12

Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw

Material for Food Packaging
Rushdan Ibrahim1 , S.M Sapuan2,3 , R.A Ilyas4,5 , and M.S.N. Atikah6
1 Pulp and Paper Laboratory, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Selangor, Kepong, 52109, Malaysia

2
Institute of Tropical Forest and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Selangor,
Serdang, 43400, Malaysia
3
Advanced Engineering Materials and Composites Research Centre (AEMC), Department of Mechanical
and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Selangor,
Serdang, 43400, Malaysia
4
School of Chemical and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM
Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
5 Centre for Advanced Composite Materials, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru,

Johor, Malaysia
6 Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Selangor,

Serdang, 43400, Malaysia

12.1 Introduction
Currently, there has been a rapid development in research and innovation on converting
waste natural fiber to create wealth [1–7]. Huge attention has been given due to the advan-
tages of these waste materials when compared to others. Such materials as synthetic fiber
composites have very little environmental impact and are produced at a low cost, and sup-
port has been given to their potential across a wide range of applications [8–19, 34]. There
are more than 200 000 ha of rice fields in Peninsular Malaysia (Table 12.1 and Figure 12.1)
generating about 2.6 million tonnes of rice straw annually. Disposing of the large amount
of rice straw is difficult as the options are limited by the great bulk of material, slow degra-
dation in the soil, harboring of rice stem disease, and a high mineral content [20]. Soil
incorporation and field burning have been the common practices for removing the rice straw
Bio-Based Packaging: Material, Environmental and Economic Aspects, First Edition. Edited by S.M. Sapuan and R.A. Ilyas
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
206 Bio-Based Packaging

Table 12.1 Acreages of rice cultivation in Peninsular Malaysia.

No. Planting area Acreage (ha)

1 MADA 96 558
2 KADA 31 440
3 PKSM 30 600
4 PBLS 19 600
5 IADP Pulau Pinang 11 000
6 Seberang Perak 8 982
7 KETARA 4 660
8 Kemasin/Semarak 1 645
Total 204 485

Figure 12.1 Areas of cultivation of rice in Peninsular Malaysia (colored green).

[21, 22]. Traditionally, in Malaysia combustion of the straw is done after the harvesting
season of paddy. Generally, rice straw burning is done to eliminate sources of insect pests,
rat infestations, and control of rice diseases. In essence, such activity causes air pollution,
affects the safety of road users, and affects the atmosphere and environment, thus leading
to global climate change [23].
Utilizing rice straw would reduce its environmental impact and ease the disposal
problem facing agricultural operations [22]. The potential environmental benefits of
diverting rice straw from open-field burning will significantly reduce air pollutants that
can be a health hazard [24].

12.2 Selling Rice Straw

Rice straw needs to be collected from the field after rice harvesting (Figure 12.2) and is
collected using a baler (Figures 12.3 to 12.5). Bales are stored under a shed to make it
 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging 207

Figure 12.2 Harvesting rice.

Table 12.2 Requirement for rice straw sales.

No. Facility Description Cost per unit (RMa ) Workers

1 Baler To bale rice straw 150 000 2
2 Lorry To transfer rice straw from rice field to storage 300 000 2
3 Warehouse To store rice straw 150 000 2
4. Forklift To carry bale 150 000 1
Total cost 750 000 7
a Note: 1 US$ = RM 4.12, where RM stands for Malaysian Ringgit.

last longer (Figure 12.6). Table 12.2 displays the requirement for rice straw sales. The
baled rice straw is currently sold for RM150 per tonne, so it can generate extra income
of RM390 million to farmers annually.

12.3 Selling Pulp

One way to utilize rice straw is as a raw material for pulp, which is a lignocellulosic fibrous
material prepared by chemically, mechanically, or chemimechanically separating cellulose
fibers from rice straw. Chemimechanical pulp can be used to produce pulp for handcrafts,
pulp molded paperboard, and newsprint industries.
In this study, we found that rice straw can be made into pulp by chemical, semi-chemical,
and chemimechanical pulping processes via soda-anthraquinone (AQ), chemimechanical
pulp (CMP), and cold soda refiner mechanical pulp (RMP), respectively [25]. Each
pulping process produced pulp and paper with various properties [26, 27]. Cold soda
RMP gave the highest pulp yields, but the semi-chemical pulping process had the highest
paper properties [28]. The pulp yields for RMP, cold soda mechanical pulping, CMP, and
208 Bio-Based Packaging

Figure 12.3 Baler machine with capacity of 120–240 bales per hour.

soda-anthraquinone pulping are tabulated in Table 12.3. The properties of paper made
from different pulping processes are presented in Table 12.4.
The process of producing chemimechanical pulp are:
1. Raw material preparation – cutting and cleaning (Figure 12.7)
2. Pulping (Figure 12.8)
3. Cleaning (Figure 12.9)
4. Storing and packaging (Figure 12.10 and Table 12.5)
 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging 209

Figure 12.4 Rice straw bale weight of 500 kg.

Table 12.3 Pulping properties of rice straw.

Property Process
RMP Cold soda RMP CMP Soda-AQ
Total yield (%) 93.2 85.5 73.6 44.7
Screened yield (%) 77.7 75.5 69.2 44.7
Sieve (%) 15.5 10.0 4.6 0

The pulp yield is about 80%, so 2.6 million tonnes of rice straw will produce approx-
imately about 2 million tonnes of chemimechanical pulp. The price of chemimechanical
pulp is about US$400 per tonne or RM1600 per tonne. Two million tonnes of pulp will
have a value of RM 3.2 billion.
A small pulp mill utilizes 10 tonnes of rice straw and needs about 1200 ha of rice fields.
Two hundred thousand hectares of rice fields in Peninsular Malaysia can be used to pro-
vide167 pulp mills with 10 tonnes per day.
210 Bio-Based Packaging

Figure 12.5 Rice straw bales in rice field.

Figure 12.6 Storage of rice straw bales.

 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging 211

Table 12.4 Pulp and paper properties of rice straw.

Property Process
RMP Cold soda RMP CMP Soda-AQ
Density (g/cm3 ) — 0.49 0.74 0.61
Tensile index (Nm/g) — 0.41 0.78 0.51
Tear index (mNm2 /g) — 3.51 6.41 4.98
Burst index (kPam2 /g) — 1.85 4.40 2.27
Double fold (800 K.M) — 6.00 530.00 24.00

Figure 12.7 Rice straw cutter – reduce rice straw to 10–30 mm in length.

12.4 Selling Pulp Molded Products

Globally, the billion dollar packaging products industry is sourcing the raw materials from
forest woods as their feedstock [29]. Forest woods are being deforested annually to cater
for the needs of the packaging products industry worldwide. This has led to massive envi-
ronmental problems, global warming, climate change, and a serious environmental impact
to the eco-system and biodiversity [29].
Virgin pulps from cellulose fibers of rice straw have been identified and used to make
biodegradable food containers, biodegradable packaging medical products, and biodegrad-
able industrial packaging products [30, 31]. The global market is moving into sustainable
and biodegradable packaging needs since 2011 and the market is growing and accelerating
212 Bio-Based Packaging

Figure 12.8 Pulping machines – converting rice straw into pulp.

Table 12.5 Requirement for rice straw pulp sales.

No. Facility Description Cost per unit (RM) Worker per shift
1 Electricity sub-station To supply electrical power to pulp mill 300 000 1
2 Pulp mill To house pulping machinery 300 000 2
3 Pulping machinery To convert rice straw into pulp 750 000 2
4 Forklift To carry bale 150 000 1
Total cost 1 500 000 6

rapidly to meet and satisfy the market requirements (Tables 12.6 and 12.7), the industry
requirements and the regulation requirements. In addition to the global market needs and
demands for biomass fiber pulps as an alternative material to produce packaging prod-
ucts, our Government is also focusing to accelerate this biomass pulp industry to generate
high-impact income to the nation.
The target market for the commercialization of rice straw fibers has narrowed down to
high impact industries with good financial returns. As such, the target market for our rice
straw fibers is as follows:
1. Biodegradable packaging products for the food and beverages industry (e.g. food-service
industry)
 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging 213

Figure 12.9 Washing pulp.

Table 12.6 Global packaging markets [32].

Growth Growth Growth

2000–2005 2005–2010 2000–2010
2000 2005 (%) 2010 (%) (%)
Western Europe 35 433.4 39 973.2 12.8 47 407.2 18.6 330.8
Eastern Europe 3 135.9 3 591.5 14.5 4.589.2 27.8 46.3
North America 35 930.2 42 958.4 19.6 52 482.3 22.2 46.1
Latin America 5.9115.7 7 407.8 25.2 9 447.4 27.5 59.7
Oceania 2 419.4 2 449.4 1.2 2 584.8 5.5 6.8
Asia 29 892.6 36 340.4 21.6 50 377.3 40.0 70.2
World 112 720.3 132 720.7 17.7 167 388.2 26.1 48.5

2. Biodegradable packaging products for medical industry (e.g. biodegradable bed-pans,

bowls, and urinal containers)
3. Biodegradable packaging products for industrial packaging products (e.g. electronic
packaging)
Processing steps for producing molded products from rice straw pulps are:
1. Stock preparation (Figure 12.11)
2. Molding (Figure 12.12)
3. Finishing and packaging (Figure 12.13 and Table 12.8)
214 Bio-Based Packaging

Figure 12.10 Clean and dried pulp are kept in jumbo bag for transportation and storage.

Table 12.7 US green packaging demand [32].

US green packaging demand (million dollars)

% Annual growth
Item 2004 2009 2014 2004–2009 2009–2014
Green packaging demand 30 145 34 460 41 650 2.7 3.9
Recycled content packaging 27 175 31 178 37 250 2.8 3.6
Reusable packaging 2 795 2 920 3 715 0.9 4.9
Degradable packaging 175 362 685 15.6 13.6

One tonne of rice straw pulp can produce 100 000 articles of 10 g in weight. A molded
product is sold for 10 cent per piece. One tonne of molded product is worth RM10 000.

12.5 Selling Paper

Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibers of cellulose pulp
and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a versatile material with many uses, including
writing, printing, packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction
processes. Malaysia imported close to RM 6.7 billion worth of paper and paperboard in
2010 (Malaysia International Trade and Industry Report 2011 [33]. With the advent of this
paper-making technology from rice straw bio-waste, the need to import pulp and paper
from other countries will be minimized and may generate income from possible export in
the future.
 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging 215

Figure 12.11 Stock preparation – pulp beating, mixing with additives, and metering.

Table 12.8 Requirement for pulp molded sales.

Cost per Worker

No. Facility Description unit (RM) per shift
1 Electricity sub-station To supply electrical power to pulp mill 300 000 1
2 Pulp molded mill To house molding machinery 300 000 2
3 Molded machinery To convert pulp into molded articles 750 000 2
4 Forklift To carry pulp and products 150 000 1
Total cost 1 500 000 6

Market risk may emerge from the use of rice straw as an unconventional raw material to
produce paper. However, as the fiber characteristics and chemical content of rice straw and
the characteristics of the paper after the chemical process is similar to that of wood-based
raw materials like eucalyptus and it is able to meet the specification of hard wood pulp,
consumers’ views on unbleached paper and paperboard produced using rice straw as the
raw material will be more reassuring. Also, since the use of rice straw as the raw material is
also a major step toward reducing greenhouse gas emission and depletion of forests, market
acceptance of this product is envisaged to be positive.
The use of rice straw for paper making reduces the dumping of bio-waste, which could
result in uncontrolled release of methane into the environment if digested anaerobically and
216 Bio-Based Packaging

Figure 12.12 The pulp was molded into fruit tray articles.
 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging 217

Figure 12.13 Quality control and packaging prior sales.

Table 12.9 Requirement for paper and paperboard sales.

Cost per Worke

No. Facility Description unit (RM r per shift

1 Electricity sub station To supply electrical power to pulp mill 300 000 1
2 Paper mill To house papermaking machinery 300 000 2
3 Papermaking machinery To convert pulp into molded articles 750 000 2
4 Forklift To carry pulp and products 150 000 1
Total cost 1 500 000 6

uncontrolled release of carbon dioxide if digested aerobically under natural decomposition.

The release of such greenhouse gases from landfills into the environment is eliminated by
using rice straw for paper making and this adds a positive impact on the environment. With
the implementation of this project, the rice straw industry is safeguarded against possible
smearing by NGOs.
The processing steps of producing paper and paperboard from rice straw pulps are:
1. Stock preparation (Figure 12.14)
2. Papermaking (Figure 12.15)
3. Finishing and packaging (Figure 12.16 and Table 12.9)
The economic value of 1 ton of rice straw used for unbleached paper and paperboard
making is approximately RM 1600.00 assuming the selling price of USD 600 (RM 2400.00)
per tonne of unbleached paper and paperboard. With such a large amount of rice straw
available from the paddy field, if rice straw is used for paper making, the economic value
that can be realized from this commercialization activity is very significant. Figure 12.17
shows the S.W.O.T analysis in utilization of rice straw as a raw material for pulp, molded,
paper, and paperboard.
218 Bio-Based Packaging

Figure 12.14 Pressure screener to purify pulp during stock preparation.

Table 12.10 Comparison of cost and selling of products from rice straw.

Investment Start material Production Selling

No. Product cost (RM) cost (RM) cost (RM) per ton (RM)
1 Rice straw 750 000 0 50 150
2 Pulp 1 500 000 150 850 1 600
3 Molded product 1 500 000 1 600 850 10 000
4 Paper and paperboard 1 500 000 1 600 850 2 400

12.6 Cost of Commercialization of Products from Rice Straw

Technology adaption of rice straw processing seems to have potential to be further commer-
cialized. The costs of producing and the selling price of rice straw, pulp, molded product,
paper, and paperboard are different (Table 12.10). A molded product has the highest selling
price and its investment is comparable to paper and paperboard products (see Table 12.10).
 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging 219

Figure 12.15 Paper forming, drying, and calendaring in paper making.

Figure 12.16 Finishing and packaging.

220 Bio-Based Packaging

Strength  Weakness 
1. Biodegradable product  1. Seasonal feedstock since paddy
2. Locally sourced raw material  harvesting is only done twice a year  
2. Lack of funding 
3. Non‐wood‐based feedstock 
3. Product price higher than
4. Reduce carbon emission 
conventional product  
5. Value added products 
6. Replace polystyrene food container 
7. Safe to use and recycle product 
8. Leverage on local agricultural waste
for raw material 
9. Patented technology 

Opportunities Threat
1. Increasing awareness on global 1. Competition from established/ well
warming  known pulp, moulded, paper and
2. Growing demand for non‐wood pulp  board manufacturer  
2. Market penetration depends on
3. Growing demand for biodegradable consumer acceptance of such
packaging/products   product  
4. Environmental legislation 
5. Increase farmer’s income 
6. Reduce open burning 
7. Support from government authority 

Figure 12.17 S.W.O.T. analysis in utilization of rice straw as a raw material for pulp, molded, paper, and
paperboard.

The biodegradable packaging market has mainly been driven by the growing awareness
of the sustainability of molded products and government regulations have started to focus
toward the reduction of wastage and usage of biodegradable packaging materials. A busi-
ness model canvas (BMC) has been made for molded products from pulp using rice straw
(Table 12.11). The impact of income generation from selling the product from rice straw to
the community should be deeply analyzed to achieve the outcome of FRIM’s technology
adaptation.

12.7 Conclusions
The byproduct of rice is 2.6 million tonnes of rice straw annually with a plantation size
of more than 200 000 ha of rice fields. These byproducts can be processed into pulp by
Table 12.11 Business Model Canvas (BMC): molded products from pulp using rice straw.

7. Key partners 5. Key activities 1. Value proposition 2. Customer relationship 3. Customer segments
1. FRIM Production of Molded biodegradable products 1. Business to business 1. Federal Territory
2. FRIM Inc. Biodegradable products. 2. Supply contract 2. (Kuala Lumpur,
1. Packaging,
3. MESTECC Supply raw 3. Distribution 3. Putrajaya,
2. Disposable Food
4. MADA Material 4. One to one service 4. Labuan)
3. Containers,
5. KADA 5. Local authorities
4. Takeaway Containers
6. PKSM 6. International
5. Disposable Cups and
7. PBLS 7. Market
6. Tableware
8. IADP Pulau Pinang 8. Green packaging
7. Antimicrobial pulp
9. Seberang Perak 9. Distributor
8. Molded
10. IADA KETARA 10. Packaging
9. Trash bags
11. Kemasin/Semarak 11. Manufacture
12. Investor 12. Hospitals
13. Ministry of territories “From waste to wealth”
14. Ministry of Health
6. Key resources 4. Channels
1. Raw Material Resources 1. Online: social media, website,
a. MADA video series, influencers
b. KADA 2. Offline: Event activations
c. PKSM (collaborate/well-known
d. PBLS brands/NGOs/Government),
e. IADP Pulau Pinang company visit, media gathering
f. Seberang Perak
g. KETARA
h. Kemasin/Semarak
2. Funding
3. Human Resource
8. Cost structure
1. CAPEX (machinery, land, and building)
2. Cost of goods sold 9. Revenue Streams
3. Operational expenses 1. Sales of biodegradable products
4. Human resource
5. Operation cost

FRIM – Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM); FRIM Inc. – Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) Incorporation; MESTECC – Ministry of Science, Technology, Environment &
Climate Change (MESTECC); MADA – Muda Agricultural Development Authority; KADA – Kemubu Agricultural Development Authority; PKSM – Pertubuhan Kemajuan Sosial
Malaysia; PBLS – Projek Barat Laut Selangor; IADP Pulau Pinang – Integrated Agricultural Development Project Pulau Pinang; KETARA – North Terengganu Integrated Agricultural;
NGOs – Non-Governmental Organizations; CAPEX – capital expenditure or capital expense.
222 Bio-Based Packaging

using three techniques, such as mechanical, chemical, or a combination of both chemical

and mechanical processes. Pulp can then be used as the raw material for fabricated, paper,
paperboard, and molded products. To conclude, the investment cost and start material cost
of producing these products and their selling price are different. Molded products have the
highest selling price compared to others and the investment is comparable to pulp, paper,
and paperboard products combined. This is because molded products, especially those of
the green packaging market, are mainly driven by growing public awareness and are con-
cerned with sustainability and government regulations that have started focusing on the
reduction of wastage and usage of biodegradable packaging materials. The commercial-
ization of rice straw can improve, which will increase the farmer’s income and reduce air
pollution and deforestation as well as changing waste to wealth.

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