Plant and Animal Reproduction

A. Plant Reproduction
The propagation of flowering plants by sexual and asexual reproduction forms the basis
of agriculture. We will explore the reproductive biology of flowering plants in much greater
detail because they are the most important group of plants in most terrestrial ecosystems and in
agriculture.

The life cycles of plants are characterized by an alternation of generations, in which the
haploid (n) and diploid (2n) generations take turns producing each other. The sporophyte (diploid
plant) produces haploid spores by meiosis, which then divide by mitosis and giving rise to the
gametophytes (the small male and female haploid plants that produce gametes: sperm and eggs).
Fertilization results in diploid zygotes, which divide by mitosis and form new sporophytes.

FLOWER STRUCTURE

Flowers, the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm sporophyte, are typically composed
of four whorls of highly modified leaves called floral organs, which are separated by very short
internodes. They are called determinate shoots, meaning that they stop growing after the flower
and fruit are formed.
The floral organs – sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels (pistils) – are attached to a part of the
stem called the receptacle. Stamens and carpels are reproductive organs, whereas sepals and
petals are sterile. Sepals, which enclose and protect the floral bud before it opens, are usually
green and more leaflike in appearance than the other floral organs. In most cases, petals are more
brightly colored than sepals and attract the flower to insects and other pollinators. A stamen
consists of a stalk called the filament and a terminal structure called the anther; within the anther
are chambers called pollen sacs, in which pollen is produced.
A carpel has an ovary at its base and a long, slender neck called the style. At the top of the style
is the sticky structure called the stigma that serves as a landing platform for pollen. Within the
ovary are one or more ovules, with the number depending on the species. The term pistil is
sometimes used to refer to a single carpel or to group of fused carpels.

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 https://www.sciencevision.in/pollination/

Types of flowers based on the presence of the whorls:

A. Complete - is a plant biology term that is used to describe a flower that is built
with four parts which include the sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens.

B. Incomplete - If any of the sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens, which are integral in
forming a flower, is missing, a flower is called an incomplete flower.

Types of flowers based on the presence of the reproductive whorls:

A. Perfect/Bisexual – is one in which both male and female reproductive structures are
present. Both androecium (whorl of stamens) and gynoecium (whorl of carpels or pistil) are
located on the same flower.
Example: Roses

B. Imperfect/Unisexual - flower that does not have both male and female structures.
b.1. staminate flower (male) b.2. carpellate/pistillate flower (female)
Examples: squashes, cucumbers, corn, and grasses

GAMETOPHYTE DEVELOPMENT AND POLLINATION

Anthers and ovules bear sporangia, structures where spores are produced by meiosis and
gametophytes develop. Pollen grains, each consisting of a mature male gametophyte surrounded
by a spore wall, are formed within pollen sacs (microsporangia) of anthers. An egg-producing
female gametophyte, or embryo sac, forms within each ovule.
In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma. If pollination is
successful, a pollen grain produces a structure called a pollen tube, which grows and digests its
way down into the ovary via the style and discharges sperm in the vicinity of the embryo sac,
resulting in fertilization of the egg. The zygote gives rise to an embryo, and as the embryo grows,

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the ovule that contains it develops into a seed. The entire ovary, meanwhile, develops into a fruit
containing one or more seeds, depending on the species. Fruits, which disperse by dropping to
the ground or being carried by wind or animals, help spread seeds some distance from their
source plants. When light, soil, and temperature conditions are suitable, seeds germinate and the
embryo carried in the seed grows and develops into a seedling (Campbell & Reece, 2005).

The development of angiosperm gametophytes (pollen grains and embryo sacs)

http://cikgurozaini.blogspot.com/2010/07/development-of-angiosperm-gametophytes.html

We have tackled the process of gametophyte development and pollination. At this point,
let us get to know fertilization and its products: the seeds and the fruits.

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

After landing on a receptive stigma, a pollen grain absorbs moisture and germinates; that is, it
produces a pollen tube that extends down between the cells of the style toward the ovary.

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Growth of the pollen tube and double fertilization.

http://cikgurozaini.blogspot.com/2013/08/double-fertilisation-in-angiosperm.html

From Ovule to Seed

After double fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed, and the ovary develops into a fruit
enclosing the seed(s). As the embryo develops from the zygote, the seed stockpiles proteins, oils,
and starch to varying extents, depending on the species. This is why seeds are such major sugar
sinks. Initially, these nutrients are stored in the endosperm, but later in seed development in many
species, the storage function of the endosperm is more or less taken over by the swelling
cotyledons of the embryo (Campbell & Reece).

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 https://slideplayer.com/slide/7711878/

From Ovary to Fruit

While the seeds are developing from ovules, the ovary of the flower is developing into a fruit,
which protects the enclosed seeds and, when mature, aids in their dispersal by wind or animals.
Fertilization triggers hormonal changes that cause the ovary to begin its transformation into a
fruit. If the flower has not been pollinated, fruit usually does not develop, and the entire flower
withers and falls away.

During fruit development, the ovary wall becomes the pericarp, the thickened wall of the
fruit. As the ovary grows, the other parts of the flower wither and are shed (Campbell & Reece).

Developmental origin of fruits.

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 https://biology-forums.com/index.php?action=gallery;sa=view;id=32660

B. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Just like the plants, animals reproduce with two principal modes: asexual (without sex) and
sexual (fusion of gametes) reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is the creation of new individuals whose genes all come from one parent
without the fusion of egg and sperm.
Sexual reproduction is the creation of offspring by the fusion of haploid gametes to form a
zygote (fertilized egg), which is diploid.
The female gamete, the unfertilized egg (also called an ovum), is a relatively large cell and not
motile.
The male gamete, the sperm, is generally a much smaller, motile cell. Sexual reproduction
increases genetic variability (one of its advantages over asexual reproduction) among offspring
by generating unique combinations of genes inherited from two parents. Thus, by producing
offspring having a variety of phenotypes, sexual reproduction may enhance the reproductive
success of parents when environmntal factors (including pathogens) change relatively rapidly.
Asexual reproduction has several potential advantages. For instance, it enables animals living in
isolation to produce offspring without locating mates. It can also create numerous offspring in a
short amount of time, which is ideal for colonizing a habitat rapidly. Theoretically, asexua
reproduction is most advantageous in stable, favorable environments because it perpetuates
successful genotypes precisely.

Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction

In asexual reproduction, a singe parent splits, buds, or fragments to give rise to two or
more offspring that have hereditary traits identical with those of the parent.

TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

ASEXUAL

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 REPRODUCTIO
N
Fission the separation of a parent into two or more Sea anemone
individuals of approximately equal size.
Budding in which new individuals arise from outgrowths of Cnidarians and
existing ones; the offspring may either tunicates

Fragmentation the breaking of the body into several pieces, some or Flatworms
all of which develop into complete adults.

Regeneration the regrowth of lost body parts; usually accompanied Sea stars
with fragmentation.

Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves two parents. Each contributes a specialized gamete (an egg
or sperm); these fuse to form the fertilized egg, or zygote. Fertilization, the fusion of sperm and
egg, may take place inside the body (internal fertilization) or outside the body (external
fertilization).

TYPES OF FERTILIZATION
Internal Fertilization
The male generally delivers sperm cells
directly into the body of the female. Her
moist tissues provide the
watery medium required for movement of
sperm.
Examples: Most terrestrial animals, few fish
and some other aquatic animals
External Fertilization
Mating patners usually release eggs and sperms
into the water simultaneously.
Examples: Many fish, amphibians, and other
sexual aquatic animals use
external fertilization (the exceptions are aquatic
mammals, sharks, and some
other special types of fish)

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

The details of the reproductive process vary tremendously from one organism to another,
and so some generalizations were made about animal reproductive systems in order to understand
its variations.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
MALE FEMALE

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 1. Male gonad (testis) 1. Female gonad (ovary)
- in which sperm are produced - in which eggs are produced
2. Sperm duct 2. Oviduct
- used for the transport of sperm to the - a tube for the transport of egg
exterior of the body 3. Vagina
3. Penis - the terminal portion of the oviduct
- the terminal part of the sperm duct responsible for the receiving of male copulatory
which opens onto or into a copulatory organ organ

Some Reproductive Variations

Some animals show unique and tremendous diversity in their methods of reproduction.
Even members of the same class may differ markedly in their reproductive process.

A. Metagenesis – also known as ‘transformation development’, refers to an

alternation of asexual and sexual generations.

Example: hydrozoan Obelia, a polyp generation gives rise by budding to a generation of

medusas. The motile medusas produce gametes and reproduce sexually, giving rise to
new generation of polyps. Thus, there is alternation of generations – polyp, medusa,
polyp, medusa, and so on. Both generations consist of diploid organisms.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/animals/obelia-structure-diagram-life-cycle/

B. Parthenogenesis – also known as ‘virgin development’, is a form of reproduction

in which an unfertilized egg develops into an adult animal. This occurs for several
generations, after which males develop, produce sperm, and mate with females to fertilize
their eggs. In some species, parthenogenesis is advantageous in maintaining social order;
in others, it appears to be an adaptation for survival in times of stressor when there is a
serious decrease in population.

Example: Honeybees. The queen honeybee is inseminated by a male during the “nuptial
flight”. The sperm she receives are stored in a little pouch connected with her genital tract
but closed off by a muscular valve. As the queen lays eggs, she can either open this valve,
permitting the sperm to escape and fertilize the eggs, or keep the valve closed, so that the

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 eggs develop without fertilization. Generally, fertilization occurs in the fall, and the
fertilized eggs are quiescent during the winter. The fertilized eggs become females
(queens and workers); the unfertilized eggs become males (drones).

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/515591857323446143/

C. Hermaphroditism – means that a single organism produces both eggs and sperm.
Although this form of reproduction is still classified as sexual, (since both eggs and
sperms are involved), it is an exception to the important generalization that sexual
reproduction involves two different individuals.

Example: Earthworm. Most hermaphrodites do not reproduce by selffertilization. Rather,

as in earthworms, two animals copulate, and each inseminates the other.

http://www.soilanimals.com/look/soil-
foodweb?tmpl=%2Fsystem%2Fapp%2Ftemplates%2Fprint%2F&showPrintDialog=1

Human Reproduction

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 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

https://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/your-guide-female-reproductive-system https://microbenotes.com/female-
reproductive-system/

Ovaries - Produce both the egg cell and the sex hormones. Enclosed in a tough
protective capsule and contains many follicles. Egg cell is expelled from the follicle in
the process of ovulation.

Oviducts and Uterus – Egg cell is released into the abdominal activity near the opening
of the oviduct, or fallopian tube. The uterus is a thick, muscular organ that can expand
during pregnancy to aaccommodate a 4-kg fetus. The inner lining of the uterus, the
endometrium, is richly supplied with blood vessels. The neck of the uterus is the cervix,
which opens into the vagina.

Vagina and Vulva – a thin-walled chamber that is the repository for sperm during
copulation and that serves as the birth canal through which a baby is born. Vulva is a
collective term for the external female genitalia. Vestibule, labia minora, labia majora,
clitoris, and Bartholin’s glands are all located in this area having their special functions.

Mammary glands – present in both sexes but normally function only in women. They are
not part of the reproductive system but are important to mammalian reproduction. Within
the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk which drains into a series of ducts
opening at the nipple.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

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https://www.earthslab.com/physiology/male-reproductive-system-locations-
functions-male-reproductive-organs/ https://www.pixtastock.com/illustration/45939563

Testes (singular, testis) – consist of many highly coiled tubes (seminiferous tubules – where
sperm form) surrounded by several layers of connective tissue. The Leydig cells that are scattered
between the seminiferous tubules produce testosterone and other androgens. The production of
normal `sperm cannot occur at the normal body temperatures of most mammals, and the testes of
humans and many other mammals are held outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum.

Ducts – from seminiferous tubules, the sperm pass into the epididymis. During ejaculation, the
sperm are propelled from the epididymis through the muscular vas deferens. These two ducts
(one from each epididymis) run from the scrotum around and behind the urinary bladder, where
each joins a duct from the seminal vesicl, forming a short ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory ducts
open into the urethra, the tube that drains both the excretory system and reproductive system of
male. The urethra runs through the penis and opens to the outside at the tip of the penis.

Glands – three sets of accessory glands – the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral
glands – add secretions to the semen, the fluid that is ejaculated.

Semen in the Female Reproductive Tract – males usually ejaculates 2-5 ml of semen, and each
milliliter may contain 50-130 million of sperm. Prostaglandins in the semen cause thinning of
the mucus at the opening of the uterus and stimulate contractions of the uterine muscles, which
help semen move up to the uterus.

Penis – is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue derived from modified veins and
capillaries. During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries. As this
tissue fills, the increasing pressure seals off the veins that drain the penis, causing it to engorge
with blood. The resulting erection is essential to insertion of the penis into the vagina.

HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

2 TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS

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 1. VASOCONGESTION – the filling of a tissue with blood caused by increased blood
flow through the arteries of that tissue.

2. MYOTONIA – increased muscle tension of both skeletal and smooth muscles.

4 PHASES OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

1. EXCITEMENT PHASE – preparation of penis and vagina for coitus (sexual

intercourse). During this phase, vasocongestion is particularly evident in erection of the penis and
clitoris; enlargement of the testes, labia, and breasts; and vaginal lubrication. Myotonia may
occur, resulting in nipple erection or tension of the arms and legs.

2. PLATEAU PHASE – responses in excitement phase continue. In females, the

outer third of the vagina becomes vasocongested, while the inner two-thirds slightly expands.
This change, coupled with the elevation of the uterus, forms a depression that receives sperm at
the back of the vagina. Breathing increases and heart rate rises, sometimes to 150 beats per
minute – not in response to the physical effort of sexual activity, but as an involuntary response
to stimulation of the autonomic nervous system.

3. ORGASM PHASE – is characterized by rhythmic, involuntary contractions of

the reproductive structures in both sexes.
Male orgasm has two stages. Emission is the contraction of the glands and ducts of the
reproductive tract, which forces semen into the urethra. Expulsion or ejaculation, occurs when the
urethra contracts and the semen is expelled.
During female orgasm, the uterus and outer vagina contract, but the inner two-thirds of the
vagina do not. Orgasm is the shortest response of the sexual response cycle, usually lasting only a
few seconds.

4. RESOLUTION PHASE – completes the cycle and reverses the responses of the
earlier stages.

Contraception and its types

TYPES EXAMPLE
Ovulation-suppressing method Oral contraceptives (pills)
Barrier methods Condom, Diaphragm, Cervical cap
Chemical Spermicidal jelly and foam
Surgical methods Vasectomy and Tubal ligation
Implantation-suppressing methods IUD and Morning-after pill
Others Abstinence
Note: Abstinence is the only form of contraception that is guaranteed 100% effective.

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PLANT AND ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
A. Plant Development

Plants are the antennae by which the energy of sunlight is captured in the ecosphere and
then stored in food for later slow, catabolic release in the living cells of both plants and animals.
To many of us, plants are little more than a green mass in the background of life. Yet more than
99% of our planet’s living matter is composed of plants; this includes a tremendous variety of
algae, vines, shrubs, trees, grasses, and herbs. Almost all of these diverse plant shapes are
variations on a common theme, and almost all tracheophytes (vascular plants) are composed of
just three main parts: leaves, stems, and roots.
Although a plant begins life as a seed, the seed has a history of development all its own.
The fundamental body plan of a plant is laid down even before a seed leaves the parent plant
(Villee, Solomon & Davis).

Seeds

The seed plants are classified into two major groups, the gymnosperms (are both male and
female; that is, each reproductive organ is either male or female. They are a group of seed-
producing plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes. Gymnosperm means
“naked seeds” that is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds) and the angiosperms (a
plant that has flowers and produces seeds enclosed within a carpel. The angiosperms are a large
group and include herbaceous plants, shrubs, grasses, and most trees). The angiosperms are then
divided into the monocots and the dicots, mostly on the basis of their seed structure.

SEED STRUCTURE

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 https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/61924563611781680/

The Monocot Seed

In a typical monocot such as a grass, the seed is surrounded with a protective seed coat. The
aleurone layer, which lies under the seed coat, functions as a kind of digestive organ in seed
germination. Most of the seeds consist of starchy endosperm, a food storage tissue that forms
separately from the embryo while the seed is still attached to the parent plant. In some monocots
the embryo proper is demarked from the endosperm by a tough scutellum, and often by another
layer known as the coleorhiza, which protects the future root, or radicle, as it grows out of the
seed into the surrounding soil. All of these structures will be discarded once they have served
their function, leaving only the radicle, the mesocotyl (future stem), and the shoot apex, which
by then will have developed into the mature versions of these structures.
Monocot means “single leaf,” which refers to its only seed structure that appears to be
homologous with a leaf – the single cotyledon. The monocot cotyledon absorbs digested food
from the endosperm. In grass embryos, a very large cotyledon develops, which is known as the
scutellum (Villee, Solomon & Davis).

The Dicot Seed

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 Dicots, as their name implies, have two cotyledons. Sometimes, as in the castor bean plant, these
do function as actual leaves. More typically, as in beans, peas, and maple seeds, the cotyledons
serve as food storage organs in place of the endosperm.
Other dicot seed structures include the radicle and the plumule, which corresponds to the shoot
apex in monocots. In most dicot seeds, however, there is nothing comparable to the aleurone or
coleorhiza, although some do have a functional endosperm.
The embryo and its cotyledon(s) are the result of one of two distinct fertilizations: in one of
these, the endosperm (if any) is produced. The other fertilization process, which gives rise to the
embryo, yields a zygote, which then undergoes cleavage. The cell divisions that the zygote
undergoes following fertilization first produce a basal cell and a terminal cell. From the basal cell
develops a filament of cells called a suspensor. The terminal cell divides, forming a rounded
mass of cells; from this mass grow the two cotyledons and a central axis. In dicots, the part of the
axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledons is called the hypocotyl and the part above it,
is the epicotyl. The embryo is in this state of development when the seed becomes dormant.

SEED GERMINATION

The embryonic plant is kept in a state of suspended development called dormancy, which ends
when germination takes place.

Breaking Dormancy
As a first step in breaking dormancy, the embryo emits a hormone called
gibberellin, which diffuses through the seed. In monocots, the hormone then triggers the
production of digestive enzymes by the aleurone; in dicots, the digestive enzymes are
produced by the cotyledons. These enzymes then proceed to break down the stored food
in the endosperm or cotyledons. For example, amylase breaks down starch to form
maltose, which is then cleaved by maltase to yield glucose; and other enzymes attack
stored proteins, fats, and oils, mobilizing them for the seedling’s use.

The Early Root and Emergence

Microscopic examination of the root tip will disclose a cap consisting partly of
dead or moribund cells at its apex, whose function is largely to protect the tender tissues
from abrasion by soil particles, and in addition to serve as a source of growth hormones.
The actual living tissue, however, is undergoing vigorous mitosis. For that reason, this
part of the root tip is known as the zone of division. It is an apical meristem, a growing
tip of embryonic, differentiating tissue. By the time they have begun to enlarge, they are
left behind in a zone of elongation, which is responsible for most of the lengthwise
growth of the root tip. Since new cells are constantly added to this zone by mitosis,
however, growth continues indefinitely. At the same time, the older portions of the zone
of elongation cease to grow and become incorporated into the zone of maturation, where
tissue differentiation now begins.

Meristems and Buds

PRIMARY MERISTEMS
For the most part, the primary meristems give rise to differentiated tissues such as
phloem and xylem. However, some tissues derived from the primary meristem remain
15
 undifferentiated and form the cambium layers of the stem and the similar pericycle layer
of the root. These eventually form differentiated tissues themselves, but in such a way as
to produce lateral growth and increase in girth.

THE LEAF BUD

Leaf Growth
Each leaf originates on the side of the meristem, growing upward as it enlarges and
begins to differentiate. Once its growth is well under way, another group of cells next to it
and somewhat above it begins to grow outward and upward.

Leaf Fall
Leaves age and die in all plants, and in some cases the plant senesces as a whole. As
xylem ages, for example, it becomes clogged with resins and turns to heartwood. As cells
produced by the cork cambium age, they die and become converted to cork.
The part of a perennial plant that ages most obviously – and sometimes spectacularly – is
the leaf. In deciduous trees, however, all leaves age and die at about the same time in
what happens to be basically a water conservation measure.

The Ecology of Abscission

Abscission is the process by which plants shed one of their parts, and an abscission layer
is an adaptation that specifically permits loss of leaves. The abscission layer also
represents a point of weakness, so that in due time, the yellowed leaves are swirled away
by the winds of winter.

SECONDARY GROWTH

In Dicots
If root and shoot (stem) meristems give rise to all plant tissues, a process of
differentiation must occur behind the growing tips of the stem and the root. In stems, the
earliest trace of differentiation occurs just behind the apical zone of active mitosis. In the
center of the apical bud is a cylinder that develops into the vascular tissues as it matures.
It is appropriately known as the provascular cylinder. On the exterior, potential
epidermis called the protoderm develops. Between the two lies a layer called ground
meristem or ground tissue, which becomes the cortex and the pith.

In Monocots
Secondary growth usually does not occur in monocots. The trunk of a treelike
monocot such as bamboo or a palm tree remains roughly the same diameter from base to
crown.; in fact, the diameter of a palm trunk can be somewhat smaller at the base than
midway between it and the crown. Yet the trunk of a palm seedling is obviously not
nearly as great as is that of the mature tree. What happens is a bit different than what
occurs in dicots. Immediately behind the apical meristem is a primary thickening

16
 meristem that is as great in diameter as the trunk. It is derived from the apical meristem,
which continuously enlarges to produce it. The primary thickening meristem then lays
down vascular and other differentiated tissues to form the stem of the palm tree.

Early Development

The Zygote
The zygote is a fertilized egg that has the potential to give rise to all the diverse cell types
of the complete individual.
In most vertebrate zygotes, the cytoplasm contains yolk, which serves as food for the
developing embryo. The amount and distribution of yolk vary among different animal groups.
Yolk is absent from the human zygote.

Cleavage: From One Cell to Many

Cleavage is a process wherein the zygote undergoes a rapid mitosis. By about 24 hours after
fertilization, the human zygote has completed the first mitotic division and reached the two-cell
stage. Each of the cells of the two-cell stage embryo undergoes mitosis, bringing the number of
cells to four. Repeated divisions continue to increase the number of cells making up the embryo.
At about the 16cell stage, the embryo consists of a tiny cluster of cells called the morula. As
cleavage takes place, the embryo is pushed along the uterine tube by ciliary action and muscular
contraction. By the time the embryo reaches the uterus, on about the fifth day of development, it
is in the morula stage.

https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/a-morula-can-be-differentiated-form-blastula-in/

The Blastocyst
During this period, its cells arrange themselves into the form of hollow ball called
blastocyst (blastula), eventually forms and nutritive membranes (the chorion and placenta) that
surround the embryo. A little cluster of cells, the inner cell mass, projects into the cavity of the
blastocyst. These cells give rise to the embryo itself.

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 https://epomedicine.com/medical-students/embryology-week-1-cleavage-implantation/

Implantation
Implantation of embryo in the endometrium (lining) of the uterus begins on the seventh
day of embryonic development. During this period, enzymes destroy some tiny maternal
capillaries in the wall of the uterus. Blood from these capillaries comes in direct contact with the
trophoblast of the embryo, temporarily providing a rich source of nutrition. Implantation is
completed by the ninth day of development.

Formation of Germ Layers

The cells of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst arrange themselves to form a two-layered
disk. The cells of the lower level then merge to line an inner cavity, the primitive gut, or
archenteron, which will eventually develop into the digestive tract and certain other structures.
These cells make up the endoderm, while the cells that remain to cover the embryo and become
its outermost layer form the ectoderm. A third layer of cells, the mesoderm, proliferates between
the ectoderm and endoderm.
Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are known as the three germ layers, or embryonic tissue
layers. Each gives rise to specific structures in all vertebrate embryos (Villee, Solomon & Davis).

Stages in the Human Life Cycle

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PLANT AND ANIMAL
NUTRITION
A. Plant Nutrition

The basic photosynthetic reaction combines carbon dioxide with water in two stages to yield
glucose and oxygen. Glucose contains the elements carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen – the only
elements occurring in complex sugars and in most fats. Thus, the carbohydrates and fats
occurring in plants can be made from water and carbon dioxide alone. However, plants do also
require various other inorganic nutrients. Biosynthesis of compounds such as amino acids,
phospholipids, nucleic acids, and ATP requires the elements phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.

Often the very nutrients a plant requires in modest amounts can poison it when present in excess.
Overuse of fertilizer, for instance, can make the soil hypertonic to the plant, resulting in osmotic
stress that injures or kills the plant.
Plants like animals, have optimum ranges in which nutrients are present in concentrations that
best promote their health and growth.
The uptake of nutrients by a plant: a review. From CO2, O2, H20, and minerals, the plant
produces all of its own organic materials.

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Figure 1: Plant Nutrition https://www.simply.science/index.php/biology/plant-form-and-function/nutrition-in-plants/nutrition-
plantgrowth

Plant Nutrient Requirements

Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an
organism. The two types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to
produce their own food.
Example: plants
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain
their energy from other organism.
Example: fungi

THE MACRONUTRIENTS
Macronutrients are those nutrients needed by all plants in relatively large amounts. The
following list of required nutrients should be considered as of more than passing interest, for our
lives depend upon them.
A. Nitrogen. Nitrogen was one of the first nutrients to be discovered. Although it can be
provided in the form of nitrate or ammonia, it is usually absorbed in the form of nitrate. Nitrogen
is needed for proper leaf growth and development. A deficiency may produce yellowing of older
leaves or a general lightening of all the green parts of the plant, combined with a stunting of
growth. An excess produces hypertrophy of foliage and suppresses fruit production. Nitrogen is
mainly important as a component of proteins and nucleic acids.
B. Potassium. Potassium, another early known plant nutrient, is traditionally added to the
soil in the form of wood ash. The main intracellular cation, potassium, is probably most
important for maintaining the membrane potential of pant cells, and perhaps their turgidity as
well (especially in the guard cells of the stomata). Deficiency produces general symptoms of

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poor health, which can include localized chlorosis (low chlorophyll content), or mottling of
leaves with small spots of dead tissue at the tips and between the veins of lower leaves.
C. Phosphorus. Deficient in a great many soils, phosphorus is essential for the production of
such vital compounds as the nucleic acids and ATP. It is needed for flowering, fruiting, and root
development. Deficiency results in small dark green leaves over the entire plant and the
abnormal presence of red and purple colors in the leaves and stalks.
D. Sulfur. Sulfur is an essential component of protein because of its occurrence in the amino
acids cysteine and methionine. Deficiency produces chlorosis in new leaves and buds, usually
without spotting, and poor root development. Sulfur cannot be absorbed in elemental form but
must be present as sulfate.
E. Calcium. Calcium deficiency results in abnormal growth and cell division, since calcium
is an important component of the middle lamella of cell walls (along with pectin). Typically, the
terminal bud dies, following a period of in which small leaves with dried-up tips are produced.
Calcium has a multitude of cellular functions in the plant body.
F. Magnesium. Magnesium is required for the action of many enzymes and is needed also
in the synthesis of chlorophyll, which contains it. Deficiency, therefore, produces mottled
chlorosis.

THE MICRONUTRIENTS
Micronutrients are as vital as macronutrients but are required only in extremely small amounts.
The following elements in trace amounts are now known to have a significant role in maintaining
plant health.
A. Iron. Iron is needed in several of the electron transport substances of the cell (ferredoxin,
cytochromes), and in some other materials (e.g., phytochrome). It is also required for chlorophyll
synthesis. Deficiency in iron absorption can occur in soils with high or low pH. If there is a
deficiency, it results to interveinal chlorosis characterized by yellowing of the leaf along the
veins, that is confined to the youngest leaves.
B. Boron. The function of Boron is unknown. Deficiency results in abnormally dark foliage,
growth abnormalities, and malformations. Root tip elongation also shows.
C. Zinc. Zinc is required for the production of amino acid tryptophan. Since auxins are
derived from tryptophan, zinc is indirectly required for the production of auxins as well; it is also
required as a cofactor for some of the DNA polymerase enzymes. Deficiency produces small
leaves and stunted stems owing to short internodes. In excess, zinc is poisonous to plants.
D. Manganese. Manganese is required as a cofactor for enzymes in oxidative metabolism
and in photosynthetic oxygen production. Its deficiency produces a mottled, characteristic form
of chlorotic leaf yellowing.
E. Chlorine. Probably required for ionic balance and maintenance of cellular membrane
potentials, chlorine (in the form of chloride) is apparently also needed for oxygen production in
photosynthesis. Its deficiency results in very small leaves and slow growth. Leaves become
wilted, chlorotic, or even necrotic and may eventually become bronze-colored.
F. Molybdenum. Molybdenum is needed as part of the denitrifying and nitrogen-fixing
enzymes of microorganisms. Molybdenum is also needed by the nitrate reductase enzyme
present in most plant roots. Plants must utilize this enzyme if they are to employ nitrate as a
nitrogen source. However, plants that absorb ammonia as a nitrogen source do not need
molybdenum.
Low productivity was related to molybdenum deficiency.

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G. Copper. Copper is a component of some enzymes and cytochromes. Its deficiency results
in a lowered rate of protein synthesis and sometimes in chlorosis. Young leaves may be dark
green and twisted, with dead spots.

Figure 2: The most common minerals deficiency

http://www.sliderbase.com/spitem-1620-4.html

Specialized Absorptive Structures

A. root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly increase
the surface area available for absorption.

B. root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain plants where bacterial cells
exist symbiotically with the plant. The bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and in turn, the
bacteria are able to utilize some organic compounds provided by the plant.

C. mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic interaction between a young

root and a fungus. The fungus obtains sugars and nitrogen-containing compounds from root cells
while the plant is able to get some scarce minerals that the fungus is better able to absorb from
the soil.

Routes for the Absorption of Water and Minerals Across Plant Roots:

A. Symplast route – through plasmodesmata

B. Apoplast route – along cell walls

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 Figure 3:

Routes for the Absorption of Water and Minerals Across Plant Roots:

https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-apoplast-and-vs-symplast/

Note that the water and minerals from the soil need to reach the conducting tissues of plants,
specifically the xylem.

Nutritional Adaptation by Plants

A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbe

Nitrogen Fixation: Root and Bacteria Interactions

Nitrogen is an important macronutrient because it is part of nucleic acids and

proteins. Atmospheric nitrogen, which is the diatomic molecule N 2, or dinitrogen, is the
largest pool of nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems. However, plants cannot take advantage
of this nitrogen because they do not have the necessary enzymes to convert it into
biologically useful forms. However, nitrogen can be “fixed.” It can be converted to
ammonia (NH3) through biological, physical, or chemical processes. Biological nitrogen
fixation (BNF), the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N 2) into ammonia (NH3), is
exclusively carried out by prokaryotes, such as soil bacteria or cyanobacteria. Biological
processes contribute 65 percent of the nitrogen used in agriculture.

The most important source of BNF is the symbiotic interaction between soil
bacteria and legume plants, including many crops important to humans. The NH 3 resulting
from fixation can be transported into plant tissue and incorporated into amino acids,
which are then made into plant proteins. Some legume seeds, such as soybeans and
peanuts, contain high levels of protein and are among the most important agricultural
sources of protein in the world.

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Figure 4: Diagram of the Nitrogen Cycle https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-
adaptations-of-plants/

Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic Relationship between Fungi and Roots

A nutrient depletion zone can develop when there is rapid soil solution uptake,
low nutrient concentration, low diffusion rate, or low soil moisture. These conditions are
very common; therefore, most plants rely on fungi to facilitate the uptake of minerals
from the soil. Mycorrhizae, known as root fungi, form symbiotic associations with plant
roots. In these associations, the fungi are actually integrated into the physical structure of
the root. The fungi colonize the living root tissue during active plant growth.

Through mycorrhization, the plant obtains phosphate and other minerals, such as
zinc and copper, from the soil. The fungus obtains nutrients, such as sugars, from the
plant root. Mycorrhizae help increase the surface area of the plant root system because
hyphae, which are narrow, can spread beyond the nutrient depletion zone. Hyphae are
long extensions of the fungus, which can grow into small soil pores that allow access to
phosphorus otherwise unavailable to the plant. The beneficial effect on the plant is best
observed in poor soils. The benefit to fungi is that they can obtain up to 20 percent of the
total carbon accessed by plants. Mycorrhizae function as a physical barrier to pathogens.
They also provides an induction of generalized host defense mechanisms, which
sometimes involves the production of antibiotic compounds by the fungi. Fungi have also
been found to have a protective role for plants rooted in soils with high metal
concentrations, such as acidic and contaminated soils.

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 Figure 5: Mycorrhizae
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-adaptations-of-plants/

Plant Parasites

A parasitic plant depends on its host for survival. Some parasitic plants have no
leaves. An example of this is the dodder, which has a weak, cylindrical stem that coils
around the host and forms suckers. From these suckers, cells invade the host stem and
grow to connect with the vascular bundles of the host. The parasitic plant obtains water
and nutrients through these connections. The plant is a total parasite (a holoparasite)
because it is completely dependent on its host. Other parasitic plants, called
hemiparasites, are fully photosynthetic and only use the host for water and minerals.
There are about 4,100 species of parasitic plants.

B. Animal Nutrition

According to Johnson and Raven, Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy
contained in food. It specifically refers to the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by 1 oC (1.8oF). And so, the greater the number of Calories
in a quantity of food, the greater energy it contains.

Nutritional Requirements of Animals

1. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. These
are usually obtained from grains, cereals, breads, fruits and vegetables. On average,
carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram.

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 2. Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly uses these as
building materials for cell structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles, and bones.
Proteins come from dairy products, poultry, fish, meat, and grains. Like carbohydrates, proteins
also contain 4 Calories per gram.

3. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other cellular
structures; also used to insulate nervous tissue., and also serve as an energy source. Fats also
contain certain fat-soluble vitamins that are important for good health. Fats are obtained from
oils, margarine, butter, fried foods, meat, and processed snack foods. They contain a higher
amount of energy per gram than carbohydrates and proteins, about 9 Calories per gram.

Essential Nutrients

These include substances that animals can only get from the foods they eat
because they could not be synthesized inside the body. These include:

1. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes; among the
20 amino acids, eight could not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan, threonine,
methionine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine.

2. Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an example is
linoleic acid in humans.

3. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal metabolism;

examples include fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and watersoluble Vitamins B, B2, B3, B12,
and C.

4. Trace elements or minerals – inorganic nutrients needed by the body in minute

amounts, these form part of enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids; examples include: iodine,
cobalt, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, selenium.
Food Uptake in Cells via the Three Types of Endocytosis

1. Phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big particles, e.g.

pseudopod formation in Amoeba.

2. Pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell using small vesicles derived from
the plasma membrane.

3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis – this relies on membrane receptor recognition of

specific solutes which are then taken up by the cell via receptor-coated pits.

Types of animals based on feeding mechanisms

1. substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food source. Examples:

earthworms that feed through the soil where they live in; caterpillars that eat through
the leaves where they live on

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 2. filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which draw in water and strain small
organisms and food particles present in the medium.
Examples: whales and coelenterates

3. fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a living host.

Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice, aphids

4. bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and have adaptations like jaws,
teeth, tentacles, claws, pincers, etc. that help in securing the food and tearing it to
pieces.

Different kinds of digestive compartments in animals

1. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with lysosomes that contain
hydrolytic enzymes.
Example: food vacuole in a protozoa like Paramecium

2. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system – composed of a single

opening through which the food is taken in and where wastes are disposed of. It is a sac-
like body cavity.
Examples: cnidarian Hydra and flatworm Planaria

3. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with an opening at one end for
taking in food (mouth) and an opening at the outer end where unabsorbed waste materials
are eliminated (anus). In between the mouth and anus, are specialized organs that carry
out transport, processing, and absorption of digested nutrients.

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 Figure 5: The Digestive System
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-system-how-it-works

Accessory organs for digestion in a complete digestive system

1. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats.

2. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver.
3. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down all major food molecules; secretes
buffers against HCl from the stomach; secretes the hormone insulin for control of
glucose metabolism.

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