Gen Bio2 qtr4 Week1 Discussion

PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGAN
SYSTEMS AND THEIR

FUNCTIONS
(REPRODUCTION, DEVELOPMENT, AND
NUTRITION)
for General Biology 2 Grade 11
Quarter 4/ Week 1
NegOr_Q4_GenBio2_SLKWeek1_v2
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FOREWORD
This self-learning kit will serve as a guide for the learners. It

will aid them as they learn new ideas and enrich existing
knowledge. In order to study General Biology, one requires a
sense of discipline.
In this learning kit, the learners will gain knowledge on the

different organ systems of plants and animals including their
various functions such as reproduction, development, and
nutrition.
Plants and animals have similarities and differences on how

they reproduce, grow, acquire and process nutrients for
adaptation and survival.
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OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, learners shall be able to:
K: identify the similarities and differences of plant and animal
reproduction, developemnt, and nutrition;
S: create a Venn Diagram showing the similarities and differences in
plant and animal reproduction, development, and nutrition; and
A: reflect the understanding of the similarities and differences
of plant and animal reproduction, developement, and
nutrition.
LEARNING COMPETENCY
Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals: reproduction,
development, nutrition, gas exchange, transport/circulation, regulation of body
fluids, chemical and nervous control, immune systems, and sensory and motor
mechanisms. (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
I. WHAT HAPPENED
PRE-ACTIVITIES/PRE-TEST
IDENTIFICATION: Complete the statements below by supplying the correct word(s) from
the word pool. Write your answers in your notebook.
A. PLANT
maturation Genetic; nitrogen Scion; stock;
identical cambium
scutellum Propagules Hypocotyl; Stamen
radicle
Straightening; new nutrient Pollination
phytochrome combinations
1. The main advantage of asexual reproduction, in addition to its speed, is that it

permits the propagation of advantageous makeups
since the offspring are genetically with the parent.
2. Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, permits of
traits to arise from the contributions of multiple different ancestors.
3. Certain plants produce body parts specialized for breakaway and dispersal that
are known as .
4. In grafting, the plant that is to be asexually propagated is known as the ;
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this is attached to the , which may be little more than a root. It is
important that the two have their layers in contact with each other.
5.In the grass seed, the cotyledon is a food-absorbing structure known as a .
6. The portion of the seedling below the cotyledons is known as
. One of the structures included in it is the future root, or .
7. The root hairs form in the zone of of the growing root tip.
8. When the “hook” of a dicot seedling is exposed to light during germination, it reacts
by ; the receptor substance that initiates this reaction is a pigment known as
.
9. is an important nutrient macronutrient because it is part of nucleic acids
and proteins needed by plants.
10. refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an
organism.
B. ANIMAL
Fragmentation Hermaphroditic Sterile
Gamete; zygote Sexual and asexual Develops into a new
generations individual
Essential amino acids Morphogenesis; cellular Calorie
differentiation
Gastrulation Cleavage Inner cell mass; embryo
1. The type of reproduction in which an animal divides into several pieces and then
each piece develops into an entire new animal is called .
2. In metagenesis there is an alternation of .
3. Parthenogenesis is a type of reproduction in which an unfertilized egg .
4. An individual that can produce both eggs and sperm is described as .
5.Movement of cells to form a tube such as the neural tube is an example of
; specialization of cells to form neurons or some other cell types is called
.
6.The rapid series of mitoses that converts the zygote to a morula is referred to as .
7. The cluster of cells that projects into the cavity of the blastocyst is the
; it gives rise to the .
8. The process by which the blastula becomes a three-layered embryo is called .
9. is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy contained in food.
10. are needed for the synthesis of proteins and enzymes.
II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

DISCUSSION
Plant Reproduction
The propagation of flowering plants by sexual and asexual reproduction

forms the basis of agriculture. We will explore the reproductive biology of flowering
plants in much greater detail because they are the most important group of plants
in most terrestrial ecosystems and in agriculture.
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The life cycles of plants are characterized by an alternation of generations, in
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which the haploid (n) and diploid (2n) generations take turns producing each
other. The sporophyte (diploid plant) produces haploid spores by meiosis, which then
divide by mitosis and giving rise to the gametophytes (the small male and female
haploid plants that produce gametes: sperm and eggs). Fertilization results in diploid
zygotes, which divide by mitosis and form new sporophytes.
FLOWER STRUCTURE
Flowers, the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm sporophyte, are

typically composed of four whorls of highly modified leaves called floral organs,
which are separated by very short internodes. They are called determinate shoots,
meaning that they stop growing after the flower and fruit are formed.
The floral organs – sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels (pistils)– are attached
to a part of the stem called the receptacle. Stamens and carpels are reproductive
organs, whereas sepals and petals are sterile. Sepals, which enclose and protect
the floral bud before it opens, are usually green and more leaflike in appearance than
the other floral organs. In most cases, petals are more brightly colored than
sepals and attracts the flower to insects and other pollinators.
A stamen consists of a stalk called the filament and a terminal structure
called the anther; within the anther are chambers called pollen sacs, in which
pollen is produced.
A carpel has an ovary at its base and a long, slender neck called the style.
At the top of the style is the sticky structure called the stigma that serves as a
landing platform for pollen. Within the ovary are one or more ovules, with the
number depending on the species. The term pistil is sometimes used to refer to a
single carpel or to group of fused carpels.
https://www.sciencevision.in/pollination/
Types of flowers based on the presence of the whorls
A. Complete - is a plant biology term that is used to describe a flower that is built with
four parts which include the sepals, petals, pistils and stamens.
B. Incomplete - If any of the sepals, petals, pistils and stamens, which are integral in
forming a flower, is missing, a flower is called an incomplete flower.
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Types of flowers based on the presence of the reproductive whorls
A. Perfect/Bisexual – is one in which both male and female reproductive structures

are present. Both androecium (whorl of stamens) and gynoecium (whorl of carpels or
pistil) are located on the same flower.
Example: Roses
B. Imperfect/Unisexual - flower that does not have both male and female structures.
b.1. staminate flower (male)
b.2. carpellate/pistillate flower (female)
Examples: squashes, cucumbers, corn and grasses
GAMETOPHYTE DEVELOPMENT AND POLLINATION
Anthers and ovules bear sporangia, structures where spores are produced
by meiosis and gametophytes develop. Pollen grains, each consisting of a mature
male gametophyte surrounded by a spore wall, are formed within pollen sacs
(microsporangia) of anthers. An egg-producing female gametophyte, or embryo sac,
forms within each ovule.
In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma.
If pollination is successful, a pollen grain produces a structure called a pollen tube,
which grows and digests its way down into the ovary via the style and discharges
sperm in the vicinity of the embryo sac, resulting in fertilization of the egg. The zygote
gives rise to an embryo, and as the embryo grows, the ovule that contains it develops
into a seed. The entire ovary, meanwhile, develops into a fruit containing one or
more seeds, depending on the species. Fruits, which disperse by dropping to the
ground or being carried by wind or animals, help spread seeds some distance from
their source plants. When light, soil, and temperature conditions are suitable,
seeds germinate and the embryo carried in the seed grows and develops into a
seedling (Campbell & Reece, 2005).
The development of angiosperm gametophytes (pollen grains and embryo sacs)
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Source: http://cikgurozaini.blogspot.com/2010/07/development-of-
angiosperm-gametophytes.html
We have tackled the process of gametophyte development and pollination.

At this point, let us get to know fertilization and its products: the seeds and the fruits.
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
After landing on a receptive stigma, a pollen grain absorbs moisture and

germinates; that is, it produces a pollen tube that extends down between the cells of
the style toward the ovary.
Growth of the pollen tube and double fertilization.
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Source: http://cikgurozaini.blogspot.com/2013/08/double-fertilisation-in-
angiosperm.html
From Ovule to Seed
After double fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed, and the ovary
develops into a fruit enclosing the seed(s). As the embryo develops from the zygote,
the seed stockpiles proteins, oils, and starch to varying extents, depending on the
species. This is why seeds are such major sugar sinks. Initially, these nutrients are stored
in the endosperm, but later in seed development in many species, the storage
function of the endosperm is more or less taken over by the swelling cotyledons of the
embryo (Campbell & Reece).
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Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/7711878/
From Ovary to Fruit
While the seeds are developing from ovules, the ovary of the flower is
developing into a fruit, which protects the enclosed seeds and, when mature, aids in
their dispersal by wind or animals. Fertilization triggers hormonal changes that
cause the ovary to begin its transformation into a fruit. If the flower has not been
pollinated, fruit usually does not develop, and the entire flower withers and falls away.
During fruit development, the ovary wall becomes the pericarp, the
thickened wall of the fruit. As the ovary grows, the other parts of the flower wither
and are shed (Campbell & Reece).
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Developmental Origin of Fruits
Source: https://biology-forums.com/index.php?action=gallery;sa=view;id=32660
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Just like the plants, animals reproduce with two principal modes: asexual
(without sex) and sexual (fusion of gametes) reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is the creation of new individuals whose genes all come
from one parent without the fusion of egg and sperm.
Sexual reproduction is the creation of offspring by the fusion of haploid
gametes to form a zygote (fertilized egg), which is diploid.
The female gamete, the unfertilized egg (also called an ovum), is a relatively
large cell and not motile.
The male gamete, the sperm, is generally a much smaller, motile cell.
Sexual reproduction increases genetic variability (one of its advantages over
asexual reproduction) among offspring by generating unique combinations of genes
inherited from two parents. Thus, by producing offspring having a variety of
phenotypes, sexual reproduction may enhance the reproductive success of parents
when environmntal factors (including pathogens) change relatively rapidly.
Asexual reproduction has several potential advantages. For instance, it enables
animals living in isolation to produce offspring without locating mates. It can also
create numerous offspring in a short amount of time, which is ideal for colonizing a
habitat rapidly. Theoretically, asexua reproduction is most advantageous in stable,
favorable environments because it perpetuates successful genotypes precisely.
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Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction, a singe parent splits, buds, or fragments to give rise to

two or more offspring that have hereditary traits identical with those of the parent.
TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Fission the separation of a parent into two or more Sea anemone
individuals of approximately equal size.
Budding in which new individuals arise from Cnidarians
outgrowths of existing ones; the offspring and tunicates
may either
Fragmentation the breaking of the body into several Flatworms
pieces, some or all of which develop into
complete adults.
Regeneration the regrowth of lost body parts; usually Sea stars
accompanied with fragmentation.
Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two parents. Each contributes a specialized

gamete (an egg or sperm); these fuse to form the fertilized egg, or zygote.
Fertilization, the fusion of sperm and egg, may take place inside the body
(internal fertilization) or outside the body (external fertilization).
TYPES OF FERTILIZATION
Internal Fertilization External Fertilization
The male generally delivers sperm Mating patners usually release eggs and
cells directly into the body of the sperms into the water simultaneously.
female. Her moist tissues provide the
watery medium required for
movement of sperm.
Examples: Many fish, amphibians, and
Examples: Most terrestrial animals, other sexual aquatic animals use
few fish and some other aquatic external fertilization (the exceptions are
animals aquatic mammals, sharks, and some
other special types of fish)
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
The details of the reproductive process vary tremendously from one organism
to another, and so some generalizations were made about animal reproductive
systems in order to understand its variations.
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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
MALE FEMALE
1. Male gonad (testis) 1. Female gonad (ovary)
- in which sperm are produced - in which eggs are produced
2. Sperm duct 2. Oviduct
- used for the transport of - a tube for the transport of egg
sperm to the exterior of the body 3. Vagina
3. Penis - the terminal portion of the oviduct
- the terminal part of the responsible for the receiving of male
sperm duct which opens onto or copulatory organ
into a copulatory organ
Some Reproductive Variations
Some animals show unique and tremendous diversity in their methods of

reproduction. Even members of the same class may differ markedly in their
reproductive process.
A. Metagenesis – also known as ‘transformation development’, refers to an

alternation of asexual and sexual generations.
Example: hydrozoan Obelia, a polyp generation gives rise by budding to a

generation of medusas. The motile medusas produce gametes and reproduce
sexually, giving rise to new generation of polyps. Thus, there is alternation of
generations – polyp, medusa, polyp, medusa, and so on. Both generations consist of
diploid organisms.
Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/animals/obelia-structure-diagram-
life-cycle/
B. Parthenogenesis – also known as ‘virgin development’, is a form of reproduction in

which an unfertilized egg develops into an adult animal. This occurs for several
generations, after which males develop, produce sperm, and mate with females to
fertilize their eggs. In some species, parthenogenesis is advantageous in maintaining
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social order; in others, it appears to be an adaptation for survival in times of stressor
when there is a serious decrease in population.
Example: Honeybees. The queen honeybee is inseminated by a male during

the “nuptial flight”. The sperm she receives are stored in a little pouch connected with
her genital tract but closed off by a muscular valve. METGenerally, fertilization occurs
in the fall, and the fertilized eggs are quiescent during the winter. The fertilized eggs
become females (queens and workers); the unfertilized eggs become males (drones).
Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/515591857323446143/
C. Hermaphroditism – means that a single organism produces both eggs and sperm.
Although this form of reproduction is still classified as sexual, (since both eggs and
sperms are involved), it is an exception to the important generalization that sexual
reproduction involves two different individuals.
Example: Earthworm. Most hermaphrodites do not reproduce by self-

fertilization. Rather, as in earthworms, two animals copulate, and each inseminates
the other.
Source: http://www.soilanimals.com/look/soil-food- web?tmpl=%2Fsystem

%2Fapp%2Ftemplates%2Fprint%2F&showPrintDialog=1
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Human Reproduction
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY
Source:https://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/your-guide-female-
reproductive-system
https://microbenotes.com/female-reproductive-system/
Ovaries - Produce both the egg cell and the sex hormones. Enclosed in a tough
protective capsule and contains many follicles. Egg cell is expelled from the follicle in
the process of ovulation.
Oviducts and Uterus – Egg cell is released into the abdominal activity near the
opening of the oviduct, or fallopian tube. The uterus is a thick, muscular organ that
can expand during pregnancy to aaccommodate a 4-kg fetus. The inner lining of
the uterus, the endometrium, is richly supplied with blood vessels. The neck of the
uterus is the cervix, which opens into the vagina.
Vagina and Vulva – a thin-walled chamber that is the repository for sperm
during copulation and that serves as the birth canal through which a baby is born.
Vulva is a collective term for the external female genitalia. Vestibule, labia minora,
labia majora, clitoris, and Bartholin’s glands are all located in this area having their
special functions.
Mammary glands – present in both sexes but normally function only in women. They are
not part of the reproductive system but are important to mammalian
reproduction. Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk which
drains into a series of ducts opening at the nipple.
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MALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY
Source: https://www.earthslab.com/physiology/male-reproductive-system-locations-
functions-male-reproductive-organs/
https://www.pixtastock.com/illustration/45939563
Testes (singular, testis) – consist of many highly coiled tubes (seminiferous tubules –
where sperm form) surrounded by several layers of connective tissue. The Leydig cells
that are scattered between the seminiferous tubules produce testosterone and other
androgens. The production of normal `sperm cannot occur at the normal body
temperatures of most mammals, and the testes of humans and many other mammals
are held outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum.
Ducts – from seminiferous tubules, the sperm pass into the epididymis. During
ejaculation, the sperm are propelled from the epididymis through the muscular
vas deferens. These two ducts (one from each epididymis) run from the scrotum
around and behind the urinary bladder, where each joins a duct from the seminal
vesicl, forming a short ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory ducts open into the urethra,
the tube that drains both the excretory system and reproductive system of male.
The urethra runs through the penis and opens to the outside at the tip of the penis.
Glands – three sets of accessory glands – the seminal vesicles, prostate gland,
and bulbourethral glands – add secretions to the semen, the fluid that is ejaculated.
Semen in the Female Reproductive Tract – males usually ejaculates 2-5 ml of semen,
and each milliliter may contain 50-130 million of sperm. Prostaglandins in the semen
cause thinning of the mucus at the opening of the uterus and stimulate contractions of
the uterine muscles, which help semen move up to the uterus.
Penis – is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue derived from modified
veins and capillaries. During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the
arteries. As this tissue fills, the increasing pressure seals off the veins that drain the penis,
causing it to engorge with blood. The resulting erection is essential to insertion of the
penis into the vagina.
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HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE
2 TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS
1. VASOCONGESTION – the filling of a tissue with blood caused by increased blood

flow through the arteries of that tissue.
2. MYOTONIA – increased muscle tension of both skeletal and smooth muscles.
4 PHASES OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE
1. EXCITEMENT PHASE – preparation of penis and vagina for coitus (sexual

intercourse). During this phase, vasocongestion is particularly evident in erection of
the penis and clitoris; enlargement of the testes, labia, and breasts; and vaginal
lubrication. Myotonia may occur, resulting in nipple erection or tension of the arms
and legs.
2. PLATEAU PHASE – responses in escitement phase continue. In females, the outer

third of the vagina becomes vasocongested, while the inner two-thirds slightly
expands. This change, coupled with the elevation of the uterus, forms a depression
that receives sperm at the back of the vagina. Breathing increases and heart rate
rises, sometimes to 150 beats per minute – not in response to the physical effort of
sexual activity, but as an involuntary response to stimulation of the autonomic
nervous system.
3. ORGASM PHASE – is characterized by rhythmic, involuntary contractions of

the reproductive structures in both sexes.
Male orgasm has two stages. Emission is the contraction of the glands and
ducts of the reproductive tract, which forces semen into the urethra. Expulsion
or ejaculation, occurs when the urethra contracts and the semen is expelled.
During female orgasm, the uterus and outer vagina contract, but the inner two-
thirds of the vagina do not. Orgasm is the shortest response of the sexual
response cycle, usually lasting only a few seconds.
4. RESOLUTION PHASE – completes the cycle and reverses the respponses of the
earlier stages.
Contraception and its types

TYPES EXAMPLE
Ovulation-suppressing method Oral contraceptives (pills)
Barrier methods Condom, Diaphragm, Cervical cap
Chemical Spermicidal jelly and foam
Surgical methods Vasectomy and Tubal ligation
Implantation-suppressing methods IUD and Morning-after pill
Others Abstinence
Note: Abstinence is the only form of contraception that is guaranteed 100% effective.
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Plant Development
Plants are the antennae by which the energy of sunlight is captured in the
ecosphere and then stored in food for later slow, catabolic release in the living cells of
both plants and animals. To many of us, plants are little more than a green mass in
the background of life. Yet more than 99% of our planet’s living matter is
composed of plants; this includes a tremendous variety of algae, vines, shrubs, trees,
grasses, and herbs. Almost all of these diverse plant shapes are variations on a
common theme, and almost all tracheophytes (vascular plants) are composed of
just three main parts: leaves, stems, and roots.
Although a plant begins life as a seed, the seed has a history of development all
its own. The fundamental body plan of a plant is laid down even before a seed leaves
the parent plant (Villee, Solomon & Davis).
Seeds
The seed plants are classified into two major groups, the gymnosperms (are both
male and female; that is, each reproductive organ is either male or female. They are a
group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and
gnetophytes. Gymnosperm means “naked seeds” that is based on the unenclosed
condition of their seeds) and the angiosperms (a plant that has flowers and produces
seeds enclosed within a carpel. The angiosperms are a large group and include
herbaceous plants, shrubs, grasses, and most trees). The angiosperms are then
divided into the monocots and the dicots, mostly on the basis of their seed structure.
SEED STRUCTURE
Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/61924563611781680/
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The Monocot Seed
In a typical monocot such as a grass, the seed is surrounded with a
protective seed coat. The aleurone layer, which lies under the seed coat, functions
as a kind of digestive organ in seed germination. Most of the seeds consist of starchy
endosperm, a food storage tissue that forms separately from the embryo while the
seed is still attached to the parent plant. In some monocots the embryo proper is
demarked from the endosperm by a tough scutellum, and often by another layer
known as the coleorhiza, which protects the future root, or radicle, as it grows out
of the seed into the surrounding soil. All of these structures will be discarded once
they have served their function, leaving only the radicle, the mesocotyl (future
stem), and the shoot apex, which by then will have developed into the mature
versions of these structures.
Monocot means “single leaf,” which refers to its only seed structure that
appears to be homologous with a leaf – the single cotyledon. The monocot cotyledon
absorbs digested food from the endosperm. In grass embryos, a very large cotyledon
develops, which is known as the scutellum (Villee, Solomon & Davis).
The Dicot Seed

Dicots, as their name implies, have two cotyledons. Sometimes, as in the castor
bean plant, these do function as actual leaves. More typically, as in beans, peas, and
maple seeds, the cotyledons serve as food storage organs in place of the endosperm.
Other dicot seed structures include the radicle and the plumule, which
corresponds to the shoot apex in monocots. In most dicot seeds, however, there
is nothing comparable to the aleurone or coleorhiza, although some do have
a
functional endosperm.
The embryo and its cotyledon(s) are the result of one of two distinct
fertilizations: in one of these, the endosperm (if any) is produced. The other
fertilization process, which gives rise to the embryo, yields a zygote, which then
undergoes cleavage. The cell divisions that the zygote undergoes following fertilization
first produce a basal cell and a terminal cell. From the basal cell develops a filament of
cells called a suspensor. The terminal cell divides, forming a rounded mass of cells;
from this mass grow the two cotyledons and a central axis. In dicots, the part of
the axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledons is called the hypocotyl
and the part above it, is the epicotyl. The embryo is in this state of development
when the seed becomes dormant.
SEED GERMINATION
The embryonic plant is kept in a state of suspended development called

dormancy, which ends when germination takes place.
Breaking Dormancy
As a first step in breaking dormancy, the embryo emits a hormone called
gibberellin, which diffuses through the seed. In monocots, the hormone then triggers
the production of digestive enzymes by the aleurone; in dicots, the digestive enzymes
are produced by the cotyledons. These enzymes then proceed to break down the
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stored food in the endosperm or cotyledons. For example, amylase breaks down
starch to form maltose, which is then cleaved by maltase to yield glucose; and other
enzymes
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attack stored proteins, fats, and oils, mobilizing them for the seedling’s use.
The Early Root and Emergence
Microscopic examination of the root tip will disclose a cap consisting partly
of dead or moribund cells at its apex, whose function is largely to protect the tender
tissues from abrasion by soil particles, and in addition to serve as a source of growth
hormones. The actual living tissue, however, is undergoing vigorous mitosis. For that
reason, this part of the root tip is known as the zone of division. It is an apical
meristem, a growing tip of embryonic, differentiating tissue. By the time they have
begun to enlarge, they are left behind in a zone of elongation, which is responsible for
most of the lengthwise growth of the root tip. Since new cells are constantly added
to this zone by mitosis, however, growth continues indefinitely. At the same time,
the older portions of the zone of elongation cease to grow and become incorporated
into the zone of maturation, where tissue differentiation now begins.
Meristems and Buds
PRIMARY MERISTEMS
For the most part, the primary meristems give rise to differentiated tissues such as
phloem and xylem. However, some tissues derived from the primary meristem remain
undifferentiated and form the cambium layers of the stem and the similar
pericycle layer of the root. These eventually form differentiated tissues themselves,
but in such a way as to produce lateral growth and increase in girth.
THE LEAF BUD
Leaf Growth
Each leaf originates on the side of the meristem, growing upward as it enlarges
and begins to differentiate. Once its growth is well under way, another group of
cells next to it and somewhat above it begins to grow outward and upward.
Leaf Fall
Leaves age and die in all plants, and in some cases the plant senesces as a
whole. As xylem ages, for example, it becomes clogged with resins and turns to
heartwood. As cells produced by the cork cambium age, they die and become
converted to cork.
The part of a perennial plant that ages most obviously – and sometimes
spectacularly – is the leaf. In deciduous trees, however, all leaves age and die at
about the same time in what happens to be basically a water conservation measure.
The Ecology of Abscission

Abscission is the process by which plants shed one of their parts, and an
abscission layer is an adaptation that specifically permits loss of leaves. The
abscission layer also represents a point of weakness, so that in due time, the yellowed
leaves are swirled away by the winds of winter.
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SECONDARY GROWTH
In Dicots
If root and shoot (stem) meristems give rise to all plant tissues, a process
of differentiation must occur behind the growing tips of the stem and the root. In
stems, the earliest trace of differentiation occurs just behind the apical zone of active
mitosis. In the center of the apical bud is a cylinder that develops into the vascular
tissues as it matures. It is appropriately known as the provascular cylinder. On the
exterior, potential epidermis called the protoderm develops. Between the two lies a
layer called ground meristem or ground tissue, which becomes the cortex and the
pith.
In Monocots
Secondary growth usually does not occur in monocots. The trunk of a
treelike monocot such as bamboo or a palm tree remains roughly the same
diameter from base to crown.; in fact, the diameter of a palm trunk can be
somewhat smaller at the base than midway between it and the crown. Yet the
trunk of a palm seedling is obviously not nearly as great as is that of the mature
tree. What happens is a bit different than what occurs in dicots. Immediately
behind the apical meristem is a primary thickening meristem that is as great in
diameter as the trunk. It is derived from the apical meristem, which continuously
enlarges to produce it. The primary thickening meristem then lays down vascular and
other differentiated tissues to form the stem of the palm tree.
ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Early Development
The Zygote
The zygote is a fertilized egg that has the potential to give rise to all the diverse
cell types of the complete individual.
In most vertebrate zygotes, the cytoplasm contains yolk, which serves as food
for the developing embryo. The amount and distribution of yolk vary among
different animal groups. Yolk is absent from the human zygote.
Cleavage: From One Cell to Many
Cleavage is a process wherein the zygote undergoes a rapid mitosis. By

about 24 hours after fertilization, the human zygote has completed the first mitotic
division and reached the two-cell stage. Each of the cells of the two-cell stage
embryo undergoes mitosis, bringing the number of cells to four. Repeated divisions
continue to increase the number of cells making up the embryo. At about the 16-
cell stage, the embryo consists of a tiny cluster of cells called the morula. As
cleavage takes place, the embryo is pushed along the uterine tube by ciliary action
and muscular contraction. By the time the embryo reaches the uterus, on about the
fifth day of development, it is in the morula stage.
22
Source: https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/a-morula-can-be-differentiated-form-
blastula-in/
The Blastocyst
During this period, its cells arrange themselves into the form of hollow ball
called blastocyst (blastula), eventually forms and nutritive membranes (the chorion
and placenta) that surround the embryo. A little cluster of cells, the inner cell mass,
projects into the cavity of the blastocyst. These cells give rise to the embryo itself.
Source: https://epomedicine.com/medical-students/embryology-week-1-cleavage-
implantation/
Implantation
Implantation of embryo in the endometrium (lining) of the uterus begins on the

seventh day of embryonic development. During this period, enzymes destroy some
tiny maternal capillaries in the wall of the uterus. Blood from these capillaries comes
in direct contact with the trophoblast of the embryo, temporarily providing a rich
source of nutrition. Implantation is completed by the ninth day of development.
23
Formation of Germ Layers
The cells of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst arrange themselves to form
a two-layered disk. The cells of the lower level then merge to line an inner cavity,
the primitive gut, or archenteron, which will eventually develop into the digestive
tract and certain other structures.
These cells make up the endoderm, while the cells that remain to cover the
embryo and become its outermost layer form the ectoderm. A third layer of cells, the
mesoderm, proliferates between the ectoderm and endoderm.
Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are known as the three germ layers,
or embryonic tissue layers. Each gives rise to specific structures in all vertebrate
embryos (Villee, Solomon & Davis).
Source: Villee, C.A., Solomon, E. P., & Davis, P. W. (1985). Biology. USA: CBS College Publishing
Stages in the Human Life Cycle
Source: Villee, C.A., Solomon, E. P., & Davis, P. W. (1985). Biology. USA: CBS College
Publishing
24
Plant Nutrition
The basic photosynthetic reaction combines carbon dioxide with water in

two stages to yield glucose and oxygen. Glucose contains the elements carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen – the only elements occurring in complex sugars and in most
fats. Thus, the carbohydrates and fats occurring in plants can be made from water
and carbon dioxide alone. However, plants do also require various other inorganic
nutrients. Biosynthesis of compounds such as amino acids, phospholipids, nucleic
acids, and ATP requires the elements phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.
Often the very nutrients a plant requires in modest amounts can poison it when
present in excess. Overuse of fertilizer, for instance, can make the soil hypertonic to
the plant, resulting in osmotic stress that injures or kills the plant. Plants like animals,
have optimum ranges in which nutrients are present in concentrations that best
promote their health and growth.
The uptake of nutrients by a plant: a review. From CO2, O2, H20, and minerals, the
plant produces all of its own organic materials.
Source: https://www.simply.science/index.php/biology/plant-form-and-
function/nutrition-in-plants/nutrition-plant-growth
Plant Nutrient Requirements
Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an
organism. The two types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to produce
their own food.
Example: plants
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain their energy
from other organism.
Example: fungi
THE MACRONUTRIENTS
25
Macronutrients are those nutrients needed by all plants in relatively large
amounts. The following list of required nutrients should be considered as of more than
passing interest, for our lives depend upon them.
A. Nitrogen. Nitrogen was one of the first nutrients to be discovered. Although it
can be provided in the form of nitrate or ammonia, it is usually absorbed in the form
of nitrate. Nitrogen is needed for proper leaf growth and development. A deficiency
may produce yellowing of older leaves or a general lightening of all the green
parts of the plant, combined with a stunting of growth. An excess produces
hypertrophy of foliage and suppresses fruit production. Nitrogen is mainly
important as a component of proteins and nucleic acids.
B.Potassium. Potassium, another early known plant nutrient, is traditionally
added to the soil in the form of wood ash. The main intracellular cation, potassium, is
probably most important for maintaining the membrane potential of pant cells,
and perhaps their turgidity as well (especially in the guard cells of the stomata).
Deficiency produces general symptoms of poor health, which can include localized
chlorosis (low chlorophyll content), or mottling of leaves with small spots of dead
tissue at the tips and between the veins of lower leaves.
C. Phosphorus. Deficient in a great many soils, phosphorus is essential for the
production of such vital compounds as the nucleic acids and ATP. It is needed for
flowering, fruiting, and root development. Deficiency results in small dark green
leaves over the entire plant and the abnormal presence of red and purple colors in the
leaves and stalks.
D. Sulfur. Sulfur is an essential component of protein because of its occurrence
in the amino acids cysteine and methionine. Deficiency produces chlorosis in new
leaves and buds, usually without spotting, and poor root development. Sulfur
cannot be absorbed in elemental form but must be present as sulfate.
E. Calcium. Calcium deficiency results in abnormal growth and cell division, since
calcium is an important component of the middle lamella of cell walls (along with
pectin). Typically, the terminal bud dies, following a period of in which small leaves
with dried-up tips are produced. Calcium has a multitude of cellular functions in
the plant body.
F. Magnesium. Magnesium is required for the action of many enzymes and
is needed also in the synthesis of chlorophyll, which contains it. Deficiency,
therefore, produces mottled chlorosis.
THE MICRONUTRIENTS
Micronutrients are as vital as macronutrients but are required only in extremely
small amounts. The following elements in trace amounts are now known to have a
significant role in maintaining plant health.
A. Iron. Iron is needed in several of the electron transport substances of the cell
(ferredoxin, cytochromes), and in some other materials (e.g., phytochrome). It is also
required for chlorophyll synthesis. Deficiency in iron absorption can occur in soils with
high or low pH. If there is a deficiency, it results to interveinal chlorosis characterized
by yellowing of the leaf along the veins, that is confined to the youngest leaves.
B. Boron. The function of Boron is unknown. Deficiency results in abnormally
dark foliage, growth abnormalities, and malformations. Root tip elongation also
shows.
26
C. Zinc. Zinc is required for the production of amino acid tryptophan. Since
auxins are derived from tryptophan, zinc is indirectly required for the production of
auxins as well; it is also required as a cofactor for some of the DNA polymerase
enzymes. Deficiency produces small leaves and stunted stems owing to short
internodes. In excess, zinc is poisonous to plants.
D. Manganese. Manganese is required as a cofactor for enzymes in oxidative
metabolism and in photosynthetic oxygen production. Its deficiency produces a
mottled, characteristic form of chlorotic leaf yellowing.
E. Chlorine. Probably required for ionic balance and maintenance of cellular
membrane potentials, chlorine (in the form of chloride) is apparently also needed for
oxygen production in photosynthesis. Its deficiency results in very small leaves and
slow growth. Leaves become wilted, chlorotic, or even necrotic and may
eventually become bronze-colored.
F. Molybdenum. Molybdenum is needed as part of the denitrifying and nitrogen-
fixing enzymes of microorganisms. Molybdenum is also needed by the nitrate
reductase enzyme present in most plant roots. Plants must utilize this enzyme if they are
to employ nitrate as a nitrogen source. However, plants that absorb ammonia as a
nitrogen source do not need molybdenum.
Low productivity was related to molybdenum deficiency.
G. Copper. Copper is a component of some enzymes and cytochromes. Its
deficiency results in a lowered rate of protein synthesis and sometimes in
chlorosis. Young leaves may be dark green and twisted, with dead spots.
Source: http://www.sliderbase.com/spitem-1620-4.html
27
Specialized Absorptive Structures
A. root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly increase
the surface area available for absorption.
B. root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain plants where bacterial cells
exist symbiotically with the plant. The bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and in
turn, the bacteria are able to utilize some organic compounds provided by the
plant.
C. mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic interaction between a young root

and a fungus. The fungus obtains sugars and nitrogen-containing compounds from
root cells while the plant is able to get some scarce minerals that the fungus is better
able to absorb from the soil.
Routes for the Absorption of Water and Minerals Across Plant Roots:
A. Symplast route – through plasmodesmata

B.Apoplast route – along cell walls
Source: https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-apoplast-and-vs-
symplast/
Note that the water and minerals from the soil need to reach the conducting tissues of
plants, specifically the xylem.
Nutritional Adaptation by Plants
A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbe
Nitrogen Fixation: Root and Bacteria Interactions
Nitrogen is an important macronutrient because it is part of nucleic acids and

proteins. Atmospheric nitrogen, which is the diatomic molecule N2, or dinitrogen, is the
largest pool of nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems. However, plants cannot take
advantage of this nitrogen because they do not have the necessary enzymes to
convert it into biologically useful forms. However, nitrogen can be “fixed.” It can be
28
converted to ammonia (NH3) through biological, physical, or chemical processes.
29
Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into
ammonia (NH3), is exclusively carried out by prokaryotes, such as soil bacteria or
cyanobacteria. Biological processes contribute 65 percent of the nitrogen used in
agriculture.
The most important source of BNF is the symbiotic interaction between soil
bacteria and legume plants, including many crops important to humans. The NH3
resulting from fixation can be transported into plant tissue and incorporated into
amino acids, which are then made into plant proteins. Some legume seeds, such as
soybeans and peanuts, contain high levels of protein and are among the most
important agricultural sources of protein in the world.
Diagram of the Nitrogen Cycle.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-
adaptations-of-plants/
Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic Relationship between Fungi and Roots
A nutrient depletion zone can develop when there is rapid soil solution uptake,
low nutrient concentration, low diffusion rate, or low soil moisture. These conditions
are very common; therefore, most plants rely on fungi to facilitate the uptake of
minerals from the soil. Mycorrhizae, known as root fungi, form symbiotic associations
with plant roots. In these associations, the fungi are actually integrated into the
physical structure of the root. The fungi colonize the living root tissue during active
plant growth.
30
Through mycorrhization, the plant obtains phosphate and other minerals, such
as zinc and copper, from the soil. The fungus obtains nutrients, such as sugars, from
the plant root. Mycorrhizae help increase the surface area of the plant root system
because hyphae, which are narrow, can spread beyond the nutrient depletion
zone. Hyphae are long extensions of the fungus, which can grow into small soil pores
that allow access to phosphorus otherwise unavailable to the plant. The beneficial
effect on the plant is best observed in poor soils. The benefit to fungi is that they can
obtain up to 20 percent of the total carbon accessed by plants. Mycorrhizae
function as a physical barrier to pathogens. They also provides an induction of
generalized host defense mechanisms, which sometimes involves the production of
antibiotic compounds by the fungi. Fungi have also been found to have a protective
role for plants rooted in soils with high metal concentrations, such as acidic and
contaminated soils.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-
adaptations-of-plants/
Plant Parasites
A parasitic plant depends on its host for survival. Some parasitic plants have no
leaves. An example of this is the dodder, which has a weak, cylindrical stem that coils
around the host and forms suckers. From these suckers, cells invade the host stem
and grow to connect with the vascular bundles of the host. The parasitic plant obtains
water and nutrients through these connections. The plant is a total parasite (a
holoparasite) because it is completely dependent on its host. Other parasitic plants,
called hemiparasites, are fully photosynthetic and only use the host for water and
minerals. There are about 4,100 species of parasitic plants.
Animal Nutrition
According to Johnson and Raven, Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the
amount of energy contained in food. It specifically refers to the amount of heat
31
energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by 1oC (1.8oF).
And so, the greater the number of Calories in a quantity of food, the greater energy it
contains.
Nutritional Requirements of Animals
1. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. These
are usually obtained from grains, cereals, breads, fruits and vegetables. On average,
carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram.
2. Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly uses these as
building materials for cell structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles,
and bones. Proteins come from dairy products, poultry, fish, meat, and grains. Like
carbohydrates, proteins also contain 4 Calories per gram.
3. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other cellular
structures; also used to insulate nervous tissue., and also serve as an energy source.
Fats also contain certain fat-soluble vitamins that are important for good health.
Fats are obtained from oils, margarine, butter, fried foods, meat, and processed
snack foods. They contain a higher amount of energy per gram than carbohydrates
and proteins, about 9 Calories per gram.
Essential Nutrients
These include substances that animals can only get from the foods they eat
because they could not be synthesized inside the body. These include:
1. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes; among
the 20 amino acids, eight could not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan,
threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine.
2. Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an example
is linoleic acid in humans.
3. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal metabolism;

examples include fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3,
B12, and C.
4. Trace elements or minerals – inorganic nutrients needed by the body in minute

amounts, these form part of enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids; examples
include: iodine, cobalt, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, selenium.
32
Food Uptake in Cells via the Three Types of Endocytosis
1. Phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big particles, e.g. pseudopod

formation in Amoeba.
2. Pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell using small vesicles derived

from the plasma membrane
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis – this relies on membrane receptor recognition of

specific solutes which are then taken up by the cell via receptor-coated pits.
Types of animals based on feeding mechanisms
1. substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food source.

Examples: earthworms that feed through the soil where they live in; caterpillars
that eat through the leaves where they live on
2. filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which draw in water and strain small
organisms and food particles present in the medium.
Examples: whales and coelenterates
3. fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a living host.

Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice, aphids
4. bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and have adaptations like jaws,
teeth, tentacles, claws, pincers, etc. that help in securing the food and tearing it to
pieces.
Different kinds of digestive compartments in animals
1. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with lysosomes that

contain hydrolytic enzymes.
Example: food vacuole in a protozoa like Paramecium
2. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system – composed of a single

opening through which the food is taken in and where wastes are disposed of. It is a
sac-like body cavity.
Examples: cnidarian Hydra and flatworm Planaria
3. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with an opening at one end for
taking in food (mouth) and an opening at the outer end where unabsorbed waste
materials are eliminated (anus). In between the mouth and anus, are specialized
organs that carry out transport, processing, and absorption of digested nutrients.
33
Source:https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-system-
how-it-works
Accessory organs for digestion in a complete digestive system
1. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats.
2. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver.
3. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down all major food molecules; secretes
buffers against HCl from the stomach; secretes the hormone insulin for control of
glucose metabolism.
PERFORMANCE/WRITTEN TASK:
Activity 1:
Create three Venn Diagrams. For the first diagram, identify two or three similarities and
differences between plant and animal reproduction; for the second, two or three
similarities and differences between plant and animal development; and for the third,
two or three similarities and differences between plant and animal nutrition.
You will be graded for each diagram according to the following

criteria: Content--------10 points
Clarity 10 points
Total 20 points
34
Activity 2:
Essay:
Direction: Write a short essay in your answer sheet or notebook.
Reflect on why there are similarities and differences of plant and animal reproduction,
developemnt, and nutrition.
Criteria: Content------------------5 points

Cohesiveness------------5 points
Total 10 points
35

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PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGAN

SYSTEMS AND THEIR

This self-learning kit will serve as a guide for the learners. It

In this learning kit, the learners will gain knowledge on the

Plants and animals have similarities and differences on how

1. The main advantage of asexual reproduction, in addition to its speed, is that it

II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

The propagation of flowering plants by sexual and asexual reproduction

Flowers, the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm sporophyte, are

Types of flowers based on the presence of the whorls

A. Perfect/Bisexual – is one in which both male and female reproductive structures

GAMETOPHYTE DEVELOPMENT AND POLLINATION

The development of angiosperm gametophytes (pollen grains and embryo sacs)

We have tackled the process of gametophyte development and pollination.

After landing on a receptive stigma, a pollen grain absorbs moisture and

Growth of the pollen tube and double fertilization.

From Ovule to Seed

From Ovary to Fruit

In asexual reproduction, a singe parent splits, buds, or fragments to give rise to

TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves two parents. Each contributes a specialized

Some Reproductive Variations

Some animals show unique and tremendous diversity in their methods of

A. Metagenesis – also known as ‘transformation development’, refers to an

Example: hydrozoan Obelia, a polyp generation gives rise by budding to a

B. Parthenogenesis – also known as ‘virgin development’, is a form of reproduction in

Example: Honeybees. The queen honeybee is inseminated by a male during

Example: Earthworm. Most hermaphrodites do not reproduce by self-

Source: http://www.soilanimals.com/look/soil-food- web?tmpl=%2Fsystem

2 TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS

1. VASOCONGESTION – the filling of a tissue with blood caused by increased blood

2. MYOTONIA – increased muscle tension of both skeletal and smooth muscles.

4 PHASES OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE

1. EXCITEMENT PHASE – preparation of penis and vagina for coitus (sexual

2. PLATEAU PHASE – responses in escitement phase continue. In females, the outer

3. ORGASM PHASE – is characterized by rhythmic, involuntary contractions of

Contraception and its types

The Dicot Seed

The embryonic plant is kept in a state of suspended development called

Meristems and Buds

THE LEAF BUD

The Ecology of Abscission

Cleavage: From One Cell to Many

Cleavage is a process wherein the zygote undergoes a rapid mitosis. By

Implantation of embryo in the endometrium (lining) of the uterus begins on the

Stages in the Human Life Cycle

The basic photosynthetic reaction combines carbon dioxide with water in

Plant Nutrient Requirements

C. mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic interaction between a young root

A. Symplast route – through plasmodesmata

Nutritional Adaptation by Plants

A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbe

Nitrogen Fixation: Root and Bacteria Interactions

Nitrogen is an important macronutrient because it is part of nucleic acids and

Diagram of the Nitrogen Cycle.

Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic Relationship between Fungi and Roots

Nutritional Requirements of Animals

3. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal metabolism;

4. Trace elements or minerals – inorganic nutrients needed by the body in minute

1. Phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big particles, e.g. pseudopod

2. Pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell using small vesicles derived