Vehicle Dynamics

Session 3

Tire Fundamental Characteristics

and Dynamic Performance

Dr. Richard Hathaway, P.E.

Professor
Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering
 Session 3 -- Outline
• Tire Friction characteristics
– Lateral Force Generation
– Tractive/Braking Forces
• Slip Angles
• Slip ratios
• Aligning Torque
• Camber Thrust
 Forces on a Vehicle
• Tractive forces
The forces acting at the tire footprint to either
maintain velocity or change velocity.

• Road Load Forces

The forces acting at a given velocity that oppose
vehicle tractive forces. Road load forces usually are
simply rolling plus aerodynamic forces.
 Tire Characteristics

• Traction Limits
• Friction Circle
• Slip Angle
• Cornering Stiffness
• Carpet Plot
• Self-Aligning Torque
• Camber thrust
Tire Axis System
 Tire Characteristics

• Traction Limits
– Production tires on a typical paved surface can
generate a coefficient of friction of up to about 1.0.
Usually  0.7 - 0.8
– Race tires can easily generate friction coefficients
greater than 1.0
– Traction is temperature dependent, as well as
influenced by many factors.
Tire Friction Characteristics
 Tire Friction Characteristics
• Slip Velocity
– The difference between the angular velocity of the
driven (braked) wheel and the angular velocity of
the free rolling wheel.
s    o
• Slip Ratio
– Slip ratio is defined as the slip velocity as a
percentage of the free rolling velocity.
  o 
SR   1
o o
 Tire Friction Characteristics
• Slip Ratio
– Slip ratio is defined as the slip velocity as a
percentage of the free rolling velocity.
  o 
SR   1
o o
– Since
V
o  rr  tire rolling radius
rr
– then
 rr
SR  1 @   0
V
 Tire Friction Characteristics
• Slip Ratio
– If spinning is arbitrarily assigned a slip ratio of 1
then at spinning
 rr
SRsp  1 then, 2
V
– This implies the peripheral speed is twice that of the
free rolling tire and twice the forward velocity.

– The onset of spinning is usually much earlier

usually  0.10-0.15
Tire Slip Ratio (acceleration)
Tire Slip Ratio (braking)
 Slip Angle

• Slip angle is defined as the angle between the rotational

plane of the tire and the tire heading direction.

• Lateral loads on a tire introduce a slip angle.

Tire Heading
Direction

Tire Rotation
Plane

Slip Angle

Lateral Force
 Tire Friction Characteristics
• Slip Ratio definitions
– SAE J670
Re = effective rolling
  re  radius for free rolling
S     1 @=0
 V Cos 
 = slip angle
– Calspan TIRF definition
Rl = loaded rolling radius
  rl 
SR     1
 V Cos 
 Tire Friction Characteristics
• Slip Ratio definitions (alternatives)
– Good Year
 V Cos 
S x  1   
  re 
– Pacejka definition

  re 
k x     1  {practical slip quantitiy}
 V Cos 
 V Cos 
 x     1  {Independent slip quantity}
  re 
 Tire Friction Characteristics
• Slip Ratio definitions (alternatives)
– Sakai
 V Cos    re 
S t     1 {traction} S b  1    {braking}
  re   V Cos 

– Dugoff, Fancher, Segel

  re 
S D  1   
 V Cos 
 Friction Circle

• Assume friction between the tire and road is

independent of the direction of the force.

• Tractive force and lateral load can be combined in

vector form to determine cornering and or
braking/acceleration capacity at any point.
– Lateral loads decrease braking/acceleration limits
 Friction Circle

Accel traction


 
0.7 
Cornering Cornering
traction traction

0.7 

Braking traction
 Tire Characteristics
Analysis of the Slip Ratio and Lateral Force
behavior at given slip angles.
– At a given slip angle as the slip ratio increases the
tires capacity to support a lateral load diminishes.
– Peak tractive forces are present at slip ratios that
differ slightly between braking and forward
traction.
– At any given slip ratio, the lateral force capacity
increases with increasing slip angles.
 Tire characteristics

Braking and Tractive forces @ given Slip Angles vs. Slip Ratio
 Tire characteristics

Slip Ratio vs. Lateral Force @ given Slip Angles

Lateral Force Capacity

Lateral Force vs. Slip Ratio

@ range of Slip Angles
(400 kg Normal Load)
Slip Angle vs Lateral Load
Slip Angle vs Lateral Load
 Tire Cornering Stiffness

• Cornering stiffness is the change in lateral force per

unit slip angle change at a specified normal load in the
linear range of the tire.

d Fy
C 
d
Cornering Stiffness Comparison
Tire Carpet Plot
Tire Carpet Plot

Typical Tire @
Normal Inflation
Pressure
Slip Angle vs Lateral Force Coefficient
 Self-Aligning Torque

• Self-Aligning Torque is derived from a combination of

caster trail and the tires own pneumatic trail.
• If the mechanical (caster) trail is small the tires
aligning torque (Pneumatic Trail) will dominate the
steering effect.
– If Pneumatic trail effects dominate the limits of traction are
more obvious to the driver of the vehicle.

• Pneumatic trail is derived from the shear force

distribution in the tire footprint.
Self-Aligning Torque

t => trail
Self-Aligning Torque
Tire Self Aligning Torque
Tire Self Aligning Torque
Typical Tire
Self-Aligning Torque
Tire Carpet Plot
 Camber Thrust
• Camber thrust is the lateral force generated as the tire is
inclined from the surface normal.
• A cambered tire generates a slip angle to maintain a lateral
force = 0. As a result a cambered tire has a rolling
resistance greater than a zero cambered tire.
• A cambered tire will generate a lateral force in a turn
reducing the slip angle (if proper direction) required to
maintain the same lateral force.
Camber Thrust