very strong one. It may be rebutted by slight evidence to the contrary, e.g., person
not being heard alive for seven years. The court may not act upon it until positive proof of the person being
still alive is offered.
 HANDWRITING
Handwriting analysis involves a comprehensive comparative analysis between a questioned document and
known handwriting of a suspected writer. Specific habits, characteristics, and individualities of both the
questioned document and the known specimen are examined for similarities and differences.

1. Analysis - The first step is to analyze the known writing sample and the unknown writing sample
for distinctive characteristics. The examiner looks for unique qualities such as letters and word
spacing, letter and word slant, size and proportionality of letters, unusual formations of letters,
flourishes, and other individual attributes.
2. Comparison - The next step is to differentiate elements from the known sample to those of the
unknown sample. The examiner considers spelling, grammar, punctuation, and phraseology as well.
3. Evaluation - The final step is to evaluate the similarities in the known and unknown samples. While
differences are a good indication of a non-match, no single similar characteristic, no matter how
unique, can determine a match. Therefore, all likenesses must be considered. The examiner must
make a judgment in each case by evaluating the totality of the documents.

Example

The handwriting examples below are from two different writers. Structural differences (1) can be seen from
the letter formations by each writer. Connecting strokes to letters (2) and slant (3) are visible and differ
from each writer’s distinctive style. In addition, baseline alignment (4) is considerably unique whereas one
writer consistently writes on the baseline and the other repeatedly deviates below the baseline.
 PRESUMPTION OF DEATH
Section l08 lays down that when it is proved that a person has not been heard of for 7 years by those who
would naturally have heard of him if he had been alive the burden of proving that he is living is shifted to
the person, who affirms it, i.e., if a person has not been heard of for seven years, there is a presumption of
law that he is dead. But at what time within that time he died is not a matter of presumption, but of evidence,
and the onus of proving that the death took place at any particular time within seven years lies upon the
person who claims a right to the establishment of which that fact is essential. In other words, presumption
of death does not extend to the date of death.

In the case of Lal Chand v. Ramrup Gir, Privy Council held that “there is only one presumption, and
that is that when these suits were instituted in 1916, A was no longer alive. There is no presumption at all
as to the time he died. That, like any other fact, is a matter of proof.”

WOULD HAVE NATURALLY HEARD- Where a person is absconding from justice in order to evade
a trial upon a charge of murder he would not communicate with any relations in the natural course of
events, because to do so would reveal his whereabouts and he might be arrested by the police and
prosecuted. In such a case no presumption can arise. Section 108 would not apply because in that case his
relations would not hear of him naturally.
In case of simultaneous death, when two individuals perish in a common calamity and the question arises
who dies first, in the absence of evidence on the point, there is no presumption in evidence act that the
younger survived the elder. Such a question always a pure question of fact, the onus probandi lying on
party who asserts the affirmative. Though Section 21 of Hindu Succession Act, 1956, provides that for
the purpose of succession, in case of simultaneous death, it shall be presumed that younger survived the
elder, until contrary is proved.

The meaning of these two sections will be clear by taking examples:

The question arises when A died. No proof about the exact date of death is available. This question arose
in 1950. One of the parties tiles the deed of mortgage executed by A in 1922. Now for the time being upon
the proof of this fact it will be presumed that A was alive on the date of the suit and the burden shifts to the
other side who tries to prove otherwise. Now the other side who tries to prove that A was dead adduces
evidence that nothing was heard about A by the members of his family, his relations and friends since 1942.
This evidence being led presumption about A's being alive will be changed and it shall be presumed that
he is dead. Now if the other party wants to prove that he is alive he may succeed only if he proves by direct
evidence that A is alive. It is clear that if a man is said to be alive between 30 years, he may be presumed
to be alive on the date of issue unless and until it is proved that he has not been heard of for more than 7
years by those who must have heard of him had he been alive and the moment this fact is proved, the
presumption about the person being alive is lost, to the contrary it is presumed that he is dead.
In the case of LIC of India v. Anuradha, where the respondent’s husband was missing from past 7 years,
not being heard as alive, question arose to when the sum due on insurance is payable. For that, the
respondents contested that her husband is to be presumed to be dead as on the date of disappearance,
therefore, the sum is payable even when premium payment was not made after date of disappearance. It
was alleged by appellant that the insured is presumed to be dead on the date of expiry of seven years from
the date of disappearing. The supreme court, while allowing the appeal said, “Though it will be presumed
that the person is dead but there is no presumption as to the date or time of death. There is no presumption
as to the facts and circumstances under which the person may have died. The presumption as to death by
reference to Section 108 would arise only on lapse of seven years and would not by applying any logic or
reasoning be permitted to be raised on expiry of 6 years and 364 days or at any time short of it. The burden
of proof would lay on the person who makes assertion of death having taken place at a given date or time
in order to succeed in his claim.”

FOOT DEFORMITIES

Bunions (Hallux Valgus)

Bunions can be a very painful foot deformity. They more commonly occur in women and can result from
wearing ill-fitting shoes, which put awkward pressure on the foot. This causes inflammation and irritation,
and causes the bones in and near the big toe to change position.

In a bunion, a hard, bony lump forms on the side of the foot at the base of the big toe. The toe begins to
lean inward and to point toward the other toes. Pain develops along the side or bottom of the feet (which is
often worse when walking and wearing shoes).

Treatments can vary, depending on the severity of the condition. Your orthopedist may recommend shoe
inserts (orthotics) or surgery for severe cases.

Hammertoe, Claw Toe, and Mallet Toe

Hammertoe usually affects the second toe on the foot (next to the big toe) and causes the joint to remain
bent in a “hammer” shape, with the middle joint pointing upward. Claw toe is similar, and it most
frequently develops in older women. The toes bend downward in the shape of a claw.

Mallet toe can affect any toe on the foot, causing the joint closest to the toenail to bend downward. Claw
toe may be related to underlying medical conditions, but hammertoe and mallet toe are most frequently
caused by wearing tight or ill-fitting shoes.

Flatfoot (Pes Planus)

Typically, we are born with flat feet, and our bones and joints become flexible as we develop and grow.
Flexible flatfoot is when the arches of the feet disappear when standing (so the feet appear flat) but reappear
when sitting. The condition is often outgrown with no residual problems, and most children won’t
experience any symptoms associated with flatfoot.

If you have flatfoot, it can become painful. If orthotics and arch supports do not help, your orthopedic
doctor may recommend surgical options.

High Arches (Pes Cavus)

A high arch is defined as when the sole of the foot is distinctly raised or hollow in appearance when bearing
weight. It can be a result of a hereditary condition or can be a symptom of an underlying neurological,
orthopedic, or neuromuscular condition.

It is not as common as flatfoot, but it can be a painful condition due to the compression of the metatarsal
bones – and it can lead to limited function. Treatments such as physical therapy may be all that is required,
but if symptoms are severe, surgery may be required
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WOUNDS INFLICTED-DURING LIFE AND AFTER DEATH

 There is more or less copious haemorrhage in all wounds. The effused blood is forced into
the tissue interspaces in the vicinity of the wounds, and is found infiltrated into the cellular
and muscular tissues.
 There is consequent staining of the edges of the wounds and the neighbouring tissues, which
cannot be removed by washing, but the staining caused by the blood effused from post-
mortem wounds is easily removed by washings.
 Inhaled blood will be found in the lungs and bronchi, if the area of haemorrhage
communicates with the bronchial tree. There will be clots of effused blood in the wounds
and tissues, and in the neighbourhood of the body.
 Clotting of the blood normally occurs in about four to ten minutes. There will also be signs
of spouting of arterial blood on the body, or in its vicinity. In a contusion ecchymosis,
absorption, changes in the colour and a swelling of the neighbouring tissue will be present.
 On dissection coagulated blood will be found in the subcutaneous tissues. Retraction of
Edges of the Wound will be present if caused in life. Likewise Signs of Inflammation and
Reparative Processes will be present if made during life.
A bruise produced during life shows
1.Swelling
2.Colour changes (If the person survives for sometime)
3. Coagulation (Clotting) of the extravasated blood in the subcutaneous tissues and muscle fibres.
These signs are absent if the bruise is produced after death.

TATOO MARKS

https://www.slideshare.net/DrKhushaliJoshi/medicolegal-importance-of-tattoo-marks-in-
forensic-victim-identification
 DACTYLOGRAPHY
Identification of a criminal or some other person using finger prints is known as Dactylography.
Dactylography comes from two Greek words, daktylos meaning finger and graphein meaning to write.
This method of identification is also called Dectyloscopy. Introduction of methods to record, lift and
develop the prints under various conditions has led to the advancement in the Forensics sciences. Studying
finger prints is a much reliable, infallible and absolute method of identification.

Finger prints have been a very effective method of developing identity of the individual since long.
Fingerprints play a critical role in investigating criminals because the court law consider fingerprints as a
conclusive evidence. It is considered as one of the most accurate method of identification of any person.

This method is the cheapest and works by using patterns found on the fingertips. Ridge pattern of two
persons can never be same. Moreover, there is no change in an individual’s finger print throughout life.
There are various methods of recording fingerprints. This can be done by using standard fingerprint card.

Fingerprints can also be recorded digitally in order to transmit them electronically to the fingerprint
department for the purpose of comparison. Comparing fingerprints at the crime scene with the recorded
fingerprints of suspected people has proved to be beneficial to establish the identity or presence of a person
at the crime scene.

The assertion that people can be identified by their fingerprints is supported by the friction ridge
identification philosophy. According to this, the friction ridge identification is made by the agreement of
friction ridge formations which have sufficient uniqueness. Person’s identification is categorized into two
types i.e. Complete and Partial identification.

Most of the time, the identification of a dead body becomes difficult. This difficulty especially occurs in
case of intensely decomposed bodies or the bodies that are mutilated. Such cases require the partial
identification done by forensic expert to be arrived at a certain conclusion. Edward Henry explained
different fingerprint patterns.

He described the three basic patterns – arches, loops and whorls which were sub-divided into eight basic
patterns afterwards. These patterns are used by the FBI these day. Fingerprints are classified into three
categories by the analysts, depending upon the type of surface containing them and the extent of their
visibility.

Fingerprints are in the form of three-dimensional plastic prints when found on soft surfaces like soap, wax,
wet paint etc. and can either be visible or invisible prints on a hard surface. Visible prints are formed when
blood, dirt, ink, paint, etc., is transferred from a finger or thumb to a surface. Latent prints are formed when
the body’s natural oils and sweat on the skin are deposited onto another surface.

Latent prints can be found on a variety of surfaces; however, they are not readily visible and detection often
requires the use of fingerprint powders, chemical reagents or alternate light sources. Generally speaking,
the smoother and less porous a surface is, the greater the potential that any latent prints present can be
found and developed. Patent prints are collected using a fairly straightforward method: photography. These
prints are photographed in high resolution with a forensic measurement scale in the image for reference.
 WOUNDS
A WOUND IS an injury that causes either an internal or external break in body tissue. An open wound (as in a
knife cut) is a break in the skin or mucous membrane.

The most common accidents resulting in open wounds are falls, mishandling of sharp objects, accidents with tools
or machinery, and car accidents.

A closed wound (a contusion or internal bleeding) is a bruise that damages the underlying tissue without breaking
the skin (as in a black eye).

There are at least five different types of open wounds:

Abrasions: An abrasion is a skin wound caused by rubbing or scraping the skin against a hard, rough surface.
Bleeding in this type of wound is usually limited, but it is important that the skin be cleaned in order to guard against
infection.

Incisions: An incision is a cut caused by a knife, the rough edge of metal, broken glass, a razor blade or some other
sharp object. This type of wound generally bleeds rapidly and heavily. If the cut is deep, muscles, tendons and
nerves may be damaged.

Lacerations: A laceration is a jagged, irregular or blunt breaking or tearing of soft tissues, often resulting from
mishandling tools and machinery and other accidents. Bleeding from a laceration may be rapid and extensive.

Punctures: A puncture is a piercing wound that causes a small hole in the tissues. Such objects as nails, needles, ice
picks and other pointed objects can produce puncture wounds. Even if external bleeding is slight, there may be
serious internal bleeding resulting from internal damage to an organ (as in a gunshot wound). All puncture wounds
require the attention of a health professional because of the danger of tetanus.

Avulsions: An avulsion is a forcible tearing or partial tearing away of tissues. It occurs in such accidents as gunshot
wounds, explosions, animal bites or other body-crushing injuries. Bleeding is heavy and rapid.

If a body part (a finger, tooth or toe, for example) has been torn away in an accident, it should always be sent along
with the victim to the hospital (placed on moistened gauze and cooled), since there is a possibility that it can be
reattached.

Treatment

First Aid

When a cut is located on a certain part of the body, such as the lips or eyelids, or a part of the body that bends and
puts stress on the cut, a physician may need to place stitches or sutures to close the wound. In general, sutures are
used to hold the two edges of a wound together so that healing can occur with a minimum of scarring. Also, they
might be required if the wound is deep and tends to gape widely, or if the bleeding cannot be controlled after 20
minutes of direct pressure. The physician will often inject some local anesthetic (numbing medicine) to the area
around the wound so that suturing will be less painful. Generally, if a cut is less than one half an inch long, not deep,
or the edges of the skin tend to fall together, then sutures may not be needed. Some physicians may use a skin glue
(DermaBond) to close small wounds, especially in children. Puncture wounds that stop bleeding rapidly present
special problems. Such wounds can become infected easily and may harbor tetanusbacteria (lockjaw).

Infection
After an injury that causes a break in the skin or after an operation, various wound infections may occur. The wound
may be red, tender, painful or produce pus.

One type of infection is cellulitis (inflammation of the skin caused by bacteria). Another is gangrene, which can
result in death or decay of tissues. Necrotizing subcutaneous infection is a severe infection caused by bacteria that
infect the tissue through wounds. "Gas gangrene" results when a wound becomes infected by certain bacteria,
usually Clostridium.
 GAIT
According to Birch et al. the forensic gait analysis can be defined as "the identification of a person or
persons by their gait or features of their gait, usually from closed-circuit television (CCTV) footage and
comparison to footage of a known individual." It means the main source of comparison is the CCTV footage
and other videos that can be used in the analysis process. In other words, it is the visual comparison of the
videos to identify the individual based on gait patterns. This knowledge has been used in the crime scene
investigation, particularly to identify the criminal or perpetrator from the characteristics of the gait pattern.
Many forensic cases have been solved, and the criminals have been convicted based on forensic gait
analysis throughout the world.[2][18] Presently, Drs. Michael Nirenberg and Christine Miller in the USA,
Dr. Nicholas Harris in Canada, and Professor Ivan Birch, Dr. Jai Saxelby, Dr. Jeremy Walker in the
UK regularly practice forensic gait analysis.

Indirect Forensic Significance

The forensic gait analysis may additionally help in the estimation of stature and sex of the
person,[2][19] estimation of body weight,[19] estimation of the number of people involved by measuring
and evaluating step length/stride length if a series of footprints or gait patterns are available for analysis.
The gait analysis may also help comment upon the type of footwear used, the use of any walking aid or
support (like a walking stick), underlying disease/disorder/medical condition affecting the gait, etc.

Clinical Significance

Clinical gait analysis helps assess and treat individuals with pathological and/or underlying neurological
conditions that may affect their ability to walk. With the help of gait analysis, podiatrists, neurologists, and
orthopedic surgeons usually diagnose the issues related to the cause of pain, such as muscles, nerves, and
skeletal problems, consequently initiate the treatment for correction of the gait-related abnormalities and
develop rehabilitation protocols.[20][21] Gait analysis is being used in several fields, including sports
science, rehabilitation and recovery medicine, kinesiology, and orthopedics.

Go to:

Other Issues

Limitations of forensic gait analysis and criticism about its admissibility in the court of law

In the present era, due to the paradigm shift in forensic science, there is an increased focus on the reliability,
accuracy, quality of evidence, and its admissibility in the court of law. Forensic gait analysis has also
witnessed criticism regarding its reproducibility, reliability, lack of proper standards, and rules of forensic
practice.[7]

Gait pattern or walking pattern is highly affected by various parameters mentioned above, so it brings the
investigating officer into a situation that requires consideration of several factors, which is practically not
possible to identify the single suspect. Another limitation of gait pattern analysis is that we do not have
databases that can be used for gait comparison. Gait pattern shows high intra-individual variability. It means
that a person's gait is highly variable on different occasions and scenarios, which makes it difficult to
identify the person.[22] Moreover, the experts are not following any prescribed standard protocol for the
analysis of gait; consequently, there are variations in the methodology used for the analysis, which creates
confusion amongst the judges and jury to decide the cases based on this parameter of identification.[4]
 FINGERPRINTS
https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-2463-fingerprints-a-forensic-tool-for-criminal-
investigation.html#:~:text=The%20science%20of%20fingerprinting%20is,as%20reliable%20piec
e%20of%20evidence.

POST MOTERM EXAMINATION

http://lhmc-
hosp.gov.in/WriteReadData/l892s/PATIENT%20ADVOCACY%20Forensic%20Medicine%2006
%2005%2016.pdf

OCCUPATIONAL MARKS
file:///C:/Users/JASMINE/Downloads/1946-Article%20Text-3627-1-10-20210327.pdf

EXAMINATION OF INJURED PERSONS

https://www.slideshare.net/DrRanjitRathod/110216-examination-of-a-injured-personconverted

NARCO ANALYSIS TEST

The term Narco-analysis is derived from the Greek word narkç (meaning "anesthesia" or "torpor") and is
used to describe a diagnostic and psychotherapeutic technique that uses psychotropic drugs, particularly
barbiturates, to induce a stupor in which mental elements with strong associated affects come to the surface,
where they can be exploited by the therapist. The term Narco-analysis was coined by Horseley. This test
involves the intravenous administration of a drug (such as sodium pentothal, scopolamine and sodium
amytal) that causes the subject to enter into various stages of anaesthesia. In the hypnotic stage, the subject
becomes less inhibited and is more likely to divulge information, which would usually not be revealed in
the conscious state.

Admissibility of Narco-analysis in the court

While Narco-analysis yielded an immense amount of information, it also triggered off many questions as
several critics shared profound sense of skepticism over the administration of serum on the witness to
extract truth. Narco-analysis is considered as a tool or aid in collecting and supporting evidence. However
doubts are raised whether it amounted to testimonial compulsion in judiciary and violation of human right,
individual liberty and freedom. Lawyers are divided on whether the results of Narco-analysis and P300
tests are admissible as evidence in courts, as they claim that confessions made by a semiconscious person
is not admissible in court. A Narco-analysis test report has some validity but is not totally admissible in
court, which considers the circumstances under which it was obtained and assessed its admissibility.
Results of such tests can be used to get admissible evidence, can be collaborated with other evidence or to
support other evidence. But if the result of this test is not admitted in a court, it cannot be used to support
any other evidence obtained the course of routine investigation.
In India, Narco-analysis was first used in 2002 in the Godhra carnage case. It was also in the news after
the famous Arun Bhatt kidnapping case in Gujarat wherein the accused had appeared before NHRC and
the Supreme Court of India against undergoing the Narco-analysis. It was again in the news in the Telgi
stamp paper scam when Abdul Karim Telgi was taken to the test in December 2003. Though in the case
of Telgi, immense amount of information was yielded, but doubts were raised about its value as evidence.
Narco-analysis was in the limelight in the context of infamous Nithari village (Noida) serial killings. The
two main accused in the Nithari serial killings Mohinder Singh Pandher and Surendra Kohli have
undergone Narco-analysis tests in Gandhinagar in Gujarat.
Criticism of Narco-analysis test
Narco-analysis has been criticized on the ground that it is not 100% accurate. It has been found hat certain
subjects made totally false statements.. It is often unsuccessful in eliciting truth as such it should not been
used to compare the statement already given to the police before use of drug. It has been found that a person
who has given false information even after administration of drug. It is not much help in case of malingers
or evasive, untruthful person. It is very difficult to suggest a correct dose of drug for a particular person.
The dose of drug will differ according to will power, mental attitude and physique of the subject. Successful
Narco-analysis test is not dependent on injection. For its success a competent and skilled interviewer is
required who is trained in putting recent and successful questions. Narco-analysis test is a restoration of
memory which the suspect had forgotten. This test result may be doubtful if the test is used for the purposes
of confession of crimes. Suspects of crimes may, under the influence of drugs, deliberately withhold
information or may give untrue account of incident persistely.10Narco-analysis is not recommended as an
aid to criminal investigation. In medical uses like in treatment of psychiatric disorder the Narco-analysis
may be useful. Unless the test is conducted with the consent of the suspect it should not be used in criminal
investigation.
 DNA FINGERPRINTING

DNA fingerprinting is a method used to identify an individual from a sample of DNA by looking at unique
patterns in their DNA. DNA fingerprinting was invented in 1984 by Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys after he
realised you could detect variations in human DNA, in the form of these minisatellites. DNA fingerprinting
is a technique that simultaneously detects lots of minisatellites in the genome to produce a pattern unique
to an individual. This is a DNA fingerprint. The probability of having two people with the same DNA
fingerprint that are not identical twins is very small. Just like your actual fingerprint, your DNA fingerprint
is something you are born with, it is unique to you.

POLYGRAPH TEST & NHRC GUIDELINES OF ADMINISTRATION OF POLYGRAPH TEST

Lie Detection is a psycho-biological test to check the veracity of statements on computerized equipment
known as a lie-detector or polygraph. Lie Detector is a machine that measures human response to questions,
measures a lot of psychological emotions or anxiety to estimate that whether the subject is being truthful
or not.
The lie detector measures the following autonomic nervous system activities in the form of graphs: (i)
Abdominal respiration (ii) Thoracic respiration (iii) Galvanic skin resistance (GSR) (iv) Blood
pressure/pulse rate (v) Muscular pressure (vi) Finger pulse (vii) Skin temperature

NHRC Guidelines:
The National Human Rights Commission vide letter no. 117/8/97–8 dated 11/01/2000 has issued guidelines
regarding administration of Polygraph Test to accused persons. The investigating officers are advised to
follow the guidelines scrupulously. The Commission, after bestowing it’s careful consideration on this
matter of great importance has laid down the following guidelines relating to the administration of Lie
Detector Tests:

(i) No Lie Detector Test should be administered except on the basis of consent of accused. An option should
be given to the accused whether he wishes to avail such test.
(ii) If the accused volunteers for a Lie Detector Test, he should be given access to a lawyer and the physical,
emotional and legal implications of such a test should be explained to him by the police and his lawyer.
(iii) The consent should be recorded before a Judicial Magistrate.
(iv) During the hearing before the Magistrate, the person alleged to have agreed should be duly represented
by a lawyer.
(v) At the hearing, the person in question should also be told in clear terms that the statement that is made
shall not be a ‘confessional’ statement to the Magistrate but will have the status of a statement made to the
police.
 BRAIN MAPPING TEST
The Brain Mapping Test is also known as P-300 test. In this test of Brain Mapping the suspect is first
interviewed and interrogated find out whether he is concealing any information. The activation of brain for
the associated memory is carried out by presenting list of words to the subjects. There are three types of
words in the list used for Brain Mapping Test,

Part I consisted of neutral words, which have no direct relationship with the case.
Part II consists of probe words directly related to the case and suspects to elicit concealed information,
which all suspects have had opportunity to come to know during the course of events related to the case.

Part III consists of target, which are not part of the first two parts. The words in this part are based on
confidential findings which suspect does not know.
This technique was invented by American neurologist Dr Lawrence A Farwell, an expert in brain wave
science, who called this technique 'brain-wave fingerprinting' or 'brain mapping test.' The recording of this
test is done by acquiring the response through 32 channel EEG-ERP Neuro Scan cording system. It is
carried out by asking the suspect to sit down and close his eyes. The 32 channel electrodes are placed over
the scalp directly while conducting this test twice by presenting each word in three parts randomly. the
suspect is instructed to relax and listen to the words presented in the auditory mode. This test does not
expect any oral response from the witness. The conclusion drawn by the experts after the conduct of the
test to indicate the possession of the knowledge about the relevant subject which is helpful in the
investigation and collecting of evidence.

After the administration of the test, what comes out is that, the person undergoing the test has the knowledge
of the crime about which he was questioned (brain mapping). In the said test there is no way to find out
what the lie is or what is the information stored in the brain of the person concerned. It can be called the
information received of taken out from the witness.
 DNA
DNA, abbreviation of deoxyribonucleic acid, organic chemical of complex molecular structure that is
found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and in many viruses. DNA codes genetic information for the
transmission of inherited traits. DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains
three components: a phosphate group, which is one phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms; a sugar
molecule; and a nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G)
and cytosine (C), and together, these serve as the "letters" that make up the genetic code of our DNA.
Nucleotides are attached together to form two long strands that spiral to create a structure called a double
helix. If you think of the double-helix structure as a ladder, the phosphate and sugar molecules would be
the sides, while the base pairs would be the rungs. The bases on one strand pair with the bases on another
strand: Adenine pairs with thymine (A-T), and guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C).
 Physical Evidence and its importance along with examples

3 4
Scope of forensic science
 Clothes and personal articles
(Start with something about Personal Identity from pg 1)
Crime scene investigation
Forensic Science Meaning and Role
Crime Scene Tools, Kits and Equipments
Medico legal report
Post mortem
The Autopsy Report
Sudden Death
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLICE AND FORENSIC SCIENTISTS

In their investigation of crime it is necessary for the police to work with a wide range of technical and
specialist people. Among the most important of those are the forensic scientists and pathologists. The word
‘forensic’ is derived from the Latin word forens, meaning a ‘tribunal’. It means ‘in connection with the
courts’; it does not of itself mean ‘scientific’. Forensic scientists are those who use their science training
for the investigation of crime. For example, biologists and chemists who examine blood, fluid or powder
residues from a crime scene. Their expertise helps the police determine what might have happened and
who may have been involved. The forensic pathologist is a medical doctor who has specialised in the study
of pathology and works in the court environment. This often involves the examination of a dead person to
collect appropriate samples or evidence. Forensic pathologists generally do not work with living victims
such as those of sexual or other assaults, fires or road accidents. This is normally the province of a police
medical officer.

Police and forensic scientist relationship can be studied on the basis of the role they play in the crime scene
investigation.

Role of police person:

1.identification of evidence

2.immidiate dispatch of evidence

3.maintaining chain of custody of evidence

Role of forensic scientist:

1.examines the evidence in lab

2.experiments ,makes observations collects necessary data and draws conclusion.

3prepares a report and presents in the court

Relationship between judiciary and expert :

During the trail when there is examination in chief and cross examination , the forensic scientist submits
his report to the court through the agency. Which has requested this service along with data such as charts
which make conclusion intelligible and convincing in court.
 SPEED AND SOUND
Voice identification, police technique for identifying individuals by the time, frequency, and intensity of
their speech-sound waves. A sound spectrograph is employed to record these waves in the form of a graph
that may be compared to graphs of other individuals and differentiated. Though voice graphs (or
voiceprints) have been used in courtroom proceedings, the accuracy of this technique in identifying
individuals is a subject of controversy among speech scientists.
Voice analysis is used in a branch of forensic science called audio forensics. These analyses are generally
performed on evidence for the purposes of evaluating the authenticity of the audio in question, enhancing
features of the audio that may be hidden beneath distracting background noise, interpreting the audio from
the perspective of a forensic expert,[7] or in some cases for the purposes of speaker identification.[8]
An expert will employ a variety of techniques in their analysis. The minimum of procedures are "critical
listening, waveform analysis, and spectral analysis".[9] Critical listening involves a thorough breakdown of
both foreground and background sounds through repetitive listening. [9] Waveform analysis visualizes the
audio for the examiner to see any irregularities that may occur. Spectral analysis visualizes the frequency
of the audio for an examiner to pick out features of interest.[9]
One case in which audio played a larger role is the Trayvon Martin case, where a recording of a call made
to the police was analyzed to determine if background screams came from George Zimmerman or
from Martin.
Experts in forensic voice analyze recordings by examining transmitted and stored speech, enhancing it and
decoding it for criminal investigations, court trials, and federal agencies.
Voice analysis has a role in speaker identification. This is when the identity of a speaker is unknown, and
has to be identify from an array of other voices or suspects when pertaining to a crime investigation or
court trial. Proper identification of speaker and voices particularly for criminal cases depend on a list of
factors, like familiarity, exposure, delay, tone of voice, voice disguising, and accents
 Anthropometry

Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the human individual. An early tool of physical
anthropology, it has been used for identification, for the purposes of understanding human physical
variation, in palaeoanthropology and in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and psychological
traits. Anthropometry involves the systematic measurement of the physical properties of the human body,
primarily dimensional descriptors of body size and shape. Since commonly used methods and approaches
in analysing living standards were not helpful enough, the anthropometric history became very useful for
historians in answering questions that interested them.
Forensic anthropologists study the human skeleton in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can assist
in the identification of a decedent through various skeletal analyses that produce a biological profile.
Forensic anthropologists utilize the Fordisc program to help in the interpretation of craniofacial
measurements in regards to ancestry determination.
One part of a biological profile is a person's ancestral affinity. [33] People with significant European or
Middle Eastern ancestry generally have little to no prognathism; a relatively long and narrow face; a
prominent brow ridge that protrudes forward from the forehead; a narrow, tear-shaped nasal cavity; a
"silled" nasal aperture; tower-shaped nasal bones; a triangular-shaped palate; and an angular and sloping
eye orbit shape. People with considerable African ancestry typically have a broad and round nasal cavity;
no dam or nasal sill; Quonset hut-shaped nasal bones; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area
(prognathism); a rectangular-shaped palate; and a square or rectangular eye orbit shape. A relatively small
prognathism often characterizes people with considerable East Asian ancestry; no nasal sill or dam; an
oval-shaped nasal cavity; tent-shaped nasal bones; a horseshoe-shaped palate; and a rounded and non-
sloping eye orbit shape.[34] Many of these characteristics are only a matter of frequency among those of
particular ancestries: their presence or absence of one or more does not automatically classify an individual
into an ancestral group.
Anthropometry can be subdivided into Somatometry including Cephalometry and Osteometry including
Craniometry.
Somatometry
It is the measurement of the living body and cadaver including head and face
Osteometry
It includes the measurements of the skeleton and its parts i.e. the measurements of the bones including skull
 SPEECH AND VOICE
Main areas of forensic science that include voice are: (1) speaker recognition, (2) speaker profiling, (3)
intelligibility enhancement of audio recordings, (4) transcription and analysis of disputed utterances, and
(5) authenticity or integrity examination of audio recordings
Voice results from an expiratory energy used to generate noises and/or to move the vocal cords, which
generate voiced sounds.This behavior is one of the basic methods of communicating by common codes;
these codes are languages.
Speech production is composed of two basic mechanical functions: phonation and articulation.
Phonation is the production of an acoustic signal.Articulation includes the modulation of the acoustic signal
by the articulators, mainly the lips, the tongue and the soft palate, and its resonance in the supraglottic
cavities, oral and/or nasal
Voice as Evidence Collection of evidence
The evidence does not consist of speech itself, but of a transposition, obtained by a transducer, that
converts acoustic energy into another form of energy: mechanical, electrical or magnetic. This transposition
is recorded on a storage medium, on which it is coded by an analogue or digital information-coding method.
In analogue recording, the strength and shape of the transduced audio waveform bears a direct relationship
to the original sound wave. By contrast, in a digital recording, the transduced waveform is sampled, and
each sample is translated into a binary number code, such as that used by computers. Table 1 lists a variety
of audio recording devices (but certainly not all), according to the type of storage medium and coding
method used.
Quality of Evidence Types of evidence
In most cases, evidence is recorded off the telephone lines, either in cases of wiretapping or anonymous
calls.In anonymous calls, the message is generally short, from seconds to minutes; where it is a monolog,
it may be a prerecorded message, voluntarily modified by a filtering or editing procedure. From a lexical
point of view, the themes are targeted, i.e. abuse, extortion, obscenity, threats. In wiretapping procedures,
the recordings can reach hundreds of hours.There are conversations, diversified from a lexical point of
view, and some utterances may refer to internal codes of groups or organizations.
Speaker Profiling
Speaker profiling is a classification task, performed mostly by phoneticians, where a recording of the
voice of a perpetrator is the only lead in a case. The classification specifies the sex of the individual, the
age group, dialect and regional accent, peculiarities or defects in the pronunciation of certain speech sounds,
sociolect and mannerisms.