(ANDRE CALLEDO)

Biological evolution is a powerful and important process. It is a process which,

over billions of years, gradually selects the organisms that are better adapted to
their environment to continuously change life and make all living organisms in
our world the way they are today.

Evolution is not a finished event wherein humans are the final product. Rather, it
is a continuing process which has been changing and forming life on Earth for
billions of years, and continues to do so for as long as organisms are born, dying
and competing for what they need to survive and reproduce.

1. Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms

-prevent fertilization and zygote formation.

- happens before fertilization occurs between gametes.

Ex. Animals

Certain snake species have specific courtship rituals that are not recognized by
other species. For instance, male corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) perform a
body vibration ritual to attract females. This behavior would be meaningless to
females of a different species.

1.1 Geographic or ecological or habitat isolation

- occurs when two species that could interbreed do not because the species live in
different areas. The two species live in different habitats and will not encounter
one another: each is isolated from the other species.

Ex.

Geographic isolation

This is the most broad term. It refers to any physical barrier that keeps
populations apart, preventing interbreeding. Examples include mountains,
oceans, canyons, or even new landmasses formed by volcanic activity. Imagine a
population of squirrels on either side of the Grand Canyon - they're
geographically isolated.

1.2 Temporal or seasonal isolation

- different groups may not be reproductively mature. For example, two

populations of plants may produce flowers in different seasons, making mating
between the populations impossible.

Ex. Amphibians

Many frog and toad species living in the same pond might have breeding seasons
that are offset. For example, the Wood Frog (Lithobates sylvaticus) breeds in the
springtime in North America, while the American Toad (Anaxyrus americanus)
breeds in the fall. Their separated breeding times prevent them from mating with
each other.

1.3 Behavioral isolation

Behavioral isolation happens when closely related species have evolved distinct
courtship behaviors that prevent them from mating with each other. Even if they
share the same habitat and breeding season, these differences in behavior act as
a barrier to reproduction.

Ex. Fish

Cichlid fish in the African Great Lakes provide a classic example of behavioral
isolation. These colorful fish have complex courtship rituals involving body
displays and substrate preparation (clearing an area for spawning). Different
species have distinct ritual elements, and females will only respond to the specific
behaviors of their own species.
1.4 Mechanical isolation

- differences in reproductive organs prevent successful interbreeding. Mechanical

isolation occurs when mating is physically impossible.

Ex. Plants

In some flowering plants, the structure of the flower itself can act as a form of
mechanical isolation. For instance, orchids often have complex flower
morphologies that fit precisely with the body size and shape of their specific
pollinators. If a different pollinator tries to access the nectar, the flower structure
might prevent them from reaching the reproductive parts, hindering pollen
transfer between incompatible species.

1.5 Gametic isolation

- incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent fertilization. Often this occurs
because the female immune system recognizes sperm as foreign and attacks it

Male gametes may not be able to recognize and fertilize an egg of a different
species.

Example:

Between two closely related sea urchin species, the Strongylocentrotus

franciscanus (giant red sea urchin) and the Strongylocentrotus purpuratus
(purple sea urchin).

These two species live in the same habitat and can spawn at the same time,
releasing their sperm and eggs into the water column. However, the sperm of the
giant red sea urchin are not able to fertilize the eggs of the purple sea urchin, and
vice versa.
(JESSA)

2. Post-zygotic isolation mechanisms

- allow fertilization but nonviable or weak or sterile hybrids are formed. In these
cases, the zygote formed is called a hybrid. However, even after a hybrid zygote
forms, reproduction may still not be successful.

2.1 Hybrid inviability

- fertilized egg fails to develop past the early embryonic stages. For example,
when tigers and leopards are crossed, the zygote begins to develop but the
pregnancy ends in miscarriage or stillborn.

2.2 Hybrid sterility

-their hybrids are sterile because gonads develop abnormally or there is

abnormal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis. A horse and a donkey
may produce a hybrid offspring, a mule. Mules are sterile.

2.3 Hybrid breakdown.

-F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous and viable, but F2 contains many weak or
sterile individuals

Example:

Different cotton species can produce fertile hybrids, but breakdown occurs in the
next generation when offspring of the hybrids die as seeds or grow into weak and
defective plants

→ First generation hybrids are viable and fertile.

→ Offspring of hybrids are feeble or sterile.

Speciation - is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become
distinct species. It is the process by which new species develop from existing
species.

Mode of Speciation

A. Allopatric speciation

- or geographic speciation occurs when some members of a population become

geographically separated from the other members thereby preventing gene flow.
Examples of geographic barriers are bodies of water and mountain ranges.

B. Sympatric Speciation

- occurs when members of a population that initially occupy the same habitat
within the same range diverge into two or more different species. It involves
abrupt genetic changes that quickly lead to the reproductive isolation of a group
of individuals. Example is change in chromosome number (polyploidization).

Example:

Orca in the northeast Pacific. These two groups of Orca occur in the same habitat
but are avolding each other and they do not interbreed. They have different diets,
vocal behaviour and social structures.

C. Parapatric Speciation

- occurs when the groups that evolved to be separate species are geographic
neighbors. Gene flow occurs but with great distances is reduced. There is also
abrupt change in the environment over a geographic border and strong
disruptive selection must also happen.

Parapatric Speciation

■ Neighboring populations become distinct species while maintaining contact

along a common border, the hybrid zone.