Introduction to Systems

Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
What is a system?
• A system can be viewed as a process.
Input signals are transformed to output signals by the system.

• Signals are processed by systems, which may modify them or extract additional
information from them.
• The meaningful interconnection of physical devices and components is called as
system.

Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Examples of systems
• A sound recording system

• An antiaircraft gun operator may want to know the future location of a hostile
moving target that is being tracked by his radar. Knowing the radar signal, he
knows the past location and velocity of the target. By properly processing the
radar signal (the input), he can approximately estimate the future location of the
target. Thus, a system is an entity that processes a set of signals (inputs) to yield
another set of signals (outputs).
• A system may be made up of physical components, as in electrical, mechanical, or
hydraulic systems (hardware realization), or it may be an algorithm that computes
an output from an input signal (software realization).

Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Physical View: System Model View
Apply input signal Get output signal here as a
here as a voltage voltage (or a current)
(or a current) Image from llg.cubic.org/tools/sonyrm/

Schematic View
Output signal
Apply guitar is the voltage
signal here as across here
a voltage

From Pedal Power Column by Robert Keeley, in Musician’s Hotline Magazine

System View
x(t) y(t)
Math Function Math Model Math Function
for Input of System for Output

From Prof. Mark

Math Model… quantitatively relates input signal’s math to the output signal’s Fowler’s
math… Allows us to understand and predict how the system will work! lecture notes
Mathematical Model
• To describe behaviour of physical system, to express its working, to simulate it we
can develop four types of mathematical equations.
• High order differential equation or difference equation
• Convolution 𝑑 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
• Transfer function 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑏 + 𝑏 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• State-space equations
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏

𝑠
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑋(𝑠)
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2
𝑞 = 𝐴𝑞 + 𝐵𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑞 + 𝐷𝑥

Schematic View Math Model

of System

Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 𝑑 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
Construction of math model 𝑎
𝑑𝑡
+𝑎
𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑎 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑏
𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑏 𝑥(𝑡)

• A system is characterized by its inputs, its outputs, and laws adequate to describe
its behavior.
• For example, in electrical systems, the laws of operation are the familiar voltage-
current relationships for the resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers,
transistors, and so on, as well as the laws of interconnection (i.e., Kirchhoff's
laws). 𝑑𝑣 1 𝑑𝑖 1
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶 , 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 , 𝑣 =𝐿 , 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
• Using these laws, we derive mathematical equations relating the outputs to the
inputs. These equations then represent a mathematical model of the system.
• The study of systems consists of three major areas: mathematical modeling,
analysis, and design.
• System analysis: to determine the system outputs for the given inputs and a
given mathematical model of the system.
• The first step in analyzing any system is the construction of math model.
Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Simple Circuit Example:
Sending info over a wire cable between two computers
Computer Computer
#1 #2
Two conductors separated by an insulator
 capacitance
Two practical examples of the cable
“Twisted Pair” of Insulated coaxial cable
Wires
conductors separated by insulator

Typical values: 100 /km

50 nF/km

Recall: resistance increases with wire length

From Prof. Mark
Fowler’s
lecture notes
Simple Model:

Driver’s Thevenin Cable Model Receiver’s Thevenin Infinite Input

Equivalent Circuit Equivalent Circuit Resistance (Ideal)
(Computer #1) (Computer #2)
Zero Output
Resistance (Ideal)

x(t) y(t)

From Prof. Mark

Fowler’s
lecture notes
 Use Loop Equation & Device Rules:
x(t )  vR (t )  y (t )
vR (t )  Ri (t ) dy (t ) 1 1
 y (t )  x(t )
dy (t ) dt RC RC
i (t )  C
dt
x(t)
5v
x(t)
Schematic View t
? y(t)
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1…

How do we find the system output y(t)?

Using mathematical model of the system (like D.E.) and mathematical
representation of the input signal x(t) we can find mathematical representation of
the output y(t).
This is the system analysis. From Prof. Mark
Fowler’s
lecture notes
 Example
• Find the equation relating the input to output for the series
RC circuit if the input is the voltage x(t) and output is
a. the loop current, y(t)=i(t)
b. the capacitor voltage, y(t)=v(t)

• a.

• b.
substitution of this result yields

Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Example
• For the series RLC circuit find the input-output equation
if the input is x(t) and the output is loop current, i(t)=y(t).
• Application of Kirchhoff's voltage law around the loop yields

• By using the voltage-current laws of each element (inductor, resistor, and

capacitor), we can express this equation as

• Differentiating both sides of this equation, we obtain

• This differential equation is the input-output relationship between the output y(t)
and the input x(t)
Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Example
• For the RLC circuit find the input-output relationship
if the output is the inductor voltage, y(t)=vL(t).
Hint:

Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Example
• For the RLC circuit find the input-output relationship
if the output is the capacitor voltage, y(t)=vc(t).
• Hint:

Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Example
• Find the input-output equation relating the
input voltage v(t) to the output voltage y(t).
• The equations for the currents flowing out
of node 1along resistor R, inductor L, and capacitor C, are given by

• Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node 1 and summing up all the currents yields

Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Basic System Properties – Linearity and Time-Invariance
If a system is linear: “a scaled Systems whose parameters do not change with
input gives a scaled output” time are time-invariant systems.

Systems with only fixed R, L, and C are linear and time invariant systems!
Systems with electronics (diodes, transistors, op-amps, etc.) may be non-linear, but
they could be linear… at least for inputs that do not exceed a certain range of inputs.
Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 How can we use linearity
x(t) y(t)
Linear System

a1 x1(t) a1 y1(t)
Linear System

x(t) = a1x1(t) + a2x2(t) y(t) = a1y1(t) + a2y2(t)

Linear System

superposition
When superposition holds, it makes our life easier!
We then can decompose complicated signals into a sum of simpler signals…
and then find out how each of these simple signals goes through the system!!
From Prof. Mark
Fowler’s
lecture notes
Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
How can we use linearity and time invariance

5v
t

Decompose the input… + t

x(t)
-5v
5v
t +
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1… 5v
t

+
t
From Prof. Mark
Fowler’s
-5v lecture notes
 Input Components Output Components (Blue)
Standard Exponential Response
Learned in “Circuits”:

5v 5v
t t

+ t
+ t

-5v -5v
+ +
5v 5v
t t

+ +
t t
From Prof. Mark
Fowler’s
-5v -5v lecture notes
How can we use linearity and time invariance
Output
5v
t

x(t) Input
5v
t

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1…

• For a linear, time invariant (LTI) system;

• We decompose input into simpler signals. Now differences between simpler signals are
amplitude and occurrence time.
• We find simpler output to simpler signal.
• We compose simpler output to reach system output.
From Prof. Mark
Fowler’s
lecture notes
Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Progression of Ideas an Engineer Might Use for this Problem
Computer Computer
Physical System: #1 #2

Schematic System: x(t)

y(t)

dy (t ) 1 1
Mathematical System:  y (t )  x (t )
dt RC RC

Output
5v From Prof. Mark
Mathematical Solution: t Fowler’s
lecture notes
• Physical systems can be designed empirically. Using available components and trial-and-error,
physical systems have been successfully designed. For example, designing and installing a heating
system is a long-standing problem and much experience and data have been gathered. Indeed, a
large number of physical systems had been successfully designed even before the advent of
engineering curriculums.
• The empirical method relies heavily on past experience and is carried out by trial and error. The
method may become unworkable if physical systems are complex or too expensive or too
dangerous to be experimented on. In these cases, analytical methods become necessary. The
analytical study of physical systems consists of three parts: modeling, analysis, and design.
• Not every physical system can be approximated or modeled by an LTI model. However, a large
number of physical systems can be so modeled under some approximation and limitation.
• Using the models, we can then develop mathematical equations and carry out analysis and design.
The design methods do not cover all aspects of actual implementations. To reach a physical system,
an engineer should solve many other problems depend on components, size, cost etc.
• Solving these problems require engineering ingenuity, creativity, trial-and-error, and years of
development.
Signals and Systems: A Fresh Look
Chi-Tsong Chen

Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Response of a linear system
• A system's output for t ≥ 0 is the result of two independent causes: the initial
conditions of the system (or the system state) at t = 0 and the input x(t) for t ≥ 0.
• First, the zero-input response component that depends only the initial conditions
at t = 0.
• And then the zero-state response component that depends only the input x(t) for t
≥ 0.
• In summary, a linear system response can be expressed as the sum of the zero-
input and the zero-state component.
Total response = zero-input response + zero-state response

Our focus will be mostly on the

Zero-State Response

Principles Of Linear Systems And Signals by P. B. Lathi and Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts