PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGAN

SYSTEMS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

(REPRODUCTION, DEVELOPMENT, AND
NUTRITION)
for General Biology 2 Grade 11
Quarter 4/ Week 1

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 FOREWORD

This self-learning kit will serve as guide for the learners. It

will aid them as they learn new ideas and enrich their existing
knowledge. In order to study General Biology, one requires a
sense of discipline.

In this learning kit, learners will gain knowledge on the

different organ systems of plants and animals including their
various functions such as reproduction, development, and
nutrition.

Plants and animals have similarities and differences on

how they reproduce, grow, acquire, and process nutrients for
adaptation and survival.

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 Lesson PLANT AND ANIMAL
1 REPRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:

K: differentiate the two modes of plant and animal
reproduction (asexual and sexual)
S: list down the parts of the reproductive organs of plants and
animals
A: recognize the advantages and disadvantages of asexual
and sexual reproduction in plants and animals

LEARNING COMPETENCY

Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and

animals: reproduction, development, nutrition, gas exchange,
transport/circulation, regulation of body fluids, chemical and
nervous control, immune systems, and sensory and motor
mechanisms (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

I. WHAT HAPPENED

PRE-ACTIVITIES/PRE-TEST

IDENTIFICATION: Complete the sentences by supplying the correct word(s) from

the word pool. Write the answers in your notebook.

A. PLANT REPRODUCTION

Pollination Genetic; Staminate, Scion; stock;

identical pistillate cambium
Simple Propagules Petals Pollen; water
fruit new staminate Ovulate; pollen
combinations tube;
archegonium;
embryo

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 1. The main advantage of asexual reproduction, in addition to its speed, is that it
permits the propagation of advantageous ______________________________
makeups since the offspring are genetically __________________________ with the
parent.
2. Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, permits _____________________
__________________ of traits to arise from the contributions of multiple different
ancestors.
3. Certain plants produce body parts specialized for breakaway and dispersal
that are known as ___________________________.
4. In grafting, the plant that is to be asexually propagated is known as the
_____________________; this is attached to the _____________________________,
which may be little more than a root. It is important that the two have their
____________________________ layers in contact with each other.
5. The production of ____________________________ by the seed plants largely
circumvents the requirement found in ferns, mosses, and the like for
_________________________ as a requirement for fertilization.

B. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Fragmentation Hermaphroditic sterile

Gamete; zygote Sexual and asexual Develops into a new
generations individual

1. The type of reproduction in which an animal divides into several pieces and
then each piece develops into an entire new animal is called
_____________________________.
2. In metagenesis there is an alternation of
____________________________________________.
3. Parthenogenesis is a type of reproduction in which an unfertilized egg
__________________________________________.
4. An individual that can produce both eggs and sperm is described as
_________________________.
5. A sex cell (either egg or sperm) is properly called a
____________________________; a fertilized egg is a
________________________________.

II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

DISCUSSION
A. Plant Reproduction

The propagation of flowering plants by sexual and asexual reproduction

forms the basis of agriculture. We will explore the reproductive biology of flowering
plants in much greater detail because they are the most important group of plants

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in most terrestrial ecosystems and in agriculture.

The life cycles of plants are characterized by an alternation of generations,

in which the haploid (n) and diploid (2n) generations take turns producing each
other. The sporophyte (diploid plant) produces haploid spores by meiosis, which
then divide by mitosis and giving rise to the gametophytes (the small male and
female haploid plants that produce gametes: sperm and eggs). Fertilization results
in diploid zygotes, which divide by mitosis and form new sporophytes.

FLOWER STRUCTURE

Flowers, the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm sporophyte, are

typically composed of four whorls of highly modified leaves called floral organs,
which are separated by very short internodes. They are called determinate shoots,
meaning that they stop growing after the flower and fruit are formed.
The floral organs – sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels (pistils) – are
attached to a part of the stem called the receptacle. Stamens and carpels are
reproductive organs, whereas sepals and petals are sterile. Sepals, which enclose
and protect the floral bud before it opens, are usually green and more leaflike in
appearance than the other floral organs. In most cases, petals are more brightly
colored than sepals and attract the flower to insects and other pollinators.
A stamen consists of a stalk called the filament and a terminal structure
called the anther; within the anther are chambers called pollen sacs, in which
pollen is produced.
A carpel has an ovary at its base and a long, slender neck called the style.
At the top of the style is the sticky structure called the stigma that serves as a
landing platform for pollen. Within the ovary are one or more ovules, with the
number depending on the species. The term pistil is sometimes used to refer to a
single carpel or to group of fused carpels.

https://www.sciencevision.in/pollination/

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Types of flowers based on the presence of the whorls:

A. Complete - is a plant biology term that is used to describe a flower that

is built with four parts which include the sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens.

B. Incomplete - If any of the sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens, which are
integral in forming a flower, is missing, a flower is called an incomplete
flower.

Types of flowers based on the presence of the reproductive whorls:

A. Perfect/Bisexual – is one in which both male and female reproductive

structures are present. Both androecium (whorl of stamens) and gynoecium
(whorl of carpels or pistil) are located on the same flower.
Example: Roses

B. Imperfect/Unisexual - flower that does not have both male and female
structures.
b.1. staminate flower (male)
b.2. carpellate/pistillate flower (female)
Examples: squashes, cucumbers, corn, and grasses

GAMETOPHYTE DEVELOPMENT AND POLLINATION

Anthers and ovules bear sporangia, structures where spores are produced
by meiosis and gametophytes develop. Pollen grains, each consisting of a mature
male gametophyte surrounded by a spore wall, are formed within pollen sacs
(microsporangia) of anthers. An egg-producing female gametophyte, or embryo
sac, forms within each ovule.
In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a
stigma. If pollination is successful, a pollen grain produces a structure called a
pollen tube, which grows and digests its way down into the ovary via the style and
discharges sperm in the vicinity of the embryo sac, resulting in fertilization of the
egg. The zygote gives rise to an embryo, and as the embryo grows, the ovule that
contains it develops into a seed. The entire ovary, meanwhile, develops into a fruit
containing one or more seeds, depending on the species. Fruits, which disperse
by dropping to the ground or being carried by wind or animals, help spread seeds
some distance from their source plants. When light, soil, and temperature
conditions are suitable, seeds germinate and the embryo carried in the seed
grows and develops into a seedling (Campbell & Reece, 2005).

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The development of angiosperm gametophytes (pollen grains and embryo sacs)

http://cikgurozaini.blogspot.com/2010/07/development-of-angiosperm-gametophytes.html

We have tackled the process of gametophyte development and

pollination. At this point, let us get to know fertilization and its products: the seeds
and the fruits.

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

After landing on a receptive stigma, a pollen grain absorbs moisture and

germinates; that is, it produces a pollen tube that extends down between the cells
of the style toward the ovary.

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Growth of the pollen tube and double fertilization.

http://cikgurozaini.blogspot.com/2013/08/double-fertilisation-in-angiosperm.html

From Ovule to Seed

After double fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed, and the ovary
develops into a fruit enclosing the seed(s). As the embryo develops from the
zygote, the seed stockpiles proteins, oils, and starch to varying extents, depending
on the species. This is why seeds are such major sugar sinks. Initially, these nutrients
are stored in the endosperm, but later in seed development in many species, the

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storage function of the endosperm is more or less taken over by the swelling
cotyledons of the embryo (Campbell & Reece).

https://slideplayer.com/slide/7711878/

From Ovary to Fruit

While the seeds are developing from ovules, the ovary of the flower is
developing into a fruit, which protects the enclosed seeds and, when mature, aids
in their dispersal by wind or animals. Fertilization triggers hormonal changes that
cause the ovary to begin its transformation into a fruit. If the flower has not been
pollinated, fruit usually does not develop, and the entire flower withers and falls
away.

During fruit development, the ovary wall becomes the pericarp, the
thickened wall of the fruit. As the ovary grows, the other parts of the flower wither
and are shed (Campbell & Reece).

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 Developmental origin of fruits.

https://biology-forums.com/index.php?action=gallery;sa=view;id=32660

B. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Just like the plants, animals reproduce with two principal modes: asexual
(without sex) and sexual (fusion of gametes) reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is the creation of new individuals whose genes all
come from one parent without the fusion of egg and sperm.
Sexual reproduction is the creation of offspring by the fusion of haploid
gametes to form a zygote (fertilized egg), which is diploid.
The female gamete, the unfertilized egg (also called an ovum), is a
relatively large cell and not motile.
The male gamete, the sperm, is generally a much smaller, motile cell.
Sexual reproduction increases genetic variability (one of its advantages
over asexual reproduction) among offspring by generating unique combinations
of genes inherited from two parents. Thus, by producing offspring having a variety
of phenotypes, sexual reproduction may enhance the reproductive success of
parents when environmntal factors (including pathogens) change relatively
rapidly.
Asexual reproduction has several potential advantages. For instance, it
enables animals living in isolation to produce offspring without locating mates. It
can also create numerous offspring in a short amount of time, which is ideal for
colonizing a habitat rapidly. Theoretically, asexua reproduction is most

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advantageous in stable, favorable environments because it perpetuates
successful genotypes precisely.

Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction

In asexual reproduction, a singe parent splits, buds, or fragments to give

rise to two or more offspring that have hereditary traits identical with those of the
parent.

TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Fission the separation of a parent into two or more Sea anemone
individuals of approximately equal size.
Budding in which new individuals arise from Cnidarians
outgrowths of existing ones; the offspring and tunicates
may either
Fragmentation the breaking of the body into several Flatworms
pieces, some or all of which develop into
complete adults.
Regeneration the regrowth of lost body parts; usually Sea stars
accompanied with fragmentation.

Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves two parents. Each contributes a specialized

gamete (an egg or sperm); these fuse to form the fertilized egg, or zygote.
Fertilization, the fusion of sperm and egg, may take place inside the body
(internal fertilization) or outside the body (external fertilization).

TYPES OF FERTILIZATION
Internal Fertilization
The male generally delivers sperm
cells directly into the body of the
female. Her moist tissues provide the
watery medium required for
movement of sperm.
Examples: Most terrestrial animals,
few fish and some other aquatic
animals
External Fertilization
Mating patners usually release eggs and
sperms into the water simultaneously.
Examples: Many fish, amphibians, and
other sexual aquatic animals use
external fertilization (the exceptions are
aquatic mammals, sharks, and some
other special types of fish)

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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

The details of the reproductive process vary tremendously from one

organism to another, and so some generalizations were made about animal
reproductive systems in order to understand its variations.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
MALE FEMALE
1. Male gonad (testis) 1. Female gonad (ovary)
- in which sperm are produced - in which eggs are produced
2. Sperm duct 2. Oviduct
- used for the transport of sperm - a tube for the transport of egg
to the exterior of the body 3. Vagina
3. Penis - the terminal portion of the oviduct
- the terminal part of the sperm responsible for the receiving of male
duct which opens onto or into a copulatory organ
copulatory organ

Some Reproductive Variations

Some animals show unique and tremendous diversity in their methods of

reproduction. Even members of the same class may differ markedly in their
reproductive process.

A. Metagenesis – also known as ‘transformation development’, refers to

an alternation of asexual and sexual generations.

Example: hydrozoan Obelia, a polyp generation gives rise by budding to a

generation of medusas. The motile medusas produce gametes and
reproduce sexually, giving rise to new generation of polyps. Thus, there is
alternation of generations – polyp, medusa, polyp, medusa, and so on.
Both generations consist of diploid organisms.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/animals/obelia-structure-diagram-life-cycle/

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B. Parthenogenesis – also known as ‘virgin development’, is a form of
reproduction in which an unfertilized egg develops into an adult animal.
This occurs for several generations, after which males develop, produce
sperm, and mate with females to fertilize their eggs. In some species,
parthenogenesis is advantageous in maintaining social order; in others, it
appears to be an adaptation for survival in times of stressor when there is a
serious decrease in population.

Example: Honeybees. The queen honeybee is inseminated by a male

during the “nuptial flight”. The sperm she receives are stored in a little pouch
connected with her genital tract but closed off by a muscular valve. As the
queen lays eggs, she can either open this valve, permitting the sperm to
escape and fertilize the eggs, or keep the valve closed, so that the eggs
develop without fertilization. Generally, fertilization occurs in the fall, and
the fertilized eggs are quiescent during the winter. The fertilized eggs
become females (queens and workers); the unfertilized eggs become
males (drones).

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/515591857323446143/

C. Hermaphroditism – means that a single organism produces both eggs

and sperm. Although this form of reproduction is still classified as sexual,
(since both eggs and sperms are involved), it is an exception to the
important generalization that sexual reproduction involves two different
individuals.

Example: Earthworm. Most hermaphrodites do not reproduce by self-

fertilization. Rather, as in earthworms, two animals copulate, and each

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 inseminates the other.

http://www.soilanimals.com/look/soil-
foodweb?tmpl=%2Fsystem%2Fapp%2Ftemplates%2Fprint%2F&showPrintDialog=1

Human Reproduction

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

https://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/your-guide-female-reproductive-system
https://microbenotes.com/female-reproductive-system/

Ovaries - Produce both the egg cell and the sex hormones. Enclosed in
a tough protective capsule and contains many follicles. Egg cell is expelled
from the follicle in the process of ovulation.

Oviducts and Uterus – Egg cell is released into the abdominal activity near
the opening of the oviduct, or fallopian tube. The uterus is a thick, muscular
organ that can expand during pregnancy to aaccommodate a 4-kg fetus.
The inner lining of the uterus, the endometrium, is richly supplied with blood
vessels. The neck of the uterus is the cervix, which opens into the vagina.

Vagina and Vulva – a thin-walled chamber that is the repository for sperm
during copulation and that serves as the birth canal through which a baby
is born. Vulva is a collective term for the external female genitalia. Vestibule,
labia minora, labia majora, clitoris, and Bartholin’s glands are all located in
this area having their special functions.
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 Mammary glands – present in both sexes but normally function only in
women. They are not part of the reproductive system but are important to
mammalian reproduction. Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue
secrete milk which drains into a series of ducts opening at the nipple.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

https://www.earthslab.com/physiology/male-reproductive-system-locations-functions-male-reproductive-organs/
https://www.pixtastock.com/illustration/45939563

Testes (singular, testis) – consist of many highly coiled tubes (seminiferous tubules
– where sperm form) surrounded by several layers of connective tissue. The Leydig
cells that are scattered between the seminiferous tubules produce testosterone
and other androgens. The production of normal `sperm cannot occur at the
normal body temperatures of most mammals, and the testes of humans and
many other mammals are held outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum.

Ducts – from seminiferous tubules, the sperm pass into the epididymis. During
ejaculation, the sperm are propelled from the epididymis through the muscular
vas deferens. These two ducts (one from each epididymis) run from the scrotum
around and behind the urinary bladder, where each joins a duct from the seminal
vesicl, forming a short ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory ducts open into the
urethra, the tube that drains both the excretory system and reproductive system
of male. The urethra runs through the penis and opens to the outside at the tip of
the penis.

Glands – three sets of accessory glands – the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and
bulbourethral glands – add secretions to the semen, the fluid that is ejaculated.

Semen in the Female Reproductive Tract – males usually ejaculates 2-5 ml of

semen, and each milliliter may contain 50-130 million of sperm. Prostaglandins in
the semen cause thinning of the mucus at the opening of the uterus and stimulate

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contractions of the uterine muscles, which help semen move up to the uterus.

Penis – is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue derived from

modified veins and capillaries. During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with
blood from the arteries. As this tissue fills, the increasing pressure seals off the veins
that drain the penis, causing it to engorge with blood. The resulting erection is
essential to insertion of the penis into the vagina.

HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

2 TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS

1. VASOCONGESTION – the filling of a tissue with blood caused by increased

blood flow through the arteries of that tissue.

2. MYOTONIA – increased muscle tension of both skeletal and smooth

muscles.

4 PHASES OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

1. EXCITEMENT PHASE – preparation of penis and vagina for coitus (sexual

intercourse). During this phase, vasocongestion is particularly evident in erection
of the penis and clitoris; enlargement of the testes, labia, and breasts; and
vaginal lubrication. Myotonia may occur, resulting in nipple erection or tension
of the arms and legs.

2. PLATEAU PHASE – responses in excitement phase continue. In females,

the outer third of the vagina becomes vasocongested, while the inner two-thirds
slightly expands. This change, coupled with the elevation of the uterus, forms a
depression that receives sperm at the back of the vagina. Breathing increases
and heart rate rises, sometimes to 150 beats per minute – not in response to the
physical effort of sexual activity, but as an involuntary response to stimulation of
the autonomic nervous system.

3. ORGASM PHASE – is characterized by rhythmic, involuntary contractions

of the reproductive structures in both sexes.
Male orgasm has two stages. Emission is the contraction of the glands and
ducts of the reproductive tract, which forces semen into the urethra. Expulsion or
ejaculation, occurs when the urethra contracts and the semen is expelled.
During female orgasm, the uterus and outer vagina contract, but the inner
two-thirds of the vagina do not. Orgasm is the shortest response of the sexual
response cycle, usually lasting only a few seconds.

4. RESOLUTION PHASE – completes the cycle and reverses the responses of

the earlier stages.

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Contraception and its types
TYPES EXAMPLE
Ovulation-suppressing method Oral contraceptives (pills)
Barrier methods Condom, Diaphragm, Cervical cap
Chemical Spermicidal jelly and foam
Surgical methods Vasectomy and Tubal ligation
Implantation-suppressing methods IUD and Morning-after pill
Others Abstinence
Note: Abstinence is the only form of contraception that is guaranteed 100% effective.

Activity 2: Complete the table by listing the advantages and disadvantages of

asexual and sexual reproduction in plants and animals.

Type Advantage Disadvantage

Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction

III. WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

POST-TEST

I. Matching type. Select the most appropriate answer from column B for each
description in column A. Write the letter of the correct answer only in your activity
notebook.

Column A Column B
1. Regeneration A. Asexual reproduction
2. Internal fertilization B. Sexual reproduction
3. Budding
4. External fertilization
5. Fission

III. Enumeration

6-9. List down at least 4 organs of the male reproductive system (human)
10-14. List down at least 5 female internal reproductive organs (human)
15-20 List down the 6 types of contraception
21-22. Enumerate the male reproductive organs of plants

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23-25. Enumerate the female reproductive organs of plants
SYNOPSIS
This self-learning kit
discusses the
importance of plants
and animals’ organ
systems and their
specific functions such
as reproduction,
development, and
nutrition. Since
organisms, both plants
and animals, are not
immortal, the process
of reproducing the
same species over
time is a remarkable
event which helps in
the perpetuation of
life. Along with
reproduction, the 21-22
various organisms’
unique processes of 23-25

growth, development,
and acquiring nutrition
help us understand
their adaptive mechanisms in the
changing environment.

FRUSSEL V. ELTANAL is a registered nurse and a licensed

professional teacher who is currently teaching at Gregorio Elmaga
Memorial High School, Senior High School Department, Nasig-id,
Zamboanguita, Negros Oriental, Philippines. He is currently taking
up Master of Arts in Science Teaching at Negros Oriental State
University.

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 Lesson PLANT AND ANIMAL
2 DEVELOPMENT

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:

K- describe the roles of growth, morphogenesis, and cellular
differentiation in the development of an organism;
S- give the stages of the human life cycle; and
A- recognize the importance of the growth and development
of an organism.

LEARNING COMPETENCY

Compare and contrast the following processes in plants

and animals: reproduction, development, and nutrition
(STEM_BIO11/12-Iva-h-1)

I. WHAT HAPPENED

PRE-ACTIVITIES/PRE-TEST

IDENTIFICATION: Complete the sentence by supplying with the correct

word/words from the word pool. Write the answers on your notebook.
straightening; hypocotyl; water auxins
phytochrome radicle
maturation Scutellum primary apical meristems
thickening

A. PLANT DEVELOPMENT
1. In the grass seed, the cotyledon is a food-absorbing structure known as a
_____________________.
2. The portion of the seedling below the cotyledons is known as
_________________________. One of the structures included in it is the future root, or
_____________________________.
3. The root hairs form in the zone of _________________________ of the growing root
tip.
4. When the “hook” of a dicot seedling is exposed to light during germination, it

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reacts by __________________________; the receptor substance that initiates this
reaction is a pigment known as ______________________________.

5. The growing nodes of embryonic tissue found at the shoot and root tips of a
plant are its ____________________________.

B. ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
amniotic fluid morphogenesis; newborn inner cell placenta
cellular infant mass;
differentiation embryo
production of cleavage gestation gastrulation ectoderm;
milk endoderm

1. Movement of cells to form a tube such as the neural tube is an example of

_____________________; specialization of cells to form neurons or some other cell
types is called _________________________ ___________________________.
2. The rapid series of mitoses that converts the zygote to a morula is referred to as
__________________________.
3. The cluster of cells that projects into the cavity of the blastocyst is the
____________________ ______________________ ________________________; it gives rise
to the ____________________.
4. The process by which the blastula becomes a three-layered embryo is called
______________________.
5. The tissue layer that gives rise to the nervous system is the
_________________________; the germ layer that gives rise to the lining of the
digestive tract is the __________________________.

II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

DISCUSSION

A. Plant Development

Plants are the antennae by which the energy of sunlight is captured in the
ecosphere and then stored in food for later slow, catabolic release in the living
cells of both plants and animals. To many of us, plants are little more than a green
mass in the background of life. Yet more than 99% of our planet’s living matter is
composed of plants; this includes a tremendous variety of algae, vines, shrubs,
trees, grasses, and herbs. Almost all of these diverse plant shapes are variations on
a common theme, and almost all tracheophytes (vascular plants) are composed
of just three main parts: leaves, stems, and roots.
Although a plant begins life as a seed, the seed has a history of
development all its own. The fundamental body plan of a plant is laid down even
before a seed leaves the parent plant (Villee, Solomon & Davis).

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Seeds

The seed plants are classified into two major groups, the gymnosperms (are
both male and female; that is, each reproductive organ is either male or female.
They are a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo,
and gnetophytes. Gymnosperm means “naked seeds” that is based on the
unenclosed condition of their seeds) and the angiosperms (a plant that has
flowers and produces seeds enclosed within a carpel. The angiosperms are a
large group and include herbaceous plants, shrubs, grasses, and most trees). The
angiosperms are then divided into the monocots and the dicots, mostly on the
basis of their seed structure.

SEED STRUCTURE

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/61924563611781680/

The Monocot Seed

In a typical monocot such as a grass, the seed is surrounded with a

protective seed coat. The aleurone layer, which lies under the seed coat,
functions as a kind of digestive organ in seed germination. Most of the seeds
consist of starchy endosperm, a food storage tissue that forms separately from the

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embryo while the seed is still attached to the parent plant. In some monocots the
embryo proper is demarked from the endosperm by a tough scutellum, and often
by another layer known as the coleorhiza, which protects the future root, or
radicle, as it grows out of the seed into the surrounding soil. All of these structures
will be discarded once they have served their function, leaving only the radicle,
the mesocotyl (future stem), and the shoot apex, which by then will have
developed into the mature versions of these structures.
Monocot means “single leaf,” which refers to its only seed structure that
appears to be homologous with a leaf – the single cotyledon. The monocot
cotyledon absorbs digested food from the endosperm. In grass embryos, a very
large cotyledon develops, which is known as the scutellum (Villee, Solomon &
Davis).

The Dicot Seed

Dicots, as their name implies, have two cotyledons. Sometimes, as in the

castor bean plant, these do function as actual leaves. More typically, as in beans,
peas, and maple seeds, the cotyledons serve as food storage organs in place of
the endosperm.
Other dicot seed structures include the radicle and the plumule, which
corresponds to the shoot apex in monocots. In most dicot seeds, however, there
is nothing comparable to the aleurone or coleorhiza, although some do have a
functional endosperm.
The embryo and its cotyledon(s) are the result of one of two distinct
fertilizations: in one of these, the endosperm (if any) is produced. The other
fertilization process, which gives rise to the embryo, yields a zygote, which then
undergoes cleavage. The cell divisions that the zygote undergoes following
fertilization first produce a basal cell and a terminal cell. From the basal cell
develops a filament of cells called a suspensor. The terminal cell divides, forming
a rounded mass of cells; from this mass grow the two cotyledons and a central
axis. In dicots, the part of the axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledons
is called the hypocotyl and the part above it, is the epicotyl. The embryo is in this
state of development when the seed becomes dormant.

SEED GERMINATION

The embryonic plant is kept in a state of suspended development called

dormancy, which ends when germination takes place.

Breaking Dormancy
As a first step in breaking dormancy, the embryo emits a hormone
called gibberellin, which diffuses through the seed. In monocots, the
hormone then triggers the production of digestive enzymes by the
aleurone; in dicots, the digestive enzymes are produced by the cotyledons.
These enzymes then proceed to break down the stored food in the

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 endosperm or cotyledons. For example, amylase breaks down starch to
form maltose, which is then cleaved by maltase to yield glucose; and other
enzymes attack stored proteins, fats, and oils, mobilizing them for the
seedling’s use.

The Early Root and Emergence

Microscopic examination of the root tip will disclose a cap consisting
partly of dead or moribund cells at its apex, whose function is largely to
protect the tender tissues from abrasion by soil particles, and in addition to
serve as a source of growth hormones. The actual living tissue, however, is
undergoing vigorous mitosis. For that reason, this part of the root tip is known
as the zone of division. It is an apical meristem, a growing tip of embryonic,
differentiating tissue. By the time they have begun to enlarge, they are left
behind in a zone of elongation, which is responsible for most of the
lengthwise growth of the root tip. Since new cells are constantly added to
this zone by mitosis, however, growth continues indefinitely. At the same
time, the older portions of the zone of elongation cease to grow and
become incorporated into the zone of maturation, where tissue
differentiation now begins.

Meristems and Buds

PRIMARY MERISTEMS
For the most part, the primary meristems give rise to differentiated
tissues such as phloem and xylem. However, some tissues derived from the
primary meristem remain undifferentiated and form the cambium layers of
the stem and the similar pericycle layer of the root. These eventually form
differentiated tissues themselves, but in such a way as to produce lateral
growth and increase in girth.

THE LEAF BUD

Leaf Growth
Each leaf originates on the side of the meristem, growing upward as
it enlarges and begins to differentiate. Once its growth is well under way,
another group of cells next to it and somewhat above it begins to grow
outward and upward.

Leaf Fall
Leaves age and die in all plants, and in some cases the plant
senesces as a whole. As xylem ages, for example, it becomes clogged with
resins and turns to heartwood. As cells produced by the cork cambium age,
they die and become converted to cork.
The part of a perennial plant that ages most obviously – and sometimes
spectacularly – is the leaf. In deciduous trees, however, all leaves age and

23
 die at about the same time in what happens to be basically a water
conservation measure.

The Ecology of Abscission

Abscission is the process by which plants shed one of their parts, and
an abscission layer is an adaptation that specifically permits loss of leaves.
The abscission layer also represents a point of weakness, so that in due time,
the yellowed leaves are swirled away by the winds of winter.

SECONDARY GROWTH

In Dicots
If root and shoot (stem) meristems give rise to all plant tissues, a
process of differentiation must occur behind the growing tips of the stem
and the root. In stems, the earliest trace of differentiation occurs just behind
the apical zone of active mitosis. In the center of the apical bud is a cylinder
that develops into the vascular tissues as it matures. It is appropriately known
as the provascular cylinder. On the exterior, potential epidermis called the
protoderm develops. Between the two lies a layer called ground meristem
or ground tissue, which becomes the cortex and the pith.

In Monocots
Secondary growth usually does not occur in monocots. The trunk of
a treelike monocot such as bamboo or a palm tree remains roughly the
same diameter from base to crown.; in fact, the diameter of a palm trunk
can be somewhat smaller at the base than midway between it and the
crown. Yet the trunk of a palm seedling is obviously not nearly as great as is
that of the mature tree. What happens is a bit different than what occurs in
dicots. Immediately behind the apical meristem is a primary thickening
meristem that is as great in diameter as the trunk. It is derived from the
apical meristem, which continuously enlarges to produce it. The primary
thickening meristem then lays down vascular and other differentiated
tissues to form the stem of the palm tree.

Early Development

The Zygote
The zygote is a fertilized egg that has the potential to give rise to all the
diverse cell types of the complete individual.
In most vertebrate zygotes, the cytoplasm contains yolk, which serves as
food for the developing embryo. The amount and distribution of yolk vary among
different animal groups. Yolk is absent from the human zygote.

24
Cleavage: From One Cell to Many
Cleavage is a process wherein the zygote undergoes a rapid mitosis. By
about 24 hours after fertilization, the human zygote has completed the first mitotic
division and reached the two-cell stage. Each of the cells of the two-cell stage
embryo undergoes mitosis, bringing the number of cells to four. Repeated divisions
continue to increase the number of cells making up the embryo. At about the 16-
cell stage, the embryo consists of a tiny cluster of cells called the morula. As
cleavage takes place, the embryo is pushed along the uterine tube by ciliary
action and muscular contraction. By the time the embryo reaches the uterus, on
about the fifth day of development, it is in the morula stage.

https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/a-morula-can-be-differentiated-form-blastula-in/

The Blastocyst
During this period, its cells arrange themselves into the form of hollow ball
called blastocyst (blastula), eventually forms and nutritive membranes (the
chorion and placenta) that surround the embryo. A little cluster of cells, the inner
cell mass, projects into the cavity of the blastocyst. These cells give rise to the
embryo itself.

25
 https://epomedicine.com/medical-students/embryology-week-1-cleavage-implantation/

Implantation
Implantation of embryo in the endometrium (lining) of the uterus begins on
the seventh day of embryonic development. During this period, enzymes destroy
some tiny maternal capillaries in the wall of the uterus. Blood from these capillaries
comes in direct contact with the trophoblast of the embryo, temporarily providing
a rich source of nutrition. Implantation is completed by the ninth day of
development.

Formation of Germ Layers

The cells of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst arrange themselves to form
a two-layered disk. The cells of the lower level then merge to line an inner cavity,
the primitive gut, or archenteron, which will eventually develop into the digestive
tract and certain other structures.
These cells make up the endoderm, while the cells that remain to cover the
embryo and become its outermost layer form the ectoderm. A third layer of cells,
the mesoderm, proliferates between the ectoderm and endoderm.
Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are known as the three germ layers,
or embryonic tissue layers. Each gives rise to specific structures in all vertebrate
embryos (Villee, Solomon & Davis).

26
Stages in the Human Life Cycle

Activity 2:

Cite atlease 2 importance of the growth and development of plants and animals

III. WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

POST-TEST

A. Multiple choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer and write on your
notebook.

1. It functions as a kind of digestive organ in seed germination.

A. Seed coat B. Aleurone layer C. Ectoderm Mesoderm

2. It is a food storage tissue that forms separately from the embryo while the seed

27
is still attached to the parent plant.
A. Endoderm B. Aleurone layer C. Ectoderm Mesoderm

3. It is a state of suspended development which ends when germination takes

place.
A. Suspension B. Implantation C. Dormancy D. Activation

4. It is a process wherein the zygote undergoes a rapid mitosis.

A. Mutation B. Diffusion C. Division D. Cleavage

5. Inner cell mass produces three germ layers known as the following, except for
one:
A. Endoderm B. Endosperm C. Mesoderm D. Ectoderm

B. Enumeration
List down the 9 stages of human life cycle, in order. Write on your notebook.

6-14.

28
SYNOPSIS
This Self-Learning Kit
discusses the importance of
plants and animals’ organ
systems and their specific
functions such as
reproduction, development,
and nutrition. Since organisms,
both plants and animals are
not immortal, the process of re-
producing the same species
over time is a remarkable
event which helps in the
perpetuation of life. Along with
reproduction, the various
organisms’ unique processes of
growth, development and
acquiring nutrition help us
understand their adaptive
mechanisms in the changing
environment.

Frussel V. Eltanal is a Registered Nurse and a Licensed

Professional Teacher who is currently teaching at Gregorio
Elmaga Memorial High School – Senior High School Department –
in Nasig-id, Zamboanguita, Negros Oriental, Philippines. He is
currently taking up Master of Arts in Science Teaching at Negros
Oriental State University.

29
 Lesson PLANT AND ANIMAL NUTRITION
3
OBJECTIVE

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:

K- define nutrient and cite the nutritional requirements
of plants and animals;
S- trace the pathway of food processing in plants and
animals; and
A- recognize the importance of acquiring the right
nutrition for plants and animals.

LEARNING COMPETENCY

Compare and contrast the following processes in plants

and animals: reproduction, development, and nutrition
(STEM_BIO11/12-Iva-h-1)

I. WHAT HAPPENED

PRE-ACTIVITIES/PRE-TEST

Questions:

1. What are some of the important activities for the maintenance of life?

2. What are the kinds of nutrients that organisms may obtain from food?

A. Plant Nutrition

The basic photosynthetic reaction combines carbon dioxide with water in

two stages to yield glucose and oxygen. Glucose contains the elements carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen – the only elements occurring in complex sugars and in

30
most fats. Thus, the carbohydrates and fats occurring in plants can be made from
water and carbon dioxide alone. However, plants do also require various other
inorganic nutrients. Biosynthesis of compounds such as amino acids,
phospholipids, nucleic acids, and ATP requires the elements phosphorus, nitrogen,
and sulfur.

Often the very nutrients a plant requires in modest amounts can poison it
when present in excess. Overuse of fertilizer, for instance, can make the soil
hypertonic to the plant, resulting in osmotic stress that injures or kills the plant.
Plants like animals, have optimum ranges in which nutrients are present in
concentrations that best promote their health and growth.
The uptake of nutrients by a plant: a review. From CO2, O2, H20, and minerals, the
plant produces all of its own organic materials.

Figure 1: Plant Nutrition

https://www.simply.science/index.php/biology/plant-form-and-function/nutrition-in-plants/nutrition-plant-
growth

Plant Nutrient Requirements

Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance
of an organism. The two types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition
are:
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and
chemicals to produce their own food.
Example: plants
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and
obtain their energy from other organism.
Example: fungi

31
THE MACRONUTRIENTS
Macronutrients are those nutrients needed by all plants in relatively large
amounts. The following list of required nutrients should be considered as of more
than passing interest, for our lives depend upon them.
A. Nitrogen. Nitrogen was one of the first nutrients to be discovered.
Although it can be provided in the form of nitrate or ammonia, it is usually
absorbed in the form of nitrate. Nitrogen is needed for proper leaf growth and
development. A deficiency may produce yellowing of older leaves or a general
lightening of all the green parts of the plant, combined with a stunting of growth.
An excess produces hypertrophy of foliage and suppresses fruit production.
Nitrogen is mainly important as a component of proteins and nucleic acids.
B. Potassium. Potassium, another early known plant nutrient, is traditionally
added to the soil in the form of wood ash. The main intracellular cation, potassium,
is probably most important for maintaining the membrane potential of pant cells,
and perhaps their turgidity as well (especially in the guard cells of the stomata).
Deficiency produces general symptoms of poor health, which can include
localized chlorosis (low chlorophyll content), or mottling of leaves with small spots
of dead tissue at the tips and between the veins of lower leaves.
C. Phosphorus. Deficient in a great many soils, phosphorus is essential for the
production of such vital compounds as the nucleic acids and ATP. It is needed for
flowering, fruiting, and root development. Deficiency results in small dark green
leaves over the entire plant and the abnormal presence of red and purple colors
in the leaves and stalks.
D. Sulfur. Sulfur is an essential component of protein because of its
occurrence in the amino acids cysteine and methionine. Deficiency produces
chlorosis in new leaves and buds, usually without spotting, and poor root
development. Sulfur cannot be absorbed in elemental form but must be present
as sulfate.
E. Calcium. Calcium deficiency results in abnormal growth and cell division,
since calcium is an important component of the middle lamella of cell walls
(along with pectin). Typically, the terminal bud dies, following a period of in which
small leaves with dried-up tips are produced. Calcium has a multitude of cellular
functions in the plant body.
F. Magnesium. Magnesium is required for the action of many enzymes and
is needed also in the synthesis of chlorophyll, which contains it. Deficiency,
therefore, produces mottled chlorosis.

THE MICRONUTRIENTS
Micronutrients are as vital as macronutrients but are required only in
extremely small amounts. The following elements in trace amounts are now known
to have a significant role in maintaining plant health.
A. Iron. Iron is needed in several of the electron transport substances of the
cell (ferredoxin, cytochromes), and in some other materials (e.g., phytochrome).
It is also required for chlorophyll synthesis. Deficiency in iron absorption can occur
in soils with high or low pH. If there is a deficiency, it results to interveinal chlorosis
characterized by yellowing of the leaf along the veins, that is confined to the
youngest leaves.

32
 B. Boron. The function of Boron is unknown. Deficiency results in abnormally
dark foliage, growth abnormalities, and malformations. Root tip elongation also
shows.
C. Zinc. Zinc is required for the production of amino acid tryptophan. Since
auxins are derived from tryptophan, zinc is indirectly required for the production
of auxins as well; it is also required as a cofactor for some of the DNA polymerase
enzymes. Deficiency produces small leaves and stunted stems owing to short
internodes. In excess, zinc is poisonous to plants.
D. Manganese. Manganese is required as a cofactor for enzymes in
oxidative metabolism and in photosynthetic oxygen production. Its deficiency
produces a mottled, characteristic form of chlorotic leaf yellowing.
E. Chlorine. Probably required for ionic balance and maintenance of
cellular membrane potentials, chlorine (in the form of chloride) is apparently also
needed for oxygen production in photosynthesis. Its deficiency results in very small
leaves and slow growth. Leaves become wilted, chlorotic, or even necrotic and
may eventually become bronze-colored.
F. Molybdenum. Molybdenum is needed as part of the denitrifying and
nitrogen-fixing enzymes of microorganisms. Molybdenum is also needed by the
nitrate reductase enzyme present in most plant roots. Plants must utilize this
enzyme if they are to employ nitrate as a nitrogen source. However, plants that
absorb ammonia as a nitrogen source do not need molybdenum.
Low productivity was related to molybdenum deficiency.
G. Copper. Copper is a component of some enzymes and cytochromes. Its
deficiency results in a lowered rate of protein synthesis and sometimes in chlorosis.
Young leaves may be dark green and twisted, with dead spots.

Figure 2: The most common minerals deficiency

http://www.sliderbase.com/spitem-1620-4.html

33
Specialized Absorptive Structures

A. root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly

increase the surface area available for absorption.

B. root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain plants where bacterial

cells exist symbiotically with the plant. The bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and
in turn, the bacteria are able to utilize some organic compounds provided by the
plant.

C. mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic interaction between a

young root and a fungus. The fungus obtains sugars and nitrogen-containing
compounds from root cells while the plant is able to get some scarce minerals
that the fungus is better able to absorb from the soil.

Routes for the Absorption of Water and Minerals Across Plant Roots:

A. Symplast route – through plasmodesmata

B. Apoplast route – along cell walls

Figure 3: Routes for the Absorption of Water and Minerals Across Plant Roots:

https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-apoplast-and-vs-symplast/

Note that the water and minerals from the soil need to reach the conducting
tissues of plants, specifically the xylem.

Nutritional Adaptation by Plants

A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbe

Nitrogen Fixation: Root and Bacteria Interactions

Nitrogen is an important macronutrient because it is part of nucleic

acids and proteins. Atmospheric nitrogen, which is the diatomic molecule

34
N2, or dinitrogen, is the largest pool of nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems.
However, plants cannot take advantage of this nitrogen because they do
not have the necessary enzymes to convert it into biologically useful forms.
However, nitrogen can be “fixed.” It can be converted to ammonia (NH 3)
through biological, physical, or chemical processes. Biological nitrogen
fixation (BNF), the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia
(NH3), is exclusively carried out by prokaryotes, such as soil bacteria or
cyanobacteria. Biological processes contribute 65 percent of the nitrogen
used in agriculture.

The most important source of BNF is the symbiotic interaction

between soil bacteria and legume plants, including many crops important
to humans. The NH3 resulting from fixation can be transported into plant
tissue and incorporated into amino acids, which are then made into plant
proteins. Some legume seeds, such as soybeans and peanuts, contain high
levels of protein and are among the most important agricultural sources of
protein in the world.

Diagram of the Nitrogen Cycle.

Figure 4: Diagram of the Nitrogen Cycle

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-adaptations-of-plants/

Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic Relationship between Fungi and Roots

A nutrient depletion zone can develop when there is rapid soil

solution uptake, low nutrient concentration, low diffusion rate, or low soil
moisture. These conditions are very common; therefore, most plants rely on

35
 fungi to facilitate the uptake of minerals from the soil. Mycorrhizae, known
as root fungi, form symbiotic associations with plant roots. In these
associations, the fungi are actually integrated into the physical structure of
the root. The fungi colonize the living root tissue during active plant growth.

Through mycorrhization, the plant obtains phosphate and other

minerals, such as zinc and copper, from the soil. The fungus obtains nutrients,
such as sugars, from the plant root. Mycorrhizae help increase the surface
area of the plant root system because hyphae, which are narrow, can
spread beyond the nutrient depletion zone. Hyphae are long extensions of
the fungus, which can grow into small soil pores that allow access to
phosphorus otherwise unavailable to the plant. The beneficial effect on the
plant is best observed in poor soils. The benefit to fungi is that they can
obtain up to 20 percent of the total carbon accessed by plants.
Mycorrhizae function as a physical barrier to pathogens. They also provides
an induction of generalized host defense mechanisms, which sometimes
involves the production of antibiotic compounds by the fungi. Fungi have
also been found to have a protective role for plants rooted in soils with high
metal concentrations, such as acidic and contaminated soils.

Figure 5: Mycorrhizae

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-adaptations-of-plants/

Plant Parasites

A parasitic plant depends on its host for survival. Some parasitic plants
have no leaves. An example of this is the dodder, which has a weak,
cylindrical stem that coils around the host and forms suckers. From these
suckers, cells invade the host stem and grow to connect with the vascular

36
 bundles of the host. The parasitic plant obtains water and nutrients through
these connections. The plant is a total parasite (a holoparasite) because it
is completely dependent on its host. Other parasitic plants, called
hemiparasites, are fully photosynthetic and only use the host for water and
minerals. There are about 4,100 species of parasitic plants.

B. Animal Nutrition

According to Johnson and Raven, Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates

the amount of energy contained in food. It specifically refers to the amount of
heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by 1 oC
(1.8oF). And so, the greater the number of Calories in a quantity of food, the
greater energy it contains.

Nutritional Requirements of Animals

1. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the

body. These are usually obtained from grains, cereals, breads, fruits and
vegetables. On average, carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram.

2. Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the body

mainly uses these as building materials for cell structures and as enzymes,
hormones, parts of muscles, and bones. Proteins come from dairy products,
poultry, fish, meat, and grains. Like carbohydrates, proteins also contain 4
Calories per gram.

3. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and

other cellular structures; also used to insulate nervous tissue., and also serve
as an energy source. Fats also contain certain fat-soluble vitamins that are
important for good health. Fats are obtained from oils, margarine, butter,
fried foods, meat, and processed snack foods. They contain a higher
amount of energy per gram than carbohydrates and proteins, about 9
Calories per gram.

Essential Nutrients

These include substances that animals can only get from the foods
they eat because they could not be synthesized inside the body. These
include:

1. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and

enzymes; among the 20 amino acids, eight could not be synthesized by
humans: lysine, tryptophan, threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine,
isoleucine and valine.

37
 2. Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an
example is linoleic acid in humans.

3. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal

metabolism; examples include fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-
soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3, B12, and C.

4. Trace elements or minerals – inorganic nutrients needed by the

body in minute amounts, these form part of enzymes, body tissues, and
body fluids; examples include: iodine, cobalt, zinc, molybdenum,
manganese, selenium.
Food Uptake in Cells via the Three Types of Endocytosis

1. Phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big particles, e.g.

pseudopod formation in Amoeba.

2. Pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell using small vesicles

derived from the plasma membrane.

3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis – this relies on membrane receptor

recognition of specific solutes which are then taken up by the cell via
receptor-coated pits.

Types of animals based on feeding mechanisms

1. substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food source.

Examples: earthworms that feed through the soil where they live in;
caterpillars that eat through the leaves where they live on

2. filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which draw in water and

strain small organisms and food particles present in the medium.
Examples: whales and coelenterates

3. fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a living host.

Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice, aphids

4. bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and have adaptations

like jaws, teeth, tentacles, claws, pincers, etc. that help in securing the
food and tearing it to pieces.

Different kinds of digestive compartments in animals

1. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with lysosomes that

contain hydrolytic enzymes.
Example: food vacuole in a protozoa like Paramecium

38
 2. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system – composed of a
single opening through which the food is taken in and where wastes are
disposed of. It is a sac-like body cavity.
Examples: cnidarian Hydra and flatworm Planaria

3. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with an opening at

one end for taking in food (mouth) and an opening at the outer end where
unabsorbed waste materials are eliminated (anus). In between the mouth
and anus, are specialized organs that carry out transport, processing, and
absorption of digested nutrients.

Figure 5: The Digestive System

https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-system-how-it-works

Accessory organs for digestion in a complete digestive system

1. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats.

2. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver.
3. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down all major food
molecules; secretes buffers against HCl from the stomach; secretes the
hormone insulin for control of glucose metabolism.

Activity 2:

Cite atlease 2 importance of acquiring the right nutrition for plants and animals.

39
III. WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
ACTIVITY:

TIME TO DRAW:
A. Use red ball pen to trace the symplast route, and a blue ball pen to trace the
apoplast route for the movement of water from the soil to the xylem. Do this in
your notebook.

B. Trace the pathway of food processing in a mammalian/human digestive

system.

Rubrics: Composition---------------------------------------5 pts.

Cohesiveness---------------------------------------5 pts.
Craftmanship and Quality --------------------5 pts.
_____________________________________________
Total 15 pts.

POST-TEST

Instruction: Fill in the blanks with the correct word/words to complete the
sentence. Write your answers in your notebook.
1. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and potassium are examples of
____________ for plants.
2. The nutrition of some plants depends on a root-fungus association known as
_____________.
3. ____ is a localized swelling in roots of certain plants where bacterial cells exist
symbiotically with the plant.
4. Of the 20 amino acids used to make proteins in the human body, ________
must be obtained through the consumption of food.
5. The two main groups of vitamins include those soluble in _______________ and
in ______________.
6. ____________________________ refer to inorganic nutrients needed by the body
in minute amounts.
7. Cells take up food via the process of ____________________________.
8. In terms of feeding mechanisms, earthworms are considered _______________.
9. 1 gram of carbohydrate = ___________ Calories
10. 1 gram of protein = __________ Calories
11. 1 gram of fat = ___________ Calories
12. _______ can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly uses
these as building materials for cell structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of
muscles, and bones.
13. ______ serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body.
14. ______ slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly increase
the surface area available for absorption.
15. _______ organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to
produce their own food.

40
 REFERENCES
Books:
• Campbell, N.A. & Reece, J. B. (2005). Biology: 7th edition. USA: Pearson
Benjamin Cummings
• Villee, C.A., Solomon, E. P., & Davis, P. W. (1985). Biology. USA: CBS College
Publishing
Internet source:
Lumen Learning. (nd). Nutritional adaption of plants. Retrieved January 30, 2021
from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-
adaptations-of-plants/

Images:
• https://www.sciencevision.in/pollination/
• http://cikgurozaini.blogspot.com/2010/07/development-of-angiosperm-
gametophytes.html
• http://cikgurozaini.blogspot.com/2013/08/double-fertilisation-in-
angiosperm.html
• https://slideplayer.com/slide/7711878/
• https://biology-forums.com/index.php?action=gallery;sa=view;id=32660
• https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/animals/obelia-structure-
diagram-life-cycle/
• https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/515591857323446143/
• http://www.soilanimals.com/look/soil-food-
web?tmpl=%2Fsystem%2Fapp%2Ftemplates%2Fprint%2F&showPrintDialog=
1
• https://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/your-guide-female-
reproductive-system
• https://microbenotes.com/female-reproductive-system/
• https://www.earthslab.com/physiology/male-reproductive-system-
locations-functions-male-reproductive-organs/
• https://www.pixtastock.com/illustration/45939563
• https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/61924563611781680/
• https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/a-morula-can-be-differentiated-
form-blastula-in/
• https://epomedicine.com/medical-students/embryology-week-1-
cleavage-implantation/
• https://www.simply.science/index.php/biology/plant-form-and-
function/nutrition-in-plants/nutrition-plant-growth
• http://www.sliderbase.com/spitem-1620-4.html
• https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-apoplast-and-
vs-symplast/
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-
adaptations-of-plants/
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-
adaptations-of-plants/
• https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-
diseases/digestive-system-how-it-works

41
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF NEGROS ORIENTAL

SENEN PRISCILLO P. PAULIN, CESO V

Schools Division Superintendent

FAY C. LUAREZ, TM, Ed.D., Ph.D.

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Acting CID Chief

NILITA L. RAGAY, Ed.D.

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

ROSELA R. ABIERA
Education Program Supervisor – (LRMS)

ARNOLD R. JUNGCO
PSDS-Division Science Coordinator

MARICEL S. RASID
Librarian II (LRMDS)

ELMAR L. CABRERA
PDO II (LRMDS)

FRUSSEL V. ELTANAL
WRITER
IVANNE RAY A. GIDOR
LAYOUT ARTIST
_________________________________
ALPHA QA TEAM
LIEZEL A. AGOR
MA. OFELIA I. BUSCATO
ANDRE ARIEL B. CADIVIDA
THOMAS JOGIE U. TOLEDO

BETA QA TEAM
LIEZEL A. AGOR
JOAN Y. BUBULI
LIELIN A. DE LA ZERNA
PETER PAUL A. PATRON
THOMAS JOGIE U. TOLEDO
DISCLAIMER

The information, activities and assessments used in this material are designed to provide
accessible learning modality to the teachers and learners of the Division of Negros Oriental. The
contents of this module are carefully researched, chosen, and evaluated to comply with the set
learning competencies. The writers and evaluator were clearly instructed to give credits to
information and illustrations used to substantiate this material. All content is subject to copyright and
may not be reproduced in any form without expressed written consent from the division.
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SYNOPSIS
This Self-Learning Kit discusses
the importance of plants and
animals’ organ systems and
their specific functions such as
reproduction, development,
and nutrition. Since organisms,
both plants and animals are
not immortal, the process of
re-producing the same
species over time is a
remarkable event which helps
in the perpetuation of life.
Along with reproduction, the
various organisms’ unique
processes of growth,
development and acquiring
nutrition help us understand
their adaptive mechanisms in
the changing environment.

Frussel V. Eltanal is a Registered Nurse and a Licensed

Professional Teacher who is currently teaching at Gregorio
Elmaga Memorial High School – Senior High School Department –
in Nasig-id, Zamboanguita, Negros Oriental, Philippines. He is
currently taking up Master of Arts in Science Teaching at Negros
Oriental State University.

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