NANOMATERIALS AND

THEIR APPLICATION:
POSSIBLE TOXIC EFFECTS

LUCÍA DOMÍNGUEZ ARRIBAS AND JESÚS TURRADO VIDAL

FOOD TOXICOLOGY 2022/2023
Nanomaterials and their application Food toxicology

INDEX
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 2
WHAT IS A NANOTECHNOLOGY? .................................................................................................. 3
GENERAL APPLICATION OF NANOMATERIALS AND NANOTHECNOLOGY ............................ 3
Everyday Materials and Processes................................................................................................... 3
Agriculture application ................................................................................................................... 4
Electronics and IT Applications ...................................................................................................... 4
Medical and Healthcare Applications .............................................................................................. 5
Energy Applications ....................................................................................................................... 5
Environmental Remediation ........................................................................................................... 5
Future Transportation Benefits........................................................................................................ 6
APPLICATION OF NANOMATERIALS IN FOOD ............................................................................. 6
TYPES OF NANOMATERIALS IN FOOD .......................................................................................... 8
Inorganic Nanoparticles ..................................................................................................................... 8
Silver Nanoparticles ....................................................................................................................... 8
Zinc and Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles ................................................................................................. 9
Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles ..................................................................................................... 9
Silicon Dioxide Nanoparticles ........................................................................................................ 9
Organic Nanoparticles ....................................................................................................................... 9
Lipid Nanoparticles........................................................................................................................ 9
Protein Nanoparticles ................................................................................................................... 10
Carbohydrate Nanoparticles.......................................................................................................... 10
Complex Nanoparticles ................................................................................................................ 10
REGULATION OF NANOMATERIALS ........................................................................................... 10
TOXICITY OF NANOMATERIALS.................................................................................................. 12
TOXICITY OF NANOMATERIALS IN HUMANS............................................................................ 12
Action mechanism of nanomaterials ................................................................................................. 15
NANOMATERIALS IN CANCER ..................................................................................................... 15
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................. 16
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................. 17

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INTRODUCTION

Nanomaterials are materials o sized between 1 and 100 nm. One nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10-
9 of a meter. The definition given by the European Commission states that the particle size of at least half
of the particles in the number size distribution must measure 100 nm or below.

Materials with structure at the nanoscale often have unique optical, electronic, thermo -physical or
mechanical properties, which is why it is being used more often nowadays. Nanomaterials can occur
naturally, be created as the by-products of combustion reactions, or be produced to perform a specialised
function.

These methods have rapidly developed in many different areas of science and technology and have created
new fields like nanobiotechnology, nano chemistry, nano information technology, etc.

Nanotechnology has become a buzzword in recent years, with the potential to revolutionize many
industries. One of these industries is food, where nanomaterials are being used to enhance food quality and
safety.

Nanomaterials are tiny particles that can be

engineered to exhibit specific properties. In
the food industry, they are used to create new
flavours, improve texture, and increase shelf
life.

However, these materials may create threats

of environment pollution or even harmful
effects on human health. There is not much
information about the toxicity of these

Fig: application of nanomaterials in food and food industry nanomaterials or their long-lasting effects in
humans and in the environment in general.

A report by the British Royal Society says that we may face a nanotoxicity crisis in the future. They state
that we should avoid these nanoparticles as much as possible until there is a comprehensive understanding
of the environmental and health risks of its exposure.

In this essay we are going to review the importance and the role that these nanomaterials have and their
consequences both in our bodies and in our future.

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WHAT IS A NANOTECHNOLOGY?

Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of extremely small things and can be used
across all the other science fields, such as chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and engineering.

Farming, food packaging, or the prevention of microbial contamination are the mayor concerns for food
industries and have seen dramatic changes because of it. Different nanomaterials such as nano powders,
nanotubes, nano-fibbers, quantum dots, and metal and metal-oxide nanoparticles are globally produced and
used in food industries.

For example, in 2006, USD 20 billion in food industry products were connected to nanotechnology, in
agriculture and food processing. Proponents emphasize that this can improve the quality, nutritional value,
safety, and quantity of food to meet the needs of a growing population.

Because of the unique properties of nanostructures and nanomaterials such as a large surface area, high
activity, and small size, there is some concern about the potential for harmful adverse effects of used
nanomaterials on health or the environment.

Nanotechnology can be divided into three main areas: nanostructured materials (that includes nanoparticles,
nanocomposites, etc), nanotools (that includes fabrication techniques, instrumentation and analysis or
software computation among others) or nanodevices (including molecular electronics, sensors and
detectors, chips, etc).

GENERAL APPLICATION OF NANOMATERIALS AND NANOTHECNOLOGY

Nanotechnology is helping to improve, even revolutionize, many technology and industry sectors:
information technology, homeland security, medicine, transportation, energy, food safe ty, and
environmental science, among many others. There are some benefits and consequences of its use.

Everyday Materials and Processes

One of the benefits of this nanomaterials is that it is possible to make structures of materials at extremely
small scales to achieve specific properties. Using nanotechnology, materials can effectively be made
stronger, lighter, more durable, more reactive, more sieve-like, or better electrical conductors, among many
other traits.

• Nanoscale additives to the surface of fabrics can provide energy deflection or can help them resist
wrinkling, staining, and bacterial growth.
• Clear nanoscale films on eyeglasses, computer and camera displays, windows, and other surfaces
can make them water- and residue-repellent, antireflective, self-cleaning, resistant to ultraviolet or
infrared light, antifog, antimicrobial, scratch-resistant, or electrically conductive.

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Nanomaterials and their application Food toxicology

• Nanoscale materials are beginning to enable washable, durable “smart fabrics” equipped with
flexible nanoscale sensors and electronics with capabilities for health monitoring, solar energy
capture, and energy harvesting through movement.
• Nanostructured ceramic coatings are tougher than conventional wear-resistant coatings for machine
parts.
• Nanoparticles are used in catalysis to boost chemical reactions. This reduces the quantity of catalytic
materials necessary, saving money and reducing pollutants.
• Nanoscale materials are also being incorporated into personal care products to improve
performance. For example, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide have been used for years in sunscreen
to provide protection from the sun while appearing invisible on the skin.

Agriculture application
In agriculture the nanotechnology can be applicated
with nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, insersitides,
bactericides and virusides, also as nanofungicide to
control plagues and the loose of crops.

Also, nanomaterials can be use in the monitoring of the

crops with nanosensors, and the increase of productivity
and quality of the soil.

Fig 2: nanotechnology in agriculture

Electronics and IT Applications

Nanotechnology has contributed to major advances in computing and electronics, making them faster,
smaller, and more portable systems that can manage and store larger and larger amounts of information.

• Transistors have gotten smaller and smaller through nanotechnology.

• Using magnetic random-access memory (MRAM), computers will be quickly and effectively saving
data during a system shutdown or enable resume‐play features.
• Ultra-high-definition displays and televisions are now being sold that use quantum dots to produce
more vibrant colours while being more energy efficient.
• Flexible, bendable, foldable, rollable, and stretchable electronics has this capacity due to these
nanomaterials.
• Nanoparticle copper suspensions are safer, cheaper, and more reliable than lead-based solder and
other hazardous materials commonly used to fuse electronics in the assembly process.

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Medical and Healthcare Applications

Nanomedicine, the application of nanotechnology in medicine, which produce precise solutions for disease
prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Below are some examples of recent advances in this area:

• This micrograph shows four different colour versions of a bamboo-like structure of nitrogen-doped
carbon nanotubes for the treatment of cancer.
• Commercial applications have adapted gold nanoparticles as probes for the detection of targeted
sequences of nucleic acids.
• Better imaging and diagnostic tools enabled by nanotechnology can reach earlier diagnosis, more
individualized treatment options, and better therapeutic success rates.
• Nanotechnology is being studied for both the diagnosis and treatment of ath erosclerosis.
• Nanotechnology researchers are working on several different therapeutics where a nanoparticle can
help to deliver medication directly to cancer cells and minimize the risk of damage to healthy tissue,
to treat cancer and dramatically reduce the toxic effects of chemotherapy.
• Research in the use of nanotechnology include bone and neural tissue engineering. Researchers are
looking for ways to grow complex tissues with the goal of one day growing human organs for
transplant.
• Nanomedicine researchers are looking at ways that nanotechnology can improve vaccines,
including vaccine delivery without the use of needles.

Energy Applications
Nanotechnology is enhancing the production of alternative energy to help energy demands and the global
impact they have. They are looking into ways to develop clean, affordable, and renewable energy sources,
along with means to reduce energy consumption and toxicity .

• Nanotechnology is improving the efficiency of fuel production from raw petroleum materials
through better catalysis. It is also enabling reduced fuel consumption in vehicles and power plants
through higher-efficiency combustion and decreased friction.
• New solar panel films incorporate nanoparticles to create lightweight, flexible solar cells.
• Nanotechnology can be incorporated into solar panels to convert sunlight to electricity more
efficiently, promising inexpensive solar power in the future.
• Nanotechnology is being used to develop new kinds of batteries that are quicker-charging, more
efficient, lighter weight, have a higher power density, and hold electrical charge longer.

Environmental Remediation
In addition to the ways that nanotechnology can help improve energy efficiency they can also help to
remediate the environmental problem we have with pollution.
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• Nanotechnology could help get affordable, clean drinking water through rapid, low-cost detection
and treatment of impurities in water.
• Nanoparticles are used to clean industrial water pollutants in ground water through chemical
reactions that render the pollutants harmless.
• Nanotechnology-enabled sensors and solutions are now able to detect and identify chemical or
biological agents in the air and soil with much higher sensitivity than ever before.

Future Transportation Benefits

Nanotechnology develops multifunctional materials that will contribute to building and maintaining lighter,
safer, smarter, and more efficient vehicles, aircraft, spacecraft, and ships.

• These nanomaterials can help build structural parts; high-power rechargeable battery systems;
thermoelectric materials for temperature control; lower rolling-resistance tires; high-efficiency/low-
cost sensors and electronics; thin-film smart solar panels; and fuel additives and improved catalytic
converters for cleaner exhaust and extended range.
• Nanoscale sensors and devices may provide cost-effective continuous monitoring of the structural
integrity and performance of bridges, tunnels, rails, parking structures, and pavements over time.

(Applications of Nanotechnology | National Nanotechnology Initiative, 2014)

APPLICATION OF NANOMATERIALS IN FOOD

In addition to all those applications mentioned

before, nanomaterials can be used to create
packaging that is more effective at preventing
spoilage and contamination, which helps to
reduce food waste and increase food safety.

Nanotechnology is the science of small materials,

and it can have a significant impact in the food
industry. Nanotechnology possesses a great
potential for the modification of colour and
flavour and nutritional values, increasing the
shelf life of food, and monitoring via barcodes in
the cold chain, for example, whenever there is a
change in food storage conditions. Fig 3: applications of nanomaterials in food

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The use of nanomaterials in food has several benefits.

For example, they can be used to create new flavours and
textures that were previously impossible to achieve.
They can also improve the nutritional content of food by
increasing bioavailability of nutrients. It is an emerging
area of science with potentials to generate radical new
products and processes in the food sector. It is commonly
divided in two forms of nanofood applications:

• Food additives (nano inside)

• Food packaging (nano outside)
Fig 4: Types of application of nanomaterials in food

Nanotechnology is an emerging field with promising applications in various industries, including the food
industry. In the food industry, nanotechnology can be used to develop new food products with enhanced
nutritional value, improved taste, texture, and quality.

Nanotechnology is being studied by many every field of research bur even more in the food industry, just
because it has so many applications in these processes. It can be used to develop new products with more
nutritional value, improve the taste, the shelf life, taste.

Applications in the field include the delivery of nanoparticles (such as micelles, liposomes, nanoemulsions,
nanoparticles, and biopolymeric nanoparticles), biosafety, as well as nanotoxicity. Tools have been
developed that manage to maintain food conservation, seeking alternatives to heat treatments and the use
of non-thermal conservation treatments to achieve healthier and not so perishable foods.

Some of the potential applications of nanotechnology in food include:

• Food packaging: Nanotechnology can be used to develop smart packaging materials that can help
extend the shelf life of food products, prevent spoilage, and detect contamination. Nanomaterials are
used to protect against external mechanical, thermal, chemical, or microbiological effects. An example
of this is the use of montmorillonite clay to improve nylon characteristics, such as mechanical and
thermal properties. Other nanomaterials in use arekaolinite, carbon nanotubes and graphene sheets.
• Nutrient delivery: Nanoparticles can be used to deliver nutrients and supplements to specific parts of
the body. There is a wide variety of functional ingredients such as: drugs, vitamins, antimicrobials,
antioxidants, colorant, flavourings, or preservatives. A release system has several characteristics:
o It functions as a vehicle for the ingredient.
o Protection of the ingredient from biological and chemical degradation
o Maintain a controlled release.
o Maintain compatibility with the other components.
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o Maintaining the physical, chemical, and organoleptic properties

Also, the enrichment of many foods (omega 3, DHA, probiotics, prebiotics, fiber, exciting substances (such
as caffeine or ginseng) or tranquilizing substances) can improve psychological functions related to satiety
and sensation hunger, cognitive performance, mood, and stress management. For example,
nanoencapsulation of vitamins and minerals can help improve their absorption in the bo dy.

• Food processing: Nanotechnology can be used to develop new processing techniques that can help
improve the efficiency of food production and processing.
• Food safety: Nanotechnology can be used to detect and remove harmful substances from food
products, including pesticides, toxins, and bacteria. It is about keeping food innocuous and with
prevalence of organoleptic properties. The nanotechnology has many applications in this topic, such
as:
o Microdetector
o Use of silver nanoparticles, to keep bacteria and other microorganisms free.
o Greater safety in processes and food transfer through sensors for pathogens and detection of
contaminants (detection of SARS-CoV-2.) that requires a field effect transistor biosensor (Bio-
FET).

TYPES OF NANOMATERIALS IN FOOD

Nanoparticles present in foods can be easily categorized based on their composition, (organic or inorganic),
as this factor has a major impact on their gastrointestinal fate and potential toxicity.

Inorganic Nanoparticles
A number of nanoparticles used in food materials are mainly
composed of some or the other inorganic materials, such as silver,
silicon dioxide, iron oxide, titanium dioxide, or zinc oxide.

These may be spherical or no spherical with different surface

characteristics and sizes depending on precursor materials and
conditions of preparation while these were fabricated. These
inorganic nanoparticles have different tendencies to dissolve under
specific solution conditions (pH and ionic strength) and chemical
reactivities, which have a major impact on their gastrointestinal fate

Fig 5: types of nanoparticles and toxicity.

Silver Nanoparticles
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are commonly used as antimicrobial agents in food packaging, chopping
boards, storage containers, refrigerators, and health supplements.

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It is also possible that some of these silver nanoparticles may migrate into foods from these containers and
they could be ingested by humans.

It was reported that microbial growth rate significantly reduced on using this nanocomposite packaging
material.

Zinc and Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles

Zinc and zinc oxide nanoparticles may be used as an additive in supplements and functional foods for
nutrition because this is an essential trace element required to maintain human health and well-being.

ZnO nanoparticles can also be used in food packaging as antimicrobial agents so that contamination of
foods with harmful bacteria can be prevented. These are also used as ultraviolet (UV) light absorbers to
protect foods from UV light exposure if food is sensitive toward it.

Film with zinc was tested for its biocidal action against E. coli, and it was demonstrated that it has a great
potential to preserve food and prevent bacterial contamination not only from E. Coli but also other
microorganisms.

Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles

TiO2 nanoparticles are used as ingredients in foods to provide its characteristic optical properties, so that
lightness and brightness are enhanced. It is widely used as food additive and antimicrobial agent for food
packaging and storage containers. TiO2 ingredients utilized in the food industry as lightening agents should
have particle sizes in the range of 100–300 nanometres, so that their light scattering properties are increased.

They evaluated bactericidal activity of these TiO2 coatings against Escheric hia coli O157:H7 and it was
found that TiO2 coatings with binder polyacrylic were physically more stable and able to retain their
original bactericidal property.

Silicon Dioxide Nanoparticles

Silicon dioxide nanoparticles are used in certain powdered foods as anticaking agents. Silicon dioxide and
carbon having particle size in the range of a few hundred nm are used as food additives and for food
packaging.

Organic Nanoparticles
These nanoparticles are composed of organic substances, like carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids. These
substances are liquids, semisolids, or solids (crystalline or amorphous) at ambient temperatures, which
depends on their composition and processing conditions.

Lipid Nanoparticles
Lipid nanoparticles are present in a wide range within many commercial food products. These lipids and
lipid nanoparticles are mostly used as oral delivery systems for different drugs and other active ingredients.
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Lipids usually increase drug absorption in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). These molecules in the form of
nanoparticles improve mucosal adhesion because of their small particle size and increase their residence
time in GIT. Lipid nanoparticles will also protect the loaded drugs from different degradations (chemical
as well as enzymatic) and release drug molecules from the lipid matrix gradually into blood, thus resulting
in enhanced therapeutic profiles as compared to free drug.

Protein Nanoparticles
Protein nanoparticles and other protein assemblies have shown a great potential recently in the field of
catalysis, materials synthesis, drug and gene delivery, and bio -imaging (Rong et al. 2011). Protein
nanoparticles are also found in foods in the form of casein micelles, which are available in bovine milk and
other dairy products. These are nothing but small clusters of casein molecules and calcium phosphate ions.

Carbohydrate Nanoparticles
Carbohydrate nanoparticles are either digestible or indigestible polysaccharides, like starch, cellulose,
xanthan, carrageenan, alginate, and pectin.

Complex Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles utilized in foods are many a time fabricated using combinations of these three ingredients,
such as lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Coacervates are formed by electrostatic complexation of
oppositely charged proteins and polysaccharides.

Fig 6: types of nanoparticles. (Inorganic,

organic and pseudorganic) Fig 7: types of nanomaterials

REGULATION OF NANOMATERIALS

To address these concerns, there is a need for regulation of nanomaterials in food. Many countries have
already implemented regulations or guidelines for the use of these particles in food. For example, the
European Union in the Regulation 1169/2011 requires that any food containing nanomaterials must be
labelled as such, the label of the product must show the name of each nanomaterial followed by the word
"nano" in brackets. In the United States, the FDA has issued guidance on the use of nanomaterials in food,
although this guidance is currently voluntary.
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Nanomaterials have specific properties and are used by industry. Because of these properties, nanomaterials
are subject to specific regulations, both by general chemicals legislation (REACH) and by sectoral
legislation that regulate their use in certain products, such as biocides, cosmetics, or food.

The 1 st of January 2020, explicit legal requirements under REACH apply for companies that manufacture
or import nanoforms. These obligations for specific information requirements, outlined in revised annexes
to the REACH regulation:

– characterisation of nanoforms or sets of nanoforms covered by the registration (Annex VI);

– chemical safety assessment (Annex I).
– registration information requirements (Annexes III and VII-XI); and
– downstream user obligations (Annex XII).
– The amendments apply to all new and existing registrations covering nanoforms.

The Biocidal Products Regulation has specific regulations for nanomaterials. These definitions are based
on the Commission’s recommendation on the definition of nanomaterials. These provisions apply for active
and non-active substances with the following characteristics:

– 50 % or more of the particles have a size of 1-100 nanometres in at least one dimension.
– Particles are in an unbound state or as an aggregate or agglomerate.

The Commission may adapt this definition depending on technical and scientific progress. A dedicated risk
assessment is needed when the nanoform of the active and non -active substances are used in a biocidal
product. (Nanomaterials - ECHA, 2020)

That is the only regulation existing regarding the use and application of nanomaterials, so there is a need
for more regulation and limits for these types of substances, just to ensure food safety and human health,
because these nanomaterials, although they have amazing properties and benefits to our soc iety, they have
been proved that they can also affect our health.

Scientists are concerned by the lack of a regulations in this new field. It has been demonstrated that the
risks associated with the release of nanoparticles and nanotubes are like bovine spongiform encephalopathy
("mad cow" disease), thalidomide, genetically modified food, nuclear energy, reproductive technologies,
biotechnology, and asbestosis. There is insufficient research so nowadays there is still limited
understanding of the human health and safety risks associated with nanotechnology.

The only recommended thing is to do is follow the precautionary principle, with delayed marketing
approval, labelling, and additional safety data in all related to nanomaterials.

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TOXICITY OF NANOMATERIALS

Information about nanoparticle exposure is poor and can only be used and is effective when it is paired with
the characterization of the specific nanomaterial biological effects.

The assumptions for the percentages released into air varied according to usages but ranged from a low of
zero % (filtration, packaging, paper and boards, sensors) to a high of 5 % (academia and research,
aerospace, automotive, catalysts, composites, electronics, and optics, medical and textiles). Overall, the
ultimate destination of 63-91% of engineered nanomaterials would be landfills. Only about 0.1-0.5 % of
nanomaterials were expected to be released into air and 0.4-7 % into bodies of water.

Should engineered nanomaterials be released into the environment, they will enter air, water or soil media
and contact and interact with elements of the natural environment. Nanomaterials are subject by multiple
forces affecting interactions and attractions with other particles and surfaces.

In the environment there are usually lots of natural particles and surfaces that are expected to have
concentrations of nanomaterials

Some nanoparticle compositions are stable, such as TiO2. Others, such as silver, may react quickly so, for
example, silver, nanoparticles entering a sewer system will rapidly convert to silver sulphide. The OECD
provides guidelines that are especially relevant for metals and metal compounds such as silver
nanoparticles. There have been efforts to model the quantities of nanomaterials along the phases of their
product life cycles extending from manufacture and use to final disposal.

These estimates suggest that human exposure to ENM from environmental releases is overall a low
probability, and that inadvertent human exposures were more likely to occur when in contact with products
that have nanoparticles.

TOXICITY OF NANOMATERIALS IN HUMANS

Despite their potential benefits, there are also concerns about the use of nanomaterials in food. One concern
is that the long-term effects of consuming these particles are not yet understood. There is also a risk that
these particles could accumulate in the body over time.

Another concern is the lack of transparency in the food industry. Consumers may not be aware that their
food contains these particles, which could lead to a health problem in the food system.

Toxicological assessment of nanoparticles in food relies on in vivo data. Due to the several types of
nanomaterial and applications these cannot be evaluated using animal studies so in vitro alternatives are
required. In vitro approaches that combine in vitro models for gastrointestinal digestion and epithelial
translocation are under development. For the time being these in vitro approaches can be used to support
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data obtained from in vivo experiments. Yet there is no fundamental data obtained from these experiments
so there is a need to keep researching.

The toxicity of these nanomaterials

depends on:

• Type of precursor
• Concentration of precursor
• Duration of exposure
• Personal susceptibility
• Mode of entry
• Size of nano particle
• Environmental factors
• Threshold value. Table 1: types of nanoparticles, their uses and toxicity.

Table 2: types of nanoparticles, their uses and toxicity.

There are different entry routes on exposure to nanoparticles such as dermal, respiratory, and digestive
routes. They first interact with biological components like proteins and cells and target respiratory organs
and the gastrointestinal track. These nanoparticles may enter the bloodstream after absorption and settle in
different tissues like the brain or trigger some immune responses.

Genetic alteration can come due to nanoparticles in food or nanoengineering of food. Although there had
been a long debate and it will go on, nanotechnology has entered food packaging and food processing, so
some safety measures are also required from governments and food producers.

Some nanoparticles may be dispersed in the air during the production of nanoparticles use d in food. This
should be taken into consideration, and workers’ health must be protected. The digestive path is another
major route of uptake of nanoparticles. Some nanoparticles may also enter in the respiratory tract and then
the digestive system through mucociliary clearance. The skin is an alternate main route of contact between
human and nanomaterials.

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There are several diseases that are associated with exposure to nanoparticles due to their accumulation or
contact with cells and its internal parts like the mitochondrion, nucleus, cytoplasm, membrane, and lipid
vesicle. Various diseases may be caused by nanoparticles, and these are:

• Through inhalation
– Parkinson’s disease
– Alzheimer’s disease
– Asthma
– Bronchitis
– Cancer
– Arteriosclerosis
– Vasoconstriction
– Thrombus
– High blood pressure
– Heart disease
– Disease of unknown ethology in
the kidneys and liver
– Podoconiosis
– Kaposi’s sarcoma
• Through ingestion
– Crohn’s disease
– Colon cancer
• Through skin contact
– Autoimmune diseases
– Dermatitis
– Urticaria
– Vasculitis Fig 8: toxicity of nanomaterials

Pulmonary toxicology is being research because many occupational diseases, such as asbestosis and coal
miner's disease, are caused by the inhalation of inorganic particulate matter.

Water-soluble fullerenes associate with cell membranes due to their hydrophobic nature. This fact alone
does not lead to an unusual toxic response and in fact is central to the use of these materials as antioxidants.
Other nanoparticles, such as quantum dots can be taken into the cytoplasm of eukaryotes, by receptor-
mediated endocytosis. Most cells can take up materials of a wide variety of sizes and shapes through
receptor-mediated endocytosis or other processes. Although this process is important to characterize

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because it alters the ways in which nanoparticles can influence biological processes, the observation alone
does not strongly predict acute toxicity.

Carbon-nanostructures are the only class of engineered nanomaterials that have received toxicological
characterization. Water-soluble forms of fullerenes have many promising medical applications based on
their antioxidant behaviour. As a result, many different forms of water-soluble fullerenes have been
screened in vitro and in animal studies for toxicology.

The LD50 for water-soluble fullerene was found to be 600 mg/kg body weight and an unusual form of
kidney damage was observed at lower doses. This literature illustrates that water-soluble fullerenes are
active biological materials; however, the specific surface treatment and illumination conditions of fullerene
species are critical for determining their quantitative toxicological response in vitro.

Action mechanism of nanomaterials

1. Oxidative stress: The greater chemical reactivity of nanomaterials can result in increased
production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), including free radicals. ROS and free radical
production is one of the primary mechanisms of nanoparticle toxicity; it may result in oxidative
stress, inflammation, and consequent damage to proteins, membranes and DNA.
2. Cytotoxicity: A primary marker for the damaging effects of nanoparticles has been cell viability
as determined by state and exposed surface area of the cell membrane. Nanoparticles have been
found to induce apoptosis in certain cells primarily due to the mitochondrial damage and oxidative
stress brought on by the foreign NPs electrostatic reactions.
3. Genotoxicity: Metal and metal oxide nanoparticles such as silver, zinc, copper oxide, uraninite,
and cobalt oxide have also been found to cause DNA damage. The damage done to the DNA will
often result in mutated cells and colonies.

NANOMATERIALS IN CANCER
The application of nanotechnology in cancer therapy has created a new view for cancer treatment.
Nanomaterial based drug delivery systems are associated with enhanced pharmacokinetics and
biocompatibility.

The efficacy of drug delivery through nanomedicine is based on the efficient encapsulation of the drugs,
successful delivery of drug to the targeted region of the body, and successful release of the drug.

In tumour targeting the efficacy of drug delivery has increased and reduces the toxicity levels and protects
normal cells in cancer treatment. Nanomaterials support combination therapy, it assists in overcoming
mechanisms of drug resistance including defective apoptotic pathway and hypoxia. Size, shape, pH, and
surface functionalization of nanomaterials with biological and chemical compounds determine the
efficiency in drug delivery.
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It has been reported that nanomaterials, like liposomes, could encapsulate the water soluble and insoluble
drugs in the lipid compartments. These nanomaterials exhibit high biocompatibility, prolonged circulation,
and active targeting nature in the tumour cells. There are many approved clinical drugs based on liposome
encapsulated targeted antitumor drugs.

Gold nanoparticles also plays a crucial role in the

targeted therapy. Amine and thiol groups can
easily modify the exterior of gold nanoparticles to
focus them specifically at tumours. These
nanocarriers can infiltrate tumour cells because of
their small size and enhanced permeability and
retention effect.

Fig 9: action mechanism of nanoparticles in cancer cells

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, nanomaterials have the potential to transform the food industry by enhancing food quality
and safety. However, there are also concerns about the long-term effects of consuming these particles, and
the need for regulation and transparency in the food system.

Although there are many the potential benefits of nanotechnology in food, there are also concerns about
its safety and potential risks to human health and the environment. As a result, there is a need for further
research and regulation to ensure the safe use of nanotechnology in the food industry. As technology
continues to advance, it is important that we carefully consider the risks and benefits of using nanomaterials
in food and take steps to ensure that they are used safely and responsibly.

Despite the concerns and regulations surrounding the use of nanomaterials in food, it is likely that their use
will continue to grow in the future. As technology advances, it will become easier to engineer these particles
to exhibit specific properties.

However, it is important that the potential risks and benefits of these particles are carefully considered, and
that appropriate regulations are made and put in place to ensure our safety and the safety of the food system.

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Lucía Domínguez y Jesús Turrado
Nanomaterials and their application Food toxicology

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Lucía Domínguez y Jesús Turrado