Realising the importance of managing and conserving the

mangrove forest ecosystem especially after the Tsunami Status of

MANGROVES
tragedy in Indonesia in 2004, the Malaysian government
provided budget allocation for FRIM to undertake research
activities related to the mangrove forest. One of the researchs
is on the mapping and monitoring of mangrove forest changes
in the entire Peninsular Malaysia. To share the findings from
the study, a book entitled the ‘Status of Mangroves in
Peninsular Malaysia’ is published. The book is divided into
eleven main chapters explaining the mangrove ecosystem, its
function and values, their current extent and distribution in
Peninsular Malaysia in its first five initial chapters. The
in Peninsular Malaysia
following six other chapters focused on the mangrove
changes for the past 20 years, management, research and
development aspects, threat, conservations efforts and
highlight on the on the community awareness program. This
book is part of FRIM’s continuous efforts to create more
awareness to the public on the importance of mangrove forest
ecosystem in this country.

ISBN 978-967-5221-76-7

Editor
Hamdan, O., Khali Aziz, H., Shamsudin, I., Raja Barizan, R.S.
767
i
 Cover Rationale
A Landsat-TM satellite image that was captured in year 2002
over the Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve and its vicinity,
displayed in combination of bands RGB=753. The image
scene path/row number for this area is 128/57. The Matang
Mangrove Forest Reserve (also known as Matang Mangrove)
is the largest mangrove forest reserve in Malaysia. Matang
Mangrove forms a crescent strip along the northern coast of
Perak state, stretching 51.5 km from Kuala Gula in the north to
Bagan Panchor in the south, with a maximum width of 13 km.
Covering an area of more than 40,000 ha, Matang Mangrove
is one of the best managed tracts of mangrove forest in the
world. Matang Mangrove has been gazetted as a Permanent
Forest Reserve in 1906, and is the oldest mangrove forest
reserve in Malaysia.

ii
 Editors
O Hamdan, H Khali Aziz,
I Shamsudin & RS Raja Barizan

Forest Research Institute Malaysia

52109 Kepong, Selangor Darul Ehsan
Malaysia

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Wisma Sumber Asli, No.25 Persiaran Perdana, Presint 4, 62574 Putrajaya
Malaysia

Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia

Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia

2012

iii
© Forest Research Institute Malaysia 2012

All enquiries should be forwarded to:

Director General
Forest Research Institute Malaysia
52109 Kepong
Selangor Darul Ehsan
Malaysia

Tel.: 603-6279 7000

Fax.: 603-6273 1314
Homepage: http://frim.gov.my

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

O Hamdan
Status of Mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia/Editor: O. Hamdan... [et al.]
ISBN 978-967-5221-76-7
1. Institut Penyelidikan Perhutanan Malaysia —History.
2. Forest and forestry —Malaysia.
3. Forest management —Malaysia. I Shamsudin. II. Institut Penyelidikan Perhutanan Malaysia. 634.909595

Photo credit: O Hamdan, RS Raja Barizan, I Mohamad Fakhri, M Azian, H Tariq Mubarak, A Audi Hani, M Khairul Azwan,
F Mohamad Azahari, M Mohd Parid, B Intan Nurulhani & M Erwan

MS ISO 9001:2008 certified

Set in Times New Roman 11

Printed in Malaysia by Gemilang Press Sdn Bhd, Sungai Buloh

iv
Contents
• Message vii
• Foreword ix
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Status of the World’s Mangroves 3
1.2 Trends in the Area of the World’s Mangroves 6
1.3 Mangroves in Malaysia 6
1.4 Flora and Fauna 9
1.5 Biomass and Carbon Stock 9
2 Mangrove Ecosystem 11
2.1 Global Mangrove Ecosystem 12
2.2 The Mangrove Ecosystem in Malaysia 14
2.3 Mangrove Habitats 17
2.4 Mangrove Ecology 20
2.5 Distribution of Mangrove Species in Malaysia 20
3 Mangrove Soil Characteristics 27
4 Functions and Values of Mangroves 37
4.1 Functions of Mangroves 38
4.2 Values of Mangroves 39
4.2.1 Economic values 39
4.2.2 Community values 44
4.2.3 Ecological values 47
5 Management of Mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia 49
5.1 Policy and Legislation 50
5.2 Sustainable Management of Mangrove Forest 51
5.2.1 Management objectives 52
5.2.2 Management strategy 52
5.2.3 Sustainable timber production 53
5.3 Conservation of Mangrove Biodiversity 56
5.4 Coastal Protection 57
5.5 Management Issues 57
5.5.1 Natural hazards 57
5.5.2 Land conversion of mangroves to other uses 57
6 Distribution and Extents of Mangroves 59
6.1 Peninsular Malaysia 63
6.2 Johor 66
6.3 Kedah 68
6.4 Kelantan 70
6.5 Melaka 72
6.6 Negeri Sembilan 74
6.7 Pahang 76
6.8 Perak 78
6.9 Perlis 80
6.10 Pulau Pinang 82
6.11 Selangor 84
6.12 Terengganu 86
7 Mangrove Threats and Changes 89
7.1 Mangrove Changes in Johor 92
7.2 Mangrove Changes in Kedah 96
7.3 Mangrove Changes in Pahang 98
7.4 Mangrove Changes in Perak 101
7.5 Mangrove Changes in Selangor 105
7.6 Conflicts between Uses and Threats 109
8 Conservation of Mangroves 111
8.1 Government Initiatives 112
8.2 NGOs Efforts 113
8.3 Private Sector Involvement 117
9 Research and Development on Mangrove Rehabilitation 121
9.1 Rationale for Rehabilitation of Mangroves 122
9.2 Rehabilitation of Mangroves 124
9.2.1 Hydraulic parameters of the planting site 124
9.2.2 Breakwaters 125
9.2.3 Mangrove soil 127
9.2.4 Planting stocks 127
9.2.5 Mangrove phenology 127
9.3 Innovative Planting of Mangroves 128
9.3.1 A case study of innovative planting in 128
Sungai Haji Dorani
9.4 Monitoring of Planted Mangrove 132
9.4.1 Mangrove pests and diseases 132
10 Community Awareness towards Mangrove/ 135
Rhu Replanting in Peninsular Malaysia
10.1 Mangrove/Rhu Replanting Programme 137
10.2 Awareness of Households on Mangrove/ 138
Rhu Replanting Activities
10.3 Developing Community Awareness 141
11 Conclusion 145
References 148
v
vi
Message
angroves are among the most productive terrestrial ecosystems, natural and are a renewable resource. Mangroves are not a marvel
M just for their adaptations but also for the significant role they play in our environment. It is also generally recognised that the
mangroves have a specific role to play in reducing the impact of tsunami tragedy in 2004. Since then, the Malaysian government
embarked on a program of mangroves replanting along the coastal areas in Malaysia to protect the coastal area as well as enhance
conservation efforts.

The Malaysian government, through the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) spent a considerable amount of fund,
especially in the Ninth Malaysian Plan (RMk-9) and making efforts to rehabilitate and recover the mangroves in Malaysia. The Forestry
Department Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM) is one of the agencies that has been successfully implementing the program with the research
and development (R&D) supports from the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM). However, in the mean time mangroves are
being exploited elsewhere in Malaysia for many purposes, which are not limited only to wood-based productions but for the other
development activities such as land-use conversion and aquaculture industry. These have involved great extents of mangroves clearance
and reclamation. Coastal erosion is also one of the natural events that took quite a large area of mangroves along the coasts. The efforts
of documenting and recording concerning this priceless resource in this book is splendid and will be the unique reference about the
mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia.

I would like to take this opportunity to congratulate all the editors and authors that have placed a fantastic endeavour to come out with
this book entitled “Status of Mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia”. I hope that this book will be useful reference in expressing our
mangrove resource and thus for preserving and utilizing the mangrove environment sustainably. It also will be helpful to scientists,
foresters, geographers, government agencies and students not only in the field of forestry but also in the fields of fisheries, ecology,
biology, chemistry, dendrology, geology, and also sociology and eco-tourism all of which dealing with the mangrove environment.

YBhg. Dato’ Zoal Azha Yusof

Secretary General
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Malaysia

vii
viii
Foreword
T he issue of climate change is currently receiving global attention.
Increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are by far
the most influential amongst the factors forcing contemporary climate
change. Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities are derived
mainly from the combustion of fossil fuels, with additional significant
contributions from industrial processes, agriculture and land-use
changes. Hence, it is important to have environmental consideration
in any developmental activity. At the same time it is also important,
as far as possible, to avoid drastic land-use changes in particular
from forestry activities. Equally important is to have proper
records and reports on the land-use changes in this country so
that proper strategies and planning for future development can be
made. As such FRIM has initiated a study to identify mangrove-
cover changes in Peninsular Malaysia with the objective to identify
the current status of the mangrove areas and determine the factors
contributing to the changes in the area extent for the past ten years.
The information which is presented into a map form is very useful
and easily understood even by the layman. It can also be used by
policy-makers in making sound decisions in the future in relation to
the conservation and sustainable use of our mangrove forest resources.
I would like to congratulate the authors for their efforts in producing this
book and sincerely hope that it will not only serve as a reference for policy-
makers, researchers and students but also be useful to the public to learn more
about the uniqueness of our mangrove forest.

DATO’ DR. ABD. LATIF MOHMOD

Director General
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM)

ix
x
xi
xii
Chapter 1
Introduction
H Khali Aziz

1
Chapter 1 : Introduction

Mangrove forest by definition is a forest of salt-tolerant tropical shrubs or trees growing in areas such as river estuaries or tidal marshes
that are covered by the sea at high tide. Mangrove plants include shrubs, ferns, trees and palms. The forest is a form of vegetation that
connects the terrestrial forest with the sea and can be referred as “the forest between the land and the sea”, within the range between
0 and 5 m above mean sea level. Mangroves can be found in tropical and sub tropical regions and are most abundant in tropical Asia,
Africa, and the islands of the Southwest Pacific of a total of 212 countries in the world listed in the FAO (2010), 100 countries are
reported having no mangroves and 112 having some areas classified as mangroves (Figure 1.1). This is fewer than the 124 countries with
mangroves included in the FRA 2005 Thematic Study on Mangroves (FAO 2007), but apart from the Dominican Republic the missing
countries all have less than 1,000 ha of mangroves each. Mangrove areas also decrease with increase in latitude, except between 20 and
25° N latitude (Figure 1.2), which is where the Sundarbans are located, the largest tract of mangrove forests in the world (Giri et al. 2007).

Figure 1.1 Distribution of the world’s mangroves

Sources: UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre and International Society for Mangrove
Ecosystems Map Copyright: National Geographic Magazine (NGM) Maps.
Available at: http://www.ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0702/feature5/images/mp_download.5.pdf

Figure 1.2 Latitudinal distribution of mangrove forests of the world (after Giri et al. (2011))

2
1.1 Status of the World’s Mangroves
In 2010, it was estimated that the total mangrove area worldwide was about 15.236 million ha (Spalding et al. 2010) (Table 1.1).
Southeast Asia with a total mangrove area of about 5,104,900 ha occupied about 33% of the world’s total mangrove area. It was also
reported that the largest mangrove forest was located in Indonesia, with Malaysia as one of the top twelve countries with the largest
extents of mangroves in the world (Table 1.2).

Table 1.1 World mangrove forest extents and distribution

Region Area (ha) Global total (%)

East and South Africa 791,700 5.2
Middle East 62,400 0.4
South Asia 1,034,400 6.8
Southeast Asia 5,104,900 33.5
East Asia 21,500 0.1
Australasia 1,017,100 6.7
Pacific Ocean 571,700 3.8
North and Central America 2,240,200 14.7
South America 2,388,200 15.7
West and Central Africa 2,004,000 13.2
Total 15,236,100 100
Modified from: Spalding et al. (2010)

Table 1.2 The 12 countries with the largest mangrove area in the world

No. Country Area (ha) Global total (%)

1 Indonesia 3,189,400 20.9
2 Brazil 1,300,000 8.5
3 Australia 991,000 6.5
4 Mexico 770,100 5.0
5 Nigeria 735,600 4.8
6 Malaysia 709,700 4.7
7 Myanmar 502,900 3.3
8 Bangladesh 495,100 3.2
9 Cuba 494,400 3.2
10 India 432,600 2.8
11 Papua New Guinea 426,500 2.8
12 Colombia 407,900 2.7
Modified from: Spalding et al. (2010)

3
The most recent estimate of the world’s mangrove is by Giri et al.
(2011) but they came out with a slightly lower figure compared
with the other recent estimates. The differences of figures in
the world’s mangroves based on aerial estimates are shown in
Table 1.3. Giri et al. (2011) also found that the largest extent of
mangroves is found in Asia (42%), followed by Africa (20%),
North and Central America (15%), Oceania (12%) and South
America (11%), which is quite similar to the other studies. Also,
approximately 75% of mangroves are concentrated in just 15
countries (countries listed in Table 1.2 together with Mozambique,
Madagascar, and Philippines). Almost half (47%) of the world’s
mangroves can be found only in five countries that have the largest
mangroves, which are Indonesia, Brazil, Nigeria, Australia, and
Mexico and Nigeria (FAO 2010).

Table 1.3 Extents of the world’s mangroves from different

estimates

No. Total mangroves Source

(‘000 ha)
1 15,231 FAO 2007
2 15,622 FAO 2010
3 15,236 Spalding et al. 2010
4 13,751 Giri et al. 2011

4
5
1.2 Trends in the Area of the World’s Mangroves
FAO (2010) indicated that the global area of mangroves has decreased by about 0.5 million ha from around 16.1 million ha in 1990
to 15.6 million ha in 2010 (Table 1.4), at the annual rate of 25,000 ha per year. However, there may have been a change in assessment
methodologies over time in some countries, which means that the estimates from different years are not completely compatible. Indonesia,
for instance, reported a significant increase in the area of mangroves between 1990 and 2000. Australia reported a similar increase during
the period from 2005 to 2010 after an even bigger decrease from 2000 to 2005. The reported figures therefore warrant further analysis
and the results above should be treated with caution. The five countries with the largest net loss of mangrove area during the period
2000–2010 were Indonesia, Australia, Myanmar, Madagascar and Mozambique.

For that reason, information from FAO (2007) is used, which indicates that some 3.56 million ha of mangroves were lost between 1980
and 2005, with an annual rate of about 142,000 ha per year, which results mainly from human actions. These include direct conversion
of mangroves to aquaculture, agriculture and urban land uses (Spalding et al. 2010). A similar trend is happening in Malaysia as Hamdan
et al. (2010) reported that the annual mangrove loss in some major states in Peninsular Malaysia is about 1,282 ha or about 1% a year
since 1990. Some of the main factors contributing to the mangrove loss include direct conversion to aquaculture, agriculture land and to
some extent coastal erosion. Nonetheless, most of the loss due to land conversion is occurring in the stateland forests and the Permanent
Reserve Forests, which are being managed based on Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) practices, are relatively safe from being
converted to other land uses.

Table 1.4 Trends in area of mangroves by region and subregion, 1990–2010 (after FAO (2010))

Region/subregion Area of mangroves (‘000 ha)

1990 2000 2005 2010
Eastern and Southern Africa 991 923 892 861
Northern Africa 4 4 3 3
Western and Central Africa 2,419 2,252 2,207 2,163
Total Africa 3,414 3,178 3,102 3,027
East Asia 83 83 83 83
South and Southeast Asia 5,926 6,361 6,200 6,022
Western and Central Asia 187 183 183 183
Total Asia 6,196 6,627 6,466 6,288
Total Europe 0 0 0 0
Caribbean 763 762 808 857
Central America 481 454 448 443
North America 1,172 1,094 1,086 1,086
Total North and Central America 2,416 2,310 2,342 2,387
Total Oceania 1,860 1,841 1,537 1,759
Total South America 2,225 2,187 2,175 2,161
World 16,110 16,143 15,621 15,622

1.3 Mangroves in Malaysia

In Malaysia the mangrove forest is a unique ecosystem and the second largest wetland forest type after the peat swamp forest. As shown
in Figure 1.3, ecologically based on elevation the mangrove forest is located at the lowest elevation which is equivalent to the sea level.
The mangrove forest is generally found along sheltered coasts where it grows abundantly in saline soil and brackish water dominated
mainly by trees from the Rhizophoraceae family. Next to it is the peat swamp forest which was formed over hundreds of years, as
sediment and organic debris deposited by rivers are trapped behind the mangroves, gradually building up a layer of waterlogged, acidic,
anaerobic conditions and peat soil. On the drier land, the lowland dipterocarp forest is found normally located up to 300 m above sea
level followed by the hill dipterocarp forest in areas with elevation between 300 to 1,200 m above sea level. These two forest types are
rich in biological diversity and form the majority of forest types in Malaysia. The montane forest is the uppermost forest with elevation
greater than 1,200 m above sea level.

6
The Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia, Forestry Department Sabah and Forest Department of Sarawak reported that up to the
year 2008 the total forested area in Malaysia amounted to 19.52 million ha or about 59.5 percent of the total land area (Table 1.5).
Mangroves accounted for about 0.58 million ha with dominance in Sabah. In the effort to conserve the various forest types for future
generations, about 14.50 million ha of the forest have been gazetted as Permanent Reserve Forests (PRFs) (Table 1.6). Forested areas
that are gazetted as PRF are being managed sustainably for environment and socio-economic purposes. The PRF will be permanently
managed as forests to ensure that the proper balance among various purposes such as production, protection, social and educational
objectives is achieved. In addition 3.39 million ha have been allocated for protection forests in the form of national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries and nature reserves.

Table 1.5 Forest types and distribution in Malaysia in 2008 (million ha)

Region Land Natural Forest Plantation Total % of Total

area Dry Peat Mangroves forest forested land area
inland swamp land
Pen. Malaysia 13.16 5.40 0.30 0.10 0.08 5.88 44.7
Sabah 7.37 3.83 0.12 0.34 0.11 4.40 59.7
Sarawak 12.30 7.92 1.12 0.14 0.06 9.24 75.1
Total (Malaysia) 32.83 17.15 1.54 0.58 0.25 19.52 59.5

Table 1.6 Permanent Reserve Forests in Malaysia 2008 (million ha)

Region Protection Production Total area % of total

forest forest under PRF land area
Pen. Malaysia 2.00 2.80 4.81 36.6
Sabah 0.59 3.00 3.59 48.7
Sarawak 1.10 5.00 6.10 49.6
Total (Malaysia) 3.69 10.81 14.50 44.2

Even though Malaysia has set its sights on attaining the economic level of a fully developed nation by 2020, managing its natural
resources on sustainable basis has been given high priority. Hence the National Physical Plan (NPP) (Anon 2005a) has been approved
by the Cabinet and the National Physical Planning Council in 2005 has outlined four objectives on how development of the country
should be focused:
i) to rationalize national spatial planning for economic efficiency and global competitiveness;
ii) to optimize utilization of land and natural resources for sustainable development;
iii) to promote balanced regional development for national unity; and
iv) to secure spatial and environmental quality and diversity for a high quality of life.

In the NPP the importance of mangrove ecosystem has also been highlighted. Among others it is suggested that the Protected Areas (PA)
network shall be enlarged to include a full representation of the diversity of natural ecosystems, particularly the lowland dipterocarp
forest and wetlands including the mangrove forest. It was also highlighted that sensitive coastal ecosystems of national importance shall
be gazetted as Protective Areas and could be utilized for low-impact nature tourism (Anon 2005a). Among the areas are:

i) parts of the mangrove in Larut Matang District, which are important for west coast fisheries;
ii) Klang Islands, especially Pulau Tengah, which should be protected as a bird sanctuary;
iii) Kuala Selangor Nature Park which should be enlarged by incorporating parts of Banjar North and Banjar South Forest
Reserves and be protected, and
iv) Kuala Gula in Perak, which should be protected as a sanctuary for migratory birds.

7
Figure 1.3 Tropical rainforests in Malaysia based on altitudinal height

8
1.4 Flora and Fauna
Mangroves provide home for many flora and fauna especially aquatic organisms.
Worldwide, species diversity of flora, size and biomass are the lowest in the
northern and southern extremes and increase toward the tropics. The best developed
mangroves can be found in the Sundarbans, Mekong Delta, Amazon, Madagascar,
Papua New Guinea and Southeast Asia. The Indo-Malesian region has 48 mangrove
species (Duke et al. 1998), the highest species diversity anywhere in the world.
Wang et al. (2003) suggested that the world’s mangrove plants have 84 species
(including 12 varieties) in 24 genera and 16 families. Of these, true mangrove
plants occur in 70 species (including 12 varieties) in 16 genera and 11 families, and
semi-mangrove plants in 14 species in eight genera and five families. In Malaysia,
there are over 40 species of true mangroves but there are no records available
except for Merbok Mangroves, Kedah (Ong 2003), Terengganu (Mohd Lokman
& Sulong 2001), Pulau Tioman (Latiff et al. 1999), and Pulau Langkawi (Wan
Juliana et al. 2010). But the listed species in two of the above records are almost
similar, in which some of the species found in the other places are not mentioned,
including rare species such as Sonneratia griffithii, Bruguiera hainessi, Aegiceras
floridum, Heritiera fomes (Ong 2003) and H. globosa (IUCN 2011). Although the
species diversity is not as rich as the other inland forest types, the mangroves have
their own uniqueness which among others is their adaptation to survive in the harsh
environment. The salty and high acidity of water, the muddy and unstable soil
characteristics, the low and high tide influence as well as the rough coastal waves
are major barriers and only strong and tough plant species can survive in such
environment.

In the case of fauna generally the mangrove fauna does not only inhabit just the
mangrove areas but also the estuaries and tidal creeks. Some animals that find shelter
in the branches and are adapted to the mangroves include bat, proboscis monkey,
snake, otter, and the fishing cat. It is also well known that the mangrove forest in
Malaysia is an ideal habitat for many species of birds including the migratory bird
species. An avifauna survey undertaken in the mangroves of Selangor, Malaysia,
indicated that there are at least 268 species of birds from 48 families including 62
migratory bird species. Some of the common birds found in the mangrove are the
grey heron (Ardea cinerea), milky stork (Mycteria cinerea), brown-headed gull
(Larus brunnicephalus) and mangrove blue flycatcher (Cyornis rufigastra).

1.5 Biomass and Carbon Stock

A recent study revealed that mangroves have higher levels of primary productivity
than most other forests. Their standing biomass is considered high as such
mangroves are among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. It was reported
that a hectare of mangrove forest stores up to four times more carbon (C) than most
other tropical forests around the world (Daniel et al. 2011). Daniel et al. (2011) also
found that the C storage of dense mangrove has a typical mean of 1,023 t C ha-1,
which is exceptionally high compared to the mean C storage values of the world’s
major forest domains. Above-ground C pools were sizeable (mean 159 t C ha-1,
maximum 435 t C ha-1), but below-ground storage in soils dominated, accounting
for about 50–98% of total storages. Mangroves can absorb carbon dioxide and
store carbon by as much as 40% more than the dry land forest ecosystem. Total
carbon deposits per square kilometer in the coastal systems may be up to five times
the carbon stored in tropical forests, due to their ability to absorb or sequester
carbon at rates up to 50 times those of the same area of tropical forest. CO2 stored
in these ecosystems is found not only in the plants, but in layer upon layer of soil
underneath (IUCN 2011). Hence, mangroves may have an important role to play in
global carbon budgets and in mitigating climate change.

9
10
 Chapter 2
Mangroves Ecosystem
H Tariq Mubarak & M Azian

11
Chapter 2 : Mangrove Ecosystem

2.1 Global Mangrove Ecosystem

Mangroves form one of the most productive and biodiverse wetlands on earth. They contain both communities of living and non-living
things. Mangrove mud is rich in nutrients. Bacteria, fungi and algae thrive on the debris such as fallen mangrove leaves and other
biological matter that are washed down by the rivers. These in turn will feed creatures higher in the food chain. The roots themselves
are covered by a vast range of sponges, anemones, marine algae and seaweed, oysters and barnacles. These form the rich mangrove
community. The mangrove ecosystem does not have as many plant species and animals as other ecosystems due to the harsh and
constantly changing environment.

Mangrove plants include trees, shrubs, ferns and palms. These plants are found in the tropics and subtropics on river banks and along
coastlines, being unusually adapted to anaerobic conditions of both salt and fresh water environments. These plants have adapted to
muddy, shifting, saline conditions. They produce stilt roots which project above the mud and water in order to absorb oxygen. Mangrove
plants form communities which help to stabilize banks and coastlines and become home to many types of animals. The mangroves
provide additional safety from land-bound predators as few predators can negotiate the unstable mud and slippery, poking mangrove
roots. The thicket of mangrove branches and leaves also provides shelter from the strong coastal winds.

The mangrove ecosystem is important for fish production. It serves as nursery, feeding and breeding grounds for many fishes and
shellfishes. Nearly 80% of the fish catches are directly or indirectly dependent on mangrove and other coastal ecosystems worldwide
(Kjerfve & Macintosh 1997). The canopy of leaves in a mangrove forest captures most of the light and is thus the source of food not only
for forest animals but also for many marine animals when the leaves drop into the water and decompose.

The decomposed organic matter along with microbial biomass is known as detritus. This is an important product produced in the
mangrove ecosystem. It is rich in protein and serves as a nutritious food for a variety of organisms. The organisms feed on the detritus or
filter the detritus-particles from the water column. Such detritus-feeding fishes are preyed upon by larger carnivorous forms. The influx
of nutrients generated by the mangroves supports other sensitive habitats like the coral reefs, seaweed and seagrass beds.

The mangrove sediments have the ability to retain nutrients. This depends on the sediment characteristics and flow patterns of the sites.
The mangrove system also helps in the recycling of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur. It is perhaps the only biotic system that recycles
sulphur efficiently in nature, making it available in assimilable forms to other organisms (Kaly et al. l997).

In addition to the permanent residents, a vast variety of animals transit through mangroves, both in the water and by air. Although
they spend most of their life elsewhere, many spend important moments in mangroves for nesting or fuelling up for long migrations.
Mangroves are indeed ideal nesting sites for birds, within easy reach of the rich buffet in the water and mud but protected from large
predators. Mangroves also provide food for migrating birds that travel from Australia and the Pacific Islands to China and Siberia.

Humans have always been fascinated by oceans and their coastlines. It is not only no surprise that records dating back over 2000 year
show studies of mangroves. The majority of these early studies probably focus on the uses of these extraordinary trees and shrubs.
Observations by early explorers and settlers focus on the trees themselves, but also on the associated species of wildlife that inhabit these
productive communities.

12
13
2.2 The Mangrove Ecosystem in
Malaysia
In Peninsular Malaysia, mangroves occur along most of the west
coast. The sheltering effect of the island of Sumatra provides
relatively calm seas in the Straits of Malacca, compared with the
South China Sea that abuts the east coast of the peninsula. Rivers
that discharge into the straits carry fine silt and clay. As a result
of the sheltering effect, the mud deposited along the coast forms
the alluvial plains that characterize much of the coastal areas
of the west coast. This mud gives the mangroves the necessary
substrate to establish themselves. Along the east coast, facing
the South China Sea, mangrove formations are generally small
and restricted to river mouths, where they typically extend 0.5–1
km inland (Ibrahim et al. 2000). Sabah and Sarawak make up to
82% of the country’s mangroves. Sabah has 59 % while Sarawak
23% of the total mangroves area in Malaysia (Chong 2006). In
the State of Sabah, mangrove forests are largely found on its east
coast facing the Sulu and Sulawesi Seas, while in Sarawak they
are largely found at the river mouths of the Sarawak, Rajang and
Trusan-Sundar Rivers. Figure 2.1 shows the estimated geographic
distribution of mangroves in Malaysia.

Figure 2.1 Distribution of mangroves in Malaysia

14
15
Along the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, wave height rarely exceeds 1.5 m and usually below 1.0 m during the calm seasons. This
provides excellent conditions for mangroves to take root. Mangroves colonize the coastal mud-flats in successive stages. The pioneer
species is Avicennia. This tree produces cryptovivipary seeds that drop from the tree and float in the water. The seeds get lodged in the
mud during low tide and this is when the plant takes root. In order for this to happen, the wave condition must be mild and the mud must
be totally exposed for a certain time daily. For this reason, the trees are usually found above mean sea level.

When the Avicennia has established its colony, the waves that break on the trees and the rising tide usually deposit debris and sediments
on the seaward side of the trees. This results in the build-up of levees. These levees restrict the ebb flow of the tide causing permanent
pools of water. Fresh water from land and rain reduces the salinity of the water. Due to the constant inundation, the breathing roots of the
Avicennia (Figure 2.2) cannot take in oxygen and the trees cannot survive. New Avicennia trees also cannot take root as the seeds will
remain floating in the water. Under these conditions, Rhizophora and Bruguiera species take over (Muhammad Akhir 1994). Rhizophora
apiculata always dominates basins whereas B. parviflora dominates levees, but a large number of other mangrove species are found at
various points in the succession.

Dead leaves, twigs, flowers and roots are broken up by some macrofauna (e.g. sesarmid crabs) and progressively decomposed by many
forms of attached microbes. Together they form the basis of a detrital food web (Figure 2.3). Detritus becomes food for animals at higher
trophic levels, either directly or indirectly through intermediaries (Chong et al. 1990). The use of mangrove areas as nursery grounds by
fish (Little et al. 1988) and prawns (Stoner & Zimmerman 1988) has been well studied and a positive correlation between commercial
yields of fish and prawns and the extent of mangrove forests has been found (Sasekumar & Chong 1987).

Figure 2.2 Breathing roots of Avicennia

16
Figure 2.3 Generalized food web in mangrove ecosystem (after Odum & Heald (1975))

2.3 Mangrove Habitats

The term mangrove does not refer to a specific taxonomic group of species. One description implies all halophytic (salt tolerant) species
of tropical trees and shrubs representing approximately 12 families and over 50 species. Mangroves vary in height according to species
and environment, from mere shrubs to 40-m tall trees. All are not necessarily related, but all are adapted to living in loose wet soil,
saline habitat, and periodic tidal submergence. In addition, all possess differing degrees of vivipary (live birth) with propagule (seedling)
formation. In mangroves this is accomplished with seed germination while still attached to the parent tree. Mangrove distributions are
primarily determined by sea level and its fluctuations. Other secondary factors are: air temperature, salinity, ocean currents, storms, shore
slope and soil substrate. Most mangroves live on muddy soils, but they also can grow on sand, peat and coral rock.

Mangroves grow in intertidal or estuarine areas. They are found in warmer areas between the latitudes of 32 degrees north and 38
degrees south, along the tropical and subtropical coasts of Africa, Australia, Asia and North and South America (as described in detail
in Chapter 1). Mangroves are tropical species which do not develop well where the average temperature is less than 66 0F (l9 0C). High
temperatures above l07 0F (42 0C) are also thought to be limiting. Normally, temperature fluctuations greater than 50 0F (l0 0C) are not
tolerated well (Hirosuke et al. 2003). They are most luxuriant around the mouths of large rivers and in sheltered bays and are found
mainly in tropical countries where annual rainfall is fairly high.

17
In the middle of a mangrove clump, the amount of salt in the soil can be up to three times the amount found in ocean water. This
concentration of salt is due to repeated flooding of the soil, followed by evaporation of water, leaving the salt behind. Mangrove trees are
adapted to survive in salty soils that would kill most other kinds of plants. This is one reason why mangrove trees can thrive in areas too
harsh for other vegetation. Most plants produce seeds which do not sprout until they are planted. Mangrove seeds are different because
they actually start to grow into a new plant while they are still attached to the parent tree. The seedlings of mangrove trees are carried
away from the parent tree by water. If and when the tides or currents transport the seedlings to an area suitable for growth, the young
mangroves quickly root themselves and begin the next stage of its life (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4 A new generation of mangrove trees

This behaviour is often characterized by zonation mangroves. Certain species occupy particular areas, or niches, within the ecosystem.
Some mangrove species occur close to shores, fringing islands, and sheltered bays; others are found further inland, in estuaries influenced
by tidal action (Figure 2.5). Watson (1928) recognized five major types of mangrove forest zones in Peninsular Malaysia, based on the
dominant species which form almost pure stands from the seafront into the hinterland: (i) the Avicennia–Sonneratia type (on pioneer
shore), (ii) Bruguiera cylindrical type, (iii) Bruguiera parviflora type, (iv) Rhizophora type and (v) Bruguiera gymnorhiza type (on
landward margin).

18
Mangrove plants have a tangle of roots (which are called pneumatophores) which are often exposed above water, leading to the nickname
“walking trees.” The roots of mangrove plants are adapted to filter salt water, and their leaves can excrete salt, allowing them to
survive where other land plants cannot. The prop roots of some mangrove species such as Rhizophora spp. or red mangrove, and the
pneumatophores of others such as Avicennia spp. or black mangrove, contain many small “breathing” pores, called “lenticels.” These
allow oxygen to diffuse into the plant and down to the underground roots by means of air space tissue in the cortex, called “parenchyma”.
The lenticels are inactive during high tide and are highly susceptible to clogging by crude oil and other pollutants, attacks by parasites,
and prolonged flooding from artificial dikes or causeways. Over time, environmental stress can kill large numbers of mangrove trees.
However, for a certain time limit, mangroves can remain survived even at the organic waste dumping sites. Their survival is because of
three reasons, namely (i) flow through the habitat disperses wastes from a point source over vast areas, (ii) the vegetation itself filters
nutrients from the water, and (iii) the mangrove soil, algae, microbes, and physical processes absorb large amounts of pollutants (Wong
et al. 1995). Mangroves such as Avicennia spp. in general are tolerant to high organic load. In Indonesia, Avicennia spp. and Acanthus
ilicifolius are planted in aquaculture ponds for controlling salinity and pH during the rainy season (Lacerda et al. 2002).

There are many plant and animal species which live within the mangrove community and depend on this unique habitat for their
continued existence. Some, like the mangrove tree crab, live upon the emergent (out of water) portions of mangrove trees. Pelicans and
other seabirds also roost in the canopies of mangrove trees. Often, they form large rookeries – nesting assemblages of adult birds and
their offspring – during the breeding season. From the birds that roost in the leafy canopy to the crabs that scurry about the trunks and
the sponges and barnacles that live on submerged roots, it is easy to see that a variety of organisms call the mangrove habitat home.

Figure 2.5 Stylized zones of mangrove species typical in Malaysia

19
2.4 Mangrove Ecology
Healthy mangroves are the key to a healthy marine ecology. Fallen leaves and branches from mangroves contribute to the forest detritus
and provide nutrients for the marine environment. Intricate food webs of immense varieties of sea life are supported directly through
this detritus.

Many threatened and endangered species are native to mangrove forests, which provide critical habitat for diverse marine and terrestrial
flora and fauna such as manatees, crab-eating monkeys, fishing cats, monitor lizards, sea turtles, Royal Bengal tigers, and mud-skipper
fish. Mangrove forests also provide refuge and nursery grounds for juvenile fish, crabs, shrimps, molluscs, and other invertebrates.
Mangroves are prime nesting and migratory resting and feeding sites for hundreds of bird species.

Evolutionary adjustments to varying coastal marine environments have produced some astounding biological characteristics within
mangrove plant communities. Certain species of mangroves exclude salt from their systems while others actually excrete the salt they
take in via their leaves, roots, or branches. In species that exclude salt, the mangrove root system is so effective in filtering out salt that
a thirsty traveller could drink fresh water from a cut root, though the tree itself stands in saline soil.

Scientists theorize that the earliest mangrove species originated in the Indo-Malayan region, where there are far more mangrove species
than anywhere else in the world. Because of their unique floating propagules and seeds, certain of these early mangrove species spread
westward, borne by ocean currents, to India and East Africa, and eastward to the Americas, arriving in Central and South America
between 66 million years ago (upper Cretaceous period) and 23 million years ago (lower Miocene epoch) (Rollet 1981). During that
time, mangroves spread throughout the Caribbean Sea across an open seaway which once existed where Panama lies today.

Later, sea currents may have carried mangrove seeds to the western coast of Africa and as far south as New Zealand. This might explain
why the mangroves of West Africa and the Americas contain fewer, but similar colonizing species, whereas those of Asia, India, and East
Africa contain a much fuller range of mangrove species.

2.5 Distribution of Mangrove Species in Malaysia

Globally mangroves are found in 123 countries. Spalding et al. (2010) reported that within those countries there are 73 plant species
and hybrids of mangroves (Table 2.1). All these species have adapted to the mangrove ecosystem and among them 38 species were
considered by Spalding et al. (2010) as “core” species. Generally in Malaysia, mangrove plant species diversity is comparable with
the global as at least 70 species from 28 families have been recorded in this study. This includes mangrove, seashore and beach plant
species as reflected in Table 2.2. A comparison of 36 main mangrove species for the different localities in Peninsular Malaysia is given
in Table 2.3. The table shows that the 36 main species are well distributed in the different mangrove forests throughout Peninsular
Malaysia. Higher species diversity was recorded in Selangor mainly due to the fact that the survey was conducted in the entire 22,530 ha
of mangrove forest currently available in the state. Of interest is that a species, Acanthus volubilis, was only recorded in Selangor which
may indicate the possibility of the species getting rare. Likewise species Kandelia candel was only reported in Terengganu and not in
other locations as shown in Table 2.3. From the 36 main mangrove species, only 15 species were reported present in all seven locations.
The species are Avicennia marina, Bruguiera cylindrical, B. gymnorrhiza, Derris trifoliate, Excoecaria agallocha, Finlaysonia obovata,
Heritiera littoralis, Lumnitzera littorea, Nypa fruticans, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, Sonneratia
alba, Xylocarpus granatum and X. moluccensis.

Another interesting fact relates to the mangrove distribution in Tioman Island, Pahang. Although mangrove forest only covers about 5
ha of Tioman Island (mainly in Kampung Juara, Kampung Paya, Kampung Nipah and small patches around Berjaya Resort, Tekek),
surprisingly the species diversity is relatively high whereby at least a total of 22 mangrove plant species from 12 families were recorded.

Even though in general the species diversity of mangroves is low compared to that of other inland forests, the importance of these
species should not be neglected. Besides harbouring economically valuable wood species such as R. apiculata and R. mucronata for
both piling and charcoal production, the mangrove forest also houses potential ornamental and pharmaceutical species and remains an
important in situ gene bank of these plant species. Many traditional medicines are made from mangroves, including those for treating
skin disorders, headaches, rheumatism, snake bites, ulcers and many more. It was reported that in Sumatera at least eight mangrove
species are being used by the local communities for curing various diseases (Onrizal & Mashhor 2010). The species are Acanthus
illicifolius, Avicennia alba, B. gymnorrhiza, E. agallocha, R. apiculata, N. fruticans, S. alba and X. granatum. Hence, the mangrove
plants deserve to be conserved and managed well for their present and future tangible and intangible benefits.

20
Table 2.1 The world’s 73 mangrove species and hybrids (after Spalding et al. (2010))

No. Family Species

1 Acanthaceae Acanthus ebracteatus
2 Acanthaceae Acanthus ilicifolius
3 Arecaceae Nypa fruticans
4 Avicenniaceae Avicennia alba
5 Avicenniaceae Avicennia bicolor
6 Avicenniaceae Avicennia germinans
7 Avicenniaceae Avicennia schaueriana
8 Avicenniaceae Avicennia integra
9 Avicenniaceae Avicennia marina
10 Avicenniaceae Avicennia officinalis
11 Avicenniaceae Avicennia rhumpiana
12 Bignoniaceae Dolichandrone spathacea
13 Bignoniaceae Tebebula palustris
14 Bombacaceae Camptostemon philippinense
15 Bombacaceae Camptostemon schultzii
16 Caesalpiniaceae Cynometra iripa
17 Caesalpiniaceae Mora oleifera
18 Combretaceae Conocarpus erectus
19 Combretaceae Laguncularia racemosa
20 Combretaceae Lumnitzera littorea
21 Combretaceae Lumnitzera racemosa
22 Combretaceae Lumnitzera x rosea
23 Ebenaceae Diospyros litttorea
24 Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria agallocha
25 Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria indica
26 Lythraceae Pemphis acidula
27 Meliaceae Aglia cucullata
28 Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum
29 Meliaceae Xylocarpus moluccensis
30 Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculatum
31 Myrsinaceae Aegiceras floridum
32 Myrtaceae Osbornia octodonta
33 Pellicieraceae Pelliciera rhizophorae
34 Plumbaginaceae Aegialitis annulata
35 Plumbaginaceae Aegialitis rotundifolia
36 Pteridaceae Acrostichum aureum
37 Pteridaceae Acrostichum danaeifolium

21
 38 Pteridaceae Acrostichum speciosum
39 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera cylindrica
40 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera exaristata
41 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
42 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera hainesii
43 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera parviflora
44 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera sexangula
45 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera x rhynchopetala
46 Rhizophoraceae Ceriops australis
47 Rhizophoraceae Ceriops decandra
48 Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal
49 Rhizophoraceae Kandelia candel
50 Rhizophoraceae Kandelia obovata
51 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora apiculata
52 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mangle
53 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata
54 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora racemosa
55 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora samoensis
56 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora stylosa
57 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora x harrisonii
58 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora x lamarckii
59 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora x neocaledonica
60 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora x selala
61 Rubiaceae Scyphiphora hydrophylaceae
62 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba
63 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia apetala
64 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia caseolaris
65 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia griffithii
66 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia lanceolata
67 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia ovata
68 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia x gulngai
69 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia x hainanensis
70 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia x urama
71 Sterculiaceae Heritiera fomes
72 Sterculiaceae Heritiera globosa
73 Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis
Note: Core mangrove species are highlighted in bold

22
Table 2.2 List of mangrove, estuarine, oceanic and beach plant species in Peninsular Malaysia

No. Family Species Local name

1 Acanthaceae Acanthus ebracteatus Jeruju putih
2 Acanthaceae Acanthus ilicifolius Jeruju hitam
3 Acanthaceae Acanthus volubilis Jeruju
4 Pteridaceae Acrostichum aureum Piai raya
5 Pteridaceae Acrostichum speciosum Piai lasa
6 Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculatum Kachang
7 Sapindaceae Allophylus cobbe Tumbit kayu
8 Rutaceae Ardisia elliptica Mata pelanduk
9 Avicenniaceae Avicennia alba Api-api putih
10 Avicenniaceae Avicennia marina Api-api jambu
11 Avicenniaceae Avicennia officinalis Api-api ludat
12 Avicenniaceae Avicennia rhumpiana Api-api bulu
13 Lecythidaceae Barringtonia asiatica Putat
14 Euphorbiaceae Breynia racemosa Ambin kera
15 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera cylindrica Berus
16 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Tumu merah
17 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera hainesii Berus mata buaya
18 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera parviflora Lenggadai
19 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera sexangula Tumu putih
20 Leguminosae Caesalpinia crista Gorek
21 Palmae Calamus erinaceus Rotan bakau
22 Rubiaceae Canthium foetidum Kuku baning
23 Celastraceae Cassine viburnifolia barat-barat
24 Rhizophoraceae Ceriops decandra Tengar
25 Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal Tengar
26 Vitaceae Cissus adnata Chawat udi
27 Verbenaceae Clerodendron inerme Pawan,Tulang-tulang
28 Leguminosae Dalbergia candenantensis Akar laka
29 Leguminosae Dendrolobium umbellatum Petai laut/Dulang-dulang
30 Leguminosae Derris trifoliata Akar ketui
31 Leguminosae Derris trifoliata ketui
32 Leguminosae Derris uliginosa setui
33 Dilleniaceae Dillenia suffruticosa Simpoh air
34 Ebenaceae Diospyros pilosanthera var.chikusensis Kayu arang
35 Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria agallocha Buta-buta
36 Asclepiadaceae Finlaysonia obovata Pelir kambing
37 Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica Rotan dini

23
 38 Sterculiaceae Helicteres hirsuta Chabai pintal
39 Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis Dungun
40 Malvaceae Hibiscus tiliaceus Bebaru
41 Asclepiadaceae Hoya elliptica Akar setebal
42 Leguminosae Intsia bijuga Merbau ipil
43 Rhizophoraceae Kandelia candel Bakau lilin
44 Combretaceae Lumnitzera littorea Teruntum merah
45 Combretaceae Lumnitzera racemosa Teruntum putih
46 Rutaceae Merope angulata Limau lelang
47 Sapindaceae Mischocarpus sundaicus Ludai bulan
48 Rubiaceae Morinda citrifolia Mengkudu
49 Palmae Nypa fruticans Nipah
50 Palmae Oncosperma tigillarium Nibong
51 Pandanaceae Pandanus odoratissimus Pandan laut
52 Palmae Phoenix paludosa Dangsa
53 Compositae Pluchea indica Beluntas
54 Sapotaceae Pouteria obovata Menasi
55 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora apiculata Bakau minyak
56 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora lamarckii Bakau hibrik
57 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata Bakau kurap
58 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora stylosa Bakau tanduk
59 Rubiaceae Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Chengam
60 Aizoaceae Sesuvium portulacastrum Gelang laut
61 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba Perepat
62 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia caseolaris Berembang
63 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia ovata Gedabu
64 Compositae Sphagneticola calendulaceae Sunai laut
65 Malvaceae Thespesia populnea Bebaru
66 Verbenaceae Vitex pinnata Leban
67 Verbenaceae Vitex trifolia Leban
68 Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum Nyireh bunga
69 Meliaceae Xylocarpus moluccensis Nyireh batu
70 Meliaceae Xylocarpus rumphii Nyireh

24
Table 2.3 Comparison of distributions of 36 main mangrove plant species at
different locations in Peninsular Malaysia

(Sg Merbok PFR

(Tioman Island)
(matang PFR)

(Sg. Pulai FR)

* Terengganu
(Entire State

** Langkawi
Selangor

Island
Pahang
Kedah

Perak

Johor
No. Family Species Local name
1 Acanthaceae Acanthus ebracteatus Jeruju putih • • • • •
2 Acanthaceae Acanthus ilicifolius Jeruju hitam • • • • •
3 Acanthaceae Acanthus volubilis Jeruju •
4 Pteridaceae Acrostichum aureum Piai raya • • • • •
5 Pteridaceae Acrostichum speciosum Piai lasa • • • • •
6 Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculatum Kachang • • •
7 Avicenniaceae Avicennia alba Api-api putih • • • •
8 Avicenniaceae Avicennia marina Api-api jambu • • • • • • •
9 Avicenniaceae Avicennia officinalis Api-api ludat • • • • •
10 Avicenniaceae Avicennia rhumpiana Api-api bulu • • • •
11 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera cylindrica Berus • • • • • • •
12 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Tumu merah • • • • • • •
13 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera hainesii Berus mata buaya •
14 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera parviflora Lenggadai • • • • • • •
15 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera sexangula Tumu putih • • • • • •
16 Rhizophoraceae Ceriops decandra Tengar •
17 Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal Tengar • • • • • •
18 Leguminosae Derris trifoliata Akar ketui • • • • • • •
19 Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria agallocha Buta-buta • • • • • • •
20 Asclepiadaceae Finlaysonia obovata Pelir kambing • • • • • •
21 Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis Dungun • • • • • • •
22 Leguminosae Intsia bijuga Merbau ipil • • • • •
23 Rhizophoraceae Kandelia candel Bakau lilin •
24 Combretaceae Lumnitzera littorea Teruntum merah • • • • • • •
25 Combretaceae Lumnitzera racemosa Teruntum putih • • • • •
26 Palmae Nypa fruticans Nipah • • • • • • •
27 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora apiculata Bakau minyak • • • • • • •
28 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata Bakau kurap • • • • • • •
29 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora stylosa Bakau tanduk • •
30 Rubiaceae Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Chengam • • • • • • •
31 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba Perepat • • • • • • •
32 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia caseolaris Berembang • • • • •
33 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia ovata Gedabu • • • • • •
34 Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum Nyireh bunga • • • • • • •
35 Meliaceae Xylocarpus moluccensis Nyireh batu • • • • • • •
36 Meliaceae Xylocarpus rumphii Nyireh • •
Species total 23 28 30 25 22 28 29

Sources: * Mohd Lokman & Sulong (2001)

** Wan Juliana et al. (2010)

25
26
 Chapter 3
Mangrove Soil Characteristics
I Mohamad Fakhri, K Wan Rasidah & WC Suhaimi

27
Chapter 3 : Mangrove Soil Characteristics

Soil attributes are among the important factors determining species distribution and growth performance of tree species at a particular
site. Every soil type has its own characteristics in terms of physical, chemical and biological properties. These soil traits can influence
the type of vegetation to grow and establish in this area. Soil properties also tell whether the soil has the potential to store enough water
to keep plants growing through a drought, to withstand a flood, and to provide the right combinations of chemicals required by the plants
(as indicated in measurements of parameters such as pH, and N, P, K levels).

Peninsular Malaysia has a rather homogenous coastline where sandy beaches stretch almost the entire seafronts of the east coast while
the west coast is covered mainly with mud-flat. Sandy areas (Figure 3.1) are more suitable for species such as Casuarina (Figure 3.2)
while muddy areas (Figure 3.3) are dominated by mangroves (Figure 3.4). Soil series such as Baging, Jambu, Rhu Tapai and Rhu Dua
have been recorded in sandy areas while the muddy areas are covered largely by Keranji soil series and small patches have properties
close to Selangor soil series. Soils in coastal areas especially in the west coast are unique soils that need to be understood. There are
many interacting factors influencing the development of these soils. Under natural condition, the soils are saline, having high water table
and always in anaerobic condition. Anthropogenic disturbances such as land- use change for aquaculture industry and development
of a drainage system for planting of agriculture crops can drastically change the soil properties. The site will become aerobic, which
subsequently influences the chemical and biological transformation processes and turn it into acid soil. This is easily recognized from
the occurrence of jarosite mottling (Figure 3.5). Mangrove species cannot survive under this condition. Some of the soils categorized
under Selangor series which are planted with oil palm could formerly be muddy soil.

Figure 3.1
Sandy coastal soil

28
Figure 3.2
Stand of Casuarina sp.
in Setiu, Terengganu

Figure 3.3
Wet and muddy
coastal soil

29
 Figure 3.4 Mature and re-growth of Rhizophora sp.

Figure 3.5 Occurrence of jarosite mottles in a drained muddy soil

30
Kuala Sepetang, Perak, has been identified as having a good managed stand of mangrove species in Peninsular Malaysia. The well-
developed stand of mangrove species in this area could be related to the soil suitability. From the soil profile examination, it was found
that the soil in this area is always anaerobic, deeply profiled with soft structure (massive) and has high organic material in hemic and
sapric forms. Table 3.1 describes the soil profile in this area and Table 3.2 provides the chemical and texture properties of the soil.

Table 3.1 Profile description of Kuala Sepetang soil

Horizon Depth Description

Ah(w) 0–25 cm Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) clay; weak medium to coarse angular blocky structure, few greenish
gray (5GY 5/1) mottles, many fine and medium roots, wet slightly sticky and plastic, gradual
smooth boundary
Bw1 25–56 cm Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) Clay; coarse to very coarse columnar structure, many medium and
coarse roots, wet sticky and plastic, diffuse smooth boundary
Bw2 56–110 cm Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) clay with fabric material; coarse to very coarse columnar structure,
wet sticky and plastic, diffuse smooth boundary
BC >110cm Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) clay with fabric material; structure less massive, wet sticky and
plastic

Source: Wan Rasidah et al. (2010a)

Table 3.2 Properties of Kuala Sepetang soil at different horizons

Profile Wet Cond. N Avail. Ex. K CEC Coarse Fine sand Silt Clay
depth pH mS cm-1 % P cmol kg-1 cmol kg-1 sand % % % %
(cm) µg g-1

0–25 6.88 8.23 0.42 50.60 11.59 50.80 14 13 28 48

25–50 7.19 8.97 0.39 42.02 10.49 30.40 9 10 30 52

50–75 7.24 7.55 0.35 54.67 7.88 47.10 11 11 32 48

75–100 7.38 9.16 0.30 60.17 7.48 37.05 11 14 34 44

Source: Wan Rasidah et al. (2010a)

Soil erosion and accretion are common cyclic processes in coastal areas depending on the wave energy and direction. They can change
species adaptation if the texture composition of the soil changes. Examples are mud accretion, sand accretion (Figure 3.6) and shell
accretion. These phenomena also lead to species succession when the existing plant species die due to unsuitable soil and new species
emerge. This condition can be seen particularly in the areas facing the sea. Strong pressure from waves not only results in erosion on the
banks but also leads to a change in soil texture. The Sungai Haji Dorani site is one such area designated for research where unstructured
soil has alternately changed in texture due to the dynamics of the open sea (Figure 3.7). Soil that is too soft cannot hold the seedling
or sapling roots, and strong wave pressure easily sweeps away these small plants (Figure 3.8). With the installation of breakwater
structures, wave pressure can be reduced to a certain extent. However, soil structure formation cannot take place easily, only the soil
becomes stable and more compact but still unsuitable for conventional tree planting.

31
Figure 3.6 Examples of mud accretion (left) and sand accretion (right)

Figure 3.7 The study area in Sungai Haji Dorani

32
Figure 3.8 Massive structured soil that is unstable and cannot give good support for plants to grow

A change in the soil structure stresses even the matured mangrove

species. Such a phenomenon has been observed in Pantai Kelanang,
Banting, Selangor (Figure 3.9) and Kuala Muda, Penang (Figure
3.10). Muddy grounds occupied by mixed species of mangroves
had turned into sandy plains, which slowly caused the death of
the trees.

33
 Figure 3.9 Accumulation of sand
layer overlying the existing mud in
Pantai Kelanang, Banting Selangor

Figure 3.10 Sand accretions up to 90 cm thick over mud soil in Kuala Muda, Penang, causing death to mature Avicennia trees;
however, planted Casuarina trees grow well in this area

34
Anthropogenic disturbances such as construction of drainage also
results in adverse effect on mangrove soil, changing its alkaline
attribute into acid soil. Subsequently, the species change from
mangroves to normal plants. Sri Menanti, Johor is one of the
areas that have experienced such soil changes. The dried mud
becomes firm and compacted due to the presence of high clay and
silt content (Figure 3.11). This change in soil structure provides
a suitable habitat for non-mangrove species which then compete
with the mangrove trees (Figure 3.12).

Figure 3.11 Unsuitable soil

condition for mangrove stands

Figure 3.12 Changes in soil

structure invite other species
to establish

35
36
 Chapter 4
Functions and Values of Mangroves
M Azian & H Tariq Mubarak

37
Functions and Values of Mangroves

Mangroves constitute a rich ecosystem which provides a variety of economic and environmental services and products. However, the full
values and functions of mangroves are often not recognized leading to the destruction of the habitat, in particular for the development
of aquaculture project. This among others is due to the lack of in-depth information and knowledge about the total values and functions
of the mangrove ecosystem itself. In most cases the economic value of the mangrove which is quantifiable can easily be understood but
on the other hand it is not the case for the ecological values and functions.

4.1 Functions of Mangroves

The mangrove forest is an important habitat for aquatic and terrestrial fauna. It is an important breeding ground for many tropical
commercial fish species, crabs, prawns and other marine animals particularly in terms of providing food and shelter. Some ecosystem
functions provided by mangroves include:

i) protection from strong winds and waves:

One important component of coastal economic values relates to the function of mangroves as a protective buffer zone. Mangroves
help shield coastlines from storm damage and wave action, minimizing damage to property and loss of life from hurricanes and
storms. They help to limit the extent of wave intrusion and salt damage to land.

ii) soil stabilization and erosion protection:

The stability mangroves provide is essential for preventing shoreline erosion. By acting as buffers catching materials washed
downstream, they help to stabilize land elevation by sediment accretion, thereby balancing sediment loss. In regions where these
coastal fringe forests have been cleared, serious problems of erosion and siltation have arisen.

iii) nutrient retention and water quality improvement through filtration of sediments and pollutants:
Mangroves are useful in treating effluents, as the plants absorb excess nitrates and phosphates, thereby preventing contamination
of nearshore waters.

iv) flood mitigation:

One of the most significant social and economic benefits provided by mangroves is flood mitigation and control. Mangroves can
store water from heavy rainfall, thereby preventing possible flooding downstream. Mangroves can additionally slow floodwaters
and provide space for water overflowing from rivers, thereby reducing a flood’s destructiveness.

v) sequestration of carbon dioxide:

Mangroves can absorb carbon dioxide and store carbon in their sediments more than the dry land forest ecosystem (Daniel et al.
2011). Thus it is suggested that mangroves can play an important role in lessening the impacts of global warming.

vi) protection of associated marine ecosystems:

Sea grass beds and coral reefs depend on healthy mangroves to filter sediments and provide nursery grounds for resident species.

38
Besides these natural environmental functions, mangroves also directly contribute to the livelihood of the nearby people. Traditional
and indigenous coastal populations have found sustenance from mangroves, collecting products and goods in a sustainable manner for
hundreds or even thousands of years, including firewood, medicines, fibres and dyes, food, charcoal and construction materials.

The barks are used as sources of tannins and dyes. Mangroves produce durable and water resistant wood used in houses, boats, pilings,
fence posts and furniture. Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata wood is used in charcoal production. The fruits may be eaten. Leaves
are used as sources of tea, medicine, and livestock feed. In some countries, the flowers are used in the honey industry. Leaves can also
be dried and smoked as a substitute for tobacco. However, these direct functions are now translated into values and being exploited for
commercial purposes.

4.2 Values of Mangroves

Mangroves indirectly support economic activities, for examples through nutrient recycling, water purification and flood control.
However, decision-makers often undervalue these shoreline protection services (Burke & Maidens 2004) provided by mangroves.
Mangroves are a source of livelihood for thousands of people living in the coastal areas. Studies show that through the fishing industry
alone, the mangroves of Peninsular Malaysia contribute RM650 million annually to the national economy. As a whole, the Malaysian
wetlands, either directly or indirectly, can contribute more than a staggering RM5 billion to the economy every year (Chan et al. 1993).

Even though for decades scientists have placed a high value on the ecological functions of the mangrove ecosystem, only recently has
the general public come to recognize the multi-faceted role that mangroves play in the environment. In assessing the importance of the
mangrove ecosystem, it can be divided into three notable values, viz. the economic, community and ecological values.

4.2.1 Economic values

a) Wood-Based Industry

The wood-based mangrove products include timber, poles for the construction industry as scaffoldings, charcoal (Figure 4.1), pulpwood,
tannin, dyes and nipah products. Table 1 show the timber quality and uses of mangrove trees. The species of mangrove used for
commercial timber are mostly Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, Bruguiera gymmnorrhiza, Lumnitzera spp. and Xylocarpus spp.
Rhizophora poles are used as scaffoldings in the construction industry and their mature stems are used in the charcoal industry. Mangrove
wood is also useful for making fishing equipment such as poles for fixing nets and fish traps, and as fuelwood (Tomlinson 1995).
Mangrove tannins and resins provide the bases for the production of ink, battery water, detergent, rubber solutions and glues. The high
tannin content prevents rotting of the wood when used in wet areas. Rhizophora is used mainly in the manufacture of chipboard and
synthetic fibres (e.g. rayon), while Avicennia and Nypa are suitable for pulp and paper. Sonneratia alba and Nypa also can be used as
raw materials for industry as well as the productions of honey and fruits.

39
Table 1 Timber quality and uses of mangrove trees

Mangrove species Characteristics of the timber Prevailing

Avicennia spp. Hard and heavy wood, difficult to saw Rarely used for charcoal, chip wood and
panels, poor fuelwood

Bruguiera parviflora Hard reddish wood Pit props, construction scaffolding

Rhizophora spp. Heavy, dark red wood, silvery grain in Construction, rail ties panels; fishing rods,
radial cuts, fresh wood of short durability, root system for spiritual carvings, fibres,
needs long drying fuelwood and charcoal production

Sonneratia alba Hard wood, resistant to shipworm that Poor fuelwood, poles for houses, bridges,
corrodes the plank wells, boats coppices for fences

Sources: Tomlinson (1995); MNS (2010)

Figure 4.1 Supporting local livelihoods and contributing to the state’s economy

40
Despite the conventional uses of mangrove timber, the real potential use of mangrove timber species has yet to be fully explored. Of
late, an initiative has been made by the Forest Research Institute Malaysia to create value-added products derived from mangrove timber
species. Among them is a range of high quality furniture for both indoor and outdoor uses (Figure 4.2). In addition, with proper treatment,
the mangrove timber, in particular the Rhizophora spp. can be used to build beautiful garden furniture structures such as pergola as seen
in Figure 4.3. With proper marketing strategy, these latest introduced products from mangrove timber species are expected to further
increase the values and market for the mangrove timber products in the near future.

Figure 4.2 Examples of high quality furniture made from mangrove timber species

Figure 4.3 Garden furniture and structures made from Rhizophora spp.

41
b) Commercial Fishing

Mangroves provide breeding, feeding and nursery areas for marine species, thus are placed as high value assets by the commercial
fishing industry. Mangroves also contribute to sustaining the local fish and shellfish populations. Fishes, molluscs, crustaceans and other
invertebrates are plentiful in mangroves and are important in the coastal food web. They support a large variety of birds, reptiles and
mammals and at the same time sustain the marine and coastal fisheries and livelihoods of fishermen (Figure 4.4). The fishery products
include prawns, mud crabs, barramundi and bream. Many of these species are the mainstay of the local inshore and offshore fishing
industry.

Figure 4.4 Fishing is the main industry

that supports livelihoods within the
mangroves areas

42
 Table 4.1 Landing of marine fish by state in Peninsular Malaysia
in year 2009

State Fish catches

Metric tonnes Value (RM)
West coast
Perlis 178,247 805,640,168
Kedah 106,486 614,680,958
Pulau Pinang 42,790 254,041,412
Perak 258,086 1,155,477,524
Selangor 131,350 471,556,535
Negeri Sembilan 610 7,731,460
Studies have estimated that around 68% of the entire commercial Melaka 1,691 18,054,463
catch is composed of species dependent upon mangrove estuarine West Johor 10,298 65,968,951
areas (Low et al. 1999). As shown in Table 4.1, the quantity of fish
landed in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia in 2009 was about Total 729,558 3,393,151,472
729,558 tonnes (68% from the total of landed fish in Peninsular East coast
Malaysia) equivalent to RM3,393 million. Kelantan 58,891 238,679,360
Terengganu 84,319 445,703,808
The mean biomass nursery-ground values from channels of
Pahang 115,955 603,152,352
Matang Mangrove in Taiping, Perak, are estimated at an average
of about 36 kg of fish per ha and average of 6.6 kg of prawns per East Johor 77,316 324,453,770
ha. In Sementa Mangrove in Klang, Selangor, they are estimated at Total 336,512 1,611,989,291
17.7 kg of fish per ha and 3.2 kg of prawns per ha, while in Sungai Peninsular Malaysia 1,066,069 5,005,140,762
Dinding Mangrove in Lumut, Perak, the corresponding figures are
9.3 kg per ha and 1.8 kg per ha respectively (Figure 4.5). Source: Department of Fisheries (2009), http://www.dof.gov.my

Figure 4.5 Estimates of the nursery-ground values of various mangrove channels on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia

43
c) Foreshore Protection

Mangroves play an important role in coastal protection by acting as a natural buffer to water erosion from both the land and the sea. By
creating a physical barrier, slowing water movement from the land and trapping sediments, mangroves reduce erosion along estuaries
and creeks. Mangroves can also dampen storm surges; thus in countries which experience periodic cyclones, their value in coastal
protection cannot be overstated. If not managed soundly, removal of mangroves can result in shoreline erosion and mobilization of
marine sediments. This can cause sedimentation resulting in the shallowing of estuaries and waterways and a reduction in water quality.
It can also lead to exposure of potential acid sulphate soils.

These soils may react to produce sulphuric acid when exposed to oxygen in the air. This can cause substantial damage to the natural
environment and physical and economic damage to the built environment. Mangroves maintain coastal water quality by abiotic and
biotic retention, removal and cycling of nutrients, pollutants and particulate matter from land-based sources, filtering these materials
from water before they reach seawards to coral reefs and sea grass habitats. Their root system can slow water flow, facilitating the
deposition of sediments. Mangroves and sediments are known to absorb pollution, including heavy metals. Studies indicate that over
two hectares of mangrove forest is required to filter pollution from a hectare of shrimp pond.

4.2.2 Community values

In recent times, the public has come to appreciate the environmental significance of the mangrove ecosystem. Determining the community
value of mangroves is difficult as it often depends on personal opinions or the views of different user groups.

A number of surveys have been undertaken in selected areas in Peninsular Malaysia to assess public attitudes towards the mangroves and
other coastal areas. From the information derived it can be inferred that the general public living in coastal areas in Peninsular Malaysia
value the mangroves and coastal environment for their unique aesthetic appeal, shoreline protection, the marine ecosystem they support
and the recreational opportunities they provide.

The forest also yields numerous edible plants and medicinal herbs. For example, the stem of Avicennia alba and A. officinalis can cure
general disability while seeds of Xylocarpus can help treat diarrhoea. Acanthus can be used to cure skin rash while pods of A. alba are
boiled to remove edible seeds. The bark of Rhizophora is used both to cure diarrhoea and to stop bleeding while its shoots can be eaten
as vegetable (http://www.globio.org/glossopedia/).

a) Recreation

While appreciating the mangrove environment, some people find enjoyment in particular recreational activities, which can be either
directly or indirectly linked to the health and vitality of the mangroves. Bird watchers, for example, especially appreciate the mangroves
for the specific and varied wildlife that they attract and support. They find enjoyment in identifying and watching the birds that inhabit
the mangrove areas.

The mangrove ecosystem with its wildlife, fisheries and habitat structure offers an immense ecotourism potential by tapping its
recreational values such as fishing, bird-watching, landscape and wildlife photography. The mangrove ecosystem makes it possible for a
large number of animals to feed, roost and breed. The mangrove organisms enhance the mangrove’s photogenic and aesthetic qualities.
The mangrove ambience makes a good retreat for urban dwellers.

Recreational fishermen are by far the largest community group that relies on the mangrove environment for their recreational pursuits.
They often target mangrove areas as they recognize that mangroves provide breeding and nursery habitats for prized fish such as the
barramundi. Mud crabs and prawns are also often caught, along with many other marine species.

Ecotourism and environmental and wildlife education are growing sectors attracting many local and foreign tourists, schools and
environmentalist. The mangrove habitat and ecosystem play a significant role in programmes for conservation, recreation and research.

44
b) Education

The mangrove ecosystem is also a valuable educational and research resource. It supports a wide range of animal species including
birds, bats, lizards, crabs and fish. In no other ecosystems can such an array of animals be found living together (Lear & Turner, 1977).
It contains evidence and traces of past and present geological, ecological and evolutionary processes (MNS 2010). The plants found
within mangrove communities are also distinctive. Most cannot be found within any other environment. They have adapted to the unique
environmental conditions, such as high salinity, regular inundation and low soil oxygen. No other large flowering plants can survive in
these conditions.

The uniqueness of these plants and animals, along with the role that mangroves play in adjacent marine and terrestrial food chains, makes
the mangroves ideal locations for educational activities (Figure 4.6). Through studying mangrove communities and the interactions that
take place within them, people may increase their awareness of mangroves and their importance for conservation. The undesirable
alternative is coastal degradation resulting in loss of livelihoods, natural resources and the rustic ambience of the mangrove ecosystem.

Figure 4.6 Mangroves that are set-up for educational purpose

45
46
4.2.3 Ecological values

The natural resources of most tropical countries have been qualitatively well documented and recognized but there is
little quantitative data for marine fisheries, wildlife habitats, improving coastal water quality and protection of coastlines
and development. In Malaysia, marine fisheries have been providing nursery habitats for many wildlife species including
commercial fish and crustaceans. They can contribute to sustaining the local fish and shellfish populations.

From an ecological perspective, mangroves form a unique and significant ecosystem. They support a diverse range of plants
including palms, trees, shrubs and even ferns, which have developed unusual adaptations to the harsh environmental conditions.
In fact these plants have been so successful in their development that mangroves are among the most productive natural
systems found throughout the world.

Mangroves are used by a vast array of organisms as breeding, nursery and feeding areas. They also play a valuable role in
foreshore protection, reducing erosion and lessening the impact of strong winds.

Mangroves also present important permanent and temporary habitats for a large number and range of marine and terrestrial
fauna. Marine fauna commonly found in mangroves consists of molluscs, crustaceans and a wide range of fish and birds.
Several wildlife species including crocodiles, birds, tigers, deer, monkey and honey bees are also found. This wildlife finds
shelter either in the roots or branches of mangroves. Mangroves can serve as rookeries, or nesting areas for coastal birds.
Research has shown that the abundance and diversity of marine fauna found throughout mangrove areas are high.

Productivity is a concept used to describe the ecological value or function of a vegetation type. Notably, productivity can be
estimated by taking measurements of the amount of living material (i.e. leaves, branches, stems and roots) that is produced by a
mangrove community over a specified time. Mangrove productivity is important because it has direct impact on the health and
function of the marine food chain (Saenger et al. 1983). Like other plants, mangroves convert energy from the sun into organic
matter through the process of photosynthesis. When the leaves and branches of a mangrove fall to the ground, they provide a
wide variety of aquatic animals such as molluscs, crabs and worms with a primary source of food. These primary consumers in
turn support an array of secondary consumers such as small fish and juvenile predators like barramundi which, when mature,
become third level consumers.

In general, high levels of organic matter, or high productivity, means that a larger number and more diverse array of animals can
be supported within a particular ecosystem. Measuring mangrove productivity is not easy, and will probably never be achieved
in absolute terms. It is, however, possible to measure changes in a particular element of a mangrove community, which can then
be used as a guide to its productivity.

47
48
 Chapter 5
Management of Mangroves
in Peninsular Malaysia
R Suhaili

49
Chapter 5 : Management of Mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia

Mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia are found mainly on the sheltered west coast that borders the Straits of Malacca in the states of
Kedah, Perak, Selangor and Johor. On the east coast, mangroves are confined to sheltered estuaries of the Kemaman River in Terengganu
and Bebar River in Pahang. In Peninsular Malaysia, the total extent of mangrove forest in 2010 is about 103,427 ha. Of the total, about
89,626 ha (86.7%) are gazetted as Permanent Reserve Forests (PRFs) while the remaining 13,801 ha are Stateland mangroves (Table
5.1).

Table 5.1 Extent of mangrove forest reserves and stateland mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia as of 31 December 2010

State Areas in hectares

PRF Stateland Total
Johor 18,740 8,603 27,343
Kedah 6,201 - 6,201
Kelantan - 744 744
Melaka 80 - 80
Negeri Sembilan 204 - 204
Pahang 2,416 1,850 4,266
Pulau Pinang 279 494 773
Perak 41,617 652 42,269
Perlis - 13 13
Selangor 18,794 753 19,547
Terengganu 1,295 692 1,987
Total 89,626 13,801 103,427

5.1 Policy and Legislation

The management of mangrove forests in the PRFs is the responsibility of the Forest Departments in the states of Peninsular Malaysia,
Sabah and Sarawak. Under Section 4 (b) of the National Forestry Act 1984 (Amended 1993) (NFA 1984), every State Forestry Department
should prepare forest management and working plans for the PRF in accordance with the principle of sustained yield. The plans are
mainly to meet the needs for conservation of forest resources, sustainability of the resource base, minimizing reinvestment requirements,
environmental quality control, minimal damage to advance growth, reduction of waste, and optimum utilization of resources with the
pursuit of conforming to the principle of sustainable forest management.

Special emphasis on the protection of the mangroves is duly recognized and given specific attention in the National Forestry Act 1984.
This is further enshrined in the revised National Forest Policy 1992, which provides guidelines and strong emphasis on the necessity for
sound management, conservation, utilization, development and protection of the mangroves in Malaysia. The National Forest Policy,
1978 (amended 1992) lists effective conservation and management of natural forest ecosystems including the mangrove ecosystem.

The policy in managing mangroves has undergone changes, from merely managing for the wood produced to a management system that
incorporates multiple roles, including protection and conservation purposes. Systematic management of mangroves started as early as
1904, with the adoption of the first working plan for mangroves in Matang. Matang Mangrove is already known as the best managed
and best described mangrove forest in the world.

50
In the wake of the tsunami on 24 December 2004, the government had established the “Special National Task Force on Planting of
Mangrove and Other Suitable Species in Coastal Areas”, with the major task to identify coastal mangrove areas for rehabilitation and
conservation, preparation of a management plan, and promotion of research related to planting of mangrove species. The task was
undertaken through a multidisciplinary approach involving state governments, universities, research institutions, non-governmental
organizations and local communities.

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1996, has had a crucial role in the conservation and management of mangrove ecosystems. It declares
a Coastal Regulation Zone in which industrial and other activities such as discharge of untreated water and effluents, dumping of
waste, land reclamation and bunding are restricted in order to protect the coastal environment. Coastal stretches are classified into four
categories, and mangroves are included in the most ecologically sensitive category.

The National Physical Plan 2 (NPP2), approved on August 2010, included mangroves as Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA) Rank
1 and their buffer zones are included in ESA Rank 2. In consequence of the plan, currently several states such as Selangor, Perak, Johor
and Kelantan are refining their forest management to meet the requirements stated in the plan in conserving and managing mangroves.
Several guidelines have been formalized in ensuring the mangroves remain protected, such as Guidelines for Settlement and Rural
Developments, Guidelines for Sustainable Agriculture Management Practices, Guidelines for Ecotourism, Guidelines for River Reserve
and Guidelines for Forest Replanting. NPP2 is actually an improvement of the first National Physical Plan (NPP1) that was approved
in 2005. In this National Physical Plan various sublevel plans have also been completed. Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA) have
been identified for protection, including mangroves. Among the areas identified for protection under these plans (some already gazetted
as Permanent Forest Reserves) are:

Pahang South East Pahang Peat Swamp Forest; Tasik Chini and its surrounding wetlands

Kedah Ulu Muda Forest Reserve

Perak Parts of Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve

Selangor Kuala Langat Peat Swamp Forest; mangroves in Che Mat Zain and Tengah Islands

It is proven that the Government is always alert to the importance of wetlands including both mangrove and peat swamp forests. It is
meant for nothing more than environmental and ecological conservation and protection, to ensure that the country remains healthy while
maintaining her socio-economic developments.

5.2 Sustainable Management of Mangrove Forest

Sustainable management of mangrove forest is an established science with a strong empirical knowledge base which is being practised in
the Permanent Reserved Forests (PFRs) by the Forestry Department. Under this concept, the State Forestry Departments need to prepare
a management or working plan (Figure 5.1) to prescribe the biophysical, land use, planning, socio-economic environment, resource base,
objectives, management strategy and management of mangrove forest reserves. In Peninsular Malaysia, this management plan is being
practised in Perak, Johor, Selangor and Kedah.

51
 Figure 5.1 Management and working plans

The sustainable management of mangroves is not only for the sustained yield of renewable forest wood products, but also for coastal
protection, biodiversity conservation and fishery resources. The direct benefit derived therefore includes the economic values of charcoal
and poles plus the landings of natural fishery as well as cultured caged fishery and cockles and other marine-based products. Besides
the direct values obtainable from the sustainable management of the mangroves, other non-tangible benefits are providing sites for
education, recreation, research and maintaining vital habitats for fishes, crustaceans, birds, mammals and reptiles. Their presence is also
crucial in checking coastal erosion and assisting in the accretion process.

Matang Mangrove in Perak with almost a century of systematic management is an exemplary case where such forest can be managed
for sustainable production of timber and at the same time maintaining the richness and diversity of its ecosystem. In this regard, apart
from the wise use of the forest and good management practices, more importantly is the commitment of the local, state and national level
governments and cooperation of the local communities to ensure that this success story lives on to the next generation.

5.2.1 Management objectives

Three main objectives in the management of mangroves are:

• the production of fuelwood, charcoal and poles;

• the protection of riverine and coastlines areas;
• the conservation and protection of sufficient habitats for the proliferation of wildlife, the production of fisheries, and the purposes
of recreation, education and research.

5.2.2 Management strategy

The strategies to achieve the above objectives are as follows:

• maintain and propagate Rhizophora forest type, being the most productive mangrove forest type, in the timber production forest;
• encourage the propagation of other forest types like the Bruguiera forest in the marginally productive timber production forest;
• introduce high quality mangrove species like Xylocarpus spp. in marginally productive mangrove dryland forest, for the local
wood carving and wood-based handicraft industry;
• conserve and protect all riverine and coastal mangroves through the compulsory retention of mangrove buffers between 5 and
10 m for riverine mangroves and between 50 and 200 m for coastal mangroves;
• create adequate wildlife conservation forest especially for the feeding, resting and roosting areas for resident and migratory birds
in which all forms of incompatible activities like timber harvesting are prohibited.

52
5.2.3 Sustainable timber production
The management objective of a management or working plan is mainly to produce fuelwood, charcoal and poles based on a sustainable
basis (Figure 5.2). The sustainable management of mangroves with a 30-year rotation has not only provided consistent yield of renewable
forest wood products, but also offered employment opportunities to the local people. The yield regulation is based on area basis. The
annual coupes for successive plans remain almost stable with minor fluctuations. The thinning remains at the same prescriptions at both
15-year and 20-year rotations.

(a) (b)
Figure 5.2 Fuelwood and charcoal productions: (a) Manual debarking of round logs using a sharp metal wedge before loading into the
charcoal kiln; (b) A small burn in progress which will usually last for 10 to 12 days, after which the aperture is sealed and the charge is
left to cool before the carbonized charcoal is removed.

a) Management Zoning

Forest zoning for timber production has been practised under systematic management system since a century ago. Currently, based on
management goals and functional roles of all the forest areas, the mangrove forest is divided into four management zones, namely (i)
protective zone (protective forest), (ii) restrictive productive zone (restrictive productive forest), (iii) productive zone (productive forest)
and (iv) the unproductive zone (unproductive area). The zoning of the forest and the mapping of the forest types provide the basis for
the formulation of silvicultural systems based on ecological consideration. This ecological consideration approach in the management
of mangroves has further provided the basis and option to tap the full potential of the forest resource available. This zoning represents a
broad application of the concept of multiple uses in the management of mangroves. A more specific application of this concept involves
the designation of forest areas for specific functional purposes. In this regard, the forest classes currently available are the timber
production forest, virgin jungle reserve, old growth forest, research forest, education forest, ecotourism forest, stork lake buffer reserve
and seed production forest.

The management system of mangroves is based on a 10-year integrated management plan for sustainable use in the States of Johor,
Perak and Selangor. The overall goal of the management plan is to conserve and manage the forest through sustainable management
and maintain its important roles in the national economy and preservation of environmental stability. The plan provides long-term
management planning and guidelines on conservation and protection, rehabilitation of degraded sites, maintaining the ecological
functions of mangroves as feeding and breeding ground of coastal fauna, and setting aside adequate forests for community and amenity
purposes, research and training. It has four main components: Sustainable Mangrove Production, Community Forestry and Awareness,
Biodiversity Conservation, and Recreation, each with specific objectives that guide the formulation of the management plan in detail
and differ for specific areas:

i. Biodiversity conservation
Preserve sufficient areas of natural mangrove ecosystem so as to ensure the conservation of biodiversity at ecosystem, species and
genetic level;
ii. Sustainable mangrove production
Manage, develop and protect mangrove resources to achieve sustainable production of wood and non-wood products;
iii. Community forestry
Fulfil local and coastal demands for energy, construction materials and other products and services in a sustainable manner;
iv. Awareness and recreation
Promote public awareness and sustainable tourism activities in suitable mangrove areas.

53
b) Felling Rotation

The length of the rotation is bound to affect the timber yield, productivity and biodiversity of the forest. For a forest managed for fuelwood,
the theoretical appropriate rotation will be that of the greatest volume production at the shortest possible time (Figure 5.3). The subject
of rotation in mangrove management has been one of a continual change. The rotation age has changed several times, ranging from 20
to 30 years. For example, in Matang Mangrove in the State of Perak, the 30-year rotation age was based on Noakes (1952), who stated
that growth figures of trees within sample plots in Matang Mangrove indicated the mean annual increment culminating when the stand
was about 23 years old. Based on this report, the rotation length has been kept at 30 years since 1950 in Perak and Johor. In Selangor, the
felling rotation change from the earlier 30–40 years to 15–20 years rotation was due to the change in the primary management objective
from supplying fuelwood for firewood and charcoal production to the production of poles. When the 15-year rotation was adopted, the
first intermediate felling has also been brought forward to 10 years from 15 years as prescribed in the 20-year rotation.

Figure 5.3 Mangrove stand in a Production Forest that is ready to be harvested

Clear felling is done by blocks with replanting to complement, where required, the natural regeneration. During felling, poles are
taken out first followed by timber felled for charcoal at the end of the harvest period. There is no time frame for harvesting, but license
is usually issued for a period of one year, and extended based on situation. Felling depends on the water tides, which cause delay in
completing harvest during the licensed period.

c) Silviculture

The silvicultural prescription in mangroves is dynamic, though its objectives have remained the same since the first comprehensive
working plan. However, the techniques have been undergoing refinement from time to time. The evolution of operations and refinement
of techniques in mangroves such as in Matang in Perak, Merbok in Kedah and in the State of Johor, is an ongoing process and its ultimate
goal is to produce a fully stocked forest of the desired species for the next rotation. Taking cognisance of the approach to silviculture
based on ecological types in the current plan, the operations are modified to suit the individual forest types within the prescribed
silviculture system of each management zone. Stand silviculture operations are prescribed for the main forest types, i.e. the Rhizophora
and the seaward Bruguiera forests in the timber production and restrictive production zones respectively, and modification for lesser
forest types is also provided.

54
The silviculture system practised in the mangroves has been undergoing continual change, evolving around the minimum-girth system,
shelter-wood system and clear felling. In the past, the shelter-wood and minimum-girth systems were favoured especially when the
rotation age was longer and natural regeneration more plentiful. But when the rotation age was shortened, natural regeneration became
less evident and more areas needed to be rehabilitated artificially. The prescribed rotation system and silviculture operations in the States
of Perak, Johor and Selangor are presented in Tables 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4.

Table 5.2 A 30-year rotation system and silviculture operation in Matang, Perak

Year (s) Operation

[adopted and modified from Gan, (1995)]
1 year before felling Detailed ground survey and recalculation of the subcoupes minus the eroded and unproductive areas.
Process of blocking and allotment to be determined by balloting.
0 That is when the age of the forest is presumably 30 years. The felling operation is similar to clear felling
(current year of felling) involving the felling of all exploitable trees with a chain-saw and bucking them into billets of 1.6-m length
as required for charcoal manufacture. Buffers of 3 to 10 m width of all trees along both sides of the river are
retained for erosion control and preventive function as well as for seed propagation and future procurement
of propagules. Before leaving the subcoupe, after all exploitable timber have been removed, the charcoal
contractors are required to fell and slash all non-commercial species, which include Bruguiera cylindrica
and B. parviflora (irrespective of size).
1 year after felling Preliminary assessment of areas requiring planting and full assessment of areas requiring weeding.
Eradicating invading ferns especially of the species Acrostichum aureum, by a combination of manual and
chemical means. Slashing and felling all remnants of Bruguiera cylindrical and B. parviflora. Bruguiera
gymnorihza to be left wherever present either as advance growth or saplings.
2 years after felling A final field survey to determine and map out the extent and location of sub-coupes requiring planting and
refilling. All subcoupes with less than 90% of natural regeneration are subjected to enrichment planting
or to certain extent total planting. The two preferred species are Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata
which are planted at a spacing of 1.2 m x 1.2 m and 1.8 m x 1.8 m respectively. Present planting involves
the prescription of bare root and potted seedlings as planting materials depending on site and the presence
of pests.
3-year-old stand First survival enumeration for areas planted in Year 2. Refilling is done if survival of planted seedlings is
less than 75%. If mortality over any of the planted subcoupes is more than 50% and it can be established
that it is either caused by deep flooding, monkey or crab attacks, refilling will be carried out using the
potted seedling technique.
4-year-old stand Second survival enumeration for areas planted in Year 3. Requirement and followed-up treatment similar
to Year 3.
5-year-old stand Third and last survival enumeration. Any subcoupes which have less than 75% regeneration either through
artificial or natural means irrespective of the causes of the failure will be planted with potted seedlings.
6–14-year-old stand No activity recommended.
15–19-year-old stand First thinning using a 1.2-m stick length. The process involves selecting a Rhizophora tree of good form
and with it as the centre of a circle, a stick of 1.2-m radius is used to sweep around it. Any trees within the
circle are required to be removed but normally only trees of good form and marketable size are removed.
The above procedure is then repeated over the whole subcoupes.
For Bruguiera type, the standard (largest size) to be retained is now removed and with it as the centre,
the next largest pole size Bruguiera tree is removed, and so forth. Strictly, no removal of Rhizophora in
Bruguiera forest irrespective of size or tree form. The Rhizophora trees are expected to form the final crop
and to act as seed trees.
20–24-year-old stand Second thinning using a 1.8-m stick length. The procedure is similar to first thinning except that a 1.8-m
stick is used instead of a 1.2-m stick.
For Bruguiera type, the procedure is similar to the first thinning except that a 1.8-m stick is used instead
of a 1.2-m stick.
25–29-year-old stand No activity recommended.
30-year-old stand Final felling.

55
Table 5.3 A 20-year rotation system and silviculture operation in Johor

Year Operation
n-0.5 Area identified, surveyed and mapped for logging. External boundaries demarcated. River bank buffer zones of at least 10 m.
N Clear felling. Licensees are required to cut all commercial species (i.e. desirable and acceptable) and ring the bark of non-
commercial trees. Produce of poles, billets and fuelwood to be measured on site. Planting of propagules of Rhizophora spp. to
achieve a uniform coverage of regeneration spaced at 1.8 m ( 3,100 plants per ha). Areas with infestation of ferns, especially
Acrostichum aureum (piai raya), should be cleared. The interventions to be carried out by the licensee should be sketch-
mapped for the licenced area for follow-up assessment/verification.
n+1 Assessment of completeness of regeneration and clearing of piai infestation. Further planting required if natural regeneration
is less than 90% of the desired 3,100 plants per ha. Planting and eradication of ferns by the licensee should be mapped out.
n+2 Second felling inspection to assess completeness of regeneration and eradication of piai. If gaps in regeneration are more than
75% of the desired number then further refilling is to be done by the licensee based on sketch maps for the area.
n+3 Final verification of regeneration and measures to take similar to n + 2.
n + 20 Final felling (for poles, billets and fuelwood).

Table 5.4 A 15-year rotation system and silvicultural operation in Selangor

Year Operation
-1 Ground survey, assessment of felling coupe and demarcation of coupe boundary.
0 Clear felling except for river and coastal buffers of 5–10 m and 50–200 m respectively to be retained for erosion
control and as seed source.
1 Preliminary assessment of areas requiring planting and weeding.
2 A final field survey to determine and map out the extent and location of areas requiring planting. All felling blocks
with less than 75% of natural regeneration will be subjected to artificial planting. The two preferred species are R.
apiculata and R. mucronata which are planted at a spacing of 1.2 m x 1.2 m and 1.8 m x 1.8 m respectively.
3 Survival enumeration of planted seedlings and refilling.
4–9 No activity recommended.
10 Intermediate felling using a 1.2-m stick length. The process involves selecting a tree of good form and with it as
the centre of a circle, a stick of 1.2-m radius is used to sweep around it. All trees that fall within the circle are felled
and removed as poles. The above procedure is repeated over the whole intermediate felling coupes.
11 -14 No activity recommended.
15 Final felling for poles.

5.3 Conservation of Mangrove Biodiversity

The mangrove vegetation is evergreen and simple in structure varying from 5 to 25 m in height. The canopy is comparatively even and
closed, except where there are gaps. The understory layer is poorly defined while the ground layer is devoid of herbs. The principal
mangrove species are characterized by special roots such as stilt roots and pneumatophores and also by their viviparous seeding habit.
Several authors such as Wyatt-Smith (1960), Liew (1980) and Chai (1982) reported about 31 plant species in Peninsular Malaysia which
are exclusively found in the mangrove swamp forest, while a total of 51 species are non-exclusive or associate species. Early in the last
century, Watson (1928) had classified the mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia into five vegetation types based on species composition and
dominance. They are Avicennia–Sonneratia type, Bruguiera cylindrica type, Bruguiera parviflora type, Rhizophora type and Bruguiera
gymnorhiza type. A better and more comprehensive classification is given by Chai (1982), which includes the inland mangroves.

The mangrove forest floristic composition is also low compared with other forest types. The mangrove flora, structure, above-ground
biomass and net productivity in the west coast do not differ very much but when compared with those of the east coast, some differences
are observed. It is found that the flora of the east coast mangroves is poorer and zonation is not obvious. This is probably due to the
east coast mangroves being exposed to larger waves of the South China Sea. Berry (1972) broadly categorized the animal communities
in the mangroves into two components, namely the aquatic and the terrestrial. The former consists of fishes, crabs, snails, worms and
the bivalves, whilst the latter consists of insects (including the fireflies), birds (including the migratory species), lizards and monkeys.

56
The mangroves of Pulau Langkawi, Matang, Port Kelang and
Kukup are known for fisheries and those of Kg. Kuantan, Kg.
Belimbing (Selangor) and Matang harbour fireflies which attract
a good number of ecotourists. The mangroves of Kuala Merbuk
(Kedah), Kukup (Johor) and Kuala Gula (Perak) are equally
known for supporting migratory birds. Apart from that, there are
micro-organisms in the mangroves such as microscopic fungi and
lichens.
5.4 Coastal Protection
Mangroves are important for the preservation of coastal lands.
They protect coastlines against physical forces such as erosive
wave actions and strong coastal winds. Mangroves stabilize
shorelines, and serve as natural barriers against severe storms.
The need to protect the coastal areas and to manage the resource
on sustained yield basis are incorporated in the management or
working plan. After the tsunami on 26 December 2004, the role
of mangroves in providing coastal protection against the action of
strong waves, wind and water current is well known. Extensive
areas of mangroves can reduce the loss of life and damage caused
by tsunamis. In the northwestern coast of Peninsular Malaysia,
in areas where the mangroves are intact, the damage was more
reduced compared with the areas that were exposed to the open
sea without the mangrove strips. The Prime Minister of Malaysia
had raised the need to take preventive measures to minimize the
impact and extent of destruction and called for the regeneration of
the mangroves through tree planting programmes along several
parts of the coastlines in the country.
In realizing the importance of mangroves to protect the people and
environment, and to maintain the ecosystem and biodiversity, The
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Malaysia (NRE)
has formed the National Taskforce Committee on Tree Planting
Programme along the Shoreline. The main responsibilities of
this main committee are to coordinate and provide advice as well
as to assess the implementation of the programme. To assist the
National Taskforce committee, two technical Committees were
formed, namely the Planning and Implementation Technical
Committee which is headed by the Director General of the
Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM) and the
Research and Development Technical Committee which is headed
by the Director General of Forest Research Institute of Malaysia
(FRIM). The main objectives of the Tree Planting Programme
along Coastal Areas are to establish coastal nature shields to reflect
and resist tsunami energy, reduce inundation depth, inundation
area and tsunami current in the long term; to conserve and protect
the beaches and dunes along coastal areas from erosion by strong
waves and wind thereby also acting as barrier; to create maximum
coastal protection zones and river vegetation buffers as well as
to encourage the co-existence of non-destructive aquaculture
activities like cage culture of fish and prawn and crab culture and
to provide and preserve the breeding grounds for many marine
animals.
5.5 Management Issues
These include both natural hazards and destructive human
activities. However, the gravity of the problems varies from area
to area.
5.5.1 Natural hazards
The natural threats to mangroves include the following:
• cyclones, typhoons and strong wave action;
• browsing and trampling by wildlife and livestock (goats,
buffaloes and cows), which are often left to graze freely,
especially in areas close to human habitation;
• infestation by barnacles which attach to young seedlings,
interfering with respiration and photosynthesis and delaying
seedling growth (Hong 1996);
• damage by oysters on young leaves of Rhizophora and
Ceriops plants;
• attack by crabs on young seedlings, by girdling the root
collars and eating the fleshy tissues of the propagules;
• gastropods that eat the young leaves and flowers of
mangroves;
• insect pests such as wood borers, caterpillars (which eat the
mangrove foliage and damage the wood as well) (Naskar &
Mandal 1999) and beetles;
• weeds such as Acrostichum aureum and Acanthus species,
which often occupy deforested mangrove areas and restrict
the regrowth of economic mangrove species.
5.5.2 Land conversion of mangroves to
other uses
Economic pressures have led to the indiscriminate cutting
of mangrove forest for aquaculture, agriculture and tourist
development projects and to the exploitation of coastal resources
above sustainable level, especially along the west coast of
Peninsular Malaysia. In addition, rapid industrial development of
the hinterland has increased the organic and inorganic pollution to
rivers and coastal waters. The loss of mangrove and other wetland
forests, which function as breeding grounds for a large variety
of fish and prawn species, has resulted in a decline in fisheriy
resources (explained in Chapter 7). Studies also showed a direct
correlation between prawn yield and the extent of mangrove
forests. Indiscriminate aquaculture practices have proven to be
very detrimental to the mangrove environment. Uncontrolled
mangrove destruction could be damaging to the Malaysian fishing
industry.
57
58
 Chapter 6
Distribution and Extents
of Mangroves
O Hamdan, F Mohd Azahari, A Audi Hani & M Khairul Azwan

59
Chapter 6 : Distribution and Extents of Mangroves

This chapter highlights the statistics of current distribution and extents of mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia. The methodological
approach adapted in this chapter is elaborated before presenting the details. In this study, optical imagery from the SPOT-5 satellite
was used as the main source of data to derive the mangrove distribution. SPOT (Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre)-5 is a high-
resolution multispectral system that has spatial resolution of 2.5 m. It is a satellite imagery product that is being rapidly used recently
in vegetative studies. The spatial resolution offered by SPOT-5 allows mapping details and the scale can reach up to 1:25,000. The
resolution is adequate for mangrove classification with an attainable accuracy of 85–93%, depending on the experience of the operator
as well as classification algorithm employed. Nearly 35 scenes of SPOT-5 images were utilized covering all the mangrove areas in
Peninsular Malaysia. These images were acquired from years 2007 to 2010.

All scenes of SPOT-5 satellite images were preprocessed prior to image classification. Appropriate enhancement techniques were
applied to the images to make the mangrove areas appear better on the image. The traditional classification method, which is a maximum
likelihood classifier, was applied to the images to distinguish mangrove from other landcover/landuses. Normalized Different Vegetation
Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) were also applied to certain images whenever feasible. These approaches only
apply to the large coverage of mangrove areas, but in most cases, on-screen digitizing was more helpful. Mangrove areas normally appear
dark on multispectral image. This is due to the ecosystem, which is covered by swamps and sometimes inundated by tidal water. The
chlorophyll content of the mangrove leaves, which is higher than those of trees and crops, tends to make them appear darker on satellite
image, as depicted in Figure 6.1. The result of this approach was also found more accurate compared with the automated approach. All
classification results in raster-based form were transformed into vector format (shapefile) for further editing and refinement. In order to
retain the accuracy of classification results, a series of ground thruthing data was conducted.

Ground thruthing processes started in July 2008 and were completed in April 2011. A number of field visits were conducted in three
phases (phase 1: 2008, phase 2: 2009, and phase 3: 2010 & 2011) and there were 512 locations of mangroves observed along the coast
of Peninsular Malaysia wherever accessible. The locations were recorded using Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment and the
entire recorded coordinates were included in geoinformation system to facilitate image classification processes as well as to control the
accuracy of the image classification. The locations are listed in Table 6.1 and Map 6.1 shows the GPS points of the locations visited.

Table 6.1 Ground thruthing points

State No. of points Date of visit

Phase 1
Selangor 69 28–31 July 2008
Kedah 43 1–5 December 2008
Kelantan 27 20–25 April 2009

Phase 2
Johor 61 25–27 May 2010
Perak 110 29 June–1 July 2010
Pahang 56 27–28 July 2010

60
Phase 3
Pulau Pinang 27 25–26 January 2011
Perlis 10 27 January2011
Terengganu 59 14 – 17 March 2011
Melaka 28 6 April 2011
Negeri Sembilan 22 7 April 2011
TOTAL 512 32 Days

Figure 6.1 Mangroves as

they appeared on SPOT-5
image. The dark green areas
represent the mangrove areas.
The image classification
process, either automated or
manual digitizing, is usually
easier for mangrove areas
than for other vegetations.
The image is displayed using
a combination of bands 432
(RGB) over the Kapar area
in Klang, Selangor. The
central bottom is Klang Port
complex and the bottom left
is Pulau Klang, which is
predominantly covered with
mangroves.

61
 Map 6.1 Ground thruthing GPS points at locations visited

62
6.1 Peninsular Malaysia
Mangrove forest is a major wetland type (the other is peat swamp forest) in Peninsular Malaysia, which has been identified as one of
the ecosystems that play vital roles in supporting human life, flora and fauna. Mangroves are a valuable natural resource with a unique
diversity, high intrinsic natural productivity and distinctive habitat value. Mangroves provide priceless goods and services both for
economic and environmental developments. Apart from poles, charcoal and fuelwood productions, the mangrove ecosystem supports a
wide variety of functions such as coastline protection, assimilation of wastes, source of food, shelter and sanctuary for fauna, breeding
ground for marine life and also barrier to the force of tidal waves.

Peninsular Malaysia has a coastline of about 1,972 km that borders the South China Sea in the east, the Straits of Johor in the South,
and Straits of Melaka in the West. The northern part of Peninsular Malaysia consists of land areas bordering Malaysia and Thailand.
About 72% of the coastline in west Peninsular Malaysia is made up of mud coasts, while the rest is sand coasts interspersed with capes,
promontories and headlands of granite and sandstone. Most of the mangrove areas are found fringing this coastline. Different from the
west, the coastline in east Peninsular Malaysia covers nearly 91% of sandy coasts, with only small portions of the coast being muddy,
where mangroves occur.

Mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia are found largely sheltered along the west coast that borders the Straits of Melaka in the States of
Perlis, Pulau Pinang, Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Melaka and Johor. Major near-shore islands, including the Kelang
islands in Selangor and Pulau Kukup in Johor are also predominantly colonized by mangroves. Small patches of mangroves occur
along the rocky shores and they include those found in Pulau Langkawi, Kedah; in Pulau Pangkor, Perak; and in Port Dickson, Negeri
Sembilan. In the south, mangroves are found mainly in the estuaries of Sungai Pulai and Sungai Johor which drain into the Straits of
Johor, and the remaining mangroves are found along the Straits of Johor. On the east coast, mangroves are mostly confined to sheltered
estuaries of Sungai Kemaman in Terengganu, Bebar in Pahang, and in Mersing, Johor. There are also some small patches of mangroves
in Kelantan Delta, in Tumpat, Kelantan.

Table 6.2 lists the extents of mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia derived from this study. They are, however, incomparable with the
mangroves in Permanent Reserve Forests (PRF) as gazzeted by the Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM) because the
mangroves identified by this study are inclusive of those outside the PRF. There are also some cases where there are gazzeted PRF
mangroves but they were no longer in existence on the ground. Therefore, no possible comparison can be made between these two
figures as the PRFs are only used by the Forestry Department for its management purposes. The results of this study took into account
all the areas as long clear physical boundaries of mangroves appear on the satellite images.

Table 6.2 Extents of mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia

Mangroves in PRFs* Currently existing mangroves Percentage from total

State
(ha) (ha) (%)
Johor 30,244 23,676.43 20.57
Kedah 6,201 7,841.25 6.81
Kelantan - 428.95 0.37
Melaka 92 1,308.68 1.14
Negeri Sembilan - 2,276.50 1.98
Pahang 2,416 9,039.26 7.85
Perak 40,538 43,291.97 37.61
Perlis - 94.02 0.08
Pulau Pinang 1,040 1,695.60 1.47
Selangor 18,089 22,530.20 19.57
Terengganu 1,295 2,925.74 2.54
TOTAL 99,915 115,108.60 100

*Source: FDPM (2010)

63
The largest mangrove forest occur in Perak, which covers about 38% of the total mangroves found in Peninsular Malaysia, followed by
Johor, Selangor, Pahang, Kedah, Terengganu, Negeri Sembilan, Pulau Pinang, Melaka, Kelantan, and Perlis. It is obvious that Perak,
Johor and Selangor dominate in terms of mangrove coverage. These states all reside on the western coast of Peninsular Malaysia, except
some districts of Johor that face the east. Out of 1,972-km length of the coastline, about 61% is covered by mangroves, 26% by coconut
and other trees, 10% by grass and the remaining 3% is uncovered. In the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, mangroves dominate about
66%, 12% is uncovered and the rest is covered by grass, coconut palms and casuarina trees. However, in the east coast of Peninsular
Malaysia, mangroves only cover some 7%, grass 41%, coconut and other trees 49%, and the remaining 3% is uncovered. The distribution
of mangroves that occur along the Peninsular Malaysia’s coastline is depicted in Map 6.2.

There are several reports that indicate the total extents of mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia. Examples are, i) WRI, (1996): 98,300 ha, ii)
Kamaruzzaman & Dahlan (2008): 107,802 ha, and iii) Mohd Hasmadi et al. (2010): 101,877 ha. Each report indicates a different figure
for the respective year of publication. It is difficult to obtain an accurate estimate of mangrove areas for the following reasons:

• Every report gives a figure that is based on the year of the study, which leads to varying figures as the mangroves change over the
years. Mangrove areas in many developing countries are not spared from land acquisition and conversion for economic reasons.
Examples are described in Chapter 5.
• There is no standard methodology used by different studies to estimate mangrove areas. As a result, it is difficult to make a
comparison between studies.
• There is also no clear-cut demarcation between the extents of water bodies and mangrove land due to tidal inundation.
• The spatial resolution of satellite imagery used to estimate the extents also play an important role in the outcome of the analysis
where coarser resolution images often lead to over estimation of mangrove areas.
• Above all, there is no clear distinction of the boundary between back mangroves species and salt marsh and hence both areas are
normally included as mangrove areas.

64
Map 6.2 Distribution of mangrove areas in Peninsular Malaysia

65
6.2 Johor
Johor is a state located in the southern part of Peninsular Malaysia and the southmost region of the Asian continent. It is one of the most
developed states in Malaysia. The state capital city and royal city of Johor is Johor Bahru, formerly known as Tanjung Puteri.

Johor is surrounded by Pahang in the north and Melaka and Negeri Sembilan in the northwest. The coasts of Johor consist of the Straits
of Johor in the south which separates Johor and the Republic of Singapore, the Straits of Melaka in the west and the South China Sea in
the east. In the east coast area, most of the coastline is covered by sandy beaches, whilst the west is predominantly muddy coast.

Johor is divided into eight political districts and out of these six have mangroves. They are Muar, Batu Pahat and Pontian in the west,
Johor Bahru in the south, and Kota Tinggi and Mersing in the east. Pontian has the largest area of mangroves, which covers 9,802.58 ha
(Figure 6.2), followed by Johor Bahru 5,830.08 ha, Kota Tinggi 3,312.5 ha, Batu Pahat 2,085.48 ha, Muar 1,541.32 ha and the least in
Mersing, with 1,104.45 ha as presented in Map 6.3. Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata mangroves are the predominant species in
the west coast of Johor. There is also Sungai Pulai Mangrove Reserve (SPMFR) located in Tanjung Piai, which is a cape in Johor known
as the southernmost point of Peninsular Malaysia and mainland Asia. SPMFR is also listed as one of the RAMSAR sites in Johor besides
Pulau Kukup (Mohd Hasmadi et al. 2011). In the east coast, there are also R. apiculata and R. mucronata occurring mostly along Sungai
Johor with a smaller composition compared with the west coast. The other dominant species are Avicennia spp. and Nypa fruticans.

Figure 6.2 A regenerating mangrove stand in Sungai Pulai Forest Reserve, Pontian

66
Map 6.3 Distribution of mangroves in Johor

67
6.3 Kedah
Kedah is a state located in the north of Peninsular Malaysia. The total land area is about 946,750 ha and has an island, Langkawi, which
is one of the most popular tourism spots in Malaysia. Langkawi is not only popular among tourists due to its many attractions, but also
rich in diverse species of mangroves. It was recorded that Langkawi Island has 38 true mangrove species (Abdul Latif et al. 2011). A
total of 3,154.74 ha of mangroves can be found on the island, comprising three large mangrove areas, namely Kampong Kuala Isap-Gua
Cerita mangroves, Sungai Ayer Hangat-Kubang Badak mangroves and the Pulau Dayang Bunting-Pulau Tuba mangroves. Figure 6.3
shows a panoramic view of growing mangroves in Langkawi Island.

However, the largest mangroves in Kedah are the Merbok Mangrove Reserve that covers an area of approximately 4,085 ha. This
mangrove area is sheltered along the Sungai Merbok in the district of Kuala Muda. Merbok Mangrove Reserve is also rich in mangrove
species where about 30 different mangrove species have been recorded but are less diverse as compared with Langkawi (Spalding et al.
2010). The remaining mangroves are found fringing the coast of Kuala Muda district and spreading to Tasik Muda River bordering Pulau
Pinang, making up a total area of about 4,534 ha in Kuala Muda district. The remaining mangroves are located near the estuary of Sungai
Kedah in Kota Setar district. There are about 152.25 ha sporadically along this river. The distribution of mangroves in Kedah is shown in
Map 6.4. From the total 7,841.25 ha of mangroves that occur in Kedah, 6,201 ha are under the Permanent Reserve Forest (JPNK 2009).

The total extent of mangroves in Kedah has shrunk over the years due to land reclamation for agriculture, aquaculture projects and
land developments. The Bukit Malut mangroves with a total area of 110 ha were cleared and developed for aquaculture projects, while
another 975.79 ha of Sungai Merbok Forest Reserve were excised and developed for aquaculture, small industries and other development
projects (Kamaruzzaman & Dahlan 2008).

The mangrove management plan for Kedah was prepared with the objectives: 1) to ensure a sustain supply of timber resources for local
industries; 2) to produce poles for local users; and 3) to conserve and protect coastal and fringe areas from erosion, strong waves and
wind. The main focus of the management plan is to inflict minimal interference and silvicultural treatments to existing mangroves with
greater areas allocated for conservation and protection purposes. The annual coupe is about 100 ha and managed on a 30-year cutting
cycle. Harvesting of mangroves is restricted only to Sungai Merbok area but now the activity of harvesting within the area is becoming
less common, whilst the mangroves at Langkawi are managed mainly for conservation, ecotourism and protection.

Figure 6.3 Panoramic view of mangroves on Langkawi Island

68
Map 6.4 Distribution of mangroves in Kedah

69
6.4 Kelantan
Kelantan is a state situated in the northeast coast of Peninsular Malaysia, bounded on the west by Thailand, on the south by the States of
Perak, Pahang and Terengganu and faces the South China Sea on the east. Most of the coastline in Kelantan is sandy beaches. All along
the seashore the land is flat and low-lying, interspersed with numerous tidal creeks which connect to different rivers and extend a few
kilometers inland. Though the level of the land is low, there are abrupt sandy dunes at the sea front that raise the ground level higher than
landward areas. This unique geomorphology of the Kelantan flood-plain has led to the successful growth of nipah palm (Nypa fruticans)
since hundreds of years ago (Graham 1908).

The nipah palm is among the few palms that grow well in mangroves. It grows in soft mud where the water is calmer with regular inflow
of freshwater and nutritious silt. It also can be found inland, as far as tidal influence that will help in carrying and depositing the palm’s
floating seeds. It can tolerate infrequent inundation, so long as the soil does not dry out for too long. These land characteristics can be
found especially in the north regions of Kota Bharu and Tumpat districts in Kelantan. Kelantan is one of the states in Peninsular Malaysia
which have large coverages of nipah palm vegetation besides Perak, Selangor and Terengganu (Khali Aziz et al. 2009). Figure 6.4 shows
a view of nipah palm vegetation found along the sheltered river mouth near Pantai Cahaya Bulan in Kota Bharu.

Overall, there are 428.95 ha of mangroves in Kelantan, which found mainly in Kelantan Delta, located in Tumpat district in the north of
the state, as depicted in Map 6.5. Out of that total, 136.7 ha are the rehabilitated sites of mangroves where Rhizophora apiculata and R.
mucronata seedlings were planted by the State Forestry Department in 2000. The remaining extents are covered by natural mangroves
and approximately 70% of them are nipah palms. The rest comprise Avicennia alba and Excoecaria agallocha and other less commercial
tree species commonly found in mangrove ecosystem. To date, there are no mangrove reserves gazetted in Kelantan but the State
Forestry Department is trying to declare those rehabilitated sites as forest reserves.

Figure 6.4 Nipah palm (Nypa fruticans) grows vigorously along major rivers in Kota Bharu

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Map 6.5 Distribution of mangroves in Kelantan

71
6.5 Melaka
Melaka is the third smallest state in Peninsular Malaysia, after
Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the
Peninsular Malaysia, facing the Straits of Melaka. It borders
Negeri Sembilan to the north and the State of Johor to the south.
The State of Melaka covers an area of 166,400 ha. The state is
divided into three districts: Melaka Tengah (31,400 ha), Alor
Gajah (66,000 ha) and Jasin (67,600 ha). Melaka coastal areas
face the Straits of Melaka and are sheltered by Sumatera Island.

From the total of 165,568 ha land area in Melaka, 5,328 ha are

forested area. Of this area, 5,080 ha are gazetted as Permanent
Reserved Forest (PRF) in which mangroves comprise only 92 ha
or about 1.80 % of the total reserve in the state (Figure 6.5). The
total area of mangroves including those in the stateland is about
1,308.68 ha which is about 0.79% of the total land area in the state
(Figure 6.6).

Mangroves in Melaka can be found on river banks and estuaries.

The largest area of mangroves in Melaka is located in the district of
Jasin (699.56 ha) near Kampung Bagan Upeh, Kampung Bulang,
and Kampung Pulai Barat, whilst the remaining mangrove areas are
found in Alor Gajah and Melaka Tengah districts, which comprise
about 555.01 ha and 54.11 ha of mangrove areas respectively.
Map 6.6 shows distributions of mangrove areas in Melaka.

Figure 6.5 Standing mangroves in the reserve area

Figure 6.6 Mangrove trees found in stateland area

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Map 6.6 Distribution of mangroves in Melaka

73
6.6 Negeri Sembilan
Negeri Sembilan is one of the states located on the western coast of Peninsular Malaysia, just south of Kuala Lumpur and bordered in the
north by Selangor, in the east by Pahang and in the south by Melaka and Johor. The manufacturing sector of this state contributes almost
half of the state’s gross domestic product, followed by services and tourism (40.3%), agriculture (6%), construction (2.2%) and mining
(0.3%). Negeri Sembilan is mainly an agricultural state. Agricultural activity includes rubber and oil palm plantations, livestock, fruit
orchards and vegetable farming. About 309,900 ha are used for rubber and oil palm plantations. However, the establishment of several
industrial estates has enhanced the manufacturing sector as a major contributor to the state’s economy.

The Negeri Sembilan Forest Management Unit (FMU) is managed by the Negeri Sembilan State Forestry Department (NSSFD). The
total forested area in the Negeri Sembilan FMU amounts to 160,873 ha.

From the total of the forested area in Negeri Sembilan,

there are only 2,276.50 ha of mangroves or 1.3% of the
total forested area as shown on Map 6.7. The largest
area of mangroves in Negeri Sembilan is located at
the district of Port Dickson (2,033.86 ha) along the
Sepang River, Kuala Lukut, Pasir Panjang and Sungai
Linggi (Figure 6.7). The remaining mangrove areas are
located in Kampung Sungai Dua, Rembau district with
a total area of about 242.64 ha. From the assessment
that has been conducted during the field survey, much
of mangrove areas at Kuala Lukut and Sungai Linggi
have been converted to aquaculture (Figure 6.8), small
industries and other land development projects.

Figure 6.7 Mangroves found fringing Sungai Linggi

Figure 6.8 Aquaculture developed in a mangrove area.

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Map 6.7 Distribution of mangroves in Negeri Sembilan

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6.7 Pahang
Pahang is the largest state of Peninsular Malaysia with total land area of 3.6 million ha situated in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia
facing the South China Sea. With its physical geography mainly of hilly areas, 56.4% of the total land area is still covered by forest
which accounts for approximately 2.03 million ha. The total forest area in Pahang represents approximately 34% of total forested area
in Peninsular Malaysia.

Mangroves in Pahang occur only in three districts, namely Kuantan, Rompin and Pekan, and facing the South China Sea. From the total
mangrove area of 9,039.26 ha, 53.5% are situated in Pekan and out that 4,834.88 ha are found along Sungai Miang, Sungai Bebar and
Tanjong Agas. However, the figure is likely to decline in the near future due to current intensive land reclamation of 1,639 ha for the
Oil, Gas and Maritime Integrated Industrial Park in Pekan (Danny 2009). The Tanjong Agas Oil and Gas and Maritime Industrial Park
project, supported by the state government, is now being developed by the Tanjong Agas Supply Base and Marine Services Sdn Bhd and
this reclamation project will result in depletion of mangrove resources around the area.

Kuantan comes next in the extent of mangroves in Pahang with a total area of 2,444.36 ha. Despite being the capital city with rapid
urban development undergoing each year, Kuantan has mangroves less affected by urban development (Figure 6.9). At least 512 ha of
mangroves in Kuantan estuary, along the Sungai Kuantan and Sungai Belat have been gazetted as Permanent Reserved Forest since 1912
(JPNP 2006). Rompin is next on the list having mangroves along its coastal areas. The mangroves are located at the southern part of the
district with the total area of 1,760.02 ha. Map 6.8 shows the distribution of all mangroves areas found in Pahang.

Figure 6.9 The remaining pristine mangroves unaffected by the rapid urban development in Kuantan, Pahang

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Map 6.8 Distribution of mangroves in Pahang

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6.8 Perak
Perak is the second largest state in Peninsular Malaysia after the State of Pahang. Its total land area of 2.1 million ha accounts for 15.9%
of the total land area in Peninsular Malaysia and 6.4% of the whole of Malaysia. The state is bordered by Penang to the northwest,
Kelantan and Pahang to the east, Selangor to the south, and Kedah together with Yala Province of Thailand at the northern part of the
state. It lies between the latitudes 4° and 6° N.

According to JPSM Annual Report 2009, a total of 991,436 ha of forest in Perak have been gazetted as Permanent Reserved Forest
which is about 95% of the total 1.03 million ha of total forest cover in the state. Once known for its tin ore mining in Kinta Valley (Kinta
district) during the 1890s, Perak consists of eight districts, viz. Hulu Perak, Kerian, Kuala Kangsar, Larut and Matang, Manjung, Batang
Padang, Perak Tengah and Hilir Perak. From these districts, four reside along the coastline of Perak stretching 201.2 km from the north
of Kerian to the south of Hilir Perak district facing the Malacca Straits. The entire wetland ecosystem including mangroves within Perak
occurs along the coastline of these four districts

To date, the total extent of mangroves in Perak is about 43,291.97 ha with the largest in the district of Larut Matang and some in Kerian.
Perak is well known for its Matang mangroves which harbour vast continuous mangroves claimed to be the best managed mangroves
in the world for the last 100 years. Figure 6.10 depicts some of the mangroves that can be found in Matang Mangrove. Being gazetted
as reserved forest in 1906, Matang Mangrove since then has been managed well by the Perak Forestry Department. Matang Mangrove
forms a moon-crested shape along the 51.5-km coastline stretching from Kuala Gula going southward to Bukit Panchor. The vast area
of mangrove reserved forest is located at Kuala Sepetang, Kuala Trong and Sungai Kerang.

Overall, the distribution of mangroves by district in Perak is found to be the largest in Larut Matang with an area of 27,680.23 ha
followed by Kerian at 11,818.32 ha. Only small patches of mangroves are found in Manjung and Hilir Perak with total areas of 2,357.31
ha and 1,436.11 ha respectively, as shown in Map 6.9.

Figure 6.10 Roots and successive stands of Rhizopora apiculata in Matang Mangrove

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Map 6.9 Distribution of mangroves in Perak

79
6.9 Perlis
Perlis is the smallest state in Malaysia. It lies at the northern part of the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia and borders Satun
and Songkhla Provinces of Thailand to the north and the state of Kedah to the south. The capital city of Perlis is Kangar and the Royal
capital is Arau. The main port and ferry terminal is at the small village of Kuala Perlis, linking the local people and tourists to Langkawi
Island. A snake farm and a research centre at Sungai Batu Pahat, Gua Kelam and the Perlis State Park are among the tourist attractions
in Perlis.

Perlis has the smallest area of mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia with only 94.02 ha in total. Most of them are found along Sungai Perlis,
of which 42.19 ha are in Kuala Perlis and 51.82 ha in Seriap, as shown on Map 6.10. Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata, with some
Sennoratia spp. are growing naturally in these areas. But there are also some newly planted mangrove trees at the estuaries (Figure 6.11).

Figure 6.11 Some newly planted trees found at the estuary of Sungai Perlis in Kuala Perlis

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Map 6.10 Distribution of mangroves in Perlis

81
6.10 Pulau Pinang
Pulau Pinang is a state located at the northwestern coast of Peninsular Malaysia, bordered by the Straits of Melaka. It is the second
smallest state in Peninsular Malaysia after Perlis. Pulau Pinang comprises two land areas, which are Seberang Perai (in the main land)
that has the main town of Butterworth and the Pulau Pinang (island) itself, with Georgetown as the main town. In the island there are two
districts, Barat Daya and Timur Laut, while on the mainland there are three districts, Daerah Utara, Daerah Tengah and Daerah Selatan.

On the island, mangroves can only be found in Daerah Barat Daya, at Pantai Acheh with Rhizophora apiculata and Avicennia as the
two dominant species within the area. Most of the R. apiculata trees were newly planted (Figure 6.12) but A. alba is found growing
naturally in this region. On the mainland, there are various species from the common genera of mangroves, viz. Sennoratia, Rhizophora
and Avicennia, as well as Nypa fruticans. Byram Forest Reserve in Daerah Selatan is the only mangrove reserve in Pulau Pinang which
covers 240 ha, consisting mostly of Sennoratia, Rhizophora and Avecennia spp.

There are altogether 1,695.60 ha of mangroves in Pulau Pinang and the largest area is found in Daerah Selatan with 891.37 ha. The
districts of Daerah Barat Daya and Daerah Tengah have 446.22 ha and 314.61 ha of mangroves respectively. The smallest mangrove area
in Pulau Pinang is in Daerah Utara, at only 43.39 ha. The extents distributed in the respective districts are shown on Map 6.11.

Figure 6.12 Newly planted Rhizophora apiculata species at Kuala Sungai Juru, Pulau Pinang

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Map 6.11 Distribution of mangroves in Pulau Pinang

83
6.11 Selangor
Selangor is one of the states in Peninsular Malaysia that still have large extents of mangroves after Perak and Johor. Situated in the
central west region of the peninsula, Selangor has about 90-km length of coastline starting from the mouth of Sungai Bernam in the
north to the mouth of Sungai Sepang down south, surrounded by a number of big islands along its coast. Along that coastline, some
60% of the area is covered by mangroves (Ong et al. 1991). Until December 2010, about 21,397 ha had been gazetted as Mangrove
Reserve Forest. They are mainly found in the islands off Klang district, Banjar Utara and Banjar Selatan. Figure 6.13 illustrates some
of the mature Rhizophora apiculata trees found in Bajar Utara Forest Reserve. Since 1962, mangroves of Selangor have been managed
under the proper management plan for the production of quality poles, fuelwood, fishing stakes and piling poles, and at the same time
sufficient areas are set aside for conservation and protection. Currently there are 22,530.20 ha remaining in Selangor as shown on Map
6.12. This figure shows that almost all (about 95%) mangroves in Selangor are reserved. There are altogether 18 mangrove species found
and recorded in Selangor; out of these R. apiculata and R. mucronata are two the most common species especially in reserved forests
(RKHPL 2010).

The silvicultural system of Selangor mangroves has evolved around the minimum-girth, shelter-wood and clear-felling systems. The
shelter-wood and minimum-girth systems were favoured in the past, when the rotation age was longer (30 years) and natural regeneration
was plentiful. As the rotation age was shortened to half (15 years), more areas needed to be rehabilitated artificially. Currently, the
average size of areas requiring rehabilitation ranges between 15 and 20% of the annual coupe. The main species used for rehabilitation
are the highly productive R. apiculata and to a lesser extent, R. mucronata. However, there is an initiative being undertaken by the state
government to stop the production of poles from mangroves in Selangor. There is a possibility that all Mangrove Reserved Forests in
Selangor will be kept only for protection and conservation purposes.

Another attraction to visit mangroves in Selangor is to observe fireflies such those in Kampong Kuantan, which is located in Kuala
Selangor district. Sungai Kuantan, streaming down and crossing Kuala Selangor is belted with Sonneratia caseolaris, a mangrove
species claimed to be closely associated with the habitat of fireflies. However, this tourist attraction is currently under threat due to land-
use conversion of the natural habitat to agricultural crops (Khali Aziz et al. 2010).

Figure 6.13 Mature standing Rhizophora apiculata in Banjar North Forest Reserve

84
Map 6.12 Distribution of mangroves in Selangor

85
6.12 Terengganu
Situated at the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, Terengganu is the state with many popular beach attractions. Starting from Kemaman
going northward until Besut, Terengganu has very much to offer to local and foreign tourists as it features white sandy beaches along its
225-km stretch of coastline. Not only that, it also has several resort islands which attract tourists with their blue clear waters, colourful
corals as well as fishes amidst the fresh air in most of the islands. Among the popular island spots are Pulau Perhentian, Pulau Kapas
and Pulau Redang while Pantai Batu Burok, Tanjung Jara and Rantau Abang are some of the popular beach spots on the mainland part
of Terengganu.

Known as the “Abode of Faith” (Darul Iman), this state is bordered by Kelantan to the northwest and Pahang to the southwest. With total
land area of 1.3 million ha, the state is divided into seven administrative districts which are Besut, Dungun, Hulu Terengganu, Kuala
Terengganu, Kemaman, Marang and Setiu. The total forested area is 654,625 ha of which 83% has been gazetted as permanent reserved
forests by the Forestry Department.

The mangrove composition in Terengganu is not high despite its large land area and long coastline. The mangroves are mostly found
in small patches in the protected estuaries and lagoons (Kamaruzzaman & Ong 2008). The largest single mangrove formation is the
Kemaman Permanent Reserved Forest which is managed by the District Forest Department of Kemaman. With a total area of 957.80 ha,
the composition is made up of Kerteh, Chukai and Kemaman mangroves (Kamaruzzaman et al. 2008). The second largest concentration
of mangroves is found in the district of Setiu with a total area of 690.01 ha which are mostly fringing mangroves dominated by Nypa
and Avicennia species as shown in Figure 6.14. The mangrove area falls under the stateland jurisdiction and stretches from Merang up
to Kampong Raja, Besut (Kamaruzaman & Dahlan 2008). The smallest mangrove area is found in the district of Kuala Terengganu,
where development and industrial activities have claimed most of the mangrove habitat in the district leaving only small patches of
mangroves in Kuala Ibai and Batu Rakit with the total sum of 187.42 ha. The other three districts of Dungun, Marang and Besut harbour
total mangrove areas of 499.89, 308.50 and 282.12 ha respectively. To date, the total mangrove area in Terengganu is 2,925.74 ha. The
distribution and extents are presented on Map 6.13.

Figure 6.14 The typical emerging pencil roots of Avicennia spp.

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Map 6.13 Distribution of mangroves in Terengganu

87
88
Chapter 7
Mangroves Threats
and Changes
O Hamdan

89
Chapter 7 : Mangroves Threats & Changes

Nearly all mangrove nations have experienced net losses in mangrove cover in recent decades as a result of human activities. Similarly,
many remaining mangrove areas are no longer pristine, with most showing some level of ecosystem alteration as a result of utilization
of wood or the harvesting of fish and shellfish/cockle. Spalding et al. (2010) identify six major impacts of human activities that can
be translated as threats to the mangroves, viz. (i) conversion to other uses, (ii) overharvesting, (iii) overfishing, (iv) pollution, (v)
sedimentation and (vi) alteration of flow regimes. Out of these, direct conversion to other uses is the most substantial change to the
world’s mangrove cover, which includes conversions–to urban and industrial spaces, to aquaculture and to agriculture. Similar impacts
are observed in Peninsular Malaysia from this study. In addition to these human impacts, natural processes, e.g. coastal erosion are also
the non-human impacts that kill most of the mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia, including the tragic tsunami on 24 December 2004.
Some of the mangrove changes recorded in this study are highlighted in this chapter.

In Malaysia, mangroves almost everywhere are now being threatened by human encroachment and disappearing at an accelerating
rate, a phenomenon that is often little noticed or resisted. Population pressure on coastal environments is resulting in mangroves losing
their habitats. Expanding shrimp and crab aquaculture along sheltered coastlines poses a serious threat to these forests as thousands of
hectares of healthy mangrove are cleared to make way for farming shrimp in large artificial ponds and agricultural purposes. The clear
felling of mangroves for aquaculture farming has been the single most destructive measure in recent decades (UNDP 2008).

For a developing country that has increasing population and shortage of land spaces, these impacts are inevitable and finally, mangroves
have to suffer the consequences. More agriculture land is needed and urban areas expanded as well. As a result, the mangrove forest is
declining at alarming rate. Research (for example FAO 1997, Aizpuru et al. 2000) indicates that the extent of mangrove areas in Malaysia
is decreasing, from about 700,000 ha in 1975 to 572,000 ha in 2000 due to the intensive harvesting and natural wave actions. FAO (1981,
2007) also reports that the total mangrove area worldwide has declined from 18.8 million ha in 1980 to 15.6 million ha in 2005. There
has, however, been a slowdown in the rate of mangrove loss: from some 187,000 ha annually in the 1980s to 102,000 ha a year between
2000 and 2005, reflecting improved management systems and increased awareness of the value of the mangrove ecosystem. Asia has
suffered the largest net loss of mangroves since 1980, with more than 1.9 million ha destroyed, mainly due to changes in land use.

Urban growth and expanding urban populations have also contributed to the demise of substantial areas of mangroves, especially
in locations neighbouring established urban centres. The progressive development of essential physical infrastructure, industrial land
developments, and other non-forest uses in these areas can have long-term damaging effects. Thus, among the current threats to the
mangrove ecosystem, the ever-increasing human pressure on coastal areas is one of the most serious (Mastaller 1996). However, in
addition to human-induced threats, natural hazards such as cyclones, storms and floods frequently occur in this region, threatening
several coastal ecosystems, including mangroves (Kathiresan & Binghem 2001). Trees in the front lines are often uprooted and damaged
during these events.

Despite widespread concern and numerous case studies describing local issues and challenges, comprehensive information on the global
extent of mangroves and trends of deforestation is largely lacking. It is because determining the precise area of mangroves is not always
easy. Measurement is affected by varying definitions of what constitutes mangroves; inclusion only on the basis of official recognition
such as gazetted forest reserves; scattered or sparse areas considered too inconsequential for inclusion; and the accuracy of the returns
made by the responsible authorities. Each of these can create uncertainty and produce significant variation depending on the timing and
purpose of the assessment exercise. There are case studies to assess mangroves changes, for example in Terengganu (Sulong et al. 2002)
and in Selangor (Khali Aziz et al. 2009), and to identify the threats (e.g. Khali Aziz & Hamdan 2008) but these are unable to represent
the conditions at national level.

90
This study was conducted to provide the information pertaining to the threats to mangroves and to assess the changes that have taken
place in recent decades in the ecosystem. Several states with large extents of mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia have been assessed to
represent the current trend of mangrove changes as well as to identify the threats faced by mangroves. Three series of temporal satellite
images were acquired in years 1990, 2000 and 2010 to complete the exercise. Landsat TM, Landsat ETM+, SPOT-4 and SPOT-5 satellite
images were utilized in this study. All images were georeferenced to the Malaysia Rectified Skew Orthomophic (MRSO) projection
system so that the series of images are registered in the same coordinate system. Root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.5 pixels was
allowed to both Landsat and SPOT images. The spatial sizes of the images were sharpened using panchromatic bands and all were then
classified to classify mangroves areas and separate them with the other land covers.

The classification results were exported into vector format (shape file) to be refined and edited in GIS. The GIS platform was employed
to execute post-classification processes. Changes were identified from post-classification change detection technique (Jensen 2005).
Changes were categorized into several ‘from-to’ classes according to factors, which are i) land-use/land-development activities,
ii) agricultural conversion, iii) aquaculture activities, iv) erosion and v) others.

Table 7.1 Changes in mangrove areas in the last two decades

State Mangrove area Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove loss Mangrove loss

(ha) area area (ha) (%)
1990 (ha) (ha) 1990–2010 1990–2010
2000 2010
Johor 29,797.13 25,477.19 23,676.43 6,120.70 20.54
Kedah* 9,236.24 8,322.79 7,841.25 1,394.99 15.10
Pahang 11,467.03 10,791.42 9,039.26 2,427.77 21.17
Perak 52,562.00 46,057.00 43,291.97 9,270.03 17.64
Selangor* 28,954.60 24,213.14 22,530.20 6,424.40 22.19
Total 132,017.00 114,861.54 106,379.11 25,637.89 19.42

*Source: Hamdan et al. (2010)

Table 7.1 reports the mangrove changes for the five states which have the majority of mangroves areas in Peninsular Malaysia that have
been recorded from this study. It is clearly seen that within last two decades, 25,637.89 ha of mangroves have been lost. It took about
21% of the total mangroves that could be found 20 years ago. Each state records around 20% loss, which means about 10% in every
decade. From this information, it can be concluded that the annual decrease rate of mangroves is about 1,281.90 ha per year or about
1% per annum since year 1990 and this trend can be represented in Figure 7.1. Major factors that contributed to these changes have
been identified as: (i) direct conversion to other land uses, principally for aquaculture and agricultural, and (ii) coastal erosion. The other
factors such as overharvesting and pollution affect the mangroves to a lesser degree. These will be described in detail in the following
sections.

91
 Figure 7.1 Trends of mangrove changes over the last two decades (1990–2010)

7.1 Mangrove Changes in Johor

Johor is one of the states that still have a relatively large coverage of mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia but yet are facing threats from
humans and also nature. Results from this study indicate that Johor has lost about 6,120 ha from 29,797 ha in year 1990 to 23,676
ha in year 2010. There were several factors that brought about this large loss of mangroves to Johor. The main factors included rapid
development of aquaculture industry whereby most of the mangroves were transferred to fish and shrimp ponds; coastal erosion; and
land conversion to agriculture uses. Other minor factor is overharvesting by the local communities. Aquaculture is found to be the
major cause of the loss of about 66% of the total of 6,120.70 ha from years 1990 to 2010. An example of established aquaculture ponds,
which appear on satellite images in years 1990 and 2010 are seen in Figure 7.2. Aquaculture is followed by coastal erosion (15%), land
conversion to agriculture (11%) and others (8%). Land conversion from mangroves to oil palm plantation is the one most remarkable
change in the agricultural sector in Johor. While Figure 7.3 shows the magnitude of changes brought by those contributing factors, Map
7.1 shows the distribution and locations of the changes.

92
Figure 7.2 Aquaculture ponds as they are seen on satellite images. Some of the shrimp/fish ponds constructed appear blue on Landsat
TM image in year 1990 (top), and newly developed ponds are rounded with red colour as they appear on SPOT-4 satellite image in year
2010 (bottom).

Figure 7.3 Factors that contributed to mangrove change in Johor from years 1990 to 2010

The coastal erosion that eats into mangroves in Johor is concentrated mainly in the south of Pontian district, along the Straits of Johor.
From the monitoring through a series of satellite images, it is demonstrated that the coastal erosion occurred more rapidly from year
2000 to 2010 as compared with years 1990 to 2000. This impact is observed in Figure 7.4, where nearly all stretches of the shores display
the scars of erosion, notably at the southern tip of Tajung Piai, which is the southernmost tip of the great Asian continent. Here, the
coastal erosion is believed to be triggered by waves generated from the trade ships that use the straits as the main sea lane connecting
Tanjung Pelepas Port in Johor to the ports in other countries. Oil spills from the ships also deteriorate the health of the mangroves thereby
eventually causing their death, as shown in Figure 7.5.

93
Figure 7.4 Shoreline changes that resulted from coastal erosion along the coast of south Pontian, Johor. The study indicated that 14.2 km
stretches have been facing serious coastal erosion within the last two decades with the rate of erosion ranging from 3.2 to 12.5 m per year.

Figure 7.5 Impacts of coastal erosion and pollution that destroy many mangrove stands along the shoreline of south Pontian, Johor

94
Map 7.1 Changes in the extents of mangroves in Johor between 1990 and 2010

95
7.2 Mangrove Changes in Kedah
Mangroves in Kedah are also facing the same threats as Johor. Within the last two decades (1990–2010), Kedah has lost about 1,394
ha of mangroves due to several factors as shown in Figure 7.6. Aquaculture was again one of the most common factors that caused the
changes, which took about 55% as compared with the other contributing factors. This kind of change appears to be concentrating around
Merbok mangroves near the Merbok Mangrove Reserve as shown in Figures 7.7 and 7.8. This was followed by urban development for
industrial sites and settlements, which took about 20%, coastal erosion (19%) and agriculture (8%). Coastal erosion was notably the
factor that has destroyed considerable extents of mangroves in Kedah, closely followed by urban development. It is also believed that
Kedah is one of the states in Peninsular Malaysia that are experiencing serious coastal erosion problem. From the analysis of shoreline
changes that was carried out, an example of the result is depicted in Figure 7.9. Map 7.2 shows the distribution of the mangroves that
have changed over the last two decades.

Figure 7.6 Factors that contribute to mangrove change in Kedah from years 1990 to 2010

Figure 7.7 Aquaculture

sites in Merbok mangroves
as they appear on satellite
images. The dark green
and dark blue colours
represent mangrove
areas and aquaculture
ponds respectively. This
aquaculture industry was
started in year 1990 (a),
expanded in year 2000
(b), and was continuously
developed until 2010 (c).
Most of these aquaculture
sites took over areas of
mangroves, which wiped out
huge extents of this natural
resource. Photo (d) shows
one of the shrimp ponds in
one area.

96
Figure 7.8 Maps of Merbok mangroves, Kuala Muda, in years 1990 (left) and 2010 (right). The mangroves in this area covered 5,272.32
ha in year 1990 and were reduced to 4,534.18 ha in year 2010, with a loss of about 738 ha, caused mainly by the aquaculture industry.

Figure 7.9 Coastal erosion impact on mangroves along the coast of Kuala Muda district. This area is one of the spots that face serious
coastal erosion in Kedah. It starts from the mouth of Sungai Merbok and Pulau Sayak going down south to Kampung Kuala Muda. There
has also been a remarkable change at Tanjung Dawai that was caused by the tsunami on 24 December 2004. The coastal erosion in these
stretches ranges from 20 to 120 m at the rate of 1.2 to 7.1 m yr-1. In year 1990, this coastline was covered by dense mangroves but what
remains currently is only a thin layer of mangroves belting the coast.

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 Map 7.2 Changes in the extents of mangroves in Kedah between 1990 and 2010

7.3 Mangrove Changes in Pahang

In year 1990, the extent of mangroves in Pahang was estimated at about 11,467 ha. This figure declined to 10,791 ha in year 2000,
which recorded about 676-ha loss. This is rather small compared with the loss that was recorded between years 2000 and 2010, which
was about 1,752 ha, from the 9,039 ha of mangroves that remained in Pahang. Overall, the total reduction in the extent of mangroves in
Pahang within the last two decades is about 2,428 ha (the changes in distribution are presented on Map 7.3). Rapid urbanization and the
increasing population in Pahang have contributed much to this reduction. An example of this process is shown in Figure 7.10.

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Figure 7.10 Urbanization processes that have destroyed mangroves in Kuantan, Pahang. Tonnes of mangrove timber were felled to give
way to development. The remaining mangroves are standing majestically behind the mass of wastes (top) but are uncertain to survive
for much longer. Waste biomass is deposited aside to give way to settlement constructions (bottom).

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The mangroves in Pahang are mostly found in the district of Kuantan and near the surrounding areas of its capital town, Kuantan.
This kind of setting has exposed the mangroves to all kinds of human threats. That is the reason for the drop in mangrove acreage in
Pahang predominantly from urban development. About 31% of the change resulted from urban expansion either for industrial parks or
settlements. The agricultural sector also played a significant role in contributing to the declining extent of mangroves in Pahang. About
26% of the total change was caused by agriculture, and oil palm is one of the typical crops that have replaced the mangroves. Similar
to the previously described states, Johor and Kedah, Pahang is also not spared by the aquaculture industry and 18% of the change was
caused by this industry. Despite contributing significant revenue to the state economy, this industry has wiped out a considerable extent
of mangroves in Pahang. Coastal erosion and other factors also contributed to the decline, which took about 13% and 12% of the total
change respectively. The contribution of each factor is indicated in Figure 7.11.

Figure 7.11 Factors that contribute to mangrove change in Pahang from years 1990 to 2010

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 Map 7.3 Changes in the extent of mangroves in Pahang between 1990 and 2010

7.4 Mangrove Changes in Perak

Perak is well known for the wealth of its mangroves, which are the largest and oldest in Peninsular Malaysia. Matang Mangrove is the
central and the only mangrove reserve found covering over 95% of all mangroves in Perak. The remaining mangrove areas are found in
the districts of Kerian, Manjung and Hilir Perak, with small extents and sparsely distributed. Although known as the state that has a large
extent of mangroves, Perak is not left without decline in this resource. Perak currently with about 43,292 ha of mangroves actually had
about 52,562 ha two decades ago. It has lost about 9,270 ha of mangroves within that period. The major contributing factors that brought
about the decrease are identified as (i) agriculture, (ii) aquaculture and (iii) coastal erosion. Urban development is not too significant
in Perak while the other factors comprise all the minor causes such as overexploitation of mangroves for local uses and side effects of
fishing activities by local communities. The breakdown of these factors is shown in Figure 7.12 from which of is observed that almost
half of the contributing factors to the mangrove change in Perak is dominated by agriculture. Land conversion to oil palm plantations
and paddy fields is the most common agricultural activity that has taken place in mangrove areas in Perak. All the changes from years
1990 to 2010 in terms of distribution are presented on Map 7.4.

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 Figure 7.12 Factors that contributed to mangrove change in Perak from years 1990 to 2010

The agriculture sector took about 49% from the total loss of 9,270 ha from 1990 to 2010. Aquaculture was another factor that caused
mangrove loss in Perak, taking about 19% of the total loss followed by others (16%), coastal erosion (10%) and urban development (6%).
From the statistics (Figure 7.12), it is found that aquaculture was one of the major factors contributing to the loss of mangroves within
the period. This industry is actually one of the activities that earn revenue for the state which reported that the products from aquaculture
were projected to be about 137,400 metric tonnes in year 2010 for Perak alone, out of 507,588 metric tonnes for Peninsular Malaysia
(Bernama 2009). This projection was expected from its four High Impact Project (HIP) areas and its Aquaculture Industry Zones (AIZ)
that cover an area of 2,556 ha part of which is shown in Figure 7.13. Consequent upon the issues regarding the loss of mangroves caused
by aquaculture, Sahabat Alam Malaysia (SAM) or Malaysian Nature Friends has voiced its concern and urged the government to revise
the existing policy to ensure the mangroves are not involved in any government incentive for the development in aquaculture industry.

Coastal erosion, which vanished about 1,200 ha of mangroves, is the only natural threat in Perak. Some of the impacts of coastal erosion
on the mangroves and its ecosystem are shown Figure 7.14. The situation of Perak facing the Straits of Melaka, which is the busiest sea
lane in Asia has led to the coastal erosion. Mangrove trees that were standing along the frontline have been washed away by the waves
contributing to a considerable loss of mangroves in Perak.

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Figure 7.13 An example of the aquaculture industry causing mangrove loss along Sungai Manjung in Sitiawan, Perak. Top left is
Landsat TM image that was acquired in year 2000 and the mangroves extracted from this image are indicated as green as shown at
the bottom left. Top right is SPOT-5 image, acquired in 2010 showing a significant reduction in mangroves (bottom right). The loss of
mangroves in this area was about 764 ha, from 1,785.3 ha in 2000 to 1,021.5 ha in 2010.

Figure 7.14 Effects of coastal erosion on mangroves in Kerian, Perak, appear on satellite images. About 19 km of mangroves that were
found fringing Kampung Sungai Megat Aris in Tanjung Piandang to Kampung Sungai Baharu and Kuala Kurau have disappeared within
ten years (2000 – 2010).

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 Map 7.4 Changes in the extent of mangroves in Perak between 1990 and 2010

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7.5 Mangrove Changes in Selangor
Selangor is the heartland of the nation and the most developed in the country. It has the largest port and airport, houses most institutions
of higher learning in Malaysia and its infrastructure and communication facilities are among the best in the region. With a population
exceeding four million, Selangor is also the richest state in Malaysia in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) and the richest in terms
of GDP per capita (MDS 2010). Therefore, on 27 August 2005, Selangor was officially declared the first developed state in Malaysia by
the state government.

Selangor is also rich in the extent of mangroves, which is the third largest in Peninsular Malaysia. However, being the most developed
and populated state, mangroves in Selangor have faced tremendous pressure from land development and pollution. Although the
Selangor State Government recently announced that it will no longer be issuing permits for logging on government land, effective from
2010, more space is still required for urban, aquaculture, housing and industrial developments. From the study, Selangor has lost about
6,424 ha of its mangroves from year 1990 to 2010, as shown in Table 7.1 and illustrated on Map 7.5. There were four major factors that
contributed to this loss and most outstanding was urban development, as shown in Figure 7.15. With the total reduction of about 4,625
ha or 72% of the total loss, urban development for industrial, infrastructure, housing and settlement purposes appears to be the greatest
threat to the mangroves in Selangor. These mangrove changes have been concentrated in the Klang Valley areas, especially in Klang
district, as well as in Pulau Indah, as depicted in Figures 7.16 and 7.17.

Figure 7.15 Factors that contributed to mangroves changes in Selangor from years 1990 to 2010

The other factors such as aquaculture, agriculture and coastal erosion took about 14, 10 and 4% of the total mangrove loss, respectively.
Similar to the other states, Selangor is also receiving great economic return on the aquaculture industry. About 900 ha of mangroves
have been replaced by shrimp ponds. While agriculture activities are concentrated in north Selangor, which is Sabak Bernam and Kuala
Selangor, coastal erosion occurs mostly in the south, in the districts of Kuala Langat and Sepang. An adverse erosion impact is also
found along the coast of Kuala Selangor, near Kuala Besar and Sungai Haji Dorani, as shown in Figure 7.18. An example of the erosion
impact is illustrated in Figure 7.19.

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Figure 7.16 Mangrove forest changes in Klang district. The changes observed in Klang are represented as green areas in, (top) the
mangrove distribution in year 1990, and (bottom) the distribution in year 2010. Total loss of mangroves in this area was about 2,583
ha within the twenty-year period.

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 Figure 7.17
Urbanization processes
that occurred in Pulau
Indah captured from
satellite images: (a)
Landsat-TM satellite
image showing the
whole area covered by
mangroves in 1990; (b)
Constructions taking
place in year 2000,
as represented by the
reddish portion on
the image; (c) Recent
condition of an almost
finished port in year
2010; (d) Constructions
and installations still
actively squeezing the
existing mangrove areas
in Selangor.

Figure 7.18 Shoreline changes along the coast of Kuala Selangor. This area is one of the spots that have
undergone serious coastal erosion since a few decades, starting from the mouth of Sungai Besar and
running towards the north and south, including the coast of Sungai Haji Dorani. It is estimated that coastal
erosion is between 45 and 180 m, with the rate ranging from 2.5 to 10 m per year within the twenty-year
period. Currently, there are only thin layers of mangroves remaining in this area.

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 Figure 7.19
Effects of coastal erosion
on the mangrove trees and
ecosystem. The mangroves
were gradually degraded
and eventually die due to
the long-term impacts of
wave action. This photo was
taken at Pantai Kelanang in
Banting, Selangor.

Map 7.5 Changes in the extent of mangroves in Selangor between 1990 and 2010

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7.6 Conflicts between Uses and Threats
Mangroves have been widely used for several different purposes leading to considerable
losses in many areas in Peninsular Malaysia. The decrease in area that occurred in the
decades between 1990 and 2010 was due mainly to conversion of land to agriculture, urban
development, aquaculture and deforestation. Coastal erosion rates have been high which may
have been exacerbated by the removal of mangroves from many areas. In some areas, the
problem of coastal erosion is so severe that the entire seaward belt of mangrove vegetation
has been eaten away and seawalls have to be constructed to protect the coastal bunds and
agricultural schemes.

The traditional use of mangrove areas in Peninsular Malaysia is for fuelwood, charcoal, timber,
poles and fish traps. Nypa fruticans is a general utility species providing local products such
as housing thatch, cigarette wrapper, sugar, alcohol and vinegar. The Matang forest on the
west coast of Peninsular Malaysia has been sustainably managed since the beginning of the
1900s and is one of the very few examples of successful sustainable management of a tropical
forest ecosystem in the world. Offshore fisheries are very important and have been closely
linked to the mangroves for a number of fish and prawn species. Aquaculture practices include
cockle culture, the widespread use of floating cages for fish, and the unfortunately destructive
development of ponds mostly for prawn culture. Although recent, these activities have spread
very quickly, particularly in Peninsular Malaysia, leading to the clearance of large areas. The
National Mangrove Committee of Malaysia has strongly recommended that strict guidelines
be established for the development of this industry in the future. Clearance for agriculture has
occurred, but in some cases has been very unsuccessful due to the acidification of the soils.

Considerable areas are now being reclaimed, again for urban development and the development
of tourist resorts. The increased sea traffic and related oil spills, together with the planning
of ports are among the major threats to mangroves in Malaysia. In the Matang mangroves,
mangrove replanting is a routine activity, which is now being implemented also in some other
areas. All mangroves come under the jurisdiction of the respective state forest departments. In
2003, the State Government of Johor declared three mangrove sites as wetlands of international
importance. They include Pulau Kukup, an unhabitated and intact mangrove island; Sungai
Pulai, home of several endemic mangrove species; and Tanjung Piai, which represents the
southernmost tip of the Asian continent.

Besides human threats, however, mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia have to face many
different natural hazards, such as typhoons and heavy winds. Recognizing the protective role
of mangroves and other coastal vegetation, a national coastal rehabilitation programme has
been initiated by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE), involving the
Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM), the Forest Research Institute Malaysia
(FRIM) and other related government agencies as well as non-governmental organisations
(NGOs). Despite the efforts that are being placed by the government, there is room for further
improvement. The National Forest Policy (NFP) and other related policies should be revised
from time to time to match contemporary conditions and requirements, and to ensure the
realizations of their multi-functions in eternity. The co-operation of relevant agencies will
help to promote specific objectives in safeguarding the mangrove ecosystem. The aspirations
and concerns of other related policies adopted should be viewed and considered in multi-
perspectives so that a holistic approach in resource management and development could be
achieved.

The future management of mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia will continue to adopt an integrated
approach by further refining the current management. This can be done by incorporating the
latest findings and updating information through R&D on scientific explorations of mangroves.
Currently existing mangroves need to be protected to ensure their biological diversity remain
intact for the future generations. Disruption to the mangrove ecosystem must gradually cease
and where possible rehabilitation and restoration of mangroves habitats must be continued.
Public awareness and education-related programmes are also important and should be further
improved. These efforts will enhance a better understanding among the public and policy-
makers of the importance of mangroves to the environment.

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110
 Chapter 8
Conservation of Mangroves
RS Raja Barizan

111
Chapter 8 : Conservation of Mangroves

On 26 December 2004 an earthquake of 9.3 Richter scale magnitude occurred on the sea floor near Simeulue Island on the west coast of
North Sumatera, Indonesia, generating a powerful wave that resulted in the largest tsunami the world has even known over the last forty
years. A tsunami is a series of very fast moving long gravity waves generated by a rapid large-scale disturbance of seawater, especially,
by a large underwater earthquake or landslide. It is necessary that tsunamis are studied in detail and prediction models developed to
simulate the propagation and estimate surge amplitude along the coastal belts. The tsunami’s death toll could have been drastically
reduced if warning had been disseminated quickly and effectively to coastal dwellers.

The tsunami seriously affected Indonesia (Acheh), Sri Lanka, Thailand, India, Maldives, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Somalia, Seychelles,
Tanzania, Kenya and Yemen. Approximately 224,685 deaths were reported, 174,729 confirmed dead and 49,956 missing (IFRC 2005).
In Malaysia, the 2004 tsunami, though much less destructive than in the other affected countries, was one of the worst natural disasters
in Malaysia’s history, claiming 68 lives and leaving an additional 8,700 homeless and without livelihood. The northern states of the west
coast of Peninsular Malaysia were badly affected. In Penang, the tsunami disaster claimed 52 lives, the largest death toll in Malaysia.
Most of the victims were among picnickers at the beach and sea when the tsunami occurred. The Star (April 6, 2005) reported 12 deaths
in Kota Kuala Muda, Kedah, 52 in Penang, 1 in Langkawi, 2 in Tanjung Piandang, Perak, and 1 in Sabak Bernam, Selangor.

Today there is a growing urgency to recognize the importance of conserving and restoring protective mangrove greenbelts to lessen the
damage of future catastrophes because, as sea levels rise, so will the frequency and intensity of storm surges or hurricanes in certain
countries. Conserving existing mangroves and restoring the vast areas of degraded and cleared mangrove forests will serve as a partial
solution to global warming. Mangroves are one of nature’s best ways to combat global warming because of their high capacity for
sequestering carbon. One of the most promising new ideas to reduce atmospheric CO2 and limit global climate change is by conserving
mangroves as their dubbed ’blue carbon’ is sequested far more effectively (up to 100 times faster) and are more permanently than
terrestrial forests. Furthermore, there would be enormous add-on benefits to fisheries and tourism and in mitigating coastal erosion.

8.1 Government Initiatives

In realizing the critical need to stabilize shoreline areas that could potentially be affected by tsunamis in the future, a National Task Force
Committee of Planting Mangroves and Other Suitable Species Operation in Shorelines of the Country was formed on 7 February 2005
by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) to monitor the progress and implementation of planting programmes
throughout the coastal region in the country. In 2005 the Malaysian Government intensified efforts to plant mangrove and suitable
species along degraded or eroded coastlines. Due to the commitments in protecting and conserving the coastal forests, the government
approved and allocated a fund of RM40 million under the 9th Malaysia Plan for replanting mangrove and mangrove associated species
along the Malaysian coastlines. Some RM8 million of the approved total budget was allocated for conducting projects on research and
development related to mangroves.

The National Task Force was supported by two technical committees, i.e. on Planning and Implementation of Planting (JTPP) and
Research and Development (JTR&D). These two committees are working in parallel to ensure the success of the planting programmes to
be undertaken. The JTPP, which is headed by the Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM), aims to conduct coastal stabilization
and protection through planting in areas that have low risk of coastal erosion. To ensure that the whole programme is successfully
implemented, several critical factors should be considered at the planning stage, including i) site–species matching, ii) planting areas
that are less seriously affected by wave actions, iii) no conflicts with other land uses if the planting areas are located outside permanent
forest reserves, and iv) if within private land the consent of owners to be sought first prior to the implementation of the project.

The committee of JTPP will concentrate on planting in sheltered areas considered safe from strong wave actions and expected to
yield high survival rate. Nevertheless, The FDPM has been conducting replanting programmes for mangrove and mangrove-associated

112
species spanning Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak since 1980s but the effort was intensified after 2005. The planting has
concentrated mainly on several tree species, namely bakau minyak (Rhizophora apiculata), bakau kurap (R. mucronata), rhu (Casuarina
spp.), bintangor laut (Callophyllum innophylloum) and bebaru (Hibiscus tiliaceus). By the end of year 2009, the JTPP had physically
and accumulatively planted 5,030,057 plants covering a total area of 1,828.81 ha (FDPM 2010). About 82.2% of the planted plants were
mangrove species, 13.4% coastal rhu and 4.5% other species comprise nyireh, nypa palm, gelam, kelat jambu laut, bintangor laut and
tembusu. However, to ensure the successful of the planting programmes, the JTPP needs inputs from research components, especially
on soil suitability for planting mangrove species and preventive measures against pests and diseases.

The JTR&D, which is headed by FRIM, was given the task to carry out research and development related to mangrove forest
conservation and rehabilitation. The JTR&D comprises 18 different organizations which include various government agencies, local
public universities, selected NGOs and individuals interested in mangroves and issues related to mangroves. The JTR&D was entrusted
to identify and recommend priority research studies which are to be conducted by the members. The research projects are planned and
being conducted for a period of five years from 2006 to 2010. The activities were focused on ensuring a high rate of survival of planted
seedlings and reduced mortality due to insect attacks and diseases, stabilizing coastal mud-flats and innovating improved planting
techniques in areas confronted by high wave impacts. Efforts in conserving the existing mangrove forests and/or rehabilitating the
degraded coastal mangroves are very crucial in order to ensure that the planted mangroves will form man-made buffers that are wide
enough to absorb wave impacts and provide effective protection to inland areas that have been developed for agriculture, industrial and
residential purposes. In FRIM’s planting research activities, local communities were given priority to participate as part-time workers
(Figures 8.2 & 8.3). School children and universities were also involved (Figures 8.1, 8.4 & 8.5).

8.2 NGOs Efforts

It is generally recognized that the mangrove forest had a specific role to play in reducing the impact of the tsunami tragedy in 2004.
Since 2005, the Malaysian Government has embarked on a programme of mangrove and or rhu planting along the coastline, in Malaysia
to protect the coastal areas as well as to enhance conservation efforts. The government has realized that an important factor related to
the success of mangrove and associated coastal mangrove species replanting and conservation is the extent of the local communities’
involvement. There were reports that the replanting programmes faced socio-economic problems such as damage by goats, cows,
vandalism and damage caused by visitors’ negligence. A study conducted by FRIM has shown that the main cause of the socio-economic
problems was the lack of consultation with the local communities prior to replanting activities. Consequently, villagers were not aware
of their role in conserving and protecting the replanting areas. They are keen to get involved in such conservation effort as it affects their
immediate livelihood.

It is very important for the local communities or school children to participate in the implementation of the project “Planting Mangroves
and Other Suitable Species Operation in Shoreline of the Country”. The involvement of local villagers would instil not only awareness
but also ownership of the mangroves. They can participate directly in planting activities during the public awareness campaigns organized
by the state forest departments together with the NGOs or local authorities. Besides that, the communities can take part in the planting
programmes organized by NGOs which are funded by the project. The NGOs which are members of the technical committee under the
auspices of the JTPP are listed in Table 8.1. They are actively working with the communities and school children through education
and public awareness campaigns, hands-on training, sylvo-fishery projects and mangrove planting activities (Figure 8.6) as listed in
Table 8.1.

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 Table 8.1 List of the NGOs that have participated in mangrove awareness supported by
the JTPP

No NGO
1. Global Environment Centre (GEC)
2. Wetlands International, Malaysia (WI Malaysia)
3. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-Malaysia)
4. Malaysia Nature Society Malaysia (MNS)
5. Institut Rimbawan Malaysia (IRIM)
6. Sahabat Alam Malaysia (SAM)
7. Persatuan Kawalan Hakisan Antarabangsa Malaysia (IECAM)
8. Persatuan Kebajikan Nelayan Pantai (PIFWA)
9. Jaringan Bertindak Nelayan Pantai Semenanjung (JARING)
10. Pertubuhan Muafakat Warga Desa Negeri Kedah (RURAL CITIZEN)

Figure 8.1 Participation of school children in mangrove planting activities organized by the GEC (NGO) at Kuala Gula, Perak

114
 Figure 8.2 Participation
of local fishermen in
FRIM’s research activities
on mangrove rehabilitation
at Sungai Haji Dorani
research plot

Figure 8.3 Participation of the local community in FRIM’s research activities in preparing
innovative planting stocks for the Comp-Pillow technique at Kuala Gula, Perak

115
 Figure 8.4 Participation
of students and lecturers
of University Pendidikan
Sultan Idris (UPSI),
Tanjung Malim, Perak,
in mangrove planting
activities organized by
FRIM at Sungai Haji
Dorani as part of the R&D

Figure 8.5 Participation of students and teachers of Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Kg Soeharto, Kuala Kubu,
Selangor, in mangrove planting activities organized by FRIM at Sungai Haji Dorani as part of the R&D

116
 Figure 8.6 Participation of school children and
teachers in mangrove planting activities organized
by the GEC (NGO) and supported by the
Environemnt Online (ENO) at Kuala Gula, Perak

8.3 Private Sector Involvement

Global markets for carbon offsets provide an opportunity for the international community to support activities that help to maintain and
improve mangroves through payment for the ecosystem services. In addition to the benefits from the maintenance of healthy mangroves,
local communities can also profit from project activities that encourage the sustainable management of mangroves, helping to make the
protection of mangrove ecosystems more attractive than their destruction.

Companies and corporation interested in exercising their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) or Corporate Environmental
Responsibility (CER) obligations can participate in mangrove planting and rehabilitation activities (Figures 8.7 & 8.8). They can also
rationalize their obligations through donations in support of the community service projects, environmental educations and awareness
programmes and management of ecotourism activities. These programmes are normally organized by various NGOs or the local
authorities. A donation for the planting programmes normally includes the cost of purchasing seedlings for planting. Among the actively
participating corporations in the mangrove conservation programmes are Sime Darby, Shell Sdn Bhd Malaysia, Digi and Petronas.

117
 Figure 8.7 Planting mangroves
by Shell Sdn Bhd Malaysia
at the FRIM research plot in
Sungai Haji Dorani, Selangor

118
Figure 8.8 Planting
mangroves by Sime Darby
staff at Carey Island,
Selangor

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120
 Chapter 9
Research and Development on
Mangrove Rehabilitation
RS Raja Barizan & I Shamsudin

121
Research and Development on Mangrove Rehabilitation

Mangroves constitute a unique tropical ecosystem, occurring most extensively along the protected coastal shores with muddy to sandy
bottoms, which are alternately covered and uncovered by tidal fluxes (ITTO 2002). In general, geography, coastal geomorphology
and tidal regime determine the presence or absence and extent of the mangroves. Mangroves differ from other forest ecosystems
in that they receive large inputs of matter and energy from both land and sea. Mangroves provide many other functions such as
coastal stabilization, erosion prevention, biological filtering and as a sink for several pollutants. In addition, mangroves provide many
economic benefits. Fuelwood, charcoal, logs and raw materials for paper and chipboard are useful timber products derived from the
mangroves (Hamilton & Snedaker 1984). Mangroves provide medicines and fodder, as well as habitats and nursery grounds for many
commercially important aquatic species. Mangroves are also increasingly viewed as ecotourism destinations.

Mangroves cover approximately 566,856 ha of Malaysia. Although this is around 1.7% of the total land that makes up the country,
Malaysian mangroves are actually the third largest in area of mangroves in the Asia-Pacific region after Indonesia and Australia.
The total area of mangroves in the Peninsular Malaysia is 99,767 ha while the area in Sabah and Sarawak comes up to over 467,089
ha (Anon 2005). However the latest figures of the extents of mangroves can be found in Chapter 6 of this book. There are concerns
that the total area of mangroves is decreasing at an alarming rate especially in stateland. They have been facing serious threats from
aquacultural activities, agricultural and industrial pursuits, urbanization, overlogging in forest reserves and indiscriminate discharge of
liquid and solid wastes. Due to the multiple ecological, physical, chemical and economical roles of mangroves towards preserving the
sustainable livelihood of mankind, the conservation of mangroves is very vital. Protected mangroves are said to be small, inadequate
and not represented by all mangrove habitats. All efforts must be made to conserve and sustainably manage the remaining mangroves.

After the 2004 tsunami, it has been reported that damage in terms of loss of lives and properties in villages, behind mangroves and
shelterbelt plantations, such as those of casuarinas and palm trees and other thick coastal vegetations was minimal as the intensity of
the tsunami was reduced by these natural bioshields or biobarriers. The fishing and farming villages of the A Pichavaram mangrove
region of Tamil Nadu, which are under direct physical coverage of the mangroves, were protected from the fury of the tsunami
(Selvam et al. 2005). These villages are located about 0.5 to 2.5 km away from the sea and 50 to 500 m away from the mangrove
forest. Fishermen and farmers in these villages reported that mangrove trees along the first few rows bore the brunt of the tsunami
waves. The obstruction created by these trees and the trees of subsequent rows reduced the speed of the water. According to the
villagers, the seawater flushed into the mangroves by the tsunami was distributed into lagoons, tidal creeks and canals associated
with the mangroves and therefore, the amount of water reaching a point was very much reduced. This clearly indicates that both the
mangroves and the associated wetlands played a crucial role in mitigating the impact of the tsunami.

This chapter discusses the rationale and techniques for restoring disturbed mangrove ecosystems using current knowledge through the
development of research studies conducted in Malaysia and elsewhere. The chapter provides an outline of the process in identifying
suitable sites for mangrove replanting and the suitable species and techniques for planting.

9.1 Rationale for Rehabilitation of Mangroves

Mangrove plants require certain environmental conditions to establish and grow. In general, mangroves plants are divided into two
groups, namely (i) true or exclusive mangrove species and (ii) associate mangrove species. The following are the characteristic
features of true mangrove species:

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• True mangrove plants grow only in mangrove environment and do not extend into terrestrial plant communities.
• They play a major role in determining the structure of the plant community of mangroves and ability to form pure stands.
• They are morphologically adapted to live in waterlogged condition e.g. aerial roots associated with gas exchange.
• They are physiologically adapted to live in saline environment.
• They have viviparous reproduction.
• They are taxonomically isolated from terrestrial relatives.

Mangroves can be raised successfully only in places where all basic environmental conditions exist for their luxuriant growth as
deliberated below:

• Wave energy along with shoreline should be low (otherwise seedlings would be uprooted).
• Substratum should be muddy or accumulated deposit of sediments.
• Salinity of the water should undergo constant variations due to freshwater flow (mangroves require low saline condition for
optimum growth and reproduction).
• Area should be regularly flushed by tidal water (for many reasons such as maintenance of salinity).
• Soil should be saturated (submerged) with or covered by low saline water at some time during the growing season of every
year.

The Malaysian coastline , which is about 4,800 km in length, is rich in coastal resources and has an abundance of natural biodiversity.
However, the National Coastal Erosion Study (NCES) has shown that about 1,390 km of the total coastline is facing erosion (Ziauddin
& Siti Aishah 2010). This is due to the rapid pace of development activities in the coastal area which has resulted in a conflict between
the need for immediate consumption and the need to ensure the long-term supply of these resources.

Studies of coastal erosion were conducted at Southern Thailand on the eastern coast of Thailand, exposed to and facing the Gulf of
Thailand and on the western coast facing the Andaman sea (Thampaya et al. 2006). The overall erosion rate on the eastern coast was
found to be 3.6 m per year and on the western coast it was estimated at 0.04 – 0.25 m per year. The eastern coast result was comparable
to the coastal erosion study on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, Kuala Terengganu, in which the erosion was 0.2 – 4.0 m per year
(Maged et al. 1999). In some places the occurrence of erosion and accretion coupled with sand movement continuously takes place.
The eroded sediment is transported from higher energy segments by littoral drift to lower energy segments and accumulates there. The
status of current mangrove areas in Peninsular Malaysia is discussed in detail in the Chapter 7 of this book.

Mangrove-dominated coastal segments exhibit less erosion while non-vegetated segments or former mangrove areas incur substantial
erosion (Thampaya et al. 2006). The dense structure of mangrove root systems possibly helps to consolidate (firm up) the coastal soil;
hence the shoreline is more resistant to erosion (Mazda et al. 1997b). Furthermore, mangrove roots reduce flow and promote flocculation
and sedimentation upon the soil surface, eventually allowing positive accretion. On the other hand, exposed and unconsolidated soils
of non-vegetated and former mangrove land (mud-flats) are more prone to erosion. The possible and cheaper strategy in sustaining
the coastal zone areas is by enhancing the total area covered by mangroves. This can be easily achieved by means of assisting the
natural mangrove colonization in sheltered coastal segments through providing or enhancing seedling fluxes on the area, protecting
the seedlings from herbivory and increasing the propagules’ retention time with artificial shelters. If the natural colonization is not
possible due to strong wave impacts, planting of suitable mangrove species with proper techniques of planting would be the best
option. To facilitate decision-making for planting mangroves, demarcated maps of mangroves should be made available. The maps
will provide overall information on location and extent of estuarines, brackish water and mud-flat areas available along the coastlines.

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The need to restore mangroves, especially coastal mangroves, implies that they have been altered or degraded due to disturbances
by human or climatic impacts. The tsunami that hit the Indian Ocean countries on 26 December 2004 and the series of smaller post-
tsunami earthquakes that followed have become not only a commanding motive for authorities to revise, improve and implement
their policies in disaster management, but also provided an opportunity for scientists to conduct experiments on suitable barriers
along coastlines that act as effective protection against tsunamis and wind-generated waves. The Indian Ocean is home to rare flora
and fauna that act as bioshield to many coastal communities. One of the worst affected floras is the mangrove species. A development
of mangrove buffer zone along coastal areas has become a research priority project among scientists in the affected coastal regions
including Malaysia. The belief in the importance of mangroves has instigated widespread reforestation schemes to cope with the
declining coastal mangroves (FAO 1994, Havanond 1995, Field 1996a).

9.2 Rehabilitation of Mangroves

Planting mangroves needs knowledge and skills as the work has to be carried out during low tides when the intertidal area is exposed.
Before any planting activities are conducted, it is essential to know the salinity, tidal regimes and currents at the particular sites. Prior
to planting, the planting sites need to be investigated. Information on soil conditions and hydrodynamic parameters of the site is very
crucial. This information will guide in determining the techniques of planting and choice of species suitable for planting. Once the
planting techniques and species are determined, the planting stocks need to be prepared and this requires knowledge of phenology
of the mangrove species.

Field (1996b) underlines three main reasons for restoring or rehabilitating the mangrove ecosystem, which are: i) conservation of a
natural system through ecosystem preservation, ii) restoration of a natural system for sustainable utilization, and iii) protection of
coastal areas. The approach adapted to restoration will depend on the local conditions and the rationale for rehabilitation and there are
some general principles that should be followed when considering the rehabilitation of a particular mangrove site. There have been
numerous projects conducted on techniques of restoring disturbed mangroves ecosystem. Table 9.1 shows some of the projects or
programmes in rehabilitating degraded coastal mangroves conducted worldwide.

Table 9.1 Rehabilitation projects done worldwide

Country Programme/Project Reference

Australia Mangrove restoration in Australia–A case study of Brisbane International Saenger (1996)
airport (bank stability through the use of mangroves)
Thailand Reforestation of mangroves in Thailand–A case study of Pattani Province Aksornkoae (1996)
Peninsular Malaysia Mangrove reforestation in Peninsular Malaysia–A case study of Matang Chan (1996)
Vietnam Restoration of mangrove ecosystems in Vietnam– Hong (1996)
A case study of Can Gio District Ho Chi Minh City
Indonesia Mangroves in Indonesia– Soemodihardjo et al.
A case study of Tembilahan, Sumatera (1996)
India Restoration of mangroves along the central west coast of India Untawale (1996)
Pakistan Restoration of mangroves in Pakistan Qureshi (1996)
Bangladesh Planting techniques for mangroves on new accretions in the coastal areas of Siddiqi & Khan (1996)
Bangladesh
Cuba Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration in Cuba: Padron (1996)
A case study in Havana Province
Florida, USA Restoration of mangroves in the United States of America: Snedaker & Biber (1996)
A case study in Florida

9.2.1 Hydraulic parameters of the planting site

The primary causes of coastal erosion along the shoreline can be driven by natural processes or human activities. Coastal inundation
due to storm waves, tsunamis and sea-level rise may cause permanent inundation to the coastal areas that will have serious impact on
the natural environment and social-economic conditions in the coastal zones (Dwarakish et al. 2009). The daily rise and fall of tides
regulate many features of a mangrove plantation, particularly growth and survival rate. The tidal amplitude regime and velocity of
coastal currents of the site at different seasons (dry and monsoon seasons) must be also checked prior to selection of site for planting.

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The National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM) has developed a coastal vulnerability index (CVI) for the
Peninsular Malaysia coastlines (Lee & Mohd Fauzi 2010). The CVI incorporates six variables, viz. geomorphology, shoreline change
rate, maximum current speed, maximum tidal range, significant wave height and sea-level rise. The CVI may assist in determining
the level of risk for rehabilitation activities. Assessment using hydraulic parameters on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia has
concluded that mangroves survive well in areas if the significant wave height is <1 m, yearly calm condition >30% of the time and
mean suspended sediment >300 mg per litre (Nor Aslinda et al. 2010). Thus, if readings of the parameters go beyond these levels,
immediate action is needed for improvement.

9.2.2 Breakwaters
Erosion and accretion are a natural process that takes place along the dynamic coastlines. Erosion along either sandy or muddy
coastlines occurs as a result of a couple of factors such as wave actions that hit perpendicular to the coastlines and the swift flow
of sea currents washing away the soil or sand particles. The height and frequency of waves hitting the coastlines contribute to the
severity of erosion. Thus, the presence of coastal vegetation, especially mangroves, would assist to reduce soil erosion significantly.
Coastal vegetation actually acts as natural bioshields or biobarriers or as natural breakwaters. In Peninsular Malaysia, a study of
mangroves’ ability to act as wave dampener was conducted on mangrove and associated species, Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera spp.
and Nypa fruticans (Isfarita et al. 2010). The study showed that N. fruticans has the densest roots and is the best species to attenuate
waves followed by Rhizophora. The study conducted by Wolaski et al. (2001) concluded that each mangrove species has a unique
configuration of trunks, prop roots and pneumatophores that works as a different drag force therefore resulting in a different reduction
rate of sea waves. Table 9.2 shows the previous studies conducted on the relationship between wave attenuation and mangrove
vegetation.

Table 9.2 Studies of relationship between wave attenuation and mangrove vegetation

Country Study Reference

Australia Hydrodynamics of a tidal creek – mangrove swamp system (First study of Wolaski et al. (1980)
physical processes in a mangrove forest)
Australia Water circulation in mangroves and its implication for biodiversity Wolaski et al. (2001)
Vietnam Mangroves as a coastal protection from waves in the Tong King delta, Mazda et al. (1997a)
Vietnam
Vietnam Wave reduction in a mangrove forest dominated by Sonneratia sp. Mazda et al. (2006)
Japan & Australia Drag force due to vegetation in mangrove swamps Mazda et al. (1997b)
Japan Tidal flow in riverine-type mangroves Kobashi & Mazda
(2005)
Japan Studies on the protective functions of the mangrove forest against erosion Sato (1984)
and destruction (IV): The protective functions of the mangrove and a
preliminary hydraulic model experiment on the root system of mangrove
Japan & Australia Surface wave propagation in mangroves Massel et al. (1999)

However, rehabilitating degraded coastal mangroves due to erosion through planting requires not just improvement to the techniques
of planting but also the need for the newly planted plants to be protected from high and strong wave impacts. In areas where the wave
height is more than 1 m and the yearly calm condition more than 30% of the time (Nor Aslinda et al. 2010), a front-line breakwater is
crucial in order to support the newly planted plants to stay put.

The construction of hard engineering structures such as rock armour, groyne, Labuan block and seawall has been undertaken by the
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) to protect the coasts. L-Block, a hard engineering structure designed by the University
of Malaya, has been established in Sungai Haji Dorani (Figure 9.1). However, mangrove regeneration rarely occurs in the sea-front
areas. Therefore, a soft engineering structure such as geo-textile tube (geotube) is preferable because the system creates a favourable
hydrodynamic environment that may be conducive to mangrove regeneration (Figure 9.2).

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Figure 9.1 L-Blocks established in Sg Hj Dorani, Selangor

Figure 9.2
Geotubes
established in
Sg Hj Dorani,
Selangor

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 9.2.3 Mangrove soil
The substrate is an important controlling factor in selecting areas for rehabilitation activities
through planting mangroves. Type and thickness of substratum will help in deciding which
species of mangroves is suitable for a given area. Therefore, a thorough study of the types of
substratum of the sites, which are selected for mangrove plantation, is essential. Though the
presence of mangrove trees has been reported in sandy areas, muddy substrate is the most
suitable substrate for mangrove growth. Muddy soil is the best soil for mangrove plantation.
Mud is best characterized as soft sediment composed of a combination of organic and inorganic
material; it may be as shallow as a few centimetres or as deep as a few metres. The firmness of
mud can vary from loose to hard. Planting mangroves should be avoided in loose muddy soils
because propagules or seedlings will be washed away during high tidal currents.

Yet there are not many studies reported on mangrove soil. However, recently mangrove soil
profiles have been intensively studied by FRIM researchers on soil structures of natural
mangrove ecosystems and on soil structures of disturbed mangrove ecosystems (Jeyanny et
al. 2009, Mohamad Fakri et al. 2010, Wan Rasidah et al. 2010b, 2010c). A detailed study of
mangrove soil characteristics is given in Chapter 3 of this book.

9.2.4 Planting stocks

Planting stocks of mangrove species may be obtained from wildings, seeds or propagules depending on the species. Rhizophora spp.
produce propagules which can be collected fresh from the mother trees; however, only matured and pest-free propagules should be
used for planting. Propagules can be direct planted by inserting the pointed part into the mud or the propagules can also be raised in
the nursery to produce potted seedlings. The methods of raising nursery grown seedlings have been well established and in Peninsular
Malaysia the methods can be referred to in Panduan Menanam Pokok Bakau dan Spesies-spesies yang Sesuai di Pesisiran Pantai
Negara (FDPM 2008). Techniques of planting can also be found in works done worldwide as listed in Table 9.1. Avicennia produces
seeds, hence the best way of producing planting stocks of this species is through potting the germinated seeds in the nursery for
required sizes of potted seedlings.

However, planting mangroves on the coastal mud-flats requires innovative techniques of planting. The choice of techniques depends
on the seriousness of the erosion risks and also species of mangroves to be planted. Three different innovative planting techniques of
raising mangrove planting stocks, viz. Comp-Mat, Comp-Pillow and Bamboo Encasement Methods (BEM), have been developed by
FRIM. The techniques are described in Garis Panduan Teknik Inovatif Penanaman Bakau Di Pesisiran Pantai Berisiko Tinggi (Raja
Barizan et al. 2009).

9.2.5 Mangrove phenology

The phenology of mangrove plants refers to biological events such as flowering and fruiting of the mangrove species in relation to
seasonal changes. A calendar on the phenology of selected mangrove species in Peninsular Malaysia has been established by FRIM
researchers (Marzalina et al. 2011). The phenology calendar serves as a guide for researchers, foresters, students and groups who are
interested in mangrove plantation establishment or in other related studies. The information on the phenology is about which species
are fruiting and in which months the fruits are ready for collection.

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9.3 Innovative Planting of Mangroves
Restoration of degraded mangrove sites for coastal protection purposes is challenging as it involves difficult areas to be restored but
that need to be protected because of economic activities on the landward side. There are no substantial coastal forests in Malaysia
and no report on successful mangrove coastal forest restoration effort during the pre-tsunami era. Thus, concerted efforts have
been devoted to rehabilitate mangroves in Malaysia with the hope to provide some mitigation in the event of future tsunamis or
storm surges. As discussed in Chapter 8, the Malaysian Government has established a National Task Force Committee of Planting
Mangroves which is supported by two technical committees, The Technical Committee on Planning and Implementation (JTTPP)
and the Technical Committee on Research and Development (JTR&D). The JTR&D which is chaired by the Forest Research Institute
Malaysia (FRIM) aims to conduct research on techniques of coastal stabilization prior to planting, especially in areas classified as
highly eroded with strong wave actions. Improved planting techniques need to be developed to ensure a high rate of survival of
planted seedlings in a scenario of strong wave and current actions, and high and low tides and to reduce mortality due to barnacles,
insect attacks and diseases.

Planting mangroves at sheltered sites has been done by the state forest departments using standard or conventional planting techniques
(Figure 9.3). The planting techniques and the guidelines have been described (FDPM 2008). However, planting mangroves at the
coastal sites especially facing the open sea needs improvement to the conventional techniques of planting in order to ensure the
planted mangroves hold the ground. The plants may be uprooted and washed away. The larger sized plants with more extensive root
systems promise greater and faster shore protection. In areas where the height of waves is more than 1 m, the need for a breakwater
structure is very crucial to ensure the success of planting.

9.3.1 A case study of innovative planting in Sungai Haji Dorani

The role of research and developments led by FRIM is to help the state forest departments in forming buffer zones on the coastlines
through planting mangroves and mangrove-associates species. A project on coastal stabilization was conducted at Sungai Haji Dorani,
in Sungai Besar, Selangor. The technique of stabilizing the coastal area was applied by placing a soft engineering structure, geo-textile
tube (geotube) or by constructing a hard engineering structure, L-Block, at predetermined distances seawards from the coast. The
L-Block (Figure 9.1) and geotube (Figure 9.2) act as wave breakers slowing down wave impacts on the shorelines. The area of mud-
flats accumulated between the wavebreakers and shoreline provides space for planting. But since mud-flat is in liquid form, it provides
poor anchorage for seedlings to grow and hence suitable innovative planting methods need to be applied. Structures of L-Block were
designed and constructed by researchers and engineers from the University of Malaya (UM). Details of the design are elaborated in
Roslan et al. (2010). Mangrove planting at the site was conducted by the UM researchers and the techniques of planting used were
different than the one applied at the geotube study plot. Both types of wave breaker were constructed at Sungai Haji Dorani and were
about 500 m apart from each other.

The Drainage and Irrigation Department was engaged to help FRIM in constructing the 200-m geotubes at Sungai Haji Dorani. A total
of four geotubes of length 50 m each were constructed in July 2007. Each of the geotubes measured 1.8 m in height, 3.7 m in width and
was placed about 100 m away from the coastline. The mud accumulated between the geotubes and the coastline provides a space for
planting mangrove species. As the mud plain was still in fluid and soft form, new and innovative planting methods were introduced.
Three innovative planting techniques have been tested at the geotubes in Sungai Haji Dorani experimental plots: i) Comp-Mat, ii)
Comp-Pillow and iii) Bamboo Encasement Method. The technical details of each innovative planting technique are elaborated in the
book Garis Panduan Teknik Inovatif Penanaman Bakau di Pesisiran Pantai Berisiko Tinggi (Raja Barizan et al. 2009). Among the
three, the Comp-Mat technique gave the highest survival with the best growth for planting Rhizophora species (Figures 9.4 & 9.5);
however, Avicennia species was found best using the Comp-Pillow technique (Figures 9.6 & 9.7). After three years of establishment
of the plot, mixed species of R. apiculata (bakau minyak) and A. alba (api-api) that were planted using the innovative planting
techniques, Comp-Mat and Comp-Pillow, grew well (Figure 9.8).

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 Figure 9.3 A conventional
planting technique at a
sheltered muddy shore

Figure 9.4 Rhizophora apiculata (bakau minyak) planted

using the Comp-Mat innovative planting technique, at early
establishment, in Sg Hj Dorani, Selangor

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Figure 9.5 Rhizophora
apiculata (bakau
minyak) planted
using the Comp-Mat
innovative planting
technique, after three
years, in Sg Hj Dorani,
Selangor

Figure 9.6 Avicennia alba (api-api), planted using the Comp-Pillow innovative
planting technique at early establishment, in Sungai Haji Dorani, Selangor

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Figure 9.7 Avicennia alba (api-api), planted using the
Comp-Pillow innovative planting technique after three years,
in Sungai Haji Dorani, Selangor Figure 9.8 Mixed species of Rhizophora apiculata (bakau
minyak) and Avicennia alba (api-api), planted using innovative
planting techniques, Comp-Mat and Comp-Pillow respectively,
in Sungai Haji Dorani, Selangor

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9.4 Monitoring of Planted
Mangroves
Monitoring of mangroves for coastal protection is not as
complex as monitoring mangroves for sustainable production
as discussed in detail in Chapter 5. After planting is completed,
there is normally no need for after-care unless mortality arises
due to wave impact or due to sand/mud accretion. If the mortality
is quite high (more than 50%) then refilling with innovative
techniques is needed.

9.4.1 Mangrove pests and diseases

Through years of managing mangroves, there have been few
reports of any devastating effects of pests and diseases. A
common incidence of pests on newly planted mangroves using
propagules is crab attack. However, crab attacks are found to be
localized and to overcome the crab problem, it is recommended
to use potted seedlings. Barnacle infestation is also a common
problem especially those planted along the shorelines. FRIM
has produced a handbook, Pests of Planted Mangroves in
Peninsular Malaysia, based on research and surveys conducted
on invertebrate and vertebrate pest attacks (Su Ping et al. 2010).

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133
134
 Chapter 10
Community Awareness towards
Mangrove/Rhu Replanting in
Peninsular Malaysia
M Mohd Parid, HF Lim, MM Huda Farhan,
B Intan Nurulhani, H Tariq Mubarak,
Y Norshakila & H Mohd Nasir

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Chapter 10 : Community Awareness towards Mangrove/
Rhu Replanting in Peninsular Malaysia

Mangrove trees live with one foot on land and one in the sea, occupying a zone of desiccating heat, choking mud and salt levels that
would kill an ordinary plant within hours. Mangroves can survive in salty environments because they have the ability to obtain fresh
water from salt water. Mangrove forests represent a productive and biologically important ecosystem on Earth. They are a unique
ecosystem and are generally found along sheltered coasts where they grow abundantly in saline soil and brackish water, subject to
periodic fresh and salt-water inundation. Mangrove trees have specific characteristics such as tough root systems, special bark and leaf
structures and other unique adaptations to enable them to survive in their harsh habitats. The soft, silty and shallow mud-flats, coupled
with the endless ebb and flow of water, provide very little support for most mangrove plants which have instead aerial or prop roots
(known as pneumatrophores or respiratory roots) and buttressed trunks. Despite its smelly reputation, a mangrove forest is a very
dynamic and highly productive ecosystem. It not only plays multiple ecological functions essential to its included habitats, but is also an
important resource for coastal communities.

Sustainable management of mangrove areas in Malaysia plays an important role in the supply of timber (Azhar & Nik Mohd Shah
2003). Other than timber products, resources within the mangrove ecosystem provide food and generate income for nearby residents
(Chan & Salleh 1986, Chan et al. 1993, Cheng 1994, FAO 1994, Lim 1999). The role of mangroves in coastal settlement protection
has been acknowledged after the tsunami in 2004. It was observed that “areas with coastal tree vegetation were markedly less damaged
than areas without and mangrove forests are the most important coastal tree vegetation in the area” (Danielsen et al. 2005). Examples
areas without mangroves exposed to erosion are presented in Figure 10.1. The mangrove ecosystem has indirect uses such as floodwater
storage, flood protection, effluent storage and storm buffering (Ahmad 2009).

Figure 10.1 Coastal erosions in Kg. Dato Hormat, Selangor (left) and Kg. Rhu Tapai, Setiu, Terengganu (right)

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10.1 Mangrove/Rhu Replanting Programme
After the tsunami tragedy in 2004, the Malaysian Government implemented replanting programmes along the coastal areas around the
country, including Sabah and Sarawak, to preserve the coastal areas. From the total planted area of 1,829
​​ ha (cumulative 2005–2009)
1,073 ha (59%) were planted in Peninsular Malaysia (Table 10.1), 559 ha (30%) in Sabah and 196 ha (11%) in Sarawak.

Table 10.1 Cumulative performance of mangrove planting along coastal areas, Peninsular Malaysia (2005–2009)

Year planted Area (ha) Total number of trees

2005 169.3 476,602
2006 88.45 350,105
2007 117.9 552,788
2008 355.05 1,130,317
2009 282.84 991,614
Cumulative
1,073.54 3,501,426
(2005–2009)

Source: Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (2010)

From 4,916,987 trees planted in the 2005–2009 period, 3,501,426 trees (71%) were in Peninsular Malaysia, 985.201 trees (20%) in
Sabah and 430.360 trees (9%) in Sarawak. In Peninsular Malaysia, the states involved in the replanting activities were Johor, Kedah,
Kelantan, Perak, Perlis, Pulau Pinang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Melaka, Pahang and Terengganu. The total replanted areas in these
states comprised 61 mangrove areas and 45 non-mangrove areas. Figure 10.2 shows the sites that were planted with mangroves.

Figure 10.2 Views of the coastal areas after planting of mangrove species

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10.2 Awareness of Households of Mangrove/ Rhu Replanting Activities
Local awareness and support are significant in determining the success of the any replanting project. In 2009, the socio-economic team
in FRIM carried out a research on the attitudes and perceptions of local communities towards mangrove/rhu replanting along coastal
areas in Peninsular Malaysia. A total of five states identified with socio-economic problems related to mangrove replanting were selected
for this study (Figure 10.3). The research team gathered both primary and secondary data. Primary data collection involved rapid
rural appraisals, discussions and household surveys. Secondary information was obtained from published materials. A socio-economic
household survey was conducted involving 578 households (55% of all households in the villages) as indicated in Table 10.2. The
selection of samples was based on quota sampling where the intention was to interview at least 50% of total households.

Figure 10.3 The survey that was conducted in Setiu, Terengganu, by

a team from FRIM and enumerator from Universiti Malaysia Kelantan

Table 10.2 Numbers of households surveyed in five states, 2009

State Villages involved No. of households No. of house- %

holds surveyed
Perlis Kg. P. Ketam & Kg. Seberang Alor 105 74 70

Perak Kg. Labohan Bilis & Teluk Senangin 14 12 86

Selangor Kg. Simpang 4 152 94 62

Pahang Kg. Serandu & Kg. Tanjung Selangor 106 63 59

Terengganu Kg. Baru, Kg. Bari Kecil, Kg. Pantai Merang, 670 335 50
Kg. Mangkok, Kg. Penarik & Kg. Rhu 10

Total 1,047 578 55

The study showed that in general, 89% of the villagers in the vicinity of the mangrove/rhu replanting areas were aware of the replanting
activities carried out by the Forestry Department (Table 10.3). The results also showed that some of the villagers were using the areas
for various purposes prior to replanting.

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Table 10.3 Awareness of households of mangrove/rhu replanting activities, 2009

State No. of households surveyed No. of households aware of % of households aware of

replanting replanting
Perlis 74 68 92
Perak 12 12 100
Selangor 94 76 81
Pahang 63 60 95
Terengganu 335 298 89
Total 578 514 89

Uses of Areas before and after Replanting

Out of the 578 respondents interviewed, 443 (77%) had utilized the areas before mangrove/rhu replanting. After replanting, 155
repondents (or 35% of those using the area) insisted on continuing to use the areas for various purposes. With regard to the pattern of
usage of the areas, the study showed that it did not change much before and after replanting in Perlis, Perak and Selangor.

In Perlis, for example, before replanting, the main uses were crab harvesting (35%); recreation (20%); cockle, siput (shellfish), belitung
(shell) and belangkas (king crab) harvesting (32%); and as a pathway to the sea (13%). After replanting, it was noted that similar
activities persisted as before planting such as crab harvesting (38%); recreation (26%); cockle, siput, belitung and belangkas harvesting
(22%); and as pathway to the sea (10%).

In Perak, the replanted area was used as a pathway to the beach before and after replanting. In Selangor, before replanting, the area was
used for siput sedut harvesting (30%); as a pathway to the sea (26%); recreation (17%); crab harvesting (15%); and cockle/remis/lokan/
fish harvesting (12%). There were also no changes to the activities after planting. The area was then used for siput sedut harvesting
(30%); as pathway to the sea (30%); recreation (20%); crab harvesting (14%); and cockle/remis/lokan/fish harvesting (13%).

In Pahang and Terengganu, the patterns of use showed obvious changes. In the state of Pahang, before replanting the main uses were as a
pathway to the beach/sea (80%) and recreation (20%). However, after replanting the percentage used for a pathway to the beach/sea was
reduced to 51%, whereas that for recreation increased to 49%. It was reported that vandalism occured in the rhu replanting area. During
field visits in 2009, the fences of the replanting areas were damaged to enable four-wheeled vehicles to pass through.

In Terengganu, the main uses before replanting were as a pathway to the beach (57%); recreation (39%); and other fishing related
activities (4%). After replanting, there were increases in the usage of the area as pathway to the beach (69%) and pathway to sea fishing
(19%) but a reduction was observed in the recreational use (11%) and other fishing-related activities (1%).

Local Interest to Participate in Replanting Activities

This study also showed that 76% of the local communities were willing to get involved in mangrove/rhu replanting activities. What was
more interesting was that 67% of the respondents stated that their main reason and interest in replanting were to conserve the environment
besides income generation (27%). Among those willing to participate/be involved, 80% were interested to work as contractors, 75%
as volunteers, 26% as workers and the rest (4%) providing moral support. In general, the local communities hoped that mangrove/rhu
replanting could reduce/avoid coastal erosion and provide protection against giant waves.

Involvement of local communities in planting mangroves/rhu along coastal area is very important in raising awareness of the importance
of environmental conservation (Figure 10.4). It is also important in creating a caring attitude among local people towards conservation
efforts. Support from local communities based on their knowledge of and experience in the ecology of mangroves/rhu would save
cost for the project and ensure the success of replanting. Mangrove/rhu forest conservation programmes along the ​​coastal area are not
likely to succeed without the involvement of the local communities. Incentives system or community involvement in management and
conservation in the long term is essential to the success of the conservation programme. Community involvement will also create a
‘sense of belonging’.

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Figure 10. 4 Local communities’ participation in
mangrove replanting in Kg. Dato Hormat, Selangor

This study showed that mangrove/rhu replanting activities without the local involvement are faced with socio-economic problems
and challenges. For example, vandalism is bound to happen. In Selangor, sign boards placed in the replanted areas were damaged.
Furthermore, in Perak, the unfenced rhu trees planted were damaged by vehicles and camping activities. The tree stems were used
for BBQ and as fishing rods. Not only that, the replanted area was used as picnic ground. In Pahang, the fence was damaged to have
additional access to the beach. The fence wires were used as alternatives to grills in BBQ. In Terenganu, the nets fencing the replanting
areas were used as swings by local villagers.

There is also damage done by farm animals such as goats and cows. In Pahang and Terengganu, vandalism on the fence enabled cows
and goats to enter the replanting areas and consequently rhu trees were damaged and consumed by the animals (Figure 10.5). Human
negligence is also one of the causes of fires in the replanting areas. In Perak, visitors had thrown cigarette butts and failed to put out the
camp fire, especially during dry seasons, resulting in burning of weeds in the replanted areas and causing damage to the trees.

Figure 10.5 An area of rhu planting, Kg. Bari Besar, Setiu, Terengganu
which was damaged by farm animal (cows) Setiu, Terengganu

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The socio-economic problems arose because there was a lack of consultation with the local communities before replanting took place.
There was minimal interaction with them when the forestry activities were carried out. This could be related to the perception that forest
tree replanting on forest reserve or state land forest had little to do with the local communities. It was thought that there was no need for
formal consultation even though information on replanting was disseminated informally. Consequently, the local communities were not
sure of their role in forest conservation and development activities implemented by the government.

Based on the study done by FRIM, the following remarks made by villagers reflected the lack of local consultation before replanting:

‘‘Kami tidak diberitahu tentang penanaman bakau di tepi pantai.

Pada satu ketika, kami diberitahu jangan menggunakan kawasan penanaman untuk menangkap ketam dan ikan”
or
‘‘We were not told of mangrove replanting at the coastal area.
At one stage, we were told not to use the replanting area for fishing.
Fisherman in Kg. Pulau Ketam, Perlis

‘‘Saya kini lebih faham tentang penanaman bakau ini setelah anda terangkan.”
or
‘‘I now better understand mangrove replanting after your explanation”.
Villager in Kg. Simpang 4, Selangor

‘‘Penanaman rhu di sini dijalankan oleh Jabatan Perhutanan Negeri.

Sungguhpun demikian, kami penduduk tempatan tidak diberi penerangan sebelum penanaman.”
or
‘‘The rhu replanting activity was done by the state forestry department.
We were not briefed before the replanting activity.
Fisherman in Kg. Labohan Bilis, Perak

‘‘Pokok rhu yang ditanam oleh jabatan perhutanan ini tidak mengambil kira keadaan tempatan.
Sebahagian tanah dari kawasan tanaman itu adalah hak milik orang kampung.
Sudah tentulah ada orang yang marah.”
or
‘‘Rhu replanting by the state forestry department did not consider local condition.
Part of the replanted area is private land. Of course villagers were unhappy over this.
Villager in Kg. Tanjung Selangor, Pahang

‘‘Kami tahu sedikit sahaja tentang penanaman rhu di pesisiran pantai.

Yang pasti, terdapat kawasan tanaman telah diguna oleh nelayan sebagai laluan ke laut sebelum penanaman.”
or
‘‘We knew little of rhu replanting.
Villagers here have been using the replanting area as a pathway to sea fishing
Fisherman in Kg. Penarik, Terengganu

10.3 Developing Community Awareness

Local communities are part of the ecosystem. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the socio-economic conditions of local people,
especially their use of mangrove/rhu planting area. The local communities and visitors can help to ensure the success of the projects.
The local authorities should change their paradigm by encouraging the local people to participate in any forest management planning.

In this study, workshops on awareness were held among the local populations in the five states studied (Figure 10.6). The main objective
of these public awareness workshops was to raise awareness among all stakeholders of the importance of mangrove/rhu replanting
programmes. The workshops were to garner local support for mangrove/rhu conservation and biodiversity protection. Through the
awareness programmes and interactive participation, communities were able to understand the purpose of the mangrove/rhu replanting
activities undertaken, and their role in protecting the replanted areas.

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Figure 10.6 Awareness programmes in Kg. Dato Hormat, Selangor (left), and Setiu District, Terengganu (right)

Other than workshops, the study found that awareness raising could also be carried out in other forms:

• Printed materials such as posters, flyers, leaflets and illustrated booklets can also be used for conveying information, guidance
and message on the importance of replanting mangrove/rhu. However, there is a broad scope for the production of additional
materials, particularly with illustrated messages aimed at rural audiences. Posters are especially effective as they can be widely
distributed and displayed in public areas. Leaflets are particularly cost-effective and can be mass-distributed in rural bazaars. All
printed materials will be most effective when they are attractively illustrated, and with a clear and to-the-point message.

• Billboards and wall-writing: billboards provide an easy and cost-effective method of attracting the attention of a broad cross-
section of people. Specific messages can be conveyed through the use of slogans and attractive pictures. Similarly, boundary walls
could be widely used throughout the country for displaying commercial advertising, and this technique could also be used for
disseminating messages on the importance of replanting mangroves/rhu and their conservation.

• Messages in daily life: messages printed on bags, t-shirts, public transport, shop signboards, window displays and other things
used or encountered in daily life can also be an effective means of passively conveying a message to a wide audience. A primary
feature of this technique is that the messages are frequently encountered and reinforced, and unlikely to be ignored. However, in
this technique the amount of information that can be included is very limited, and hence messages need to be both memorable and
to the point.

• School programmes can also to be among the most effective means of promoting awareness of mangrove/rhu replanting and its
conservation issues. With a large receptive target audience and an established structure, the school facilitates dissemination and
presentation of materials. Potential techniques include incorporation of mangrove/rhu-related issues, materials in textbooks and
curricula, presentation of audio-visual materials, drawing and writing contests, and field trips. Intervention in school programmes
is a particularly attractive option as it allows an early introduction to issues and concepts related to the mangrove ecosystem,
which if effectively presented and assimilated will continue to influence attitudes and actions later in life. Children will also
take the message home to their families and provide another means of disseminating messages to adults with limited access to
communication media or low literacy levels.

• Outdoor education programmes can be used to provide direct, hands-on contact with nature/ecosystem, either as part of organized
school programmes or as an extracurricular or outside of school activity. The main objective is to provide an opportunity to
observe and study the mangrove ecosystem in its natural setting, within an appropriate learning structure and under informed
guidance. Although this technique is likely to be limited to a relatively small target audience, their effectiveness can be very high.

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144
Chapter 11
Conclusion
H Khali Aziz

145
Chapter 11 : Conclusion

The current issues of climate change are high on the socio-economic-politic agenda and
continuously being debated worldwide. Global warming, carbon release, sea-level rise,
coastal erosion and greenhouse gases (GHG) are among the topics which are being discussed.
These phenomena happen as a result of direct or indirect development activities including
the conversion of forested areas such as mangrove forest into other land uses. A lot has
been said of the importance to conserve and protect our natural forest not only for future
socio-economic development but most importantly for the environment and human well-
being. Malaysia is fortunate in the sense that the government has realized this importance
and has taken necessary actions to ensure forest resources such as mangrove forest are
being managed on sustainable basis. One good example is the government’s initiative to
provide budget allocation under the RMK9 development budget to undertake the Mangrove
Rehabilitation Project in the entire Malaysia. Under the initiative, a total of about RM8
million has been provided to the Forestry Department and FRIM to undertake various
research and development activities related to the mangroves.

The project has been implemented successfully, among others the development of innovative
planting techniques for mangrove species in the high risk coastal areas (Raja Barizan et
al. 2009). Under this initiative also, the Forestry Department has been focusing on the
rehabilitation of degraded mangrove areas throughout the country and up to the end of
October 2010, about 2,150 ha with over 5.8 million seedlings had successfully been planted
since year 2005.

In the effort to ensure the long-term survival of mangrove forests, the government has also
gazetted a total area of 89,626 ha of mangrove forests as PRF. In addition there are also
other mangrove forests that have been gazetted as protected forests including the gazettment
of four mangrove forests as Ramsar Sites in Malaysia. They are Pulau Kukup Mangrove in
Johor (Ramsar Site 1287: 31/03/2003), Sungai Pulai Mangrove in Johor (Ramsar Site 1288:
designated 31/01/2003), Kuching Wetlands National Park in Sarawak (Ramsar Site 1568:
designated 08/11/2005) and Tanjung Piai Mangrove in Johor (Ramsar Site 1289: designated
31/01/2003). Other mangrove protected areas in this country include the Tanjung Tuan
Mangrove in Melaka (Bird and Wildlife Reserve – Protection Ordinance No 2. of 1955); and
the Kuala Selangor Nature Park which has been classified as an IUCN category ll protected
area (Yeap et al. 2007).

These efforts taken by the government should be supported by all other agencies including
the private sector, NGOs and local communities in order to ensure the successful
implementation of the planned conservation and protection strategy. As such adequate
awareness programmes at all levels should be carried out continuously so that the mangrove
forest is well managed and protected for the future well-being of all mankind.

146
147
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