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 viii Figures

4.4 Cognitive hierarchy model of human thought and action 114

4.5 Limits of acceptable change 125
4.6 Visitor impact management 126
4.7 Kayaker norms for encountering other kayakers in Gwaii Haanas National Park
Reserve 127
4.8 Kayaker versus motorboater norms for encountering motorboaters in Gwaii
Haanas National Park Reserve 128
5.1 The theory of planned behaviour 151
6.1 A map of Canada shows progress toward completing Canada’s national park
system 179
6.2 Horse-drawn carriages 186
6.3 Parks Canada planning cycle 191
6.4 In front of the Wikkaninish interpretation centre 195
6.5 The Icefields Centre in Jasper National Park 200
7.1 Kakabeka Falls Provincial Park 214
7.2 The Cape St Mary’s Ecological Reserve 229
7.3 The Saguenay–St Lawrence Marine Park 236
8.1 John Constable, Wivenhoe Park, Essex, 1816. Example of an early British
landscape park 245
8.2 Central Park, New York City 246
9.1 Parks and protected areas in Canada’s north 276
9.2 Despite their remote locations, parks such as Sirmilik, at the northern tip of
Baffin Island, are experiencing increasing visitation levels 286
9.3 Polar bear watching has become one of the most popular tourist activities in
the north 288
10.1 The Southern Gulf Islands National Park Reserve in BC 295
10.2 Creston Valley Wildlife Centre nestled between the Selkirk and Purcell
mountains in southeastern British Columbia 296
11.1 Marine sites mentioned in Chapter 11 326
11.2 Parks Canada’s marine natural regions 330
11.3 Bonavista Bay, Newfoundland 342
11.4 A gray whale migrating through Pacific Rim National Park Reserve 345
11.5 Killer whale with porpoise 347
12.1 Vuntut National Park Reserve in northwest Yukon 364
12.2 Parks Canada in the North 373
12.3 Campsite at Sirmilik 376
12.4 Totem poles at Ninstints, the World Heritage Site on South Moresby Island at
Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve 379

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 Figures ix

12.5 Map of Tla-o-quiat tribal parks initiative 383

13.1 Different types of tourism 395
13.2 Popular sites can sustain considerable damage from visitors, especially in fragile
habitats such as this grassy headland in Cape Breton National Park 405
13.3 Mother polar bear with cubs 407
13.4 The Butler tourism life cycle model 408
13.5 The Duffus–Dearden model 409
13.6 Parks Canada has invested in trying to reduce the impacts of visitor
facilities 412
14.1 “Climate envelope” models for Black Spruce and Willow Oak 430
14.2 Trees Ontario partners assess first season survival of Bur Oak 436
14.3 Polar bear viewing in Churchill Wildlife Management Area 437
14.4 Chignecto Isthmus 442
14.5 Patterned fen landscape 444
15.1 Visitors crowd the banks of the Goldstream River in the fall to watch the annual
salmon migration 458
15.2 Salmon bring nutrients from distant oceanic sources back into the river
and provide an excellent illustration of the need for ecosystem-based
management 463
15.3 Bald eagles feeding 464

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 Tables
1.1 Protected area values with suggested allegories 15
2.1 International protected area categories as recognized by IUCN 43
3.1 Recommended approach for monitoring ecosystem conditions in parks in the
Columbia Mountains of British Columbia 83
4.1 Behavioural approach illustrated with wilderness hiking and family picnicking 108
4.2 Attitudes of Pacific Rim National Park visitors to no-fishing policy 116
4.3 Examples of indirect and direct management strategies 131
7.1 Protected area classifications, purposes, legislation, and amount protected for five
example provinces 218
7.2 Management agencies and associated amount of protected areas in Canada 229
7.3 Protected areas and area protected, provinces and territories, by IUCN
categories 230
7.4 Total numbers of protected areas and area protected, by province and
territory 232
7.5 Levels of implementation for provincial protected area strategies 234
7.6 Amount of marine protected area by province 235
8.1 Park models and characteristics through time 253
8.2 Range of benefits from urban parks and urban nature 256
8.3 Vision statements for select Canadian city urban park systems 262
9.1 Northern parks and protected areas 274
10.1 Toolbox summary 304
11.1 Marine protected areas in Canada 325
11.2 Federal statutory powers for protecting marine areas 327
11.3 Progress in MPA designation showing 2012 targets and 2014 status 329
11.4 Provincial statutory powers for protecting marine areas in BC 335
12.1 Constitution Act and court cases on Aboriginal title and rights 362
13.1 Stakeholder views of tourism in parks and protected areas 393
13.2 Attendance trends in Canada for provincial and national parks 397
13.3 Economic impact of Canada’s national, provincial, and territorial parks
in 2009 398
13.4 Comparing Parks Canada policy with ecotourism principles 418
14.1 Implications of climate change for typical policy, planning, and management
program areas of PA organizations 432
14.2 Climate change adaptation options for enhancing the resilience of PAs and
their constituent biodiversity to climate change–related impacts 440
14.3 Framework for assessing organizational readiness to adapt to climate
change 446

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 Boxes
1.1 Where Have the Visitors Gone? 12
1.2 To Develop or Not Develop: Recent Events in Jasper National Park 14
1.3 Engaging Children and Youth in Parks 21
1.4 Where Have the Critters Gone? 26
1.5 Ecosystem-Based Management in Action 29
2.1 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 40
2.2 What Is IUCN? 42
2.3 Wilderness in Canada and the World 44
2.4 The Serengeti World Heritage Area 48
2.5 Sri Lanka: Parks and Poverty 52
2.6 Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas 56
2.7 Shortcomings of the First Generation of ICDPs 58
3.1 Mitigating Fragmentation in the Mountain Parks 75
3.2 Ecological Effects on a Park Wolf Population of Killing by Humans Adjacent
to the Park 80
3.3 Adaptive Management 85
3.4 Defining Active Management 86
3.5 Case Study: Reintroducing Bison to Grasslands National Park 89
3.6 Case Study: Managing Ungulates in Elk Island National Park 91
3.7 Case Study: White-Tailed Deer Management in Point Pelee National Park 92
3.8 Case Study: Restoring Kootenay’s Fir Forests 94
3.9 Exotic Trees May Enhance Tropical Rainforest Regeneration around Kibale
National Park, Uganda 96
4.1 Measuring Satisfaction Associated with “Pull” Factors 109
4.2 Importance–Performance Analysis Linking Satisfaction and Motivations 110
4.3 Applying the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum in Yoho National Park 113
4.4 Beliefs and Attitudes toward a No-Fishing Policy in Pacific Rim National
Park 116
4.5 Applying the Limits of Acceptable Change to Swan Lake Wilderness Area 133
5.1 History of Park Interpretation in North America 146
5.2 Applying the Elaboration Likelihood Model 150
5.3 Canadian Examples of Interpretation Effectiveness Studies 160
6.1 Systems Planning in Australia 177
6.2 Forgoing Options 180

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 xii Boxes

6.3 Sending Out an SOS 182

6.4 Large-Scale Conservation Strategies around the World 184
6.5 Other Legislation and Constitutional Guidance 188
6.6 Parks Canada or Plans Canada? 194
6.7 Zoning System for National Parks 196
6.8 Selected Resource Management Policies 197
6.9 Selected Visitor Management Policies 199
6.10 Loss of Professional Capacity 203
6.11 A Daily Profile 204
6.12 The Ups and Downs of Budgets 206
7.1 A Protected Area Is a Protected Area . . . Right? 216
8.1 Stanley Park, Vancouver 249
8.2 Mount Royal Park, Montreal 250
9.1 Tongait KakKasuangita SilakKijapvinga/Torngat Mountains National Park 272
9.2 Lutsel K’e Dene First Nation and Parks Canada 278
9.3 Queen Maud Gulf Migratory Bird Sanctuary 279
9.4 National Parks, Qikiqtaruk Territorial Park, and the Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge World Heritage Site and Transboundary Area 281
9.5 The Thelon Wildlife Sanctuary 283
10.1 How Is Saskatchewan Operation Burrowing Owl Working? 302
10.2 Keeping Gros Morne Park Connected to the Wider Ecosystem 303
10.3 Alternative Land Use Services and Ecosystem Services 306
10.4 Carbon Finance and Protected Areas: The Darkwoods Project 307
10.5 Critical Questions about Conservation Easements 308
10.6 Private Lands and Accountability: Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan 310
10.7 Case Study: The Islands Nature Trust of Prince Edward Island 312
11.1 Sable Gully 328
11.2 Nirjutiqavvik National Wildlife Area 333
11.3 Scott Islands Proposed Marine Wildlife Area 334
11.4 Haida Gwaii: MPA Planning through Marine Use Planning 338
11.5 Proposed NMCA at Newfoundland’s Bonavista–Notre Dame Bays 343
11.6 Connected Thinking: The “Baja to Bering” Initiative 345
12.1 Aboriginal Perspectives on Parks Management 359
12.2 The Nunavut Agreement 375
12.3 Pacific Rim National Park Reserve First Nation Initiatives 378
12.4 Haida Gwaii Watchmen 379
13.1 Rural Tourism on Vancouver Island 400

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 Boxes xiii

13.2 Community Impacts Resulting from the Establishment of Gros Morne

National Park 402
13.3 Recreation Ecology 406
13.4 Whale Watching on Vancouver Island 410
13.5 Ecotourism in Action: An Industry Example 414
13.6 Certification of Ecotourism in Australia 416
13.7 Commercial Dive Charter Standards for Pacific Rim National Park
Reserve 419
14.1 Projecting Species’ Future Responses to Climate Change 430
14.2 Assisted Migration 436
14.3 Climate Change and Visitor Experience in PAs 437
14.4 Protecting, Connecting, and Restoring Landscapes and Waterscapes 442
14.5 Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EBA) 443
14.6 Ecosystem-Based Landscape and Waterscape-Scale Conservation
Initiatives 444
15.1 IUCN Scenarios for Protected Areas in the Year 2023 470

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 Contributors
Nathan Bennett is an SSHRC postdoctoral fellow at the Institute for Resources,
Environment, and Sustainability at the University of British Columbia.

Rosaline Canessa is an associate professor in the Department of Geography at the

University of Victoria.

Jackie Dawson is an assistant professor in the Department of Geography at the

University of Ottawa.

Philip Dearden is a professor in the Department of Geography at the University of

Victoria and a long-time member of IUCN’s World Commission on Protected Areas, and
has advised many national and international agencies on protected area management.

Jessica Dempsey is an assistant professor at the School of Environmental Studies at the

University of Victoria.

David Fennell is a professor in the Department of Tourism Management at Brock

University.

Bryan S.R. Grimwood is an assistant professor in the Department of Recreation and

Leisure Studies at the University of Waterloo (contributor of Box 9.5).

Wolfgang Haider is a professor in the Resource and Environment Program at Simon

Fraser University.

Elizabeth Halpenny is an associate professor of recreation and leisure studies in the

Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation at the University of Alberta (contributor
of Box 1.3).

Glen T. Hvenegaard is a professor of Environmental Science and Geography at the

University of Alberta.

Aerin Jacobs is a post-doctoral fellow in the Department of Geography at the University

of Victoria (contributor of Box 3.9).

Margaret E. Johnston is a professor at the School of Outdoor Recreation, Parks, and

Tourism at Lakehead University.

R. Harvey Lemelin is an associate professor at the School of Outdoor Recreation,

Parks, and Tourism at Lakehead University.

Christopher J. Lemieux is an assistant professor in the Department of Geography and

Environmental Studies at Wilfrid Laurier University.

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 Contributors xv

Christopher D. Malcolm is an associate professor and chair of the Department of

Geography at Brandon University.

Kevin McNamee is head of New Park Establishment at Parks Canada.

Mark D. Needham is an associate professor, Gene D. Knudson Endowed Chair,

and director of the Natural Resources, Tourism, and Recreation (NATURE) Studies
Laboratory in the Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society at Oregon State
University. He is also editor-in-chief of the international journal Human Dimensions
of Wildlife.

Rick Rollins was a faculty member in the Department of Recreation and Tourism at
Vancouver Island University prior to his retirement, and he is now a faculty emeritus
at Vancouver Island University.

John Shultis is an associate professor in the Ecosystem Science and Management

Program at the University of Northern British Columbia.

Jeanette C. Theberge is an ecologist at Yoho, Kootenay, and Banff national parks of

Canada.

John B. Theberge is a wildlife biologist and was a professor at the University of

Waterloo prior to his retirement.

Pamela A. Wright is an associate professor in the Ecosystem Science and Management

Program at the University of Northern British Columbia.

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 Foreword
We have begun the twenty-first century in a state of cultural paralysis caused by a
debilitating mix of uncertainties and anxieties arising from humanity’s dysfunctional
relationship with the rest of the natural world. Though we have known for some time
that our relationship with nature is badly off course and that it is up to us to change,
we remain unsure of how to do exactly that. This uncertainty is compounded by the
anxiety that while we can identify the problems clearly—the climate is changing, spe-
cies are going extinct, and we are fouling our estuaries with too much nitrogen—our
institutions and political systems seem powerless to address these challenges.
One of the few things we do know with certainty is that protected areas, espe-
cially national parks, are a tried and true solution to many of these problems. First cre-
ated in the nineteenth century as a counterbalance to the transformative effects of the
Industrial Revolution, they remain as relevant today as they ever were. Areas of land
and sea specifically dedicated to protecting nature are in many cases why we still have
lions, tigers, gorillas, bison, whooping cranes, trumpeter swans, coral reefs, and old
growth forests on planet Earth. All around the world the areas we have formally pro-
tected have demonstrated positive effects on the natural world. They also serve billions
of people by providing drinking water, storing carbon, serving as source populations of
fish and wildlife for harvest elsewhere, and providing inspiration, solace, and healthful
recreation to an increasingly anxious civilization.
Canada has been one of the world’s leaders in the field of protected areas, par-
ticularly national parks. Banff is the world’s third-oldest national park (1887), Parks
Canada is the world’s oldest park agency (1911), and the trans-national Yellowstone to
Yukon Conservation Initiative (1993) has become the global exemplar of large land-
scape conservation. Many provinces have good provincial park systems. Ontario has
done quite well for a prolonged period of time and has led the way with a legal commit-
ment to protect half of its far north. Over the last twenty years both Quebec and Nova
Scotia have moved from very modest beginnings to create robust systems of provincial
protected areas that continue to grow, and Quebec has made a political commitment to
protect half of its north. Manitoba has also done some impressive things. Both Alberta
and Saskatchewan have a few good provincial protected areas, but both should work to
make them more robust and more extensive. Newfoundland and Labrador has recently
shown some signs of progress. Across the three northern territories an impressive ser-
ies of new national parks has been created, but much more should be done. The good
news is that many First Nations groups in Yukon and NWT want large-scale conserva-
tion in their traditional territories and are actively advocating for it.
Alas, the story of progress in Canada is not country-wide. Over the last 20 years,
British Columbia, which was once a leader, has tragically neglected and undermined its
park system financially and legislatively. BC has almost no wildlife sanctuaries except
for the few national parks there, though it gets some credit for the interesting innov-
ation of provincial Aboriginal conservancies. New Brunswick remains an ecological

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 Foreword xvii

tragedy. Our federal wildlife areas and migratory bird sanctuaries are vulnerable to
industrial development. Worst of all we have done an extremely poor job of protecting
Canada’s oceans, and when our record of marine protection is compared with that of
Australia and the US, it is nothing short of a national embarrassment.
Conservation biology can now tell us how much of the Earth ought to be safe-
guarded in protected areas. Studies of terrestrial ecosystems around the world that ask
the question how much of a given ecoregion needs to be protected in order to ensure
the survival of all native species, the continuity of the natural processes and movements
on which they depend, and the ecosystem’s resilience to natural events such as flooding
and fire and its ability to adapt to global change usually find that we should protect at
least half of the area studied in an interconnected way. Canada should embrace these
findings. Ontario and Quebec are already leading the way. We should follow them
and move immediately to implement a policy to protect at least half of the Canadian
north in an interconnected way, starting in the boreal forests of the provinces and con-
tinuing north through Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut and into the Arctic
Ocean. In the more ecologically compromised parts of our country’s land and waters
we should move with increased determination down the long road of ecological restor-
ation with that long-term goal in mind.
The greatest challenge facing every country this century is to shift our relationship
with the natural world from the horrifically negative trajectory we are now on to a
positive footing. Well-managed parks and protected areas will be an essential part of
that positive change. It is time for Canada to build on past strengths and move ahead
boldly to protect at least half of our lands and waters in an interconnected way. The
world needs our leadership.

Harvey Locke
Town of Banff, Banff National Park, Canadian Rockies World Heritage Site
Member, IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas
Recipient of the J. B Harkin Medal for Conservation and Fred M. Packard International
Parks Merit Award
16 March 2015

Reference
Wuerthner, G., E. Crist, and T. Butler, eds. 2015. Protecting the Wild: Parks and Protected Areas,
the Foundation for Conservation. Washington, DC: Island Press.

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 This book is dedicated to the memory of Wolfgang Haider, Professor
in the School of Resource and Environmental Management at Simon
Fraser University and co-author of Chapter 4 in this book, who sadly
passed away shortly before this book went to press. Dr. Haider was a
wonderful colleague and passionate teacher and researcher of protected
area systems in Canada and around the world.

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 PART I
Overview

National Parks are maintained for all the people—for the ill that they may
be restored, for the well that they may be fortified and inspired by the
sunshine, the fresh air, the beauty, and all the other healing, ennobling,
and inspiring agencies of Nature. National Parks exist in order that every
citizen of Canada may satisfy a craving for Nature and Nature’s beauty;
that we may absorb the poise and restfulness of the forests; that we may
steep our souls in the brilliance of wild flowers and the sublimity of the
mountain peaks; that we may develop in ourselves the buoyancy, the joy,
and the activity we see in the wild animals; that we may stock our minds
with the raw materials of intelligent optimism, great thoughts, noble ideas;
that we may be made better; happier and healthier.
James B. Harkin, first Commissioner of Canadian National Parks

Part I sets the stage for issues pursued in subsequent chapters. This section asks what
are protected areas, why are there parks and protected areas, and what scientific, eth-
ical, aesthetic, spiritual, or other reasons have been used for rationalizing humans’ pas-
sionate feelings about these places? James B. Harkin, Canada’s first Commissioner of
National Parks, provided his thoughts most eloquently on the topic more than 75 years
ago, as noted above.
Chapter 1 discusses reasons for protecting natural areas and the values and bene-
fits realized from existing parks, and how the relative importance among these reasons
can change over time. From a historical perspective, the Canadian vision for parks
has changed over time. Parks were initially viewed mainly as playgrounds or tourist
attractions set in exotic and remote natural surroundings. Over the past century, how-
ever, the purpose and value of parks has shifted to a large extent because the amount
of wilderness or undeveloped landscapes in Canada has been drastically reduced. As
a consequence of this historical evolution of thinking about why parks are needed, the

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 2 PART I • Overview

style or approach to management has varied considerably. The past 20 years, therefore,
has seen revisions to park legislation, policies, and regulations. In short, practitioners
have been agonizing over “how should parks be managed?” The present view of park
management in Canada places a much greater emphasis on ecological integrity, but the
legacy of past thinking remains. For example, townsites in Banff, Jasper, and Riding
Mountain national parks still remain. Alpine skiing, golfing, hunting, and other ques-
tionable recreation activities still occur in some parks. Logging occurs in the heart of
Algonquin Provincial Park in Ontario, as does mining in Strathcona Provincial Park
in British Columbia. These park management decisions were made in the past when
many people viewed parks differently. To make sense of these apparent contradictions
in the context of thinking about parks, it is important to appreciate the history of parks,
as summarized in Chapter 1.
Chapter 1 also overviews how Canada is doing in terms of establishing and man-
aging protected areas, and some key challenges, such as understanding recent fluctua-
tions in visitation (especially declines in park visitation from children and youth) and
addressing both ecological integrity and climate change. One significant conservation
issue discussed is that most parks are not big enough or do not have boundaries in the
best places to be effective for conserving biodiversity without considering interactions
between parks and the management of surrounding landscapes. This understanding
has given rise to the concept of ecosystem-based management, which requires park
managers to negotiate with stakeholders in surrounding communities to develop strat-
egies that support both conservation and the livelihoods and cultures of people living
in these communities. The chapter concludes with an overview of major themes of the
following chapters.
In contrast to this focus on the Canadian context, Chapter 2 provides an over-
view of international perspectives in parks and protected areas. This chapter points out
that in many parts of the world, particularly in the tropics where biodiversity is most
threatened, protected areas are under considerable threat from surrounding inhabit-
ants trying to earn a living. In these regions, protected areas have sometimes displaced
local peoples from traditional resources, leading to both antagonism toward protected
areas and illegal use of park resources, such as poaching wildlife. On the other hand,
the developing world sees many forms of innovation that support conservation and
protected areas, including the emergence of Indigenous and Community Conservation
Areas (ICCAs), social fencing, and ecotourism enterprises. It is important to ask what
kinds of strategies appear to be effective, and why. Finally, practitioners and researchers
must also ask whether or how these strategies can be applied in the Canadian context.

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 Needham/Dearden/Rollins/McNamee

1 Parks and Protected Areas

in Canada
Mark D. Needham, Philip Dearden,
Rick Rollins, Kevin McNamee

Introduction
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines a protected area
as “a clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated, and managed, through
legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term conservation of nature with
associated ecosystem services and cultural values” (IUCN, 2008). Although for genera-
tions societies throughout the world have set aside areas of special value for protection
(e.g. Boston Common in 1634), the modern conceptualization of protected areas was
ushered in with the world’s first national park in 1872, Yellowstone National Park in the
US. Unlike many earlier protected areas, Yellowstone was large and set aside mainly for
conservation reasons and dedicated to the citizens of the US as a common good, rather
than to a privileged class (Nash, 2014).
The idea caught on and Canada was the third country in the world to proclaim
a national park. Protected area systems have since spread throughout the world and
cover approximately 14 per cent of the global land surface and 1.6 per cent of the
world’s oceans (see also Chapter 2). Not only have protected areas grown in coverage,
they have also broadened in terms of management objectives. National parks are the
best known type of protected areas but there are many other types of designations
that also confer protection (e.g. wilderness, reserve), as outlined in Chapter 2. This
book recognizes this diversity of protected areas but concentrates mainly on national
parks, especially in Canada. Several chapters, however, focus on other designations,
such as provincial parks (Chapter 7), urban parks (Chapter 8), marine protected areas
(Chapter 11), and protected areas in other countries around the world (Chapter 2).
Other landscape stewardship approaches (Chapter 10) and a variety of protective desig-
nations are considered in other chapters (e.g. Chapter 9). This introductory chapter

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 4 PART I • Overview

(a) defines the concept of protected areas, (b) summarizes important historical events
in the development of protected areas in Canada, (c) discusses human values and bene-
fits associated with these areas, (d) overviews how Canada is doing in terms of estab-
lishing and managing protected areas, and (e) introduces some important issues facing
these areas (e.g. visitation, ecosystem-based management). This chapter concludes
with a brief overview of the rest of the book’s contents.

Brief History of National Parks in Canada

The initial idea of parks in Canada, influenced more by economic development, was
of places for recreation and tourism rather than natural lands to be preserved for
ecological integrity. As the amount of natural land continues to dwindle, however, the
role of parks and other protected areas in preserving natural ecosystems is more widely
acknowledged. These areas are now viewed as agents for conservation rather than just
recreation and tourism, especially given that preservation of natural areas from indus-
trial development is increasingly acknowledged as critical for conserving global bio-
logical diversity. Protected areas are also important for helping people develop a deeper
appreciation for and connection to natural lands, and increasing understanding of the
need to protect nature and its inherent diversity of species.
The impetus for Canada’s first national park, Banff, was the discovery of min-
eral hot springs by employees of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), who sought to
establish a claim to personally profit from commercial development of the springs
(Figure 1.1). The federal government denied the claim and in 1885 established a res-
ervation around the springs to protect them in the public interest. The government
partnered with the CPR to benefit economically from the area. Preservation of nature
had little to do with the establishment of this reserve and other early parks. Instead, the
Deputy Minister of the Interior stated in 1886 that these hot springs were to become
“the greatest and most successful health resort on the continent” (Lothian, 1976: 23). A
new railway was constructed to bring tourists to the area and they would stay at hotels,
such as the Banff Springs Hotel, that were constructed in the reserves and parks.
In 1887 Parliament passed the Rocky Mountain Park Act to establish boundaries
for a larger park in this area that would later be named Banff National Park. This area
was to be “a public park and pleasure ground for the benefit, advantage, and enjoyment
of the people of Canada,” and with this legislation the government could create rules
for “the protection and preservation of game, fish (and) wild birds,” and to preserve
some natural features and control timber harvesting (Lothian, 1976: 11). This was one
of the first acknowledgements of the need to conserve park resources. The creation of
this park was partly modelled on earlier actions in the US such as legislation establish-
ing Yellowstone “as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment
of the people” (Lothian, 1976: 24). Unlike in Yellowstone, however, some timber har-
vesting and grazing were allowed in Rocky Mountain Park, and mineral claims con-
tinued in the park for almost half a century. It was assumed that there were plenty of
natural resources to exploit, government and industry had a shared responsibility for

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 Needham/Dearden/Rollins/McNamee: Parks and Protected Areas in Canada 5

Figure 1.1 The first bathing establishment constructed at the Cave and Basin mineral hot
springs in Rocky Mountain Park (c. 1887–8). The architecture for the two bath houses is
fashioned after Swiss-style buildings. In 1887, 3,000 visitors availed themselves of the park’s
mineral hot springs. Cascade Mountain rises in the background.

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 6 PART I • Overview

developing these resources, and recreation and tourism were simply additional oppor-
tunities for economic growth.
By 1911 the federal government had protected a number of additional areas,
including Yoho and Glacier Park reserves, and Waterton Lakes (Figure 1.2) and Jasper
Forest parks. These were multiple-use areas where environmental conservation was
seen as only one of many uses. Given that each of these areas had no clear policy direc-
tion, it became evident that there was a need for a dedicated branch of government to
administer the parks and bring them under one system. Parliament, therefore, passed
the Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act in 1911, which created two categories
of conservation lands (forest reserves, dominion parks), reduced the level of develop-
ment allowed in parks, and placed the dominion parks under the administration of
the world’s first national parks agency, known over the years as the Dominion Parks
Branch, National Parks Branch, Canadian Parks Service, and now the Parks Canada
Agency, or simply Parks Canada.
From 1911 to 1936 James B. Harkin, the first commissioner of the Dominion
Parks Branch, expanded the national parks system from its western base across to east-
ern Canada, increased the number of parks from 5 to 16, and prohibited most resource

Figure 1.2 Visitors to Waterton Lakes Park pause beside their car at the park entrance west
of Pincher Creek, Alberta, c. 1930. The Pincher Creek Automobile Club began construction
on the Pincher Creek–Waterton Road in 1911. Only 64 visitors arrived in Waterton that year.
In 1938 Ottawa imposed fees on motor vehicles entering Waterton Lakes Park: 25 cents for a
single trip and one dollar for the season.

Dearden_ParksProtAreas4e_i-___.indd 6 15-09-11 12:16 PM

 Needham/Dearden/Rollins/McNamee: Parks and Protected Areas in Canada 7

extraction activities in parks. One approach that he used for accomplishing these tasks
was to promote tourism as an economic benefit of parks. For example, he calculated
the value of scenic lands to be $13.88 an acre compared to land under cultivation for
wheat, which was worth $4.91 an acre (Foster, 1978). This focus on tourism resulted in
improved visitor accommodation, provision of minor attractions to supplement nat-
ural features, and construction of roads (e.g. Banff–Jasper Highway) and trails to allow
safe and comfortable access. In addition the first automobiles were allowed into the
parks in 1911.
In 1930 Parliament passed the first National Parks Act declaring the mission
statement of these parks as “dedicated to the people of Canada for their benefit, edu-
cation, and enjoyment and such parks shall be maintained and made use of so as to
leave them unimpaired for the benefit of future generations.” This is often considered
to be a dual mandate (use vs. unimpaired). With this new legislation, new parks could
not be established and existing parks could not be eliminated or have boundaries
changed without Parliamentary approval. Mineral exploration and development were
prohibited, only limited harvesting of timber for essential park management purposes
was allowed, and the parks were confirmed as sanctuaries for wildlife. In addition, the
dominion parks were renamed national parks with Rocky Mountain Park becoming
Banff National Park.
During the 1960s there was a dramatic increase in public concern for the environ-
ment with several issues (e.g. industrial and urban development, air and water pollu-
tion, threats to wilderness, pesticides) energizing citizens to demand that government
protect the environment, create more parks, and reduce development in existing parks.
In addition, there was a growing understanding that organizations were needed “to
perform a watchdog role over those areas now reserved for park purpose” (Henderson,
1969: 332). The National and Provincial Parks Association of Canada (NPPAC, now the
Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society [CPAWS]) was formed in 1963 to perform this
role by promoting the value of parks and advocating the expansion of protected area
systems. One of NPPAC’s important achievements was its advocacy for the first com-
prehensive statement of national parks policy to guide the use, development, and pro-
tection of these parks. In 1964 the federal government adopted and implemented this
policy, which established preservation of significant natural features in national parks
as their most fundamental and important obligation. Other provisions were to guard
against private exploitation, overuse and improper use, and inappropriate development
in parks. This policy also distinguished between urban types of recreation, which were
discouraged, and recreation consistent with conservation of natural areas in parks. The
federal government approved two substantive revisions to this policy, placing progres-
sively stronger emphasis on preservation of ecological values over public use. In 1979,
for example, cabinet officially put to rest debate over the dual mandate in the National
Parks Act by establishing the ecological integrity of parks as a prerequisite to use. This
is still true to this day, but as discussed in various chapters of this book, there is still
considerable tension between conservation and use in the management of Canada’s
national parks. Details about many of these conflicts can be found on the websites of
CPAWS and its various chapters.

Dearden_ParksProtAreas4e_i-___.indd 7 15-09-11 12:16 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Oriental traveller)
A real Indian Pilaw 613
Indian receipt for Curried Fish 614
Bengal Currie Powder, No. 1 614
Risotto à la Mayonnaise 615
Stufato (a Neapolitan receipt) 615
Broiled Eels with sage (Entrée) 616
(German receipt. Good)
A Swiss Mayonnaise 615
Tendrons de Veau 617
Poitrine de Veau Glacée 618
(Breast of Veal stewed and
glazed)
Breast of Veal simply stewed 618
Compote de Pigeons (Stewed 619
Pigeons)
Mai Trank (May Drink) 620
(German)
A Viennese Soufflé Pudding, 620
called Salzburger Nockerl
 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

TRUSSING.

Page

Remarks on Trussing xxxiii

General Directions for Trussing xxxiii
To truss a Turkey, Fowl, xxxiv
Pheasant, or Partridge, for
roasting
To truss Fish xxxv
 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

CARVING.

Page

Remarks on Carving xxxvii

No. 1. Cod’s head and xxxviii
shoulder (and Cod fish
generally)
No. 2. A Turbot xxxviii
No. 2a. Soles xxxviii
No. 3. Salmon xxxviii
No. 4. Saddle of Mutton xxxviii
No. 5. A Haunch of Venison (or xxxix
Mutton)
No. 6. Sirloin or Rump of Beef xxxix
No. 6a. Ribs of Beef xxxix
No. 6b. A round of Beef xxxix
No. 6c. A brisket of Beef xl
No. 7. Leg of Mutton xl
No. 8. Quarter of Lamb xl
No. 9. Shoulder of Mutton or xl
Lamb
No. 10. A Sucking Pig xl
No. 10a. A fillet of Veal xli
No. 10b. A loin of Veal xli
No. 11. A breast of Veal xli
No. 12. A tongue xli
No. 13. A calf’s head xli
No. 14. A ham xlii
No. 15. A pheasant xlii
No. 16. A boiled fowl xliii
No. 17. A roast fowl xliv
No. 18. A partridge xliv
No. 19. A woodcock xlv
No. 20. A pigeon xlv
No. 21. A snipe xlv
No. 22. A goose xlv
Ducks xlvi
No. 23. A wild duck xlvi
No. 24. A turkey xlvi
No. 25. A hare xlvii
No. 26. A fricandeau of veal xlvii
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS.
 TRUSSING.

Trussing Needles.

Common and untrained cooks are often deplorably ignorant of this

branch of their business, a knowledge of which is, nevertheless,
quite as essential to them as is that of boiling or roasting; for without
it they cannot, by any possibility, serve up dinners of decently
creditable appearance. We give such brief general directions for it as
our space will permit, and as our own observations enable us to
supply; but it has been truly said, by a great authority in these
matters, that trussing cannot be “taught by words;” we would,
therefore, recommend, that instead of relying on any written
instructions, persons who really desire thoroughly to understand the
subject, and to make themselves acquainted with the mode of
entirely preparing all varieties of game and poultry more especially
for table, in the very best manner, should apply for some practical
lessons to a first-rate poulterer; or, if this cannot be done, that they
should endeavour to obtain from some well experienced and skilful
cook the instruction which they need.
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR TRUSSING.

Before a bird is trussed, the skin must be entirely freed from any
down which may be on it, and from all the stubble-ends of the
feathers;[3] the hair also must be singed from it with lighted writing
paper, care being taken not to smoke nor blacken it in the operation.
Directions for cleansing the insides of birds after they are drawn, are
given in the receipts for dressing them, Chapters XIV. and XV.
Turkeys, geese, ducks, wild or tame, fowls, and pigeons, should all
have the necks taken off close to the bodies, but not the skin of the
necks, which should be left sufficiently long to turn down upon the
backs for a couple of inches or more, where it must be secured,
either with a needle and coarse soft cotton, or by the pinions of the
birds when trussed.
3. This should be particularly attended to.
For boiling, all poultry or other birds must
have the feet drawn off at the first joint of
the leg, or as shown in the engraving. (In
the latter case, the sinews of the joint must
be slightly cut, when the bone may be
easily turned back as here.) The skin must
then be loosened with the finger entirely from the legs, which must
be pushed back into the body, and the small ends tucked quite under
the apron, so as to be entirely out of sight.
The wings of chickens, fowls, turkeys,
and pigeons, are left on entire, whether for
roasting or boiling. From geese, ducks,
pheasants, partridges, black game, moor-
fowl, woodcocks, snipes, wild-fowl of all
kinds, and all small birds, the first two joints
are taken off, leaving but one joint on, thus:
—
The feet are left on ducks, and those of tame ones are trussed as
will be seen at page 278, and upon roast fowls, pheasants, black
and moor-game, pigeons, woodcocks, and snipes. The thick coarse
skin of the legs of these must be stripped, or rubbed off with a hard
cloth after they have been held in boiling water, or over a clear fire
for a few minutes. The sharp talons must be pulled out, and the nails
clipped. The toes of the pigeons for roasting should be cut off.
Geese, sucking-pigs, hares, and rabbits have the feet taken off at
the first joint.
The livers and gizzards are served in the wings of roast turkeys
and fowls only.
The heads are still commonly left on pheasants, partridges, and
black game and moor-game; but the fashion is declining. Of this we
shall speak more particularly in the ensuing chapter.
Poultry and birds in general, except perhaps quite the larger kinds,
are more easily trussed into plump handsome form with twine and
needles proper to the purpose (for which see page 1), than with
skewers. The manner in which the legs and wings are confined is
much the same for all; the principal difference being in the
arrangement of the former for boiling, which has already been
explained.
There is a present mode of trussing very large fowls for boiling or
stewing which to our taste is more novel than attractive. The feet are
left on, and after the skin has been loosened from them in every part,
the legs are thrust entirely into the body by means of a slight incision
made in the skin just above the first joint on the underside, the feet
then appear almost as if growing out of the sides of the breast: the
effect of this is not pleasing.
TO TRUSS A TURKEY, FOWL, PHEASANT OR PARTRIDGE, FOR
ROASTING.

First draw the skin of the neck down over the back, and secure it
from slipping up; then thread a trussing needle of convenient size,[4]
for the occasion, with packthread or small twine (the former, from
being the most flexible, is best); pass it through the pinion of the bird,
then through the thick part of the thigh, which must be brought up
close under the wing, and in a straight line quite through the body,
and through the leg and pinion on the other side; draw them close,
and bring the needle back, passing it through the thick part of the
leg, and through the second joint of the pinion, should it be left on
the bird; tie it quite tight; and then to secure the legs, pierce the
sidebone and carry the twine over the legs, then pass the needle
through the other sidebone, and tie them close down. If skewers be
used they should be driven through the pinions and the legs, and a
twine passed across the back of the bird, and caught over the points
of it, and then tied in the centre of the back: this is only needful when
the trussing is not firm.
4. These may be had, of various sizes, at any good ironmongers.
When the head is left on a bird, it may still
be trussed in the same way, and the head
brought round, as shown here, and kept in
place by a skewer passed through it, and
run through the body. When the bird is
trussed entirely with skewers, the point of
one is brought from the other side, through the pinions and the
thighs, and the head is fixed upon it. The legs are then pressed as
much as possible under the breast, between it and the side-bones,
where they are lettered a b. The partridge in the engraving is shown
with the skewers just withdrawn after being roasted.
Hares, after being filled with forcemeat, and sewn or securely
fastened up with skewers, are brought into proper roasting form by
having the head fixed between the shoulders, and either fastened to
the back by means of a long skewer, run through the head quite into
it, or by passing one through the upper part of the shoulders and the
neck together, which will keep it equally well in place, though less
thrown back. The fore-legs are then laid straight along the sides of
the hare, and a skewer is thrust through them both and the body at
the same time; the sinews are just cut through under the hind-legs,
and they are brought forward as much as possible, and skewered in
the same manner as the others. A string is then thrown across,
under the hare and over the points of both skewers, being crossed
before it is passed over the second, and then tied above the back.
The ears of a hare are left on; those of a rabbit, which is trussed in
the same way, are taken off.
Joints of meat require but little arrangement, either for the
spit or for boiling. A fillet of veal must have the flap, or part to
which the fat adheres, drawn closely round the outside, and
be skewered or bound firmly into good shape: this will apply
equally to a round of beef. The skin or flank of loins of meat
must be wrapped over the ends of the bones, and skewered
on the underside. The cook should be particularly careful to
separate the joints when it has not been done by the
butcher, and necks of veal or mutton also, or much trouble
will often arise to the carver.
Past
e To flatten and bring cutlets into
Brus uniform shape, a bat of this form is
h. used: and to egg or to cover them
with clarified butter when they are to
be crumbed, a paste-brush should Cutlet Bat.
be at hand. Indeed, these and many other
small means and appliances, ought to be
provided for every cook who is expected to perform her duty in a
regular and proper manner, for they save much time and trouble, and
their first expense is very slight; yet many kitchens are almost
entirely without them.
 TO TRUSS FISH.

Salmon, salmon-peel, pike, and some few other large fish, are
occasionally trussed in the form of an S by passing a string through
the head, and tying it securely, then through the centre of the body,
and next round the tail, which should be turned the reverse way of
the head, and the whole should then be drawn closely together and
well fastened. Whitings and other fish of small size are trussed with
the tails merely skewered into their mouths. Obs.—It is
indispensable for cooks to know how to carve neatly for pies,
puddings, fricassees, and curries, at the least, hares, rabbits, fowls,
and other birds. For those who are quite without experience in this
branch of their business, the directions and the illustrations in the
next chapter for carving a fowl into joints, will be found useful; and
probably many of the other instructions also.
 CARVING.

Fish Carvers.

Whether the passing fashion of the day exact it of her or not, a

gentlewoman should always, for her own sake, be able to carve well
and easily, the dishes which are placed before her, that she may be
competent to do the honours of a table at any time with propriety and
self-possession.[5] To gentlemen, and especially to those who mix
much in society, some knowledge of this art, and a certain degree of
skill in the exercise of it, are indispensable, if they would avoid the
chance of appearing often to great disadvantage themselves, and of
causing dissatisfaction and annoyance to others; for the uncouth
operations of bad carvers occasion almost as much discomfort to
those who witness, as they do generally of awkwardness and
embarrassment to those who exhibit them.
5. As this can only be accomplished by practice, young persons should be early
accustomed to carve at home, where the failure of their first attempts will
cause them much less embarrassment than they would in another sphere,
and at a later period of life.

The precise mode of carving various dishes must of course

depend on many contingencies. For a plain family-dinner, or where
strict economy is an imperative consideration, it must sometimes, of
necessity, differ from that which is laid down here. We have confined
our instructions to the fashion usually adopted in the world.
Carving knives and forks are to be had of many forms and sizes,
and adapted to different purposes: the former should always have a
very keen edge, and the latter two prongs only.
 No. 1. COD’S HEAD AND SHOULDERS (AND COD FISH
GENERALLY.)

The thick part of the back of this, as of all large fish—salmon

excepted—is the firmest and finest eating. It should be carved
across, rather thick, and, as much as possible, in unbroken slices,
from a to b. The sound, which is considered a delicacy, lies
underneath, and lines the back-bone: it must be reached with a
spoon in the direction c. The middle of the fish, when served to a
family party, may be carved in the same manner, or in any other
which convenience and economy may dictate.
 No. 2. A TURBOT.

In carving this most excellent fish, the rich gelatinous skin attached
to it, and a portion of the thick part of the fins, should be served with
every slice. If the point of the fish-knife be drawn down the centre of
the back through to the bone, in the lines a b c, and from thence to d
d d, the flesh may easily be raised upon the blade in handsome
portions,. The thickest parts of all flat fish are the best. A brill and a
John Dory are served exactly like a turbot.
 SOLES.

The more elegant mode of serving these, and the usual one at
good tables, is to raise the flesh from the bones as from a turbot,
which is easily done when the fish are large; but when they are too
small well to admit of it, they must be divided across quite through
the bone: the shoulders, and thick part of the body, are the superior
portions.
 No. 3. SALMON.

It is customary to serve a slice of the thick part of the back of this

fish, which is marked from a to b, with one of the thinner and richer
portions of it, shown by the line from c to d. It should be carved quite
straight across, and the fine flakes of the flesh should be preserved
as entire as possible. Salmon-peel, pike, haddocks, large whitings,
and all fish which are served curled round, and with the backs
uppermost, are carved in the same manner; the flesh is separated
from the bone in the centre of the back, and taken off, on the outer
side first, in convenient portions for serving. The flesh of mackerel is
best raised from the bones by passing the fish-slice from the tail to
the head: it may then be divided in two.
 No. 4. SADDLE OF MUTTON.

The manner of trussing this joint varies almost from season to

season, the mode which is considered in good taste one year being
obsolete the next, in families where passing fashions are closely
observed. It seems really immaterial whether it be served as shown
in the engraving; or whether two or three joints of the tail be left on
and surrounded with a paper frill. This joint is now trussed for
roasting in the manner shown in the engraving; and when it is dished
a silver skewer replaces the one marked e. It is likewise often still
served in good families with only two or three joints of the tail left on.
The most usual mode of carving it is in thin slices cut quite along the
bone, on either side, in the line a to b; but it is sometimes sliced
obliquely from c to d: this last fashion is rather gaining ground. The
thick end of the joint must then, of course, be to the left of the carver.
A saddle of pork or of lamb is carved exactly in the same manner.
 No. 5. A HAUNCH OF VENISON (OR MUTTON.)

An incision must first be made entirely across the knuckle end of

this joint, quite down to the bone, in the line a b, to let the gravy
escape; it must then be carved in thin slices taken as deep as they
can be, the whole length of the haunch, from c to d. A portion of the
fat should invariably be served with the venison.