Development of The Learners at The Various Stages

MODULE 11
Development of the Learners at the Various Stages

Pre-natal Development
Life Before Birth (The development of the unborn child)
The development of human life in the womb was once a mystery, but science and
medicine have changed that. Abortion advocates still try to dehumanize the developing baby in
the womb by speaking of the child as a “blob of tissue” or “uterine contents”. But ultrasound
images, prenatal surgery and other advances in obstetrics are shattering the blob-of-tissue
myth.
The Stages of Pre-natal Development
Pre-natal development is divided into three (3) periods – germinal, embryonic and fetal.
1. Germinal Period: (first 2 weeks after conception) this includes the: a) creation of the zygote
b) continued cell division and c) the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. The
following are the details of development during this period.
a) 24 to 30 hours after fertilization – the male (sperm) and the female (egg) chromosomes
unite;
b) 36 hours – the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2) 2 cells;
c) 48 hours (2days) – 2 cells become 4 cells;
d) 72 hours (3days) – 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells;
e) 96 hours (4days) – hallow ball of 64-128 cells;
f) 4-5 days – inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus;
g) 6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus;
h) 11-15 days - blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it
(implantation).
In the germinal period, the differentiation of the cells already begin as inner and outer layer of
the organisms are formed. The blastocyst - the inner layer of the cells that develops the
germinal period, develops later into the embryo. The trophoblast – the outer layer of the cell
that develops also during the germinal period, later provides nutrition and support for the
embryo (Nelson, Textbook of Pediatrics, 17th edition, 2004).
2. Embryonic Period: (2-8 weeks after conception) in this stage, the name of the mass cells is
zygote, which become embryo. The following developments takes place:
a) Cell differentiation intensifies;

b) Life-support systems for the embryo develop; and
c) Organs appear
As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are formed. The
embryo’s endoderm – the inner layer of cells, develop into the digestive, and respiratory
systems. The outer layer of the cells is divided into two parts – the ectoderm and the
mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outer most layer which becomes the (hair, nails). The
mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and
reproductive systems. This process of organ formation during the first two months of pre-natal
development is called organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems of the embryo develop rapidly.
These life support systems are the PLACENTA, UMBILICAL CORD and the AMNION. The
placenta is a life-support system that consist of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small
blood vessels from the mother and offspring intertwine but do not join. The umbilical cord
contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta. The amnion is a bag
or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats.
3. Fetal Period: (2 months to 7 months after conception) growth and development continue
dramatically during this period. The details of the developmental process are as follows:
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a. 3 months after conception: fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce,
fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs, opens and closes its mouth and
moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be distinguished and
also the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limb; the genitals can now be
identified as male or female.
b. 4 months after conception: fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4 to 7 ounces;
growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts; pre-natal reflexes are stronger; mother
feels arm and leg movements for the first time.
c. 5 moths after conception: fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs close to a pound;
structure of the skin (fingernails and toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.
d. 6 moths after conception: fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one and half
pound; eyes and eyelids are completely formed; fine layer of head covers the head;
grasping reflex is present and irregular movements occur.
e. 7 months after conception: fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3 pounds.
f. 8 to 9 months after conception: fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight, about
4 pounds.
Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development
Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A
teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It comes from the Greek word “tera” which means
“monster”. Below are the clusters of hazards to pre-natal development.
1. Prescription and nonprescription drugs: these include prescription as well as non-

prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of prescription drug that can be harmful.
2. Psychoactive drugs: these include nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such as marijuana,
cocaine and heroin. Researches found that pregnant women who drunk more caffeinated
coffee were likely to have preterm deliveries and newborns with lower birthweight compared
to their counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi, et.al, 1999 quoted by
Santrock 2002).Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so called “fetal alcohol
syndrome (FAS)” which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of mothers
who drinks alcohol heavily during pregnancy.
3. Environmental hazards: this include radiation in jobsites and x-rays, environmental
pollutants, toxic wastes and prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and bath tubs.
4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis, genital horpes,
AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age (too early or too late, beyond 30). Rubella in
1964-1965 resulted in 30,000 pre-natal and neonatal deaths and more that 20,000 affected
infants who were born with malformation, including mental retardation, blindness, deafness
and heart problems (Santrock, 2002). Syphilis damages organs after they have formed.
These damages include eye lesions, which can cause blindness and skin lesions. When
syphilis is present at birth, other problems involving the central nervous system and
gastrointestinal tract can develop. Folic Acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid
can reduce the risk of having a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and spinal cord,
called “neural tube”. A baby with “spinal bifda” the most cost common neural tube defect
is born with a spine that is not closed.
5. Paternal factors: fathers’ exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides and petrochemicals
may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases such as a childhood
cancer.
Activity:
1. Pretend you are at the womb of your mother. In this case your mother is planning to abort
you in her womb, what will be the content of your letter given the chance that you are going
to write her not to abort you in her womb. Make a title of your letter (Example: A letter to my
Mom).
2. What is the most important part of your body that God has given you? Why?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
a. Group discussion, group project for an organized lecture on prenatal development for a
mother’s class; and
b. Summary of the key characteristics of prenatal development
ASSIGNMENT
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Watch a video presenting the life cycle of a human development.
MODULE 12
Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
The cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal growth from conception to 5 months when the
head grows more than the body. These cephalocaudal trends of growth that applies to the
development of the fetus also applies in the first months after birth. Infants learn to use their
upper limbs before their lower limb. The same patter occurs in the head area because the top
parts of the head – the eyes and the brain – grow faster than the lower parts such as the jaw.
The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth form 5 months to birth when the fetus
grows from the inside of the body outwards. This also applies in the first months after birth as
shown in the earlier maturation of muscular control of the truck and arms, followed by that of the
hands and fingers. When referring to motor development, the proximodistal trends to the
development of motor skills from the center of the body outward.
Height and Weight
 It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a
couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding.
Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly.
 Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six
months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed babies.
 In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
 A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second
year of life.
 Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a
natural curve of steady development.
Brain Development
 Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are the
spreading connections of dendrites to each other. Remember neurons, dendrites,
axon, synapses? Myelination or Myelinization: the process by which the axons are
covered and insulated by layers of aft cells, begins prenatally and continues after
birth. The process of myelination increases the speed at which information travels
through the nervous system.
 At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25% of its adult weight. By the second birthday,
the brain is about 75% of its adult weight.
Motor Development
 Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to
gross motor skills and fine motor skills.
Reflexes
 The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic and serve as
survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes which
are present at birth will generally subside within a few months as the baby grows and
matures.
 There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that babies
have are:
a) Sucking reflex: sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of an
infant’s mouth. Infants have s strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they
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can latch onto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is a very strong in some
infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
b) Rooting reflex: the rooting reflex is most evident when an infant’s cheek is
stroked. The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the
touch and opening their mouth for feeding.
c) Gripping reflex: babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The
strength of this grip is strong and most babies can support their entire weight in
the grip.
d) Curling reflex: when the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant
responds by curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is
stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out their toes.
e) Startle/Moro reflex: infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by
throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their heads back. Most infants will
usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their bodies.
f) Galant reflex: the Galant reflex is shown when an infant’s middle or lower back
is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his or her
body toward the side which is being stroked.
g) Tonic Neck reflex: the tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are
placed on their abdomens. Whichever side the child’s head is facing, the limbs
on that side will straighten while the opposite limbs will curl.
Gross Motor Skills
 It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the

infant’s first year of life. This dramatic motor development is shown in babies unable
to even lift their heads to being able to grab things off the cabinet, to chase the ball
and to walk from parent.
Fine Motor Skills
 Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles controlling
the hand, fingers, and thumb. The development of these skills allows one to be able
to complete tasks such as writing, drawing and buttoning.
 The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve precise eye-hand
coordination. The development of reaching and grasping becomes more refined
during the first two years of life. Initially, infants show only crude and elbow
movement, but later they show wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination of
all body parts.
Activity
1. Research study shows that, girls are taller than boys in the early stage of their
development, in your own opinion what possible reasons why this happened?
2. Out of the 7 reflexes, what reflex/es are you experiencing at your age now? Explain
why you still experience this/these reflex/es.
a. Research presentation and pictograph

b. Questionnaire on Learning Development Standards for Filipino Children
c. Group work Analysis
ASSIGNMENT
1. Does physical development begin from the top or below? From the side to the center?
Explain your answer.
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MODULE 13
Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers

Sensorimotor Stage
The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages of cognitive development. In this
stage, infants construct an understanding of the whole world by coordinating sensory
experiences with physical, motoric actions. Infants gain knowledge of the world from the
physical actions they perform on it.
Sub-Stage Age Description

Simple Reflexes Birth – 6 weeks Coordination of sensation and
action through reflexive
behaviors
First habits and primary 6 weeks – 4 months Coordination of sensation and
circular reactions phase two types of schemes: habits
(reflex) and primary circular
reactions.
Secondary Circular 4 – 8 months Development of habits.
reaction phase Infants become more object
oriented, moving beyond self-
preoccupation repeat actions
that bring interesting or
pleasurable results. This
stage is associated primarily
with the development of
coordination between vision
and prehension.
Coordination of reactions 8 – 12 months Coordination of vision and
stage secondary circular touch-hand-eye coordination;
of schemes and intentionality.
This stage is associated
primarily with the
development of logic and the
coordination between means
and ends. This stage is
extremely important. Holding
what Piaget calls the “first
proper intelligence”. Also
this stage marks the
beginning of goal orientation,
the deliberate planning of
steps to meet an objective.
Tertiary circular reactions, 12 – 18 months Infants become intrigued by
novelty, and curiosity the many properties of
objects and by the many
things they can make happen
to objects; they experiment
with new behavior. This stage
is associated primarily with
the discovery of new means
to meet goals. Piaget
describes the child at this
juncture as the “young
scientist,” conducting
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pseudo-experiments to
discover new methods of
meeting challenges.
Internalization of Scheme 18 – 24 months Infants develop the ability to
(invention of New Means use primitive symbols and
Through Mental form enduring mental
Combination) representations. This stage is
associated primarily with the
beginnings of insight, or true
creativity. This marks the
passage into the
preoperational stage.
By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and permanent.
Object Permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be
seen, heard, or touched. Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant’s most
important accomplishments, according to Piaget.
There are some criticisms of Piaget’s theory on cognitive development. One criticism from other
developmental theorists is his fundamental assumption that cognitive development occurs in
fixed sequence of discontinuous spurt across task domains, task and context. Furthermore,
Piaget’s methods of research were said to be quire loose, the fact that he simply observed his three
children and a few others which were limited only to European children.
Learning and Remembering
All of us experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall events that happened when we were
very young (Spear 1979). Generally, we can remember little or nothing that ahs happened to us before
the age of about 5 years and it is extremely rare for someone to recall many memories before age 3
years.
Language Development
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic environment
with the specific goal of acquiring language. Infants clearly have remarkably acute language
learning abilities even from an early age (Marcus, Vijayan et.al 2003). The infant utters his/her
first word – followed by one or two more, and soon after, yet a few more. The infant uses these
one-word utterances termed “holophrases” to convey intentions, desires and demands. By 18
months of age, children typically have vocabularies of 3 to 100 words (Siegler, 1986). Because
the young child’s vocabulary is very limited at this point in the development process, the child
overextends the meaning of words in his/her existing lexicon to cover things and ideas for which
a new word is lacking. For example, the general term for any kind of four-legged animal may be
“doggie”. In linguistic this is called “overextension error”.
Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age, children start combining single words to
produce two – word utterances. These two-word or three-word utterances with rudimentary
syntax but with articles and prepositions missing are referred to as “telegraphic speech”.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972), noted linguist, claims that human have an innate
language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a “metaphorical organ” that is responsible
for language learning. Just as a heart is designed to pump blood this language acquisition
device is preprogrammed to learn language, whatever the language community children find
themselves in. This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured to be ready
to acquiring language.
Activity:
Based on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage and the first year of preoperational stage of cognitive
development, reflect on how you, as a future mother / father or nursery teacher can:
1. Enhance infant and toddlers’ cognitive development or
2. Impede infants and toddlers’ cognitive development.
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Research presentation and pictograph

Questionnaire on Learning Development Standards for Filipino Children
Group work Analysis
ASSIGNMENT
It is said that children learn language faster than adults. Why is this so? Give your
hypothesis.
MODULE 14
Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers

The Formative Years
Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human development.
They are so called Formative years, that is why, parents and other caregivers at this stage of
human development play a significant role in the development of infants and toddlers.
Let us discuss those elements that have something to do with the wholesome socio-
emotional development of children.
1. Attachment: for healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish and
enduring emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a
specific figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is the social phenomenon of
attachment.
According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings of attachment
occur the first 6 months of a baby’s life with a variety of built-in signals that the baby uses to
keep her caregiver engaged.
The key to a good start in the social development of the bay is a lot of responsive
interaction with the baby.
2. Temperament: another factor related to the infant’s socio-emotional development is

temperament. Temperament is a word that captures the ways that people differ even at
birth in such things as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention span, persistence
and ability to regulate their emotion.
To determine a child’s temperament, make the following observations by Thomas, Chess

and Birch.
1. Activity Level: some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a lot and
as toddlers are always on the move. At this stage, they must be watched carefully.
2. The mood: some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely attached
emotionally to their teachers, others have a low-key mood and look more solemn or
unhappy.
3. Child’s threshold for distress: some babies are very sensitive. They become upset
very easily when stressed.
4. The rhythmicity of children: some babies get hungry or sleepy on a fairly regular and
predictable basis.
5. The intensity of response in each baby: when a baby’s threshold for distress has
been reached, some babies act restless.
6. Approach the new situation: some infants are very cautious. They are wary and fearful
of new teachers, being placed in a different crib or being taken to visit a new setting.
7. Distraction: some children can concentrate on a toy regardless of surrounding bustle or
noise in a room. Others are easily distracted.
8. Adaptability of each child: some children react to strange or difficult situations with
distress, but recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with difficulty or after a
very long period.
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9. Child’s attention span: some children have long attention span. They continue with an
activity for a fairly long time.
The Development of Emotions

Here are the milestones of the bay and the toddler’s emotional development and social
development:
1. Early Infancy (birth – 6 months): it is not clear whether infants actually experience
emotions or if adults suing adult facial expressions as the standard, simply superimpose
their own understanding of the meaning of infant facial expressions.
2. Later Infancy (7 to 12 months): during the last half of the first year, infants begin
expressing fear, disgust ad anger because of the maturation of cognitive abilities. Anger,
often expressed by crying, is a frequent emotion expressed by infants. Fear also emerges
during this stage as children know. One of the most common is the presence of an adult
stranger, a fear that begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of this stage is
called separation anxiety.
3. Toddlerhood years (1 to 2 yo): during the second year, infants’ express emotions of
shame or embarrassment and pride. These emotions mature in all children and adults
contribute to their development.
4. Emotional Understanding: during this stage of development, toddlers acquire language
and are learning to verbally express their feelings. This ability, rudimentary as it is during
early toddlerhood, is the first step in the development of emotional self-regulation. In infancy,
children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional states. In toddlerhood,
however, children begin to develop skills to regulate their emotions with the emergence of
language providing an important tool to assist in this process.
Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory

The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person’s psychosocial development) apply at the
periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they are discussed below:
1. Hope: Trust vs Mistrust (infants, 0 to 1 year):
Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs Mistrust
Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erickson’s centers around the infant’s basic needs being met by the
parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food, sustenance and
comfort.
2. Will: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (toddlers, 2 to 3 years):

Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Main Question: Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?
Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore
their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child
can venture out to assert their will. As they gain increased muscular coordination and
mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed
themselves, wash and dress themselves and use the bathroom.
Activity:
1. Based on stories you heard from your parents and grandparents about yourself when you
are in your first two years in the world, reflect on the kind of micro system as explained by
Bronfenbrenner that you have had as an infant and as a child. How has it affected you?
Research presentation and pictograph

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Questionnaire on Learning Development Standards for Filipino Children
Group work Analysis
ASSIGNMENT
Read any kind of research related to socio-emotional development of an infant and toddlers
and give your own observations on the following:
a) Results
b) Recommendations: React on each recommendation
MODULE 15
Preschoolers’ Physical Development

Physical Development
Physical Development is inseparable from all other areas of learning and development
because children learn by being active in all areas. Physical development has two other very
important aspects. It helps children gain confidence in what they can do and enables them to
feel the positive benefits of being healthy and active. Effective physical development helps
children to develop a positive sense of well-being.
Brain Development the first three years of life are period of incredible growth in all
areas of a baby’s development. A newborn’s brain is about 25% of its approximately adult
weight. But by age of 3, it has grown dramatically by producing billions of cells and hundreds of
trillions of connections or synapses between these cells. While we know that the development of
a young child’s brain takes years to complete, we also know there are many things parents and
caregivers can do to help children get off a good start and establish healthy patterns for life-long
learning.
Gross Motor Development
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles.
These gross motor skills are categorized into three: locomotor, non-locomotor and
manipulative skills. Locomotor skills are those that involve going from one place to another.
Non-locomotor skills ones are those where the child stays in place. Manipulative Skills are
those that involve projecting and receiving objects.
Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is highest around three and
becomes a little less as the preschooler gets older. Regular physical activity helps preschoolers
build and maintain healthy bones, muscles and joints control weight and build lean muscles,
prevent or delay hypertension, reduce feelings of depression and anxiety and increase capacity
for learning.
Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in the
arm, hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skills included here are picking, squeezing,
pounding and opening things, holding and using a writing implement.
Preschoolers’ Artistic Development
At the heart of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other forms of
artistic expressions. This form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor
Lowenfeld studied this and came up with the stages of drawing in early childhood.
1. Stage 1. Scribbling Stage: this stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later
become circular markings. Soon discrete shapes are drawn. The child may start to
name his/her drawing towards the end of this stage.
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2. Stage 2. Preschematic Stage: may already include early representations. At this
point adults may be able to recognize the drawings. Children at this stage tend to
give the same names to their drawings several times.
3. Stage 3. Schematic Stage: more elaborate scenes are depicted. Children usually
draw from experience and exposure.
Preschoolers’ Nutrition and Sleep
The kind of nutrition a preschooler gets has far-reaching effect on his physical growth
and development. The preschooler’s nutritional status is the result of what nutrients he or she
actually takes in checked against the nutritional requirement for his / her age.
It is important for preschoolers to get sufficient amount of rest and sleep. Preschoolers
benefit from about 10-12 hours of sleep each day. It is when they are asleep that vital biological
processes that affect physical and cognitive development take place. During sleep, especially in
the dream state, growth hormones are released. Blood supply to the muscles are likewise
increased helping preschoolers regain energy. At this stage while dreaming, increased brain
activity is also attained.
Activity:
1. Search on the recommended food guide for preschoolers or young children. Interview a
mother about what her preschooler eats in a week. Write down the types of food and
compare it with the recommended food guide.
2. Surf the net. Make a collection of gross motor and fine motor activities for preschoolers that
caregivers and teachers can use to support their development.
Group work Analysis and discussion

Brainstorming
Lists of Preschoolers to be observe
ASSIGNMENT
Read any kind of research related to physical development of preschoolers’ and give your
own observations on the following:
Results
Recommendations: React on each recommendation
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MODULE 16
Cognitive Development of the Preschoolers

Preschoolers’ Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking
There are two substages of Piaget’s preoperational thought, namely, symbolic

substage and intuitive substage. In the symbolic stage, preschool children show progress in
their abilities by being able to draw objects that are not present, by their dramatic increase in
their language and make-believe play. In the intuitive stage, preschool children begin to use
primitive reasoning and ask a litany of questions.
While preschoolers still may be limited to preoperational thinking as you have seen in
the past activity, they are making significant advancement in their thought is shown in preschool
children’s ability to mentally represent an object, person or event in order to think about it.
Preschoolers use symbolic thought in play, reading and writing when, for instance,
children pretend that one thing represents another such as a wooden block used as a
microphone in a magic sing and when they pretend to be dog BANTAY while in a sociodramatic
play.
Brain Connections in the Preschool Years
Because of fascinating developments in neuroscience, brain development of young

children has been of great interest to the field of early child. Brain research findings point us to
more effective ways to care for an teach preschoolers. From science lessons you had in high
school or even in elementary, you will remember that our brain is composed of numerous cells
called “neurons” that connect to each other to function. Cell connections are what we call
“synapses” sometimes also referred to as “synaptic connections”.
Brain research has also pointed out the crucial role of the environment. Experts have
shown specific areas of brain activity that respond to environmental stimulation. Just as an
enriching environment favors the preschooler’s brain development, strong evidence also show
that highly stressful environments marred by trauma and chaos affect the cognitive development
of preschoolers.
Language Development
Young children’s understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech. As children go

through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language increases (morphology, semantics
and pragmatics).
Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play. Children rapidly
conclude that sounds link together to make words and words represent ideas, people and
things. Throughout the preschool years, children’s language development becomes increasingly
complex in the four main areas: phonology (speech sounds), semantics (word meaning),
syntax (sentence construction) and pragmatics (conversion or social uses of language).
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Language and Social Interaction
Vygotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate socially and
plan, guide and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion called – inner speech or
private speech (Santrock, 2002).
For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is important
tool of thought during early childhood. Full cognitive development requires social interaction and
language.
Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve their highest cognitive
development (language development included) on their own and that they can improve their
cognitive development through the use of scaffolding from more-skilled children and adults. He
introduced the term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to refer to tasks too difficult to a
child to master alone but can be mastered with the guidance and assistance of adults or more
skilled children (Santrock, 2002).
Closely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive development and language development is
the concept of scaffolding, a term that refers to the “changing support over the course of a
teaching session, with the more skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child’s current
performance level” (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled person is also called More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO).
Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory
The Information Processing Model is another way of examining and understanding

how children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes children’s mental processes
through the metaphor of a computer processing, encoding, storing and decoding.
Memory is a process by which people and other organisms encode, store and retrieve
information. There are three types of memory:
a) Short Memory: holds information from the world in it original sensory form for only
an instant, not much longer than the information is exposed to the visual, auditory
and other senses.
b) Short Term Memory (Working memory): a limited capacity memory system in
which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds unless the information is
rehearsed in which case it can be retained longer.
c) Long-term Memory: is relatively permanent type of memory that holds huge
amounts of information for a long period of time.
Schemas – are concepts and knowledge about events that influence how an individual
interprets information.
Script – is a schema that focuses on the order of predictable series of events as

children develop their schemas and scripts become more sophisticated.
Basic Processes:
1. Habituation: is the repeated presentation of a stimulus that causes reduced

attention to the stimulus.
 Dishabituation: is renewed interests in a stimulus.
2. Automaticity: is the ability to process information with little or no effort.

3. Attention: means concentrating and focusing mental resources.
 Selective Attention: is the ability to focus mental effort on stimuli that are
important in a particular situation while excluding other stimuli.
Memory Strategies: are cognitive process that do not occur automatically but require work
and effect.
1. Rehearsal – is the extended repetition of material after it has been presented.
2. Organization- is the grouping or arranging of items into categories. The use of
organization improves long-term memory.
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3. Elaboration – involves going beyond the information given in order to make
information more memorable.
4. Imagery – involves sensations without the presence of corresponding external
stimuli. It is another strategy to improve memory.
Activity:
1. Currently there is a controversy over whether young children should be allowed to testify in
court. Considering their memory functioning would you favor it? Explain your answer.
a. Describe behaviors to illustrate the preschooler’s animism, egocentrism, centration, lack of

conservation
ASSIGNMENT
Read any kind of research related to cognitive development of preschoolers’ and give your
Results; Recommendations; React on each recommendation.
MODULE 17
Socio-emotional Development of the Preschoolers
Big Ideas on Prescholers’ Socio-emotional Development
2. The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler.

3. A healthy self-concept is needed for preschooler to interact with others.
4. Environmental factors influence gender identity in young children.
5. Preschoolers’ social development is shown through the stages of play
6. The care-giving styles of parents and teachers affect the preschoolers’ socio-emotional
development.
7. Preschoolers are interested in building friendships.
Preschoolers’ Initiative
Erickson’s view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional and social changes that happen
during the preschool years. As discussed in module 7, preschoolers deal with the psychological
conflict of initiative versus guilt. Erickson believed that healthy preschoolers develop initiative,
the tendency of preschoolers to want to take actions and assert themselves.
As preschoolers go through the conflict of initiative vs guilt, they show so much energy
in doing imaginative play activities. Consequently, the child may develop excessive guilt.
Although a good amount of guilt helps in making children take responsibility for their behavior,
excessive guilt hampers emotional growth. Preschoolers who are always punished and
criticized end up constructing a view of themselves as being “salbahe” (bad), “bobo” 9dumb) or
even “walang kwenta” (worthless). This is really sad because childhood years should be happy
years.
The key thing to remember is to apply “judicious permissiveness”. This involves
setting realistic boundaries that keep preschoolers safe and respectful of self and others, while
allowing them greater opportunity to explore, take risks and to engage in creative processes.
Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense of initiative in an affirming, encouraging and
stimulating environment.
Self-Concept and the Preschooler
By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they are a
separate and distinct person. With their ability to make representations, they can now think and
reflect about themselves. Self-concept refers to the way one sees himself, a general view
about one’s abilities, strength on observable characteristics and his/her usual beliefs, emotions
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and attitudes. An important aspect of self-concept is self-esteem, which specifically refers to
one’s judgement about one’s worth.
Environment Factors and Gender in the Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional Development
As the preschooler’s ability to create schemas develop, they become capable of gender
typing, the process of forming gender roles, gender-based preferences and behaviors accepted
by society. They come to form gender stereotypes. Preschoolers begin to associate certain
things like toys, tools, games, clothes, jobs, colors or even actions or behaviors as being “only
for boys” or “only for girls.”
Parten’s Stages of Play
Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social dimension. As the
preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases. Mildred Parten, in 1930’s
did a study on children’s behavior which led to “Parten’s Stages of Play”. The stages describe
the play development of children and the gradual increase of social interaction as they go
through these stages.
PARTEN’S STAGES OF PLAY
Unoccupied The child appears not to be playing but

directs his attention on anything that interests
him.
Onlooker The child spends time watching others play.
He may talk to them but does not enter into
play with them.
Solitary Play The child starts to play on his own. He seems
not to notice other children playing nearby.
Parallel Play The child plays with toys similar to those near
him, but only plays besides and not with
them. No interaction takes place.
Associative Play The child plays with others. There is inter-
action among them, but not task assignment,
rules and organization are agreed upon.
Cooperative The child plays with others bound by some
agreed rules and roles. The goal is maybe to
make something, play a game, or act out
something.
Friendship in Preschool
As they continue to grow, preschoolers become interested in having friends. This should
be encouraged in the preschool years as friendships benefit the preschooler’s development by
providing stimulation, assistance, companionship, social comparison and affection (Kostelnik,
2010). Through friendships, preschoolers are able to practice different social roles like being a
leader, a follower, someone who takes risks and someone who helps out and comfort.
Friendship is very important because they provide added sense of belongingness and security.
Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the children. Caregivers

here refer to both parents and teachers and even other adults that care for the child. Baumrind
gave a model that describes the different types of caregiving styles. This was based on a
longitudinal study that looked into the adult authority and the development of children that
Baumrind conducted which began in the 1960’s.
Responsiveness refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain to expression of affection
and communication. It refers to how warm, caring and respectful the adult is to the child. It
involves openness in communication and the willingness to explain things in ways that the child
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will understand. Demandingness refers to the level of control and expectations. This involves
discipline and confrontation strategies.
BAUMRIND’S CAREGIVING STYLE
Authoritative Permissive
high demandingness low demandingness
high responsiveness high responsiveness
Authoritarian
Negligent
high demandingness
low demandingness
low responsiveness
low responsiveness
Activity:
1. The best caregiving style is the authoritative style. From all that you have learned from this
module, make a list of 10 qualities that an authoritative preschool teacher should have. And
among the 10 qualities, choose 1 why you listed that as one of the qualities.
a. List of preschoolers’ physical skills from PELDS

b. Observation of preschooler’s activity/ies
ASSIGNMENT
Read any kind of research related to socio-emotional development of preschoolers’ and give
your own observations on the following:
Results
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MODULE 18
Physical Development of Primary Schoolers

Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this stage,
physical development involves: 1) having good muscle control and coordination, 2)
developing eye-hand coordination, 3) having good personal hygiene and 4) being aware
of good safety habits. In this developmental stage, children will have started their elementary
grades. Specifically, their primary years – Grades 1 – 3.
Height and Weight
This period of gradual and steady growth will give children time to get used to the
changes in their bodies. An average increase in height of a little over two inches a year in both
boys and girls will introduce them to many different activities that they can now do with greater
accuracy.
Weight gain averages about 6.5 pounds a year. Most children will have slimmer
appearance compared to their preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation and
location of their body fat, although girls tend to develop additional fat cells relative to muscle
cells. A child’s legs are longer and more proportioned to the body than they were before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much changes in the
body will take place: genes, food, climate, exercise, medical conditions and diseases /
illnesses.
Bones and Muscles
Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years – bones grow longer and broader.
This is the best time for parents and teachers to educate children of good dietary and exercise
habits to help them have strong, healthy bones throughout their lives.
Motor Development
Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their bodies.
Most children have good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle strength and skills.
They enjoy doing real-life tasks and activities. They pretend and fantasize less often because
they are more in time with everything that is happening around them.
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Performing unimanual (requiring the use of one hand) and bi-manual (requiring the use
of two hands) activities becomes easier. Children’s graphic activities, such as writing and
drawing are now more controlled but are still developing. Motor development skills include
coordination, balance, speed, agility and power.
Coordination: is a series of movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to
bring about a particular result.
Balance: is the child’s ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different
positions. Balance is a basic skill needed especially in this stage, when children are very active.
During this time, children have improved balancing skills. Static balance is the ability to
maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like balancing on one foot. Dynamic Balance is the
ability to maintain equilibrium while moving.
Speed: is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time.
Agility: is one’s ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body. This skill is extremely
important in most sports.
Power: is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.
Some Issues Affecting Physical Development
Obesity: this is becoming a major concern for parents and health care providers, since it
seems it becoming a trend. Childhood obesity may be linked to a number of health-related
consequences. Evidence also shows that overweight and obese children are likely to stay
obese well into their adulthood and are more prone to develop non-communicable diseases like
diabetes and some cardiovascular diseases at much younger age.
Childhood Nutrition: malnutrition remains a major health issue in the Philippines. This
has been proven to have serious effect on the physical and mental development of children.
Sleep: primary school-age children need 9 to 11 hours of sleep every day (including
daytime naps). Sometimes, due to their schedule in school, midday naps or siesta is not
possible anymore. Poor and inadequate sleep may result to mood swings, behavioral problems
such as hyperactivity and cognitive problems which may impact their ability to concentrate in
school.
Observation of primary school children and their activity/ies
ASSIGNMENT
Read any kind of research related to physical development of preschoolers’ and give your
Results
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MODULE 19
Cognitive Development of Primary Schoolers

Jean Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Concrete Operation is the third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It

spans form age 7 to approximately 11 years old. During this time, children have better
understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to think logically about concrete events,
particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical
concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time at problem-solving.
Logic
Concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already make use of inductive
logic. Inductive logic involves thinking from a specific experience to a general principle. But at
this stage, children have great difficulty in using deductive logic or beginning with a general
principle leading to specific event.
Reversibility
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility
or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order
of relationships between mental categories (example: 3+4=7 and 7-4=3).
Cognitive Milestones
Elementary-aged children encounter developmental milestones. This is the stage when

they leave behind egocentric thinking and start to develop a more mature way of looking at
things, which greatly enhances children’s problem-solving skills. Piaget calls this
DECENTRATION. They develop certain skills within a particular time frame. The skills they
learn are in a sequential manner meaning they need to understand numbers before they can
perform a mathematical equation.
Information-Processing
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Several theorists argue that like the computer, the human mind is a system that can
process information through the application of logical rules and strategies. They also believe
that the mind receives information, performs operations to change its form and content, stores
and locates it and generates responses from it.
Implications to Child Care, Education and Parenting
Children have varying intelligence profiles. These profiles may be based on influences of
learning and achievement. Parents, child care providers and teachers should be able to
recognize these by:
 helping children draw on their strengths and promote growth in their weaknesses;
 planning lessons that cater to multiple intelligences based on instructional objectives;
 encouraging children to read more every day to increase their vocabulary;
 bringing children to museums, art exhibits and historical landmarks to widen their
perspective about the world and people; and
 lessening children’s screen time and increasing their personal and face-to-face interactions.
a. Graphic organizers;
b. Diagrams on short term and long-term memory
ASSIGNMENT
Read any kind of research related to cognitive development of Primary Schoolers and give
your own observations on the following:
Results
MODULE 20
Socio-Emotional Development of Primary Schoolers
Erik Erikson’s Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development
Industry and Inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve in
this stage. Industry refers to a child’s involvement in situations where long, patient work is
demanded of them, while inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling of failure
when they cannot finish or master their school work.
Understanding the Self
One’s self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as beliefs regarding
personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals and roles. It also involves a
sense of belonging and acceptance, a sense of good and a sense of being capable of doing
good.
Having a healthy self-concept does not mean that a child thinks he/she is better than
others. It means that he/she like himself/herself, feels accepted by his/her family and friends
and believes that he/she can do well.
School Years
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to become

increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with social interactions, they are not focused on
themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and desires of others. The issues of
fairness and equality before important to them as they earn to care for people who are not part
of their families. Characteristics like loyalty and reliability are being considered a well as
responsibility and kindness.
Building Friendship
Children during this stage, most likely belong to a peer group. Peer Groups are
characterized by children who belong approximately to the same age group. It is found along
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the stages of childhood through adolescence. But for children, until the age of seven or eight,
they think of themselves more than others.
Primary school children prefer to belong to peer groups of the same gender. Many
children will use their surroundings to observe and mingle with other children. Some will see this
as an opportunity to make friends while others remain a bit of a loner.
Antisocial Behavior
Some adults may perceive that some children’s behavior towards other children as
antisocial. When children poke, pull, hit or kick other children when they are first introduced, it is
fairly normal. Remember that children at this stage are still forming their own world views and
other children may seem like a curiosity that they need to explore. Parents and teachers can
help children make friends. You can consider the following:
 Expose the children to kid-rich environments;

 Create a play group in your class and let the children mingle with their classmates;
 When your children hit other children, remind them that their behavior hurts;
 Coordinate with the parents and other teachers so that the children will have greater
opportunity to interact with other children.
Self-Control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride in their ability to do things and
their capacity to exert effort. They like receiving positive feedback from their parents and
teachers. This becomes a great opportunity for parents and teachers to encourage positive
emotional responses from children by acknowledging their mature, compassionate behaviors.
Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed in the context

of the child’s developmental age. Health-care providers, teachers and parents should be able to:
 gain understanding of their child’s socio-emotional strengths and weaknesses by

observing the child’s behavior at home;
 work collaboratively with the child’s parents and health-care provider to expand one’s
insights on the child’s development;
 provide a supportive setting where children have opportunities to practice emotional
regulation and social skills with peers;
 give children activities when thy can practice taking turn, sharing and playing
cooperatively;
 be a role model of healthy emotions and expressing these emotions appropriately;
and
 demonstrate calmness and staying in control of one’s own feelings.
Observing primary schoolers during their break time
ASSIGNMENT
Read any kind of research related to socio-emotional development of Primary Schoolers

and give your own observations on the following:
Results
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MODULE 21
Physical Development of the Intermediate Schoolers

Intermediate schoolers have more control over their bodies than they have when they
were in primary school. They become more active and have greater liberty to choose the
hobbies or sports that they want to get involved.
This may also be the stage when puberty may begin. Puberty is the period in which the
body undergoes physical changes and becomes capable of sexual reproduction.
Early Puberty
On the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of boys in terms of
physical maturity, although these developments may be determined by how close a child is to
puberty. Puberty may begin early. Budding breast for girls – which is the initial sigh of puberty.
Some girls may also start with their menstrual period as early as 8 and some as late as 13.
Puberty’s changes start when the brain triggers the production of sex hormones. Here
are some changes that may happen to both girls and boys during early puberty:
GIRLS BOYS
Breast Small lumps from behind the nipple May also have swelling on their
may occur, which sometime could chest but tends to go away within a
be painful but eventually, the pain year or two.
goes away.
It is normal for one breast to
develop more slowly than the
others.
Genitals The vulva starts in increase a bit. Subtle increase in testicle size.
The vagina gets longer Penis and scrotum start to grow.
The uterus gets bigger Semen may be released when he is
awake or even during sleep.
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Hair Growth Hair will start to grow in the armpits Hair will start to grow and become
and pubic areas. thicker.
New hair will also grow in the
armpits and public area around the
genitals.
May start developing chest and
facial hair
Height, Weight and Muscle Deve;opment
During the late childhood, a child’s weight on average, may be 2.3 to 3.2 kilograms per
year. Weight increase was mainly due to the increase in size of skeletal and muscular systems
as well as several organs. Children during this stage may experience growth spurts – sudden
boosts in height and weight, which are usually accompanied by increase in appetite and food
intake.
Increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for the growth that occurs during
adolescence. The body fat increase occurs earlier in girls and is greater in quantity.
Motor Skills
During this stage, movements or the muscles and bones become more coordinated. At
the age of 10 or 11 years, most children will have learned tom play sports like swimming,
basketball, volleyball and running. These physical skills become a source of pleasure and great
achievement to the children. In activities that use large muscle activities, boys tend to be
nimbler than girls.
Insecurities
At this stage, children may become very concerned about their physical appearance.
Girls especially, may become concerned about their weight and decide to eat less. Boys may
become aware of their stature and muscle size and strength.
Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must be very
conscious about their dealings with these children. Appropriate activities must be designed so
that children will be guided into the right direction. Children must be given opportunities to
engage themselves in worthwhile activities that: promote healthy growth; give them a feeling
of accomplishment, and reduce the risk of certain diseases.
Implications to child-care and parenting
During this stage, children are more physically active however, they still have a lot of
physical maturity to undergo. Here are some points to consider for health-care providers,
teachers and parents:
 Provide ample opportunities at home and in school for physical exercises and sports;
 Encourage children to participate in varied worthwhile activities until they are able to
discover the ones they are interested in;
 Develop a strong emotional attachment with your children so as to address any
insecurities and social concerns; and
 Since children in this stage have more control over their eating habits, provides them
with healthier food choices.
Natural observation on intermediate school children
ASSIGNMENT
As a future teacher, what ideas can you give in order to help intermediate school
children develop physically?
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MODULE 22
Cognitive Development of the Intermediate Schoolers
Initial Cognitive Characteristics
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can now utilize
more effectively as compared to their thinking skills during their primary years. Their school
world is now more complicated, reading texts have become longer, problem solving has
become an everyday part of their lives.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning gives them chances to think about what they
want and how to get it. They now become very interested in talking about their future or even
their potential careers. They develop special interest in collections, hobbies and sports. They
are even capable of understanding concepts without having direct hands-on experiences.
Reading Development
Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word attack. Because of the
presence of previous knowledge, they now have wide vocabulary which enables them to
understand the meanings of unknown words through context clues – this is the “Reading to
Learn” in stage in reading development. They are no longer into the fairy tales and magic type
of stories but are more interested in longer and more complex reading materials (e.g. fiction
books and series books).
Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared to younger
children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much is required by the given task. In
terms of school work, older children can concentrate and focus more for long periods of hours
specially if they are highly interested in what they are doing.
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Reading Development
Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity is innate in children,
they just need a little guidance and support from parents, teachers and people around them.
They are usually at their best when the work is done in small pieces.
The Impact of Media
“Television Viewing” is a highly complex, cognitive activity during which children are
actively involved in learning.” (Anderson and Collins, 1988).
The dream of having a television unit in every classroom started in the 1950’s. It was
considered as one of the first technological advancement in schools. The impact of the use of
television and other media like the computer has gained popularity because students are given
more opportunity to:
 Communicate effectively in speech and writing;

 Work collaboratively;
 Use technological tools;
 Analyze problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for achieving those goals; and
 Seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to meet their goals.
The Impact of Media
Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the result of media. According to
the Public Health Summit in 2000, the following are some of the negative results of media:
 Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behavior;

 Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who suffer from violence;
 Children may view the word as violent and mean, becoming more fearful of being a
victim of violence;
 Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment and real life;
 Children will view violence as acceptable way to settle conflicts.
Natural observation on intermediate school children
ASSIGNMENT
As a future teacher, write some concrete steps that you can do in the classroom to
encourage your students to make reading a habit.
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MODULE 23
Socio-Emotional Development of the Intermediate Schoolers

Understanding Self-Competence, Self-Identity and Self-Concept
One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of development is the
acquisition of feelings of self-confidence. This is what Erik Erikson referred to when he
described the developmental task of middle childhood – the social crisis industry versus
inferiority. Industry refers to the drive to acquire new skills and do meaningful “work”.
During late childhood, children can now describe themselves with internal and
psychological characteristics and traits. They most likely employ more social comparison –
distinguishing themselves from other. In dealing with other children, they show increase in
perspective taking. This ability increases with age. It enables them to (a) judge others’
intentions, purposes and actions, (2) give importance to social attitudes and behaviors and (c)
increase skepticism of others’ claims.
Emotional Development
The same with other areas of development, children in this stage show improved
emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one emotion can be
experienced in a single experience. They may also show greater ability to show or conceal
emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine empathy.
Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children’s emotional

intelligence (EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feelings of oneself and others to guide
and motivate behavior. Emotional Intelligence has four main areas:
1. Developing emotional self-awareness

2. Managing emotions (self-control)
3. Reading emotions 9perspective taking)
4. Handling emotions (resolve problems)
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Building Friendship
There are five types of peer status:
1. Popular: frequently nominated as the best friend and one who is rarely disliked by
peers.
2. Average: receive an average number of positive and negative nominations from
peers.
3. Neglected: very seldom nominated as best friend but is not really disliked.
4. Rejected: infrequently nominated as a best friend but one who is also disliked by
peers.
5. Controversial: frequently nominated as a best friend but at the same time is disliked
by peers.
Family
Family support at this stage is crucial. If children do not find a supportive family when
they find their interest (e.g. in hobbies like riding a bike or playing a musical instrument) they
can easily get frustrated. If families are a primary support system, failures ad setbacks become
temporary and surmountable rather than something that is attributed to personal flaws or
deficits. This time is a critical time for children to develop a sense of competence. A high-quality
adult relationship, specifically, family relationships enable them to successfully go through this
stage of development.
Big Ideas
This module stresses that:
1. During late childhood, a wide variety of biological, psychological and social changes
take place across the developmental domains.
2. As children progress through late childhood, the family environment remains
extremely important, while the community environment – including the school – also
becomes a significant factor in shaping the child’s development.
3. During late childhood, peers have an increasingly strong impact on development;
peer acceptance becomes very important to well-being.
Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed in the context

of the child’s development age. Health care providers, teachers and parents should be able to:
1. Gain understanding of their child’s socio-emotional strengths and weaknesses by;

2. Encouraging children to talk about their feelings without doing it forcefully;
3. Provide opportunities for children to build relationships with teachers and fellow
classmates;
4. Remind children that friendships have their ups and downs and that occasional
conflicts and arguments can be healthy;
5. Design activities that allow children to work on their own and discover activities and
hobbies that they enjoy; and
6. Model healthy relationships.
Quotations on socio-emotional development of intermediate school children
ASSIGNMENT
Write a story about your experiences during your late childhood
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MODULE 24
Physical Development of High School Learners
Defining Adolescence
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive and socio-emotional

changes. The period of adolescence begins with the biological changes of puberty. The specific
ages for this period vary from person-to-person but (i) early adolescence characterized by
puberty may come at the age of 11 and 12, (ii) middle adolescence may meet identity issues
within the ages of 14 and 16, and (iii0 late adolescence marks the transition into adulthood at
ages 17 and 20.
Puberty Changes
Throughout life, growth hormones condition gradual increases in body size and weight.
Hormone Flooding during adolescence causes an acceleration known as growth spurt.
Growth spurts include a change in body dimensions (leg length, shoulder width, trunk length).
Spurt in height is ascribed to trunk growth rather than leg growth.
Factors Affecting Development
The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is complex. Hormones are

powerful and highly specialized chemical substances that interact with bodily cells. Hormonal
Changes in the hypothalamus and pituitary glands signal the entire process of sexual
maturation.
The process entails:

(i) secretion of gonadotropic hormones by the anterior pituitary at the base of the brain
near the geometric center of the head
(ii) (ii) Gonads which are the ovaries for the female and the testis for the mare are then
stimulated by the gonadotropic hormones, in turn stimulating their own hormones
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(iii) this stimulation causes the secretion of testosterone in the male sex organ and of
estrogen in the female ovary.
 In the male, testosterone stimulates male characteristics comprised by:

(i) Spermache enlargement of the testis gland that produces sperm in the
scrotum, growth of the penis male organ for copulation;
(ii) capacity for ejaculation of male sperms;
(iii) voice change;
(iv) facial hair development or beard growth and continuing growth of pubic hair.
 In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast enlargement,

appearance of pubic hair, widening of the hips and menarche or first
menstruation.
 In contrast with menarche, spermache signals the first sign of puberty and sexual
maturity in boys.
The Secular Trend
The Secular Trend is a phenomenon of more rapid physical maturation during this
century. In the 1800s, girls in industrial societies had their first menstrual period at age 15-17,
and age later in repressed societies. Today boys reach their maximum height at age 18-20 and
13-14 for girls, but adult height 100 years ago was at 23-25 for boys and 19-20 for girls. The
secular trends are ascribed to varied factors:
a) Interaction of genetic and environmental influences;

b) Improved health care and living conditions; and
c) Control of infectious diseases
Sexual Identity
Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation with sexual fantasies

and realities of incorporating sexuality with one’s identity quoted by Santrock, 2005 from one’s
identity (Christopher, 2001).
Adolescents are concerned about their body image sexual attractiveness how to do sex
and the future of their sexual lives. Most adolescents manage to develop a mature sexual
identity but a number go through it with much confusion.
How do Adolescent develop a sexual Indentity?
An adolescent’s sexual identity involves sexual orientation, activities, interests and styles
of behavior (Bugwell and Rosenthal, 1996). Some adolescents are very anxious about sex and
sexually active. Others are only a bit anxious about sex and are sexually inactive.
Sexual orientation is a person’s tendency to be attracted to people of the same sex

(homosexual orientations), of the opposite sex (heterosexual orientation) or of both sexes
(bisexual orientation)
Self-Esteem
A major aspect of identity formation during the period of adolescence is self-esteem.

Self-esteem is defined as one’s thoughts and feelings about one’s self-concept and identity.
Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire across all genders and ages to
maintain, protect and enhance self-esteem.
The lack of romantic competence – failure to meet the affection of the opposite sex –
can be a major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. In a Meyer study, the end of a
romantic relationship can affect both boys and girls, but girls are twice as likely to experience
depression, while boys are three to four times more likely to commit suicide.
Sharing with the small group of past personal experience on physical and sexual
development
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ASSIGNMENT
Write a story about your experiences during your high school grade.
MODULE 25
Cognitive Development of High School Learners
Similarly, remarkably as the physical changes during adolescence are changes in

thinking patterns. These changes are marked by the acquisition of new cognitive skills due to
the brain’s increasing in weight and refining synaptic connections (technically known as
CORPUS COLLOSUM) which join and coordinate the two correlated temporal and parietal
areas (technically known as MYELINATION)
Piaget’s Formal Operational Thinker

Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking which demonstrates how
the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows him/her to go beyond the sensible and concrete
in order to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical and possible. More specifically Formal
Operational Thinking consists in:
1. Propositional Thinking: making assertions outside visual evidence and stating

what may be possible in things not seen by the eyes (for example, whether an
unseen object is red or green, big or small, flat or round).
2. Relativistic Thinking: subjectively making an opinion on facts – involving one’s own
bias, prejudice of distortion of facts- which may be either right or wrong (for example,
arguing for or against the superiority of the races, whether white, brown, yellow or
black.
3. Real versus Possible: examining a situation and exploring the possible in terms of
situations or solutions (e.g.; possible success in implementing a student project or a
school policy).
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A new capacity known as Hypothetic-Deductive Reasoning emerges in the adolescent
reasoning from general facts / situations to a particular conclusion. The school pendulum
experiment is an example od deducing from variables and generating and recognizing a
truth, expressed by the transitional process of deriving a conclusion from a hypothesis.
Siegler’s Information Processing Skills

As in information-processing theories, Robert Siegler views the influence of the
environment on thinking. He sees cognitive growth, not as stages of development, but more of a
sequential acquisition of specific knowledge and strategies for problem-solving. He observes the
quality of information the adolescent processes that influences him/her in facing tasks and hand
through strategies or rules.
In his experiments, Siegler used rule models in relation to balance, weight, distance,
conflict-weight, conflict-distance and other conflict balance problems.
Metacognition
Among the cognitive advances in adolescence is metacognition which is the ability of
identity one’s own thinking processes and strategies inclusive of perception, memory,
understanding, application, analysis, assessment and innovation. The adolescent is able to
state “I know that” among the memory data stored in his mind; also, able to state “I know
how” referring to procedural processes that improves memory recall through the use of
mnemonic device.
Overachievement
During adolescence, he/she can achieve very high academic grades, in spite of not
getting IQ grades that are at the top 3 or 5 percent of the bell curve.
Characteristics of Overachievers
1. Positive self-value (self-esteem, confidence, optimism);

2. Openness to authority (responsive to expectations of parents and teachers);
3. Positive interpersonal relations (responsive and sensitive to feelings of others);
4. Less conflict on the issue of self-autonomy (feels freedom to make right choices,
initiates and leads activities);
5. Academic orientation (disciplined work habits, high motivation to discover and
learn, interest in study values and varied fields of study);
6. Goal orientation (efficiency and energy in organizing, planning, setting target,
prioritizing long-term goals over short-term rewards); and
7. Control over anxiety (well composed and relaxed performance of organized tasks).
Underachievement
The adolescent may perform below the standards set. Possible potentials do not cope
with the opportunity to learn and score in the top quarter of measured academic ability.
Withdrawn underachievement refer to those who have a more pronounced tendency to be
passive resulting in being submissive and docile. They follow the path of no resistance, not
reacting to given assignments and school regulations. Generally quiet, they do not participate in
class activities. Aggressive underachievement is those who tend to be talkative disruptive and
rebellious.
Behavior and adolescent cognitive growth

There are behavioral tendencies which may accompany cognitive growth during
adolescence. These are:
1. Egocentrism this is the adolescents’ tendency to think too much of themselves,
while being too sensitive to social acceptance of their appearance, actions, feelings,
ideas, etc.
2. Idealism this refers to imagining the far-fetched and less ideal situations at home, in
school, and in society.
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3. Increased Argumentativeness teens enjoy learning through the use of group
dynamics including role play, discussion, debate, and drama.
Sharing with the small group of past personal experience on cognitive development.
ASSIGNMENT
c) What were the improvements of your thought patterns during adolescence comparing
these with those of your elementary school days?
MODULE 26
Socio-Emotional Development of High School Learners
Human Emotions
Generally, emotions are commonly known as human feelings that are manifested by
varied conscious or unconscious moods. A more accurate description is that it is a subjective
reaction to internal or external stimulus that involves physical change, action or appraisal.
Positive and Negative Emotions
Emotions function by focusing attention, motivating and enabling the individual to face a
situation in life or withdraw and run away from it. Positive Emotions like interest and joy
motivate the individual to continue his/her behavior. On the other hand, Negative Emotions
may cause withdrawal from what may be perceived as bad or dangerous. For Charles Darwin
there are six basic emotions namely: interest, joy/happiness, sadness, anger, disgust and
fear. Other scientists expanded the list to include love, pride, hope, gratitude, compassion,
jealously and anxiety.
Social Emotions
Social Emotions start to emerge as early as the toddler years (15-24 months)
comprised by such feelings as envy, embarrassment, shame, guilt and pride. Girls are more
skilled in regulating emotions, but they are more likely than boys to be anxious and twice as
likely to be depressed. Adolescent girls are more likely than boys to have both negative and
positive interactions with family and friends.
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Sharing of experiences on friendship, self-esteem, barkada, intimate sex friends,
intimate opposite sex friends; autonomy; depression and suicide
ASSIGNMENT
d) How does people affect your emotional maturity?

1. Parents
2. Teacher
3. Friends
A. Books
1. Bergin, C. and Bergin D. 2018. Child and Adolescent Development in your Classroom (3rd ed.)
USA: Cengage Learning
2. Bergin, C.C. and Bergin, D.A. 2015.Child and Adolescent Development in your Classroom:
Cengage Learning. Stamford USA.
3. Corpuz, Brenda B. et.al. 2018. The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles:
OBE-PPST-Based, PAFTE Project Write. Lorimar Publishing Inc.
4. Kandel, D.B., Parent-adolescent relationships and adolescent independence in the US and
Denmark, Journal of Marriage and the Family, 69, 348-358
5. Marion, Marian. Guidance of Young Children, USA: Pearson Merrill-Prentice Hall, 2007.
6. Ormrod, J.E.2011. Educational Psychology: Developing Learners (7th Ed.) Boston: Pearson/Ally
& Bacon.
7. Preschoolers Cognitive Development. USA: Magna Systems, 2007.
8. Preschoolers Physical Development. USA: Magna Systems, 2006.
9. Santrock, John, W. 2002. Life-Span Development, 8th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.
10. Trawick, Smith, Jeffrey. 2006. Early Childhood Development A Multicultural Perspective USA:
Prentice Hall, 4th edition.
11. Woolfolk, Anita .2013. Educational Psychology. Pearson Education Inc.: New Jersey
B. e-Resources
1. http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm
2. http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1980/5/80.05.03.x/htm1#f
3. http://www/squidoo.com/folicacidpregnant
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220)

Development of The Learners at The Various Stages

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MODULE 11

Development of the Learners at the Various Stages

Life Before Birth (The development of the unborn child)

The Stages of Pre-natal Development

a) Cell differentiation intensifies;

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

1. Prescription and nonprescription drugs: these include prescription as well as non-

Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

Height and Weight

Gross Motor Skills

 It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the

Fine Motor Skills

a. Research presentation and pictograph

Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers

Sub-Stage Age Description

Learning and Remembering

Research presentation and pictograph

Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers

2. Temperament: another factor related to the infant’s socio-emotional development is

To determine a child’s temperament, make the following observations by Thomas, Chess

The Development of Emotions

Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory

2. Will: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (toddlers, 2 to 3 years):

Research presentation and pictograph

Preschoolers’ Physical Development

Gross Motor Development

Preschoolers’ Artistic Development

Preschoolers’ Nutrition and Sleep

Group work Analysis and discussion

Cognitive Development of the Preschoolers

There are two substages of Piaget’s preoperational thought, namely, symbolic

Brain Connections in the Preschool Years

Because of fascinating developments in neuroscience, brain development of young

Young children’s understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech. As children go

Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory

The Information Processing Model is another way of examining and understanding

Script – is a schema that focuses on the order of predictable series of events as

1. Habituation: is the repeated presentation of a stimulus that causes reduced

2. Automaticity: is the ability to process information with little or no effort.

a. Describe behaviors to illustrate the preschooler’s animism, egocentrism, centration, lack of

Socio-emotional Development of the Preschoolers

Big Ideas on Prescholers’ Socio-emotional Development

2. The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler.

PARTEN’S STAGES OF PLAY

Unoccupied The child appears not to be playing but

Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the children. Caregivers

BAUMRIND’S CAREGIVING STYLE

a. List of preschoolers’ physical skills from PELDS

Physical Development of Primary Schoolers

Observation of primary school children and their activity/ies

Cognitive Development of Primary Schoolers

Concrete Operation is the third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It

Elementary-aged children encounter developmental milestones. This is the stage when

Socio-Emotional Development of Primary Schoolers

Erik Erikson’s Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development

In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to become

 Expose the children to kid-rich environments;

Implications to Child Care, Education and Parenting

Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed in the context

 gain understanding of their child’s socio-emotional strengths and weaknesses by

Observing primary schoolers during their break time

Read any kind of research related to socio-emotional development of Primary Schoolers

Physical Development of the Intermediate Schoolers