1/7/24, 4:52 PM germination -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia

germination
cotyledons and germination
(Top) Monocotyledon (internal
structures of a corn seed with stages
of germination). Nutrients are stored in
the cotyledon and endosperm tissue.
The radicle and hypocotyl (region
between the cotyledon and radicle)
give rise to the roots. The epicotyl
(region above the cotyledon) gives
rise to the stem and leaves and is
covered by a protective sheath
(coleoptile). (Bottom) Eudicotyledon
(internal structures of a bean seed
with stages of germination). All
nutrients are stored in the enlarged
cotyledons. The radicle gives rise to
the roots, the hypocotyl to the lower
stem, and the epicotyl to the leaves
and upper stem.
through the still-attached flower. In peas and corn (maize) the cotyledons (seed leaves) remain
underground (e.g., hypogeal germination), while in other species (beans, sunflowers, etc.) the
hypocotyl (embryonic stem) grows several inches above the ground, carrying the cotyledons
into the light, in which they become green and often leaflike (e.g., epigeal germination).
germination, the
TABLE OF CONTENTS
sprouting of a seed, spore,
or other reproductive Introduction
body, usually after a
Seed dormancy
period of dormancy. The
Seedling emergence
absorption of water, the
passage of time, chilling,
warming, oxygen availability, and light exposure may all
operate in initiating the process.
In the process of seed germination, water is absorbed by
the embryo, which results in the rehydration and
expansion of the cells. Shortly after the beginning of
water uptake, or imbibition, the rate of respiration
increases, and various metabolic processes, suspended or
much reduced during dormancy, resume. These events are
associated with structural changes in the organelles
(membranous bodies concerned with metabolism), in the
cells of the embryo.
Germination sometimes occurs early in the development
process; the mangrove (Rhizophora) embryo develops
within the ovule, pushing out a swollen rudimentary root

Seed dormancy
Dormancy is brief for some seeds—for example, those of certain short-lived annual plants.
After dispersal and under appropriate environmental conditions, such as suitable temperature
and access to water and oxygen, the seed germinates, and the embryo resumes growth.

The seeds of many species do not germinate immediately after exposure to conditions generally
favourable for plant growth but require a “breaking” of dormancy, which may be associated
with change in the seed coats or with the state of the embryo itself. Commonly, the embryo has

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1/7/24, 4:52 PM germination -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia

no innate dormancy and will develop after the seed coat is removed or sufficiently damaged to
allow water to enter. Germination in such cases depends upon rotting or abrasion of the seed
coat in the gut of an animal or in the soil. Inhibitors of germination must be either leached away
by water or the tissues containing them destroyed before germination can occur. Mechanical
restriction of the growth of the embryo is common only in species that have thick, tough seed
coats. Germination then depends upon weakening of the coat by abrasion or decomposition.

In many seeds the embryo cannot germinate even under suitable conditions until a certain
period of time has lapsed. The time may be required for continued embryonic development in
the seed or for some necessary finishing process—known as afterripening—the nature of which
remains obscure.

The seeds of many plants that endure cold winters will not germinate unless they experience a
period of low temperature, usually somewhat above freezing. Otherwise, germination fails or is
much delayed, with the early growth of the seedling often abnormal. (This response of seeds to
chilling has a parallel in the temperature control of dormancy in buds.) In some species,
germination is promoted by exposure to light of appropriate wavelengths. In others, light
inhibits germination. For the seeds of certain plants, germination is promoted by red light and
inhibited by light of longer wavelength, in the “far red” range of the spectrum. The precise
significance of this response is as yet unknown, but it may be a means of adjusting germination
time to the season of the year or of detecting the depth of the seed in the soil. Light sensitivity
and temperature requirements often interact, the light requirement being entirely lost at certain
temperatures.
Seedling emergence
Active growth in the embryo, other than swelling resulting from imbibition, usually begins with
the emergence of the primary root, known as the radicle, from the seed, although in some
species (e.g., the coconut) the shoot, or plumule, emerges first. Early growth is dependent
mainly upon cell expansion, but within a short time cell division begins in the radicle and
young shoot, and thereafter growth and further organ formation (organogenesis) are based upon
the usual combination of increase in cell number and enlargement of individual cells.

Until it becomes nutritionally self-supporting, the seedling depends upon reserves provided by
the parent sporophyte. In angiosperms these reserves are found in the endosperm, in residual
tissues of the ovule, or in the body of the embryo, usually in the cotyledons. In gymnosperms
food materials are contained mainly in the female gametophyte. Since reserve materials are
partly in insoluble form—as starch grains, protein granules, lipid droplets, and the like—much
of the early metabolism of the seedling is concerned with mobilizing these materials and
delivering, or translocating, the products to active areas. Reserves outside the embryo are

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digested by enzymes secreted by the embryo and, in some instances, also by special cells of the
endosperm.

In some seeds (e.g., castor beans) absorption of nutrients from reserves is through the
cotyledons, which later expand in the light to become the first organs active in photosynthesis.
When the reserves are stored in the cotyledons themselves, these organs may shrink after
germination and die or develop chlorophyll and become photosynthetic.

Environmental factors play an important part not only in determining the orientation of the
seedling during its establishment as a rooted plant but also in controlling some aspects of its
development. The response of the seedling to gravity is important. The radicle, which normally
grows downward into the soil, is said to be positively geotropic. The young shoot, or plumule,
is said to be negatively geotropic because it moves away from the soil; it rises by the extension
of either the hypocotyl, the region between the radicle and the cotyledons, or the epicotyl, the
segment above the level of the cotyledons. If the hypocotyl is extended, the cotyledons are
carried out of the soil. If the epicotyl elongates, the cotyledons remain in the soil.

Light affects both the orientation of the seedling and its form. When a seed germinates below
the soil surface, the plumule may emerge bent over, thus protecting its delicate tip, only to
straighten out when exposed to light (the curvature is retained if the shoot emerges into
darkness). Correspondingly, the young leaves of the plumule in such plants as the bean do not
expand and become green except after exposure to light. These adaptative responses are known
to be governed by reactions in which the light-sensitive pigment phytochrome plays a part. In
most seedlings, the shoot shows a strong attraction to light, or a positive phototropism, which is
most evident when the source of light is from one direction. Combined with the response to
gravity, this positive phototropism maximizes the likelihood that the aerial parts of the plant
will reach the environment most favourable for photosynthesis.

John Heslop-Harrison The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Citation Information
Article Title: germination
Website Name: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Date Published: 05 January 2024
URL: https://www.britannica.comhttps://www.britannica.com/science/germination
Access Date: January 07, 2024

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