NETWORK ADMINISTRATION USING LINUX

UNIT:I Introduction to Networking: History , TCP/IP Networks- Introduction to TCP/IP

Networks, Ethernets, Other Types of Hardware, The Internet Protocol, IP Over Serial Lines,
The Transmission Control Protocol, The User Datagram Protocol, More on Ports, The Socket
Library, UUCP Network ,Linux Networking, Different Streaks of Development, Where to Get
the Code, Maintaining Your System, System Security.

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK
Definition
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to
share information and resources.
o Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires,
optical fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other
through a network.
o The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
o In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that
vary from simple to complex level.

The features of a computer network are −

 Sharing − Computer networks enable sharing of files, software, hardware resources and
computing capabilities.
 Speed: The communication speed among the components is fast enough to be comparable
with a centralized system.
 Scalability − Sizes of computer networks dynamically increase with time. The networks
have to be scalable so that they can evolve adequately for future deployments.
 Integration − All the components of the network work in a coordinated manner for a
seamless user experience.
 Security − Networks allow security and access rights to the users for restricted sharing
of resources and information.
 Cost Effectiveness − Networking reduces the deployment cost of hardware and
software of a centralized system.

Characteristics of a Computer Network

 Share resources from one computer to another.
  Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other
computer(s) connected over the network.
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over the network.

HISTORY OF NETWORKS
ARPANET - the First Network
ARPANET − Advanced Research Projects Agency Network − the granddad of Internet was a
network established by the US Department of Defense (DOD).
The work for establishing the network started in the early 1960s and DOD sponsored major
research work, which resulted in development on initial protocols, languages and frameworks
for network communication.
It had four nodes at University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Stanford Research
Institute (SRI), University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB) and University of Utah. On
October 29, 1969, the first message was exchanged between UCLA and SRI. E-mail was
created by Roy Tomlinson in 1972 at Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. (BBN) after UCLA was
connected to BBN.

Internet
ARPANET expanded to connect DOD with those universities of the US that were carrying
out defense-related research. It covered most of the major universities across the country.
The concept of networking got a boost when University College of London (UK) and Royal
Radar Network (Norway) connected to the ARPANET and a network of networks was formed.
The term Internet was coined by Vinton Cerf,
Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine of Stanford University to describe this network of networks.
Together they also developed protocols to facilitate information exchange over the Internet.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) still forms the backbone of networking.

Telenet
Telenet was the first commercial adaptation of ARPANET introduced in 1974. With this the
concept of Internet Service Provider (ISP) was also introduced. The main function of an ISP
is to provide uninterrupted Internet connection to its customers at affordable rates.

World Wide Web

With commercialization of internet, more and more networks were developed in different
part of the world. Each network used different protocols for communicating over the
network. This prevented different networks from connecting together seamlessly. In the
1980s, Tim Berners-Lee led a group of Computer scientists at CERN, Switzerland, to create a
seamless network of varied networks, called the World Wide Web (WWW).

World Wide Web is a complex web of websites and web pages connected together through
hypertexts. Hypertext is a word or group of words linking to another web page of the same
or different website. When the hypertext is clicked, another web page opens.
The evolution from ARPANET to WWW was possible due to many new achievements by
researchers and computer scientists all over the world. Here are some of those developments
−

Year Milestone

1957 Advanced Research Project Agency formed by US

1969 ARPANET became functional

1970 ARPANET connected to BBNs

1972 Roy Tomlinson develops network messaging or E-mail.

 Symbol @ comes to mean "at"

1973 APRANET connected to Royal Radar Network of Norway

Term Internet coined

1974
First commercial use of ARPANET, Telenet, is approved

1982 TCP/IP introduced as standard protocol on ARPANET

1983 Domain Name System introduced

National Science Foundation brings connectivity to more

1986
people with its NSFNET program

ARPANET decommissioned
1990 First web browser Nexus developed
HTML developed

2002-2004 Web 2.0 is born

TCP/IP Networks
TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL
TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It was
developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s. It is named after the two
main protocols that are used in the model, namely, TCP and IP. TCP stands for Transmission
Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.
The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are −
 Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the
physical transmission of data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol
here but supports all the standard protocols.
 Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over
the network. The main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is
supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and ARP.
 Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data.
The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 Application Layer − This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host
programs with the transport layer services. This layer includes all high-level
protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.
The following diagram shows the layers and the protocols in each of the layers −

Ethernets
What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is a type of communication protocol that is created at Xerox PARC in 1973 by
Robert Metcalfe and others, which connects computers on a network over a wired connection.
It is a widely used LAN protocol, which is also known as Alto Aloha Network.

It connects computers within the local area network and wide area network. Numerous
devices like printers and laptops can be connected by LAN and WAN within buildings, homes,
and even small neighborhoods.

It offers a simple user interface that helps to connect various devices easily, such as
switches, routers, and computers.
A local area network (LAN) can be created with the help of a single router and a few
Ethernet cables, which enable communication between all linked devices.
This is because an Ethernet port is included in your laptop in which one end of a cable is
plugged in and connect the other to a router. Ethernet ports are slightly wider, and they look
similar to telephone jacks.
With lower-speed Ethernet cables and devices, most of the Ethernet devices are backward
compatible. However, the speed of the connection will be as fast as the lowest common
denominator. For instance, the computer will only have the potential to forward and receive
data at 10 Mbps if you attach a computer with a 10BASE-T NIC to a 100BASE-T network.
Also, the maximum data transfer rate will be 100 Mbps if you have a Gigabit Ethernet router
and use it to connect the device.
The wireless networks replaced Ethernet in many areas; however, Ethernet is still more
common for wired networking. Wi-Fi reduces the need for cabling as it allows the users to
connect smartphones or laptops to a network without the required cable.
While comparing with Gigabit Ethernet, the faster maximum data transfer rates are provided
by the 802.11ac Wi-Fi standard. Still, as compared to a wireless network, wired connections
are more secure and are less prone to interference.
This is the main reason to still use Ethernet by many businesses and organizations.

Other Types of Hardware

Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well as the software required
for installing computer networks, both at organizations and at home. The hardware
components are the server, client, peer, transmission medium, and connecting devices. The
software components are operating system and protocols.
The following figure shows a network along with its components −
Hardware Components
 Servers −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of the
network. The network operating system is typically installed in the server and so they
give user accesses to the network resources. Servers can be of various kinds: file
servers, database servers, print servers etc.
 Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers to
access and use the network resources.
 Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other peers
in a workgroup network.
 Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels through which data is
transferred from one device to another in a network. Transmission media may be
guided media like coaxial cable, fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like
microwaves, infra-red waves etc.
 Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or
computers, by binding the network media together. Some of the common connecting
devices are:
a. Routers
b. Bridges
c. Hubs
d. Repeaters
e. Gateways
f. Switches
Software Components
 Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in
the server and facilitate workstations in a network to share files, database,
applications, printers etc.
 Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for data
communication. Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for
computer networks. The two popular protocol suites are −
o a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
o b. TCP / IP Model

The Internet Protocol

IP stands for internet protocol. It is a protocol defined in the TCP/IP model used for
sending the packets from source to destination. The main task of IP is to deliver the packets
from source to the destination based on the IP addresses available in the packet headers. IP
defines the packet structure that hides the data which is to be delivered as well as the
addressing method that labels the datagram with a source and destination information.
An IP protocol provides the connectionless service, which is accompanied by two transport
protocols, i.e., TCP/IP and UDP/IP, so internet protocol is also known as TCP/IP or UDP/IP.
The first version of IP (Internet Protocol) was IPv4. After IPv4, IPv6 came into the market,
which has been increasingly used on the public internet since 2006.
History of Internet Protocol
The development of the protocol gets started in 1974 by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf. It is used
in conjunction with the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), so they together named
the TCP/IP.
Types of Internet Protocol
Internet Protocols are of different types having different uses. These are mentioned
below:
1. TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)
2. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
3. PPP(Point-to-Point Protocol)
4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
5. SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol)
6. HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
7. HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)
8. TELNET(Terminal Network)
9. POP3(Post Office Protocol 3)
10. IPv4
11. IPv6
12. ICMP
13. UDP
14. IMAP
15. SSH
16. Gopher

IP Over Serial Lines

Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) is a simple protocol that works with TCP/IP for
communication over serial ports and routers. They provide communications between machines
that were previously configured for direct communication with each other.
For example, a client may be connected to the Internet service provider (ISP) with a slower
SLIP line. When a service is required, the client places a request to the ISP. The ISP
responds to the request and passes it over to the Internet via high speed multiplexed lines.
The ISP then sends the results back to the client via the SLIP lines.
SLIP was developed by Rick Adams in 1984. It is documented in RFC 1055.
SLIP Frame
SLIP frame has a very simple format, comprising of payload and a flag that acts as an end
delimiter. The flag is generally a special character equivalent to decimal 192. If this flag is
present in the data, then an escape sequence precedes it, so that the receiver does not
consider it as the end of the frame.
Advantages of SLIP
 It has a very small overhead. So, it is suitable for usage in microcontrollers.
 It reuses the existing dial-up connections and telephone lines.
 It supports the most widely used protocol, Internet Protocol (IP). So, there is ease of
deployment.

The Transmission Control Protocol

What is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)?
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a transport layer protocol that
facilitates the transmission of packets from source to destination.

It is a connection-oriented protocol that means it establishes the connection prior to the

communication that occurs between the computing devices in a network. This protocol is used
with an IP protocol, so together, they are referred to as a TCP/IP.

The main functionality of the TCP is to take the data from the application layer. Then it
divides the data into a several packets, provides numbering to these packets, and finally
transmits these packets to the destination.
The TCP, on the other side, will reassemble the packets and transmits them to the application
layer. As we know that TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, so the connection will remain
established until the communication is not completed between the sender and the receiver.
Features of TCP protocol
The following are the features of a TCP protocol:
ADVERTISEMENT
o Transport Layer Protocol
TCP is a transport layer protocol as it is used in transmitting the data from the sender to the
receiver.
o Reliable
TCP is a reliable protocol as it follows the flow and error control mechanism. It also supports
the acknowledgment mechanism, which checks the state and sound arrival of the data. In the
acknowledgment mechanism, the receiver sends either positive or negative acknowledgment
to the sender so that the sender can get to know whether the data packet has been received
or needs to resend.
 o Order of the data is maintained
This protocol ensures that the data reaches the intended receiver in the same order in which
it is sent. It orders and numbers each segment so that the TCP layer on the destination side
can reassemble them based on their ordering.
o Connection-oriented
It is a connection-oriented service that means the data exchange occurs only after the
connection establishment. When the data transfer is completed, then the connection will get
terminated.
o Full duplex
It is a full-duplex means that the data can transfer in both directions at the same time.
o Stream-oriented
TCP is a stream-oriented protocol as it allows the sender to send the data in the form of a
stream of bytes and also allows the receiver to accept the data in the form of a stream of
bytes. TCP creates an environment in which both the sender and receiver are connected by an
imaginary tube known as a virtual circuit. This virtual circuit carries the stream of bytes
across the internet.

Need for Transport Control Protocol

In the layered architecture of a network model, the whole task is divided into smaller tasks.
Each task is assigned to a particular layer that processes the task. In the TCP/IP model, five
layers are application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical layer.
The transport layer has a critical role in providing end-to-end communication to the directly
application processes. It creates 65,000 ports so that the multiple applications can be
accessed at the same time. It takes the data from the upper layer, and it divides the data
into smaller packets and then transmits them to the network layer.
Working of TCP
In TCP, the connection is established by using three-way handshaking. The client sends the
segment with its sequence number. The server, in return, sends its segment with its own
sequence number as well as the acknowledgement sequence, which is one more than the client
sequence number. When the client receives the acknowledgment of its segment, then it sends
the acknowledgment to the server. In this way, the connection is established between the
client and the server.

Advantages of TCP
o It provides a connection-oriented reliable service, which means that it guarantees the
delivery of data packets. If the data packet is lost across the network, then the TCP
will resend the lost packets.
o It provides a flow control mechanism using a sliding window protocol.
o It provides error detection by using checksum and error control by using Go Back or
ARP protocol.
o It eliminates the congestion by using a network congestion avoidance algorithm that
includes various schemes such as additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD),
slow start, and congestion window.
Disadvantage of TCP
It increases a large amount of overhead as each segment gets its own TCP header, so
fragmentation by the router increases the overhead.
TCP Header Format

o Source port: It defines the port of the application, which is sending the data. So, this
field contains the source port address, which is 16 bits.
o Destination port: It defines the port of the application on the receiving side. So, this
field contains the destination port address, which is 16 bits.
o Sequence number: This field contains the sequence number of data bytes in a
particular session.
o Acknowledgment number: When the ACK flag is set, then this contains the next
sequence number of the data byte and works as an acknowledgment for the previous
data received. For example, if the receiver receives the segment number 'x', then it
responds 'x+1' as an acknowledgment number.
o HLEN: It specifies the length of the header indicated by the 4-byte words in the
header. The size of the header lies between 20 and 60 bytes. Therefore, the value of
this field would lie between 5 and 15.
o Reserved: It is a 4-bit field reserved for future use, and by default, all are set to
zero.
o Flags
There are six control bits or flags:
1. URG: It represents an urgent pointer. If it is set, then the data is processed
urgently.
2. ACK: If the ACK is set to 0, then it means that the data packet does not contain
an acknowledgment.
3. PSH: If this field is set, then it requests the receiving device to push the data
to the receiving application without buffering it.
4. RST: If it is set, then it requests to restart a connection.
 5. SYN: It is used to establish a connection between the hosts.
6. FIN: It is used to release a connection, and no further data exchange will
happen.
o Window sizeIt is a 16-bit field. It contains the size of data that the receiver can
accept. This field is used for the flow control between the sender and receiver and
also determines the amount of buffer allocated by the receiver for a segment. The
value of this field is determined by the receiver.
o ChecksumIt is a 16-bit field. This field is optional in UDP, but in the case of TCP/IP,
this field is mandatory.
o Urgent pointerIt is a pointer that points to the urgent data byte if the URG flag is set
to 1. It defines a value that will be added to the sequence number to get the sequence
number of the last urgent byte.
o Options
It provides additional options. The optional field is represented in 32-bits. If this field
contains the data less than 32-bit, then padding is required to obtain the remaining
bits

The User Datagram Protocol

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of the
Internet Protocol suite, referred to as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is an unreliable
and connectionless protocol. So, there is no need to establish a connection prior to
data transfer. The UDP helps to establish low-latency and loss-tolerating connections
establish over the network.The UDP enables process to process communication.

Features
 UDP is used when acknowledgement of data does not hold any significance.
 UDP is good protocol for data flowing in one direction.
 UDP is simple and suitable for query based communications.
 UDP is not connection oriented.
 UDP does not provide congestion control mechanism.
 UDP does not guarantee ordered delivery of data.
 UDP is stateless.
 UDP is suitable protocol for streaming applications such as VoIP, multimedia streaming.
UDP Header Format

In UDP, the header size is 8 bytes, and the packet size is upto 65,535 bytes. But this packet
size is not possible as the data needs to be encapsulated in the IP datagram, and an IP
packet, the header size can be 20 bytes; therefore, the maximum of UDP would be 65,535
minus 20. The size of the data that the UDP packet can carry would be 65,535 minus 28 as 8
bytes for the header of the UDP packet and 20 bytes for IP header.

More on Ports
Ports are assigned by computer i.e. operating system to different applications. Ports
help computer to differentiate between incoming and outgoing traffic. Since the port is
a 16-bit unsigned number it ranges from 0 to 65535.
Types of Ports
Ports are further divided into three categories:
 Well Known Port
 Registered port
 Dynamic Port
Well Known Port
 It is from the range 0 to 1023
 It is reserved for common and specifically used service
 It is used by some widely adopted protocols and services like HTTP(port 80),
FTP(port 21), DNS(Port 53), SSH(port 22), etc…..
Registered Port
 It is from range 1024 to 49151
 These are used by applications or services that are not as common
 But it is used by those applications or services which require its specific port
 Organizations can ask IANA(Internet Assigned Number Authority) for any
specific port number within this range
Dynamic Port
 It is from range 49152 to 65535
 It is also known as Ephemeral or Private Port
 It is used for those connections that are temporary or short-lived
  It is not registered or assigned and can be used by any process

Importance of Ports
Ports have many significance. Some of them are-
 Identification of service- Different application/services that work on the same
device can be differentiated by their port numbers. For example, HTTP(Port
number 80) and SMTP(port number 25) in the same computer uses different port
number to ensure their data goes to the correct service
 Efficient Data Routing- When a network device receives data from different
places it uses port numbers to efficiently route those data packets to the
respective application
 Block traffic from specific applications/services- When we have to block
incoming or outgoing traffic from a specific application/service then we need to
install a firewall and specify the port number of that application/service. We
block traffic from/to some specific applications/services when we find any
potential threats from those applications/services
 Scalability of services- Many services can run simultaneously on the same device
and can be differentiated using their port number. This helps the device to scale
and support many services at the same time.

Some Popular Port Numbers

Some common/Popular port numbers that are used by those applications/services which
are frequently used by us-
Port Number Used By
80 HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
23 Telnet
25 SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
53 DNS(Domain Name System)
7 Echo
20/21 FTP(File Transfer Protocol)
69 TFTP(Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
443 HTTPS(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure)
22 SSH(Secure Shell)
110 POP3(Post Office Protocol version 3)
67/68 DHCP(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol0
123 NTP(Network Time Protocol)
143 IMAP(Internet Messaging Access Protocol)
1433 Microsoft SQL
3306 MySQL
5432 PostgreSQL
27017 MongoDB
The Socket Library
A socket is one endpoint of a two way communication link between two programs running
on the network. The socket mechanism provides a means of inter-process communication
(IPC) by establishing named contact points between which the communication take place.
Like ‘Pipe’ is used to create pipes and sockets is created using ‘socket’ system call. The
socket provides bidirectional FIFO Communication facility over the network.
A socket connecting to the network is created at each end of the communication. Each
socket has a specific address.
This address is composed of an IP address and a port number.
Socket are generally employed in client server applications.
The server creates a socket, attaches it to a network port addresses then waits for the
client to contact it. The client creates a socket and then attempts to connect to the
server socket. When the connection is established, transfer of data takes place.

Types of Sockets : There are two types of Sockets: the datagram socket and
the stream socket.
1. Datagram Socket : This is a type of network which has connection less point for
sending and receiving packets. It is similar to mailbox. The letters (data) posted
into the box are collected and delivered (transmitted) to a letterbox (receiving
socket).
2. Stream Socket In Computer operating system, a stream socket is type
of interprocess communications socket or network socket which provides a
connection-oriented, sequenced, and unique flow of data without record
boundaries with well defined mechanisms for creating and destroying connections
and for detecting errors. It is similar to phone. A connection is established
between the phones (two ends) and a conversation (transfer of data) takes place.
Function Call Description
Socket() To create a socket
Bind() It’s a socket identification like a telephone number to contact
Listen() Ready to receive a connection
Connect() Ready to act as a sender
Accept() Confirmation, it is like accepting to receive a call from a sender
Write() To send data
Read() To receive data
Close() To close a connection

UUCP Network
UUCP (Unix-to-Unix Copy)[1] is a suite of computer programs and protocols allowing remote
execution of commands and transfer of files, email and netnews between computers.
A command named uucp is one of the programs in the suite; it provides a user interface for
requesting file copy operations. The UUCP suite also includes uux (user interface for remote
command execution), uucico (the communication program that performs the file
transfers), uustat (reports statistics on recent activity), uuxqt (execute commands sent
from remote machines), and uuname (reports the UUCP name of the local system). Some
versions of the suite include uuencode / uudecode (convert 8-bit binary files to 7-bit text
format and vice versa.
Linux Networking
Linux Networking Commands
Every computer is connected to some other computer through a network whether internally
or externally to exchange some information. This network can be small as some computers
connected in your home or office, or can be large or complicated as in large University or the
entire Internet.
Maintaining a system's network is a task of System/Network administrator. Their task
includes network configuration and troubleshooting.
Here is a list of Networking and Troubleshooting commands:
ifconfig Display and manipulate route and network interfaces.
ip It is a replacement of ifconfig command.
traceroute Network troubleshooting utility.
tracepath Similar to traceroute but doesn't require root privileges.
ping To check connectivity between two nodes.
netstat Display connection information.
ss It is a replacement of netstat.
dig Query DNS related information.
nslookup Find DNS related query.
route Shows and manipulate IP routing table.
host Performs DNS lookups.
arp View or add contents of the kernel's ARP table.
iwconfig Used to configure wireless network interface.
hostname To identify a network name.
curl or wget To download a file from internet.
mtr Combines ping and tracepath into a single command.
whois Will tell you about the website's whois.
ifplugstatus Tells whether a cable is plugged in or not.

Different Streaks of Development

The primitive streak is a transient structure whose formation, on day 15 of human
development, marks the start of gastrulation, the process in which the inner cell mass in
converted into the trilaminar embryonic disc, which is comprised of the three germ layers
(ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm).
The primitive streak originates from the anterior epiblast, and appears as an elongating
groove (primitive groove) on the dorsal midsagittal surface of the epiblast, along the
anterior-posterior axis of the embryo.
The rostro-caudal and medial-lateral axes of the embryo are defined by the primitive streak.
The rounded primitive node, or Hensen's node, is situated at the cranial tip of the primitive
streak, and contains a depression called the primitive pit. The primitive pit is continuous with
the primitive groove.
Where to Get the Code
The ip command is one of the basic commands every administrator will need in daily work,
from setting up new systems and assigning IPs to troubleshooting existing systems.
The ip command can show address information, manipulate routing, plus display network
various devices, interfaces, and tunnels.

The syntax is as follows:

ip <OPTIONS> <OBJECT> <COMMAND>
The OBJECT is the most important part of the synopsis, and the following are supported
(some omitted for brevity):
address - protocol (IPv4 or IPv6) address on a device.
 tunnel - tunnel over IP
 route - routing table entry
 rule - rule in routing policy database
 vrf - manage virtual routing and forwarding devices
 xfrm - manage IPSec policies

System Security
The process of ensuring OS availability, confidentiality, integrity is known as operating
system security. OS security refers to the processes or measures taken to protect the
operating system from dangers, including viruses, worms, malware, and remote hacker
intrusions. Operating system security comprises all preventive-control procedures that
protect any system assets that could be stolen, modified, or deleted if OS security is
breached.

Security refers to providing safety for computer system resources like software, CPU,
memory, disks, etc. It can protect against all threats, including viruses and unauthorized
access. It can be enforced by assuring the operating system's integrity, confidentiality,
and availability. If an illegal user runs a computer application, the computer or data stored
may be seriously damaged.
System security may be threatened through two violations, and these are as follows:
1. Threat
A program that has the potential to harm the system seriously.
2. Attack
A breach of security that allows unauthorized access to a resource.
There are two types of security breaches that can harm the system: malicious and accidental.
Malicious threats are a type of destructive computer code or web script that is designed to
cause system vulnerabilities that lead to back doors and security breaches. On the other
hand, Accidental Threats are comparatively easier to protect against.
Security may be compromised through the breaches. Some of the breaches are as follows:
1. Breach of integrity
This violation has unauthorized data modification.
2. Theft of service
It involves the unauthorized use of resources.
3. Breach of confidentiality
It involves the unauthorized reading of data.
4. Breach of availability
It involves the unauthorized destruction of data.
5. Denial of service
It includes preventing legitimate use of the system. Some attacks may be accidental.
The goal of Security System
There are several goals of system security. Some of them are as follows:
1. Integrity
Unauthorized users must not be allowed to access the system's objects, and users with
insufficient rights should not modify the system's critical files and resources.
2. Secrecy
The system's objects must only be available to a small number of authorized users. The
system files should not be accessible to everyone.
3. Availability
All system resources must be accessible to all authorized users, i.e., no single user/process
should be able to consume all system resources. If such a situation arises, service denial may
occur. In this case, malware may restrict system resources and preventing legitimate
processes from accessing them.