Lecture 002

Vehicle Dynamics and Control
Lecture Note #2
2nd week
Seongjin Yim
acebtif@seoultech.ac.kr
02-970-9011
www.sclab.kr
Contents
1. Wheel Dynamics
2. Tire Models
3. Cornering Behavior
4. Vehicle Models
5. Vehicle Simulation
2
Preliminary
 Vehicle coordinate system
SAE Standard Coordinate System Another Coordinate System
3
1. Wheel Dynamics
2. Tire Models
4. Vehicle Models
4
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Coordinate
z Self-Aligning Torque(Mz)
 Camber Angle
Rolling Resistance
Moment(My)
Longitudinal Force y
(Fx)
Lateral Force Slip Angle

 Direction of
(Fy)
Wheel Travel
Normal Force Overturning x
(Fz) Moment(M ) Direction of
x
Wheel Heading
5
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Deformation
 Longitudinal Tire Force  x   Lateral Tire Force  y 
Ftxi    Ftyi   
 Ftzi   Ftzi 
Ftxi Ftyi
x y
Ftzi Ftzi
Longitudinally tire deformation Laterally tire deformation
REF: Reza N. Jazar, “Vehicle Dynamics: Theory and Application”, pp.101~105, Springer, 2008
6
Wheel Dynamics
 Longitudinal Tire Deformation
 Longitudinal Tire Force
 x 
Ftxi    Vti ri  i
 Ftzi 
 Longitudinally Tire Deformation

x  ri  i  Vti
x  ri  i  Vti Contact Patch
Difference of tangential speed
REF: Rajesh Rajamani, “ Vehicle Dynamics and Control”, pp391 ~ 394, Springer, 2006
7
Wheel Dynamics
 Lateral Tire Deformation
 Shear Stress Distribution
Bottom view of a laterally deflected and turning tire

 Lateral Tire Force and Self Aligning Moment
x y
 Lateral Tire Force
Tra f
vel
eel n o
Wh ectio
Ftyi    y dA
Dir
Ftxi
 Self Aligning Moment
ax
y M tzi
Ftyi M tzi  Ftyi  ax
Pneumatic Trail
8
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Longitudinal force : Fx
 Lateral force : Fy
9
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Parameters for tire forces Fx , Fy , M z  f ( ,  ,  , Fz )
Vertical Tire Force Friction Circle
Fz  kt   tire deflection    Fz   Fx2  Fy2

2
Fz Fz
Fx Fx
  : slip ratio
Fy
  : slip angle
 Fz and  determine the limit of Fx and Fy.
10
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Tire-road friction coefficients : 
Fy
5000
4500
  0.9 Dry asphalt
4000
Cf ,Cr
3500
3000
  0.6 Wet asphalt
2500
2000   0.35 Packed snow
1500
1000
  0.2 Ice
500
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Fx , Fy , M z  f ( ,  ,  , Fz )  Although Fz is large, the tire force becomes
small if the tire-road friction coefficient  is
  Fz 
2
 Fx2  Fy2 small.
11
Wheel Dynamics
 Rotational Dynamics of a Wheel
Rolling resistance
Driving(Traction) torque Braking torque
Tbr
Ts
R
I wheel    Ts  R  Fx  Tbr
Fx1,2
 Tire slip ratio The ratio between tangential velocities of tire
and road at contact point
R   i  Vi
i   Acceleration(-)
R  i
Vi  R   i
i   Deceleration(+)
Vi
 Slip ratio  determines the longitudinal force Fx.
 The longitudinal force Fx depends on the slip ratio .
12
Wheel Dynamics
 Longitudinal Tire Force
Fx
15~20%
13
Wheel Dynamics
 Slip Angle
 Slip angle : 
 vy 
 f  tan  
1
: angle between vx and V
 vx 
 f   f  f
 Angle between the direction of wheel travel(f) and

the steering(f)
 The direction of wheel travel V is calculated from the

longitudinal velocity vx and lateral velocity vy.
 The slip angle of rear wheel for front-wheel drive
vehicle is f
 Slip angle  determines the lateral force Fy.

 The lateral force Fy depends on the slip angle .
14
Wheel Dynamics
 Slip Angle
 Calculation of the slip angle at each wheel
lf  lf 
x  
tf
f y  1
Fx1 Fx2 f tf 1
2 tr 
  2
 
Fy1 1 lr  lr 
vx Fy2 lf tr 
V 2
x
vy m, Iz
y
Fx3 Fx4 lr
Fy3
 Fy4
tr 
15
Wheel Dynamics
 Slip Angle
vx vy
 vy 
 f  tan  
1
 vx 
 f   f  f 16
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Relationship between the slip angle() and the lateral force(Fy)
The lateral force Fy becomes saturated over the slip angle of 8 deg.
4000
 = 1 .0
3000
Lateral Force (N)
 = 0 .7
Fy 2000
 = 0 .4
1000
Cornering Stiffness
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
S lip A n g le ( d e g .)

17
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Measurement of Wheel Speed
18
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Measurement of Wheel Speed
R   i  Vi
i 
R  i
Vi  R   i
i 
Vi
19
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Relationship between the slip ratio() and the longitudinal force(Fx)
The longitudinal force Fx has its maximum at the slip ratio between 0.1 and 0.2.
 =0 deg.
4000  =2 deg.
Fx  =5 deg.
 =10 deg.
3000
Fy drastically decreases
Fx, Fy (N)
2000 as  increases.
Fy
1000
0
0 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0
S lip R a tio
 20
Wheel Dynamics
 Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS)
 Maximize the longitudinal tire force by regulating the slip ratio with brake
Equation of Motion of a Wheel Wheel Speed Sensor
21
Wheel Dynamics
 ABS Operation Mechanism
Hold Apply
Release 22
Wheel Dynamics
 ABS Hardware
23
Wheel Dynamics
 ABS Hardware
TC
NC
NO
24
Wheel Dynamics
 Fake ???
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3wFkn0hluh4 25
Wheel Dynamics
 Typical Response of ABS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iz9_4qiSXkw 26
Wheel Dynamics
 Due to ABS or Good Tire ???
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q285dYl2mZI 27
Wheel Dynamics
 Traction Control System (TCS)
 Maximize the longitudinal tire force by regulating the slip ratio with
engine and brake
Equation of Motion of a Wheel Split- Condition
Braking torque by ABS

Traction torque by Engine
Hill start support
Without TCS With TCS
28
Wheel Dynamics
 Self-Aligning Moment
The angle between the vertical line and center of the king pin or steering axle,
when viewed from the front of the wheel is known as steering axle inclination or
king pin inclination (0-5 degrees for trucks and 10-15 degrees on passenger cars)
Caster: The angle between the vertical line and kingpin center line in the plane of
the wheel (when viewed from the side) is called caster angle.
29
Wheel Dynamics
 Self-Aligning Moment
Caster trail Pneumatic trail

Mechanical trail
30
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Self-Aligning Moment
Slip Angle versus Self Aligning Moment Curve
If the lateral tire force Fy is saturated,

then the pneumatic trail becomes zero.
31
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Self-Aligning Moment
Pacejka, H. B., 2006. Tire and Vehicle Dynamics. Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc, 400 Commonwealth Dr.
Warrendale, PA 150960001.
32
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Carpet Plot (Simple Lookup Table from Experimental Data)
  Fz 
2
 Fx2  Fy2
Fz
Fz Fx

Fy
Fz
Fx
Fy
33
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Carpet Plot (Simple Lookup Table from Experimental Data)
34
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Relationship between / angle and Fx/Fy.
Fx
 =0 deg.
4000
 =2 deg.
Fx  =5 deg.
 =10 deg.
3000
Fx, Fy (N)
2000
Fy
Fy
1000
0
0 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0
S lip R a tio
Fz
Fx
Fy
Fz
Fx
35
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Linear Tire Model
The lateral tire force is assumed to be linear
under the slip angle of 8.
Fy
5000
  0.9
4500
Fyf  C f  f 4000 Cf ,Cr
3500
  0.6
Fyr  Cr r
3000
2500
2000   0.35
1500
  0.2
1000
Cornering stiffness 500
00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Fy
36
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Cornering mechanism
Fy Steering (f)
 difference between the directions of wheel travel and
tire = slip angle()
 lateral force Fy
Mz  yaw moment (Mz) generation
 cornering
Fyf  C f  f
Fyr  Cr r
Fy
37
Wheel Dynamics
 Tire Forces
 Summary
Fx , Fy , M z  f ( ,  ,  , Fz )
 z
2
 F  F 2
 F 2

 =0 deg.
x y 4000
 =2 deg.
Fx  =5 deg.
 =10 deg.
3000
As the slip angle  increases

Fx, Fy (N)
2000
Fy
1000
0
0 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .0
S lip R a tio

38
1. Wheel Dynamics
2. Tire Models
4. Vehicle Models
39
Tire Models
 Types of Tire Models
 Objective to build tire model
Fx , Fy , M z  f ( ,  ,  , Fz )
Curve fitting with 4 parameters obtained from experimental data
Fx Fy

  Fz 40
Tire Models
 Measurement of Tire Forces
 measurement devices for tire forces
 6-axis force sensor (very expensive)
41
Tire Models
42
Tire Models
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96ME_I5s-gQ 43
Tire Models
 Tire Model Building
Experiment Carpet Plot Tire Model
Mathematical Model
for Analysis and
Simulation
????
Curve Fitting
No Physical Meaning
44
Tire Models
 Tire Model #1 : Dugoff model
Ci  S
 
Fz 1   rV x 2  tan 2  1   
Fx  f S  2 C i2 2  C2 tan 2 
1 
C tan
Fy   f S 
1  S 2  S  if S  1
f S   
 1 if S  1
 Ci : Longitudinal Cornering Stiffness

 C : Lateral Cornering Stiffness
 r : road adhesion reduction factor
 Limitation at low speed


 Fz 1   rVx  2  tan 2   1     
  0,   0 S
2 Ci2  2  C2 tan 2 
45
Tire Models
 Tire Model #2 : Magic Formula by Pacejka
Traction without Cornering Cornering without Braking
 1
Fxo  D x sin C x tan ( B x   x )  
Fyo  D y sin C y tan 1 ( B y   y ) 
where, where,
Ey
E  y  (1  E y )  tan 1 ( B y   )
 x  (1  E x )   x tan 1 ( B x   ) By
Bx
2
D x  a 1 Fz  a 2 Fz D y  a 1 Fz 2  a 2 Fz
C x  1.65 C y  130
.
Bx 
a 3 Fz 2  a 4 Fz 
By  

 a 3 sin a 4 tan 1 ( a 5 Fz )  
C x  D x  e a 5Fz  Cy Dy 
 
E x  a 6 Fz 2  a 7 Fz  a 8
E y  a 6 Fz 2  a 7 Fz  a 8
 D : peak value
 C : shape factor
 B : stiffness factor
 E : curvature factor
46
Tire Models
Self-Aligning Moment

M z  D z sin C z tan 1 ( B z   z )  

D : peak value
C : shape factor
with  B : stiffness factor
 E : curvature factor
Ez
 z  (1  E z )  tan 1 ( B z   )
Bz
D z  a 1 Fz 2  a 2 Fz
C z  2.40
a 3 Fz 2  a 4 Fz
Bz 
C z  D z  e a 5 Fz
E z  a 6 Fz 2  a 7 Fz  a 8
47
Tire Models
Effect of B (stiffness factor) Effect of C (shape factor)
1 1
C = 1.5
0.8 0.8
0.6 B = 10 0.6 C = 2.5
0.4 B = 1.0 0.4

C = 0.5
0.2 0.2
B = 0.1
0 0
Y
Y
-0.2 -0.2 C = 3.5
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
-0.8 -0.8
-1 -1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
X X
48
Tire Models
Effect of D (size factor) Effect of E (curvature factor)
2 2
E = -1.5
1.5 1.5
D = 2.0
E = 1.0
1 1
0.5 D = 1.0 0.5
D = 0.5
0 0
Y
z
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
E = 5.0
-1.5 -1.5
-2 -2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
X X
49
Tire Models
 Combined condition of cornering and acceleration (traction)
 Slip quantity
 tan 
  x2   y2 x  , y 
1  1 
 Tire forces
x y
Fx  Fxo Fy  Fyo
 
 Limitation at low speed
x y
  0,   0 Fx  Fxo   Fy  Fyo  
 
50
Tire Models
Dr. Antoine Schmeitz, MF-Tyre/MF-Swift, TNO, 2013

51
Tire Models
 Tire Model #3 : STI Tire Model
 Longitudinal and lateral slip ratio are treated as state variable!!!!
 Composite slip  ap : Contact path length

 Ks,Kc : Longit./Lateral stiffness
 px,py : peak longit./lateral coef.
 k, : Longit./Lateral slip
 Force saturation function
52
Tire Models
 Tire Model #4 : UA Tire Model
 UA Tire Model in ADAMS
 Tire tread is a beam resting an elastic foundation.
 Parabolic distribution of pressure
 Tangential force at contact point = sum of forces of static and sliding regions
z z
y
x
Brush tire model
53
Tire Models
 Tire Model #5 : TMeasy Model
TMeasy was developed in 1994 by Georg Rill. It is a semi-physical tyre model
used in low-frequency applications for vehicle-dynamics and handling analyses. It
predicts with reasonable accuracy the steady-state characteristics of the forces
and the self-aligning torque between the tyre and the road.
The longitudinal and lateral contact forces are defined by several physical
parameters that take into account the influence of decreasing tyre load [16]. The
self-aligning torque is described by the multiplication of the pneumatic trail and
the lateral force.
Longitudinal slip
Slip angle
Camber angle
Vertical force
As Hirschberg, Rill and Weinfurter mention in [16], TMeasy has been used within
the simulation system SIMPACK for several years, and it has been integrated into
the simulation system veDyna. In addition, it has been implemented successfully
in the MBS system of Adams.
TMeasy is characterized by a compromise between model complexity and
efficiency in computation time, user-friendliness, and precision in representation
[24].
54
Tire Models
 Slip
55
Tire Models
 Fx
 Fy
56
Tire Models
TMeasy approximation of steady-state tyre characteristics with the four

intervals indicated [16]
[16] Hirschberg, W., Rill, G. and Weinfurter, H., (2010), “Tyre Model TMesay”, in: CCG Seminar TV 2.08, Tyre Models
in Vehicle Dynamics: Theory and Application, 20-21 April 2010, Vienna.
57
Tire Models
58
Tire Models
It is essential that this function has a solution for every slip; hence it must be a
C1 class. This means that the function is continuous and that its derivative exists
and is also continuous. These kinds of functions are also called continuously
differentiable.
Consequently, to ensure that the function is C1, and in addition to find the
function unknowns, continuity must first be imposed using the following
equations:
The derivative function’s continuity must then be determined using the

subsequent equations:
59
Tire Models
As a consequence, the final matrix to be solved in order to find the six unknowns
is:
The function unknowns can easily be found by resolving the following equations
using Matlab.
60
Tire Models
 Accurate Tire Models for Realistic Simulation
 Classification of Tire Modes
 Tire Models for Handing and Maneuvering Analysis

 Lateral Force and Self-Aligning Moment
 Longitudinal Forces
 Dugoff Model
 Magic Formula Model
 STI Tire Model
 UA Tire Model
 Tire Models for Ride Comfort Analysis

 Vertical Vibration
 MF/Swift Tire Model

 F-Tire Model
 CD Tire Model
61
Tire Models
 MF/Swift Tire Models
 MF-swift tire model is extended from MF tire one.
 Assume that the tire belt has rigid body motion.  It makes vibration analysis possible.
 Effective frequency of rigid body: 60Hz for lateral motion, 100Hz for longitudinal
motion.
Koo, B. K., Rho, G. H., Kwon, S. J., and Lee, B. H., 2007, "Semi-empirical Tire Modeling for the Study of Dynamic
Characteristics", Autumn Conference Proceedings of the Korean Society of Automotive Engineers, Vol.2, pp.1132- 62
1137.
Tire Models
 MF/Swift Tire Models
Dr. Antoine Schmeitz, MF-Tyre/MF-Swift, TNO, 2013

63
Tire Models
 Lateral Tire Force Model Fy
5000
  0.9
4500
4000 Cf ,Cr
3500
  0.6
3000
2500
2000   0.35
1500
  0.2
1000
500
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sigmoid function
64
Tire Models
 Lateral Tire Force Model
 Pacejka Model

Fy  D y sin C y tan 1 ( B y   )   D : peak value
where,  C : shape factor
 B : stiffness factor
D y  a1Fz 2  a2 Fz  E : curvature factor
C y  a6
By 

a3 sin a4 tan 1 (a5 Fz ) 
C y  Dy
By=(0.185+(5200-Fz)/40000);
Cy=1.26-(Fz-5200)/32750;
Dy=-0.00003*Fz*Fz+1.0296*Fz-22.73;
Ey=-1.6;
phi_y=(1-Ey)*alpha+Ey/By*atan(By*alpha) ;
Fy=Dy*sin(Cy*atan(By*phi_y));
65
Tire Models
 Exponential Model
 K
 f 
 sgn    K=8 (front)
Fy   Fz  1  e 
 f
 K=20 (rear)
 
66
Tire Models
 Hyperbolic Tangent Model Sigmoid function
1 
Fy  tanh  QC f  f  where Q   =0.64
Q 2  Fz
Fy  a tanh  b f 
67
Tire Models
 Saturation Model
68
Tire Models
 Brush Model
Uniform distribution
Parabolic distribution
69
Tire Models
 Brush Model
Cf
y 
3 Fz   1 2
 Fy  3 Fz  1    3   if  f   sl
    
 sl  tan 1  1   F   F sgn  
 y   y z f otherwise
   y tan  f
70
Tire Models
5000
4000
Saturation
3000
Pacejka
2000 tanh
Brush
1000 CarSim
Fy
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Alpha
71
Tire Models
 Lateral Tire Force Model : Linear Model
Slip angle ()
5000
  0.9
4500
4000
 vy 
3500
  0.6  f  tan  
1
3000
 vx 
2500
2000   0.35
1500
1000
  0.2
500
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
 vy 
 f   f   f   f  tan  
1
This mode is valid only if the slip angle is  vx 

less than 10, where the lateral force
becomes saturated.  1  y
v  
Fy  C f  f  C f  f  tan  
  vx  
72
1. Wheel Dynamics
2. Tire Models
4. Vehicle Models
73
Cornering Behavior
 Cornering Analysis
 Low-Speed Cornering
 Slip angle = 0  Steering System Design
 High-Speed Cornering
 Slip angle and corresponding Fy are generated.

 Stability (Understeer/Oversteer)
 Tire Cornering Properties
 Suspension Properties
Ackermann Angle
74
Cornering Behavior
 Low-Speed Cornering
 Ackermann Angle = L/R
75
Cornering Behavior
 High-Speed Cornering
76
Cornering Behavior
 High-Speed Cornering
 Steering Angle from Geometric Relationship
Steering angle to follow a given path:
77
Cornering Behavior
 Turning Equation
(Fy = centrifugal force)
78
Cornering Behavior
 Turning Equation
 Under-Steer Gradient
 Measure for steady-state handling
 It depends on weight distribution(Wfs,Wrs) and cornering stiffness(Cf,Cr).
L  W fs Wrs  V 2 L
  57.3      57.3  Ka y
R  C f C r  Rg R
Under-Steer Over-Steer
 W fs Wrs 
K   
C f
  f C r  f
 Positive : Under-Steer K  0,  f   r Fyf

vx lf
V
 0 : Neural Steer K  0,  f   r vy
 Negative : Over-Steer K  0,  f   r x
m, Iz
y lr
Fyr
79
Cornering Behavior
 Under-Steer Gradient
Neutral steer Under-steer Over-steer
K  0,  f   r K  0,  f   r
K  0,  f   r
80
Cornering Behavior
 Constant Radius Under-Steer Test (Under-Steer Measurement)
81
Cornering Behavior
 Characteristic Speed
 Velocity to perform a desired cornering = 2xAckermann Angle
 Determine the characteristics of under-steer vehicles
 Critical Speed
 Speed at where over-steer vehicles become unstable
 Speed when steering angle becomes 0 in steady-state circular cornering
Stability Limit of
Over-Steer Vehicles
82
Cornering Behavior
 Steady-State Response under steering input
 Yaw Rate Gain
V
 Yaw Velocity = rate of rotation in heading angle = 57.3 deg/ s
R
 Lateral Acceleration Gain
 Curvature Response
83
Cornering Behavior
 Constant Radius Test
L ay L V2 
  K  K K
R g R Rg   ay / g 
 Constant Speed Test
gL  a  ay  gL
 2 y  K  2 K
V  g

 g   ay / g  V
gL
V 2
critical 
K
84
Cornering Behavior
 Electronic Stability Control (ESC)
85
1. Wheel Dynamics
2. Tire Models
4. Vehicle Models
86
Vehicle Models
 Longitudinal Dynamics
 Free Body Diagram of 1-DOF model for Vehicle Body
Fa
M rf
M va
M rr Ts
Tbf
Ftrf
 Tbr
Mvg Ftrr
This is a particle model, not rigid body : F  ma

87
Vehicle Models
 Vehicle Body where,
dv Mv : vehicle mass
Mv  Ftrf  Ftrr  FL
dt Ftrf , Ftrr : tractive forces of front/rear wheels
 Driving Load Fa : aerodynamic force
FL  Fa  M v g sin  g : gravitational constant

J wf , J wr : moment of inertia of front/rear wheel
 Rear wheel (driving)
Ts : driving shaft torque
d r
J wr  Ts  rr Ftrr  M rr Tbr r f , rr : radius of front/rear wheel
dt
 Front wheel (driven) M rf , M rr : rolling resistance of front/rear wheel
d f Tbf , Tbr : brake torque of front/rear wheel

J wf   rf Ftrf  M rf Tbf
dt
88
Vehicle Models
 Aerodynamic Force (Drag Force)
1
Fa     Cd  AF  (vx  vwind ) 2
2
where,
 : the mass density of air
Cd : the aero dynamic drag coefficient
AF : the front area of the vehicle, which is the projected area of the vehicle
in the direction of travel
vx : the longitudinal vehicle velocity
vwind : the wind velocity, positive for a head wind and negative for a tail wind
Example for 800~2000 kg vehicle, AF  1.6  0.00056  (m  765)

Wong, 2001 in Rajamani, page.97~99
89
Vehicle Models
 Driving Cycle
Braunschweig Cycle FTP75
New European Driving Cycle (NEDC)
90
Vehicle Models
 Side-Slip Angle
 vy  vy
  tan  1

 vx  vx
 The large side-slip angle means that a vehicle

slides out, because the lateral velocity vy is large.
 Generally, the side-slip angle of 4 is quite large.
 The criterion of vehicle stability is the side-slip
angle of 3.
 The side-slip angle is over 3, then a drive feels
vx nervous.
 
a y   v y   vx   vx    
vy Yaw rate
91
Vehicle Models
 3-D Planar Model 1
tf
 Calculation of the slip angle at each wheel 2
lf  lf 
x  
tf
f y  1
Fx1 Fx2 f tf 1
2 tr 
  2
 
Fy1 1 lr  lr 
vx Fy2 lf tr 
V 2
x
vy m, Iz
 vx  0.5t f     vy  l f  
2 2
y V1 
Fx3 Fx4 lr
v  0.5t f     v y  l f  
2 2
V2  x
Fy3
 Fy4
 vx  0.5tr     v y  lr  
2 2
tr V3 

 vx  0.5tr     v y  lr  
2 2
V4 
92
Vehicle Models
 3-D Planar Model
 vy  l f  
v  0.5t f     v y  l f   1  tan 
2 2 1
V1  x  v  0.5t  
 x f 
v  0.5t f     v y  l f  
2 2
V2  x  vy  l f  
 2  tan 1
 vx  0.5t f  
 vx  0.5tr     v y  lr   
2 2
V3 
1 
v y  lr  
V4   vx  0.5tr    v y  lr 
2 2
 3  tan  
v
 x  0.5 t 
r 
1 
v y  lr  
 4  tan  
 vx  0.5tr  
93
Vehicle Models
i  i  i front wheel
 i rear wheel
 vy  l f  
1  tan  1

 v  0.5t 
 x f 
1  1  1
 vy  l f  
 2  tan 1
2   2  2
 v  0.5t  
 x f  3  3
1 
v y  lr   4  4
 3  tan  
v
 x  0.5 t 
r 
1 
v y  lr  
 4  tan  
v
 x  0.5 t 
r 
94
Vehicle Models
 Model to describe the x, y, and yaw motions of a vehicle
tf
f
Fx1 Fx2 f
Fy1 lf
V vx Fy2
x
vy m, Iz
y
Fx3 Fx4 lr
Fy4
x-direction force : Fx  Fx cos  f  Fy sin  f
i
Fy3 
tr
 y-direction force : Fyi  Fx sin  f  Fy cos  f
1   2   f ,  3   4  0 i  1, 2,3, 4 95
Vehicle Models
 x–direction force : Fx1  Fx2  Fx3  Fx4
F x1 cos  f  Fy1 sin  f    Fx 2 cos  f  Fy 2 sin  f   Fx 3  Fx 4
 y–direction force : Fy1  Fy2  Fy3  Fy4
F x1 sin  f  Fy1 cos  f    Fx 2 sin  f  Fy 2 cos  f   Fy 3  Fy 4
Equations of motion on x- and y-direction
mvx  Fx1  Fx2  Fx3  Fx4  m v y

mv y  Fy1  Fy2  Fy3  Fy4  m vx
96
Vehicle Models
tf tr 4
 (+) direction yaw moment: Fx2  Fx  l f Fy1  l f Fy2
2 2
t f 1 tr 3
 () direction yaw moment: Fx  Fx  lr Fy3  lr Fy4
2 2
tf tr 4 t t 
 Equation of motion I z  Fx2  Fx  l f Fy1  l f Fy2   f Fx1  r Fx3  lr Fy3  lr Fy4 
on yaw-direction: 2 2 2 2 97
Vehicle Models
tf mvx  Fxr  Fxf cos   Fyf sin   m v y

f
Fx1 Fx2 f
mv y  Fyr  Fxf sin   Fyf cos   m vx
  I z  l f Fxf sin   l f Fyf cos   lr Fyr
Fy1 lf tf tr
x
V vx Fy2   Fx 2  Fx1  cos    Fx 4  Fx3 
2 2
vy m, Iz
y Fxf  Fx1  Fx 2 , Fxr  Fx 3  Fx 4
Fx3 Fx4 lr
Fyf  Fy1  Fy 2 , Fyr  Fy 3  Fy 4
Fy4
Fy3
tr vy  l f 
  f  
Fyf  C f  f vx
Assuming the linear lateral tire forces Fyr  Cr r v y  lr 
r 
vx 98
Vehicle Models
mvx  Fxr  Fxf cos   Fyf sin   m v y

mv y  Fyr  Fxf sin   Fyf cos   m vx
tf tr
I z  l f  Fxf sin   Fyf cos    lr Fyr   Fx 2  Fx1  cos    Fx 4  Fx3 
2 2
Fyf sin  1
vx  
m
  vy 
m
 Fxr  Fxf cos  
F F cos  Fxf sin 

v y  yr  yf   vx 
m m m
l f Fyf cos  lr Fyr l f Fxf sin  t f tr
      x 2 x1 
F  F cos    Fx 4  Fx3 
Iz Iz Iz 2I z 2I z
99
Vehicle Models
T  Fyf sin  
x  vx vy     vy  
 m 
 Fyr Fyf cos 
T
uc   Fxfl Fxfr Fxrl Fxrr  
f0  x       vx 
m m 
x  f 0  x   g0  x, uc   l f Fyf cos  lr Fyr 
 
 Iz I z 
 1 
  Fx1  Fx 2  cos   Fx 3  Fx 4  
 m 
 sin  
g0  x     x1 x 2 
F  F 
 m 
lf tf tr 
I  Fx1  Fx2  sin    Fx2  Fx1    Fx4  F 
x3 
 z 2 I z 2 I z 
100
Vehicle Models
 2-D Bicycle Model
 Model to describe y and yaw motions of a vehicle assuming that vx is
constant
 [1] Lateral Velocity (vy) model

a y   v y   vx   vx    
 ma y  m  v y   vx   Fyf  Fyr

 I z   l f Fyf  lr Fyr  M B
 Fyf  C f  f vy  l f  v y  lr 
 f f  , r  
 Fyr  Cr r vx vx
Fyf  Fyr Cf  vy  l f 
 C r  v y  lr  
v y    vx v y   f       vx
m m  vx  m  vx 
l f Fyf  lr Fyr  M B l fC f  v y  l f   l r C r  v y  lr   M B
  
  f    
Iz Iz  vx  Iz  vx  I z
101
Vehicle Models
constant
 [1] Lateral Velocity (vy) model
Fyf  Fyr Cf  vy  l f 
 C r  v y  lr  
v y    vx v y  
 f       vx
m m  vx
 m  vx 
l f Fyf  lr Fyr  M B l C  v l   l C  v l   M
    f f   f  y f   r r   y r   B
T
x  v y   , u  M B
Ex = Ax  B1w  B 2u  x  E 1Ax  E 1B1w  E 1B 2u

 l f C f  lr Cr 
 C f  2Cr  mvx 
m 0 
E , A
vx  , B   C f  , B  0
  l C  1 
l 2f C f  lr2Cr 
1 2
 0 Iz   f f   
  l f C f  lr C r  
 vx 
102
Vehicle Models
constant
 [2] Side-slip angle() model

a y   v y   vx   vx    
 
 ma y  mvx   r  Fyf  Fyr

 I z   l f Fyf  lr Fyr  M B
 vy  l f  lf
 Fyf  C f  f  f   f  f   
 vx vx
 
 Fyr  Cr r    v y  lr      lr 
 r vx vx
Fyf  Fyr Cf  lf  C r  lr 

    
 f           
mvx mvx  vx  mvx  vx 
l f Fyf  lr Fyr  M B l fC f  lf  l rC r  lr  M B
  
  f            
103
Vehicle Models
constant
 [2] Side-slip angle() model
Fyf  Fyr  C f C r   l f C f l r C r  Cf

           2
 1  r  f
 mvx   mv  mv
mvx x x
l f Fyf  lr Fyr  M B  l f C f l r C r   l 2f C f lr2C r  l fC f MB

r           
   Iz  I z vx I
f
Iz
Iz   z
x     , u  MB
T
Ex = Ax  B1w  B 2u  x  E 1Ax  E1B1w  E 1B 2u

 l f C f  l r C r 
 C f  Cr  mvx 
 mv
E x
0
, A
vx  , B   C f  , B  0 
  l C  1 
l 2f C f  lr2Cr 
1 2
 0 Iz   f f   
 l f C f  l r C r  
 vx 
104
Vehicle Models
constant
 Reference Yaw Rate
2  C f  Cr   l f  lr   vx
d   f
2  C f  Cr   l f  lr   m  v   lr  Cr  l f  C f 
2 2
x
 Reference Side-slip Angle
2  C f  Cr   l f  lr   lr  C f  l f  m  vx2
d   f
2  C f  Cr   l f  lr   m  v   lr  Cr  l f  C f 
2 2
x
Reference yaw rate and reference side-slip angle are the function of the
steering angle f and the longitudinal velocity vx.
105
Vehicle Models
 Cornering characteristics of a vehicle
Real  <Reference 
(Front-Wheel Drive)
Real  =Reference 
(Neutral steer)
Real  >Reference 
(Rear-Wheel Drive)
106
Vehicle Models
 Cornering characteristics of a vehicle in terms of the lateral tire forces
Neutral steer Over-steer Under-steer
107
Vehicle Models
 Upper Bound on Reference Yaw Rate and Side-slip Angle
ay  v y  vx   ay   g
v y  vx  tan 
vx   g
ay  vx    tan   vx    0.85 
1  tan 2  vx
Large effect!!! 15% to ay

Small effect!!!  0
10 deg at =0.9
  tan 1
 0.02   g  4 deg at =0.35
108
Vehicle Models
 Suspension Model
Active Suspension Active Anti-Roll Bar
Linear type
Rotary type
 BMW : hydraulic device

 Active Body Control by Benz CL-class
 Toyota : electric motor
109
Vehicle Models
 State-Space Model Building from Dynamic Equation
 Simultaneous First-Order Equation
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
F
F  ma  x t 
F  m   x t  

m
 Define a new variable : “state”
Displacement : x1  t   x  t  x 1  t   x2  t   by definition
Velocity : x2  t   x  t  x 2  t   F  from E.O.M

m
A single ODE  Two 1st-order ODEs
= State-Space Equation
 x1  t   0 1  0 F
x  x    x  
 2  
x t 0 0 1  m
110
Vehicle Models
 State-Space Model Building from Dynamic Equation
 Simultaneous First-Order Equation
c k
x t   
 x  t   x  t 
m m
 by definition
 from E.O.M
 x1  t  
x t    
x
 2  t   0 1 
x  t    k c  x  t  x  t   Ax  t 
 x  0  
x0  t      m m
 
x  0   111
A
Vehicle Models
 Quarter Car Model
Suspension force :
Sprung mass
f   ks ( zs  zu )  bs ( zs  zu )  u
Spring force Damper force
Unsprung mass Active suspension force

(tire)
 ms 
zs  f  u

 mu 
zu   f  u
Road profile  ms 
zs   k s ( zs  zu )  bs ( zs  zu )  u

 mu 
zu  k s ( zs  zu )  bs ( zs  zu )  kt ( zr  zu )  u
112
Vehicle Models
Suspension force : f  k s  zs  zu   bs  zs  zu   u
ms 
zs  f  u

mu 
zu   f  u
ms 
z s  k s ( zs  zu )  bs ( zs  zu )  u

mu 
zu  k s ( zs  zu )  bs ( zs  zu )  kt ( zr  zu )  u
Vector-Matrix Form
 ms 0    zs    k s ks   zs   bs bs   zs   1  0

0    u    zr
 mu   
zu   ks ks  kt   zu   bs bs   zu   1  kt 
Ms Ks Bs U L
z 
p s
 zu    K s p  B s p  Uu  Lzr
Mp 113
Vehicle Models
  K s p  B s p  Uu  Lzr
Mp
  M 1K s p  M 1B s p  M 1Uu  M 1Lzr
p
 Definition of state vector
 zs 
 
p   x1   zu  p   x 
x    x      1 
p   x 2   zs     x 2 
p
 
 zu 
x 1  x 2
x 2  M 1K s p  M 1B s p  M 1Uu  M 1Lzr
 M 1K s x1  M 1B s x 2  M 1Uu  M 1Lzr
Vector-Matrix Form
 x 1   022 I 22   x1   021   021 

 x    M 1K 1      1  u   1  zr
M B s   x 2  M U 
 2  s M L 
A B2 B1 114
Vehicle Models
 x 1   022 I 22   x1   021   0 21 

 x   M 1K 1      1  Bu   1  zr
M B s   x 2  M U 
 2  s M L 
A B2 B1
uu
w  zr
x  Ax  B1w  B 2u
 0 0 1 0   0 
 0  0 
 0 0 1   0 
 0 
 
 ks b ks bs     1 
A    s  , B1   0  , B 2   m 
 ms ms ms ms   
k  s 
 k bs  k s  kt  bs   t   1 
 s     mu   
 mu mu mu mu   mu 115
Vehicle Models
 Half Car Model : Pitch model
 f1   ks1  z s1  zu1   bs1  zs1  zu1   u1

Suspension force : 
 f 2  k s 2  zs 2  zu 2   bs 2  zs 2  zu 2   u2
Sprung Mass Unsprung Mass
 ms zc  f1  f 2 zu1   f1  kt1  zu1  zr1 

m1
 
  l f  l f 
zu 2   f 2  kt 2  zu 2  zr 2 
 I y f 1 r 2 m2  116
Vehicle Models
 zs 2
zs1 
 zs1  zc  l f sin   zs1  1 l f   zc 

  z   1 l    
 zs 2  zc  lr sin  sin     s2   r  
GT
 ms 0   zc   1 1   f1 
0  
 zc   zs1   zu1   zr1  
  
I y      l f lr   f 2 
p    , z s    , zu    , z r   
   zs 2   zu 2   zr 2  Ms G
 z s  GT p  f1 
  G  
M sp
 f2 
117
Vehicle Models
ms zc  f1  f 2  f1  k s1  zs1  zu1   bs1  zs1  zu1   u1
  
 I y  l f f1  lr f 2  f 2  k s 2  zs 2  zu 2   bs 2  zs 2  zu 2   u2
 ms 0   zc   1 1   f1   f1 
0     G  
M sp

  
I y      l f lr   f 2   f2 
 f1   k s1  zs1  zu1   bs1  zs1  zu1   u1 

 f    k z  z  b z  z  u 
 2   s2  s2 u2  s2  s2 u2  2 
  ks1 0   zs1  zu1   bs1 0   zs1  zu1  1 0   u1 
   z  z    0 b   z  z    0 1  u 
 0  k s2   s2 u2   s2   s2 u2    2
Ks Bs I2x2
 K s (z s  z u )  B s (z s  z u )  u
 f1 
  GK s (z s  z u )  GB s (z s  z u )  Gu
 M sp 
M sp  G  
 f2  118
Vehicle Models
zu1   f1  kt1  zu1  zr1 

 m1  f1 

zu 2   f 2  kt 2  zu 2  zr 2   f   K s (z s  z u )  B s ( z s  z u )  u
 m2   2
 m1 0   
zu 1   f1   kt1 0   zu 1  z r 1   f1 
0               K t (z u  z r )
 
m2   zu 2   f2   0 k t 2   zu 2  z r 2   f2 
Mu Kt
 M u 
z u  K s (z s  z u )  B s (z s  z u )  K t (z r  z u )  u
M s p

M u
z u  K s (z s  z u )  B s (z s  z u )  K t ( z r  z u )  u
119
Vehicle Models
M s  diag  ms , I y  , M u  diag  mu1 , mu 2 

K s  diag  ks1 , k s 2  , B s  diag  bs1 , bs 2  , K t  diag  kt1 , kt 2 
M s p

M u z u  K s (z s  z u )  B s ( z s  z u )  K t ( z r  z u )  u u 
u   1
z s  GT p u2 
  GK s (G T p  z u )  GB s (G T p  z u )  Gu
M s p

z u  K s (G T p  z u )  B s (G T p  z u )  K t (z r  z u )  u
M u 
 Ms 022   p   GK s G T GK s   p   GB s G T GB s   p   G   022 

0        u   K  zr
 22 M u  
z u   K s G T K s  K t   z u   B s G T  
B s   u   22 
z I  t
M eq K eq B eq U eq L eq
120
Vehicle Models
p  p  p 
   M 1
K eq    M 1
B
eq eq    M 1
U u  M 1
eq L eq w
w  zr
zu 
eq
z u  
zu 
eq eq
p
z   zc  zu 2 
T
zu1  
zu 
 1
z  M eq 1
K eq z  M eq B eq z  M eq
1 1
U eq u  M eq L eq w
z 
x     x  p z u p z u   x  Ax + B1w + B 2u
T
 z 
 044 I 44   042   042 

A   1 , B1   1  , B 2   1 
 M eq K eq
1
M eq B eq   M eq L eq  M eq U eq 
121
Vehicle Models
 Full Car Model
Suspension force : fi  k si  zsi  zui   bsi  zsi  zui   ui , i  1 4

Sprung Mass Unsprung Mass
ms  zc  f1  f 2  f 3  f 4 zu1   f1  kt1  zu1  zr1 

m1
 
  t f tf t t zu 2   f 2  kt 2  zu 2  zr 2 
m2 
  I x   f1   f 2  r  f3  r  f 4 
 2 2 2 2 zu 3   f 3  k t 3  z u 3  z r 3 
m3 
 I y  l f   f1  f 2   lr   f3  f 4  zu 4   f 4  kt 4  zu 4  zr 4 
m4 
122
Vehicle Models
 Full Car Model
 zs1  zc  0.5t f  sin   l f  sin 
 z  z  0.5t  sin   l  sin 
 s2 c f f

 zs 3  zc  0.5t f  sin   lr  sin 
 zs 4  zc  0.5t f  sin   lr  sin 
sin   
sin   
p   zc   T
  zs1  1 0.5t f l f 
 z s   z s1 z s 2 z s 3 z s 4 
T
 z  1 0.5t l   zc 
 z s  GT p  s2    f  
f

 z u   z u 1 z u 2 zu 3 z u 4  lr   
T
 zs 3  1 0.5tr
       
 r  r1 r 2 r4 
T
z  z z z r3 z  zs 4  1 0.5tr lr  p

 
T
u  u1 u 2 u3 u 4 zs GT
123
Vehicle Models
 Full Car Model
ms  zc  f1  f 2  f3  f 4

 tf tf t t fi   ksi  zsi  zui   bsi  zsi  zui   ui
  I x   f1   f 2  r  f 3  r  f 4
 2 2 2 2  i  1 4 
 I y  l f   f1  f 2   lr   f 3  f 4 
 f1   f1 
 ms 0 0    zc   1 1 1 1    f 
     f2 
0 Ix 0      0.5t f 0.5t f 0.5tr 0.5tr    G  2 
M sp
 f3   f3 
0
 0 I y      l f l f lr lr     
 f4   f4 
Ms G
124
Vehicle Models
 Full Car Model
fi   ksi  zsi  zui   bsi  zsi  zui   ui  i  1 4 
 f1   k s1  zs1  zu1   bs1  zs1  zu1   u1 
 f    k z  z  b z  z  u 
 2    s2  s2 u2  s2  s2 u2  2 
 f 3    ks 3  zs 3  zu 3   bs 3  zs 3  zu 3   u3 
   
f   k
 4   s4 s4 u4  z  z   bs4  z s4  
zu4   u 4

 k s1 0 0 0   z s1  zu1  bs1 0 0 0   zs1  zu1  1 0 0 0   u1 
0 k 0 0  z  z   0 b 0 0   zs 2  zu 2  0 1 0 0  u2 
  s 2   s2 u2    s2

0 0 k s 3 0   zs 3  zu 3   0 0 bs 3 0   zs 3  zu 3  0 0 1 0  u3 
        
0 0 0 k s 4   z s 4  zu 4   0 0 0 bs 4   zs 4  zu 4  0 0 0 1  u 4 
Ks Bs I4x4
 f1 
 K s (z s  z u )  B s (z s  z u )  u f 
  G  2 
M sp
 f3 
 
 M sp  f4 
125
Vehicle Models
 Full Car Model zu1   f1  kt1  zu1  zr1 
m1

zu 2   f 2  kt 2  zu 2  zr 2 
m2 

zu 3   f3  kt 3  zu 3  zr 3 
m3 
 zu 4   f 4  kt 4  zu 4  zr 4 
m4 
 m1 0 0 0   zu 1   f1   kt1 0 0 0   zu 1  z r 1   f1 
0 m2 0 0   
zu 2  f  0 kt 2 0 0  z  z  f 
   2   u 2 r 2     2   K (z  z )
0 0 m3 0   zu 3   f3   0 0 kt 3 0   zu 3  z r 3   f3  t u r
         
0 0 0 m4   
zu 4   f4   0 0 0 kt 4   zu 4  zr 4   f4 
Mu Kt
 M u
M s p

M u
126
Vehicle Models
 Full Car Model
M s  diag  ms , I x , I y  , M u  diag  mu1 , mu 2 , mu 3 , mu 4  u  u1 u2 u4 

T
u3
K s  diag  k s1 , ks 2 , k s 3 , k s 4  , B s  diag  bs1 , bs 2 , bs 3 , bs 4  , K t  diag  kt1 , kt 2 , kt 3 , kt 4 
M s p

z s  GT p M u 
z u  K s (z s  z u )  B s (z s  z u )  K t ( z r  z u )  u
w  zr
  GK s (G T p  z u )  GB s (G T p  z u )  Gu
M s p

z u  K s (G T p  z u )  B s (G T p  z u )  K t ( z r  z u )  u
M u 
 Ms 034   p   GK s G T GK s   p   GB s G T GB s   p   G  034 

0       u   K  zr
 43 M u  
z u   K s G T K s  K t   z u   B s G T B s   z u   I 44   t
M eq K eq B eq U eq L eq
z  p z u  M eq
z  K eq z  B eq z  U eq u  L eq w
T
127
Vehicle Models
 Full Car Model
M eq
z  K eq z  B eq z  U eq u  L eq w
 1
z  M eq 1
K eq z  M eq B eq z  M eq
1 1
U eq u  M eq L eq w
z   p z u    zc   zu 4 
T T
zu 1 zu 2 zu 3
 z   x1 
x        x  p z u p z u   x  Ax + B1w + B 2u
T
 z   x 2 
 077 I 77   074   074 

A   1 1  , B1   1  , B 2   1 
 M eq K eq M eq B eq  M eq Leq   M eq U eq 
128
Vehicle Models
 1-D Simple Roll Model
I x  ms hs a y  C  K  ms ghs  M 
x   x1 x2 
T

   
T
 x  Ax + B1w + B 2u
 0 1  0  0 
 x1    x 
 x     K  ms ghs B   1    1  M    ms hs  a y
 2    x2     
 Ix I x   I x   I x 
129
Vehicle Models
 Half Car Model : Roll Model
 Actuator : Active Suspension
Suspension force ms  zc  f1  f 2


f1   k1 ( zs1  zu1 )  b1 ( zs1  zu1 )  u1  I x   1 t f f1  1 t f f 2  ms hs a y
 2 2
f 2   k2 ( zs 2  zu 2 )  b2 ( zs 2  zu 2 )  u2 m1 zu1   f1  kt1  zu1  zr1 

m2 zu 2   f 2  kt 2  zu 2  zr 2 
130
Vehicle Models
 Actuator : Active Anti-Roll Bar (AARB)
Suspension force generated by an active anti-roll bar
2M  f1  k s1 ( zs1  zu1 )  bs1 ( zs1  zu1 )  f c

fc 
tf f 2  k s 2 ( z s 2  zu 2 )  bs 2 ( zs 2  zu 2 )  f c
131
Vehicle Models
 Actuator : Active Anti-Roll Bar (AARB)
0.5t f tf
 zc   sin 
2
tf zc
zc   sin 
2 0.5t f
 zs1  zc  0.5t f  sin   zc  0.5t f  


 zs 2  zc  0.5t f  sin   zc  0.5t f  
Suspension stroke
zs1  zu1  zs1  zu1  zc  0.5t f    zu1


zs 2  zu 2  zs 2  zu 2  zc  0.5t f    zu 2
132
Vehicle Models
 Combined Model with Yaw and Roll Model
 
mvx     ms hs  Fyf  Fyr
I z   l f Fyf  lr Fyr  M B
 
I x  ms hs vx     C  K  ms ghs  M 
vy  l f 
f  
Fyf  C f  f vx
Fyr  Cr r v y  lr 
r 
vx
133
Vehicle Models
 l    lr  
 
mvx     ms hs  Fyf  Fyr  C f   f    f
vx
  C r    
v

   x 
 C f l f  Cr lr 
mvx   ms hs    C f  Cr    
   mvx    C f  f
 vx 
l fC f  lf  l rC r  lr  M B
   f            
Iz  vx  Iz  vx  I z
 
I x  ms hs vx     C  K  ms ghs  M 
134
Vehicle Models
    , u   M B
T T
x    M   , w   f
Ex  Ax  B1w  B 2u
 C f  C r  mvx 0 0 
 mvx 0  ms h s 0  vx 
 0   
Iz 0 0 l 2f C f  lr2Cr
E , A   l f C f  lr Cr  0 0 
  ms h s vx 0 Ix 0  vx 
  
 0 0 0 1 0 ms hs vx C ms gh s  K 
 
 0 0 1 0 
 Cf  0 0
l C  1 0 
B1   f f  , B2  
 0  0 1
   
 0  0 0
135
Vehicle Models
 Reference Yaw Rate
2  C f  Cr   l f  lr  Vx
d   f
2  C f  Cr   l f  lr   m V   lr  Cr  l f  C f 
2 2
x
 1st order system representation for reference yaw rate
Transfer function form State-space equation form
K 1 K
d   f d    d   f
 s 1  
    d  , u   M B
T T
x    M   , w   f
136
Vehicle Models
 Reference Yaw Rate
x      
T
   d  , u   M B
T
M   , w   f
Ex  Ax  B1w  B 2u
 C f  C r  mvx 0 0 0 
 vx 
 mvx 0  ms h s 0 0
  l 2f C f  lr2Cr 
 0 Iz 0 0 0   l f C f  l r C r  0 0 0 
E    ms h s vx 0 Ix 0 0 , A   vx 
   0 ms hs vx C ms gh s  K 0 
 0 0 0 1 0  
 0 0 0 0 1   0 0 1 0 0 
 
 1
0 0 0 0 
  
 Cf 
l C  0 0
 f f 1 0 
 0   
B1    , B 2  0 1 
 0   
 0 0 
 K 
  0 0 
   137
1. Wheel Dynamics
2. Tire Models
4. Vehicle Models
138
Vehicle Simulation
 Steering input
 Open-Loop Steering
 The steering angle is completely determined over the simulation period(horizon).
Step Steering Fishhook Maneuver

T1
max
T2
 Used for rollover test
 max : 6.5(handwheel position at 0.3g)

 T1 : command dwell time of 250 ms
 T2 : 3 seconds phase
139
Vehicle Simulation
 Steering input
 Closed-Loop Steering Simulation
 For a given path, a driver should generate a steering to following the path.
 For this purpose, a driver model should be built.
 Preview distance L=20 m
PID Driver Model
140
Vehicle Simulation
 Steering input
 Typical path for closed-loop steering simulation
Slalom Double Lane Change (Moose Test Track)
141
Vehicle Simulation
 Steering input
 Slalom Test
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kBhiB_qH1KY
142
Vehicle Simulation
 Steering input
 Moose test track
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zaYFLb8WMGM
143
Vehicle Simulation
 Vehicle Simulation Procedure with 3DOF Model
 Procedure to perform simulation with 3-DOF vehicle model
 STEP 1. simulation condition setting : initial vx, tire-road friction coefficient ,

steering input (open-loop vs. closed-loop)
 STEP 2. integrate the equations of motion over simulation period

 f is given. (degrad, steering gear ratio=20:1)
 Find the rotational speed i of each wheel by integrating the equations of
motion of wheels.
 Calculate the velocity Vi of each wheel from f. Then, calculate the slip ratio i.
 Calculate the slip angle i of each wheel from f .
 Calculate the tire forces Fx and Fy of each wheel by using the slip ratio and the
slip angle.
 Integrate the equations of motion by using Runge-Kutta method or Adams-
Bathforth method with Fx, Fy, and f .Then, you can find vx, vy, and .
144
Vehicle Simulation
 Vehicle Simulation Packages
Multi-Body Dynamics Modeling Lumped Mass Modeling
145
Vehicle Simulation
 Vehicle Simulation Packages
 Multi-Body Dynamics Simulation Package
ADAMS Recurdyn
146
Vehicle Simulation
 Vehicle Simulation Package, CarSim
 Lumped-Mass Simulation Package
147
Vehicle Simulation
 Lumped-Mass Simulation Package
 Connection with MATLAB Simulink

 Control input is computed in Simulink, and then delivered into CarSim. CarSim
generates outputs to Simulink.
 Suspension, steering, brake, and engine block can be replaced with Simulink block.
148
Vehicle Simulation
 Category  DataSet
Vehicle Model Selection Simulink/CarSim Connection
Simulation Condition
149
Vehicle Simulation
 Category  DataSet Selection
DataSet
Category
150
Vehicle Simulation
 Vehicle Model
151
Vehicle Simulation
 Vehicle Model
152
Vehicle Simulation
 Math Model
Category
DataSet
153
Vehicle Simulation
 Math Model
Simulink file folder
Simulink MDL file
Simulink data I/O map
154
Vehicle Simulation
 Math Model  Data I/O
Category
DataSet
155
Vehicle Simulation
 Math Model  Data I/O  Export
Output from CarSim to Simulink
156
Vehicle Simulation
 Simulink with CarSim
CarSim S-function (DLL)
Block to compose signals for

control
Controller generates braking torque and

steering angle as a control input. 157
Vehicle Simulation
 Run Simulink with CarSim
close all;
clear all;
%=========================================================
% DataSet : Small SUV Steering IS AS YMC, Category : New_IS_AS
% Math Model : Small SUV IS AS New YMC
% Output Variables : Small SUV Steering IS AS MAP I (IO_MAP_YMC.txt 참조 바람)
%=========================================================
% Basic Model : Side Slip Angle Representation
%=========================================================
…
Variables are defined and assigned in this area.

…
sim('YMCICC3',TF,[],[]);  sim() calls Simulink MDL file and run it.

…
This part draws plots after simulation.
158

Lecture 002

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Lecture 002

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Vehicle Dynamics and Control

SAE Standard Coordinate System Another Coordinate System

Lateral Force Slip Angle

 Longitudinal Tire Force

 Longitudinally Tire Deformation

x  ri  i  Vti Contact Patch

Difference of tangential speed

 Shear Stress Distribution

Bottom view of a laterally deflected and turning tire

Vertical Tire Force Friction Circle

Fz  kt   tire deflection    Fz   Fx2  Fy2

 Fz and  determine the limit of Fx and Fy.

 Angle between the direction of wheel travel(f) and

 The direction of wheel travel V is calculated from the

 Slip angle  determines the lateral force Fy.

Equation of Motion of a Wheel Wheel Speed Sensor

Braking torque by ABS

Hill start support

Without TCS With TCS

Caster trail Pneumatic trail

Slip Angle versus Self Aligning Moment Curve

If the lateral tire force Fy is saturated,

As the slip angle  increases

Curve fitting with 4 parameters obtained from experimental data

 6-axis force sensor (very expensive)

Experiment Carpet Plot Tire Model

 Ci : Longitudinal Cornering Stiffness

 Limitation at low speed

Traction without Cornering Cornering without Braking

Effect of B (stiffness factor) Effect of C (shape factor)

0.6 B = 10 0.6 C = 2.5

0.4 B = 1.0 0.4

-0.2 -0.2 C = 3.5

Effect of D (size factor) Effect of E (curvature factor)

0.5 D = 1.0 0.5

 Combined condition of cornering and acceleration (traction)

 Limitation at low speed

Dr. Antoine Schmeitz, MF-Tyre/MF-Swift, TNO, 2013

 Composite slip  ap : Contact path length

 Force saturation function

Brush tire model

TMeasy approximation of steady-state tyre characteristics with the four

The derivative function’s continuity must then be determined using the

 Tire Models for Handing and Maneuvering Analysis

 Tire Models for Ride Comfort Analysis

 MF/Swift Tire Model

Dr. Antoine Schmeitz, MF-Tyre/MF-Swift, TNO, 2013

This mode is valid only if the slip angle is  vx 

 Slip angle = 0  Steering System Design

 Slip angle and corresponding Fy are generated.

Steering angle to follow a given path:

(Fy = centrifugal force)

 Positive : Under-Steer K  0,  f   r Fyf

Neutral steer Under-steer Over-steer

 Determine the characteristics of under-steer vehicles

 Lateral Acceleration Gain

 Constant Speed Test

This is a particle model, not rigid body : F  ma

 Vehicle Body where,

FL  Fa  M v g sin  g : gravitational constant

d f Tbf , Tbr : brake torque of front/rear wheel

 : the mass density of air

Cd : the aero dynamic drag coefficient