Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

Effects of different concentrations of super-absorbent polymers on

soil structure and hydro-physical properties following continuous
wetting and drying cycles

JI Bing-yi1, 2, ZHAO Chi-peng1, WU Yue1, HAN Wei3, SONG Ji-qing1, Bai Wen-bo1

1
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081,
P.R.China
2
Liaoning Province Modern Agricultural Production Base and Construction Engineering Center, Shenyang 110033, P.R.China
3
Shandong General Station of Agricultural Technology Extension, Jinan 250100, P.R.China

Abstract
Super-absorbent polymers (SAPs) are widely used chemical water-saving materials, which play an active role in
the accumulation of soil water and the improvement of soil structure. Little is known about their performance with
repeated usage or about factors influencing their efficiency under alternate wetting and drying cycles. In this study,
various concentrations of SAP (0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3%) in soil following three continuous wetting and drying cycles (T1,
T2 and T3), were studied to determine effects on soil structure stability and hydro-physical properties. The results
indicated that the SAP improved soil water supply capacity under conditions of mild drought (T2) and sufficient irrigation
(T3) at concentrations of 0.2 and 0.3%, but a reduction was observed under severe drought conditions (T1), which
was negatively correlated with the SAP concentration. The physical adsorption of the SAP by soil and the chemical
connection between the SAP and soil mineral colloids as Si-O-Si bonds, -OH bonds and different crystalline silica were
the important factors that directly lead to the reduction of water retention capacities of the SAP with alternating wet
and dry conditions. Compared with the control, the soil liquid phase ratios of the SAP treatments were increased by
8.8–202.7% in the T1 and T2 cycles, which would have led to a decrease in the soil air phase ratios. After repeated
wetting and drying cycles, the SAP treatments increased the amount of >0.25 mm soil aggregates and the contents
of water-stable macro-aggregate (R0.25), and decreased the amount of <0.053 mm soil aggregates, especially with
higher concentrations of the SAP. Increases in mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter (GMD),
and declines in fractal dimension (D) and unstable aggregates index (ELT) were all observed with the SAP treatments,
which indicated an improvement in soil stability and structure. It was concluded that the distribution and stability of soil
aggregates and soil water supply capacity was closely related to SAP concentration, soil moisture condition and the
interaction between the SAP and soil particles.

Received 14 October, 2021 Accepted 25 November, 2021

JI Bing-yi, E-mail: jibingyi1991@163.com; Correspondence BAI
Wen-bo, Tel/Fax: +86-10-82106005, E-mail: baiwenbo@caas.cn
© 2022 CAAS. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
doi: 10.1016/j.jia.2022.08.065
 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381
Keywords: super-absorbent polymer (SAP), soil water, soil structure, soil aggregate, soil colloid
1. Introduction
Super-absorbent polymers (SAPs) are high-molecular
polymers with the ability to absorb a lot of water from the
surrounding medium and retain the water in their network
structures (Wu et al. 2021). When they are added to the
soil, the stored water can be released to the soil, which
can increase soil moisture content, prevent soil erosion,
reduce soil water evaporation and improve the yield of
crops (Yang et al. 2014; Hou et al. 2018; Guo et al. 2019;
Khan et al. 2020). SAPs are crucial chemical agents
used in agricultural water-saving technologies in drought
areas, and have effectively solved problems of drought
resistance and water conservation in those areas (Zhou
et al. 2012).
As ionic soil structure modifiers, SAPs change soil
physical properties because of their strong water-
absorbing capacity and their volume changes during
wetting and drying cycles (Ai et al. 2021). The hydrophilic
groups on the SAP structures have improved adsorption
and flocculation effects on soil particles, allowing SAPs
to adsorb the fine soil particles to form larger soil macro-
aggregates (Zhang et al. 2014). Studies on the effects
of SAPs on soil physical and chemical properties have
focused on soil moisture content and bulk density (Bai
et al. 2010), soil porosity and texture (Yang et al. 2018),
infiltration performance (Han et al. 2013) and water
evaporation rate (Zhang M C et al. 2019). However,
the reasons for their ability to repeatedly absorb and
release soil water and affect soil hydraulic parameters,
and for the gradual decline in these effects are not clear.
The specific mechanisms whereby SAPs influence
the formation and stability of soil aggregates are also
undefined. The positive effects of SAPs on the retention
and supply capacity of soil water and crop water
adsorption are still controversial. Agaba et al. (2010)
indicated that SAPs could reduce the amount of water
absorbed by a crop due to their fast water absorption
rate, which was not beneficial to crop drought resistance.
Bai et al. (2010) suggested that the water retention
capacities of SAPs are related to soil moisture content;
when soil moisture was lower than a critical threshold,
the water retention capacities of SAPs would be sharply
reduced.
The drying and wetting cycles of soils are a common
phenomenon in arid and semi-arid areas. Many studies
3369
have observed the negative effects of alternate drying and
wetting conditions on soil water retention capacity and the
stability of soil aggregates (Chen et al. 2018; Wen et al.
2020). SAPs applied to the soil undergo repeated water
absorption and rehydration under natural rainfall and
evaporation processes, resulting in frequent shrinkage
and expansion. Bai et al. (2010) showed that the positive
effects of SAPs on soil water holding capacity would
reduce after four continuous drying and wetting cycles.
The long-term stability and effect of SAPs directly affect
drought resistance and soil moisture conservation. Until
now, the long-term effects of SAPs on soil structure and
soil water holding and supply capacities have been rarely
reported under alternating dry and wet conditions.
The main purpose of this study was to evaluate
the effects of different concentrations of SAPs on soil
structure and hydro-physical properties over three
wetting and drying cycles. The functional groups and
morphological characterizations of the SAPs and soil
mixtures were analyzed to show the interaction between
the SAPs and soil particles, and their influences on soil
hydro-physical capacities. An additional objective was to
determine if changes in soil–water retention and other soil
properties following amendment with SAPs would persist
for at least three wetting and drying cycles.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. SAP and soil
A commercial synthetic SAP with organic macromolecule
polymer commonly used in agriculture and forestry
in China was selected for this study. The basic
characteristics and water absorbencies of the SAPs in
different solutions are shown in Table 1.
The soil used in the study was sampled from an
experimental field of the Institute of Environment and
Sustainable Development in Agriculture (IEDA), Chinese
Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS) (116.65°E,
40.13°N, altitude of 30 m). The soil was taken from the
tillage layer (0–30 cm depth) and classified as a clay loam
(45.1% sand, 24.5% silt and 30.4% clay) according to Soil
Taxonomy developed by the United States. The soil pH
was 7.5, and bulk density and electric conductivity were
1.14 g cm–3 and 768 μS cm–1, respectively. Soil organic
matter and field capacity were 13.2 g kg–1 and 30.5%,
respectively. Soil total N, available P and available K were
2.34 g kg–1, 56.2 mg kg–1 and 81.2 mg kg–1, respectively.
3370 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381
2.2. Experimental methods
The study was carried out in a greenhouse at the IEDA,
CAAS, from October 2018 to January 2019. Four SAP
treatments, replicated five times, were organized in a
randomized complete block design. Different amounts
of the SAP were mixed with the soil samples to give
concentrations of 0% (CK), 0.1% (C1), 0.2% (C2) and
0.3% (C3), expressed as the percentage of SAP to the
weight of dry soil sample. A total of 3.5 kg of air-dried
soil was added to plastic pots (diameter 14 cm, height
15 cm). Un-amended soil was first added to the bottom
of the pots to a depth of 2 cm. Next, the SAP was mixed
with the soil and the pots were filled with the mixture to a
depth of 10 cm. The pots were fully irrigated to maintain
a water depth of 2 cm on the surface of soil, making the
soil samples fully saturated. The pots were then placed in
a rain shelter and the soil water was allowed to evaporate
naturally. On sunny days, the rain shelter was moved to
the side, while on rainy days, it was repositioned. The
pots were fully irrigated after each sampling, and three
continuous wetting and drying cycles were conducted.
Soil samples were collected from the pots on October 16
(T1), October 26 (T2) and November 5 (T3). For each
sampling, the relative soil water contents (RSWCs) of
the CK treatments were 29.3% (T1), 44.8% (T2) and
69.6% (T3), which simulated the soil conditions of severe
drought (T1), mild drought (T2) and sufficient irrigation
(T3), respectively.
2.3. Soil properties
Soil pH was measured using a soil–water ratio of 1:5.
Gravimetric soil moisture content was calculated from mass
loss after drying for 48 h at 105°C. RSWC was determined
as the ratio of gravimetric soil moisture to field capacity.
The moisture content at field capacity was measured with
a pressure plate apparatus at –33 kPa (Cassel 1986). Soil
bulk density (g cm–3) was determined by the core method
(100 mm in diameter). Soil solid, liquid and gas contents
were measured with a three-phase meter (DIK-1130, Daiki
Rika Kogyo, Saitama, Japan). Soil organic matter was
determined by the H2SO4-K2Cr2O7 oxidation method (Nelson
and Sommers 1982). Total N was determined by steam
distillation after Kjeldahl digestion at 370°C. Available P
Table 1 The basic characteristics and water absorbencies of the super-absorbent polymer (SAP)
Basic characteristic
Material Particle size
Manufacturer Main material
range (mm)
Nippon Shokubai Sodium
SAP 0.85–1.0
Co., Ltd., Japan polyacrylate
was extracted with NaHCO3 (Olsen et al. 1954). Available
K was extracted with 1 mol L–1 NH4OAc (pH 7.0) solution
and then determined by atomic absorption spectrometer
(Jackson 1964).
2.4. Soil water characteristic curves
Soil water characteristic curves (SWCCs) were
determined by the centrifuge method (Guo et al. 2021).
The soil samples were compressed with 100 cm3 cutting
rings and then soaked in distilled water for 48 h before
weighing. Finally, the soil samples were centrifuged to
simulate the gravimetric water content under different
water suctions with various centrifuge speeds and the
corresponding centrifugal equilibrium times using a high-
speed refrigerated centrifuge (H-1400 pF, Kokusan, Kyoto,
Japan). Centrifuge speeds and centrifugal equilibrium
times corresponding to various soil water suctions are
shown in Table 2.
The empirical formula proposed by Gardner (1958)
was used to fit SWCCs:
θ=aS–b (1)
where θ (%) is the soil water content; S (kPa) is the soil
water suction; a and b are parameters of the level and the
trend of the SWCC, respectively.
The Gardner equation was used to derive the following
formula for soil specific water capacity (SSWC):
dθ
C(θ)=– =abS–(b+1) (2)
dS
where C(θ) (mL g–1) is the soil specific water capacity.
2.5. Distribution and stability of soil aggregates
The distribution and stability of soil aggregates were
determined by the dry sieving method (Elliott 1986) using
sieves with pore sizes of 2, 1, 0.5, 0.25 and 0.053 mm
stacked from top (2 mm) to bottom (0.053 mm). Soil
samples weighing 100 g were placed on the top sieve.
The sieves were immersed in water for 5 min, and
then vibrated for 5 min by an aggregate analyzer (XY-
100, Beijing Xiangyu Weiye Instrument Equipment Co.,
Ltd., Beijing, China), at a speed of 40 times min–1, and
an amplitude of 5 cm. The sieves were taken out of
the water slowly and the aggregate size fractions of
Water absorbency (g g–1)
Distilled 1:5 Soil
Color Tap water 0.9% Brine
water extraction
Creamy
196 144 91 38
white
 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381 3371

Table 2 The centrifuge speeds and centrifugal equilibrium (Thermo Fishe, Waltham, America) to determine the
times corresponding to soil water suctions functional groups of a dry SAP sample (D-SAP), the un-
Soil water suction Centrifuge speed Centrifugal equilibrium amended loamy soil (L) and the mixed SAP and soil
(kPa) (r min–1) time (min)
samples (L-SAP). All samples were dried at 40°C, and
0 0 0
placed directly on the germanium crystal. The samples
3 537.1 12.0
5 693.4 16.6 were then compression molded into a thin layer of files
7 820.4 21.3 at 230°C, with a pressure of 0.3 kPa. The samples were
10 980.6 26.2 cooled to room temperature (23°C) in the mold under
50 2 192.7 48.5 pressure and then scanned in the range of 400–4 000 cm–1.
100 3 100.9 58.2 Environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM)
150 3 797.8 57.7
analysis Morphological characterizations of the L-SAP
700 8 204.3 85.1
samples were made using a Quanta 250 ESEM (FEI,
1 000 9 806.1 90.1
Hillsboro, America) at an acceleration of 25 kV. The
samples were sputtered with a thin layer (~20 nm) of gold
<0.053 mm, 0.053–0.25 mm, 0.25–0.5 mm, 0.5–2.0 mm prior to ESEM observation.
and >2 mm were collected, dried at 55°C and weighed.
The water-stable macro-aggregate contents (R0.25) and 2.7. Data analysis
unstable aggregates index (ELT) were calculated using the
following formulae (Zhang D B et al. 2019): All reported values are means of the five replicates of
Mr>0.25 each treatment. The RSWC, MWD, GMD, E LT and D
R0.25= ×100% (3)
MT data were analyzed with a one-way analysis of variance
MT –Mr>0.25 (ANOVA) using the SAS 9.4 Software. Regression
ELT= ×100% (4)
MT analysis was used to fit the SWC curves using SPSS 19.0
where R0.25 (%) indicates the content of aggregates that Software. The Duncan test was used to separate the
are larger than 0.25 mm; Mr>0.25 (g) and MT (g) indicate the means when the differences were significant (P<0.05).
weight of aggregates that are larger than 0.25 mm, and
the total mass of aggregates, respectively. 3. Results
Mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean
diameter (GMD) were calculated by the following formulae 3.1. Relative soil water content (RSWC)
(Hou et al. 2012):
n -
∑ Xiωi Compared with the CK, the RSWC of soil with various
i=1
MWD= n (5) SAP concentrations were increased to different degrees
∑ ωi at T1 and T2 (Fig. 1). At T1, the RSWC of SAP
i=1 n -
∑ (ωi ln Xi) treatments were increased by 64.5% (C1), 106.5% (C2)
i=1
GMD=Exp[ n ] (6) and 121.8% (C3). This meant that the soils received
∑ ωi
sufficient irrigation in the C2 and C3 treatments, while
- i=1
where Xi (mm) is the average diameter of the classifying light drought was apparent in the C1 treatment. At T2, the
pore size between the two sieves; ωi (%) is the mass RSWC of SAP treatments were increased by 49.6% (C2)
percentage of different aggregates. and 73.2% (C3), while there was no significant difference
Fractal dimension (D) of the aggregates was measured between the C1 and CK treatments. At T3, no significant
using the model of Saiedi et al. (2017): differences in RSWC were observed between the SAP
-
Mr< X-i Xi 3–D
MT ( = - )
Xmax
(7)
treatments and the control.

-
where Xmax is the average value of the maximum particle
size of the aggregates; Mr< X-i is the weight of particle size
-
of aggregates that are smaller than Xi .
2.6. Characterization techniques
Attenuated total reflection fourier transform infrared
technique (ATR-FTIR) analysis The ATR-FTIR spectra
were obtained using a Nicolet iZTM10 FTIR spectrometer
3.2. Three-phase ratios of soil
Compared with the CK, the soil liquid phase ratios (SLPRs)
in the SAP treatments were increased by 111.8% (C1),
168.6% (C2) and 202.7% (C3) at T1, and by 17.9% (C1),
73.9% (C2) and 88.5% (C3) at T2 (Fig. 2). At T3, they
were 12.3% (C1), 8.8% (C2) and 17.2% (C3) greater than
the CK treatment, but there were no significant differences
in SLPRs between various SAP concentrations. The
 3372 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381

90 CK C1 C2 C3 Aa (L) in the peak area and fingerprint area (Ellerbrock et al.

Relative soil water content (%)

Aa Aa Aa Aa 1999) were observed in all L-SAP treatments. The bands

75 ABb
Bab Aa at approximately 1 018–1 097 cm–1 were attributed to the
60 Cb Bc Bc Si-O-Si bonds in loamy soil, and those at approximately
45 Cc 783–804 cm–1 to different crystalline silica (Farmer 1982).
Additionally, broad peaks were apparent at 3 333 cm–1
30
from the stretching vibration of -OH bonds in SAP
15 treatments, except for the L-SAP-C3 treatment at T3. The
intensities of spectral bands of L-SAP were significantly
0
T1 T2 T3 higher than those of the D-SAP. Moreover, the intensities
Sampling time of these absorption peaks increased with the increasing
SAP concentrations at T1 and T2, and decreased with the
Fig. 1 Relative soil water contents during the process of process of dehydration and rehydration. These trends
dehydration and rehydration. T1, T2 and T3 denote the first, were the same as those of SLPRs and SAPRs. This
second and third sampling times, as Oct. 16, Oct. 26 and Nov. indicated that the stronger reactions between the SAP
5, respectively. CK, C1, C2 and C3 denote the concentrations
of the super-absorbent polymer (SAP) in the dry soil, as 0, 0.1, and soil mineral colloids were observed with greater
0.2 and 0.3%, respectively. Data are mean±SD (n=5). Within SAP concentrations, and the interactions were gradually
sampling times, values with the same lower case or upper weakened following continuous drying and wetting cycles.
case letter are not significantly different at P<0.05 and P<0.01,
For the ATR-FTIR spectra of the L-SAP-C3 treatment
respectively, according to the Duncan test.
at T3, the original basic characteristic absorption peaks
that represented the hydrophilic groups of the SAP, as
Solid phase Liquid phase Air phase
-OH, C-H, C=O and -COO bonds (Pourjavadi et al. 2008)
100
disappeared, indicating that soil clay minerals might enter
Three-phase ratios of soil (%)

80 into the three-dimensional structure of the SAPs during

the repeated dry and wet cycles. This might result in the
60 damage of the SAP network structure, which might be an
important reason for the reduction of its water absorbing
40
and holding capacity.

20
0
CK C1 C2 C3 CK C1 C2 C3 CK C1 C2 C3
T1 T2
Treatment
Fig. 2 The three-phase ratios of soil during the process of
dehydration and rehydration. T1, T2 and T3 denote the first,
second and third sampling times, as Oct. 16, Oct. 26 and Nov.
5, respectively. CK, C1, C2 and C3 denote the concentrations
of the super-absorbent polymer in the dry soil, as 0, 0.1, 0.2
and 0.3%, respectively.
effects of SAPs on SLPRs were gradually decreased with
increasing water absorption and dehydration. The trends
of the soil air phase ratios (SAPRs) were opposite to those
of the SLPRs, and their differences were relatively small.
3.3. Valence bond structure
The functional groups of different concentrations of the
SAP and soil samples (L-SAP) and dry SAP (D-SAP)
characterized by ATR-FTIR exhibited similar patterns
(Fig. 3). The characteristic absorption bands of loamy soil
3.4. Morphological characteristics
The ESEM visualizations of different L-SAP samples
T3
at 578–766× magnifications are shown in Fig. 4. The
different magnifications in all treatments were adjusted
appropriately to obtain clear images due to the differences
in morphology and thickness of the samples. Different
degrees of folds were observed on the surface of L-SAP
samples with alternate dehydration and rehydration. At
T1, the surfaces of the L-SAP samples were compressed
and uneven with all of the polymer concentrations, which
might be induced by different types of fine clay particles
attaching to the networks or surfaces of the SAP. The
surfaces of the L-SAP were more coarse and irregular
with increasing SAP concentration, which meant that
stronger adsorption occurred between the SAP and soil
particles (Fig. 4-A–C). At T2 and T3, patchy soil clay
particles were apparent on the ESEM visualizations of the
L-SAP samples with prolonged reaction time, and there
were more obvious wrinkles at C2 and C3 concentrations
than those at T1 (Fig. 4-E, F, H and I). Differences in clay
particles that adhered to the SAP were apparent at T1,
but no significant differences were observed at T2 and T3
 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381 3373

2 974 L-SAP-C1 L-SAP-C1 L-SAP-C1

2 987

1 097
2 987

3 333
3 333

1 097
3 333

804
1 348
1 347

1 348

793
798
1 034

1 417
1 411

1 542
1 417
1 547

1 542
L-SAP-C2 L-SAP-C2 L-SAP-C2

2 992
2 974

3 333
2 987
3 333

1 070

1 055
3 333

1 348

798
798
1 343
1 343

1 417
783

1 542
1 416
1 411

1 039

1 541
1 542

L-SAP-C3
L-SAP-C3 L-SAP-C3
2 974

710
2 980
1 359
3 333

798
3 333
1 421

1 087
918
1 552

1 343

788
1 039
783

1 416
1 541
1 018

4 000 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 4 000 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 4 000 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500
Wavenumbers (cm–1) Wavenumbers (cm–1) Wavenumbers (cm–1)
T1 T2 T3

D-SAP
3 420

2 929

1 724

822
1 414
1 677 1 569

L
3 640
3 420

739

Fig. 3 The attenuated total reflection fourier transform infrared technique (ATR-
795

FTIR) spectra of various samples under different conditions. L-SAP represents

the mixed super-absorbent polymer (SAP) and soil samples; D-SAP represents
the dry SAP; L represents the loamy soil sample. T1, T2 and T3 denote the first,
976

second and third sampling times, as Oct. 16, Oct. 26 and Nov. 5, respectively.
4 000 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500
C1, C2 and C3 denote the concentrations of the SAP in the dry soil, as 0.1, 0.2
Wavenumbers (cm–1)
Control and 0.3%, respectively.

(Fig. 4-D–I). Large amounts of SAP seemed to adsorb water contents changed significantly with changes
more soil clay particles, and such adsorption effects in soil water suction (Fig. 5). The soil water holding
increased by repeated dehydration and rehydration. The capacities were strong with high soil water suction, and
differences in soil particles adsorbed by the SAP could be the soil water content didn’t change significantly with
reduced gradually with prolonged reaction. An obvious increasing suction head. The changes in the SWCCs
rupture phenomenon on the SAP surface was observed, were steep, and the soil water maintained in small or
this might cause the reduction of water absorption and medium-sized pores was difficult to dewater. The soil
retention properties of the SAP. water holding capacities were weak where soil water
suction was small, and the soil water content changed
3.5. Soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) and markedly with decrease in suction head. Where the
soil specific water capacity (SSWC) changes of SWCCs were relatively gentle, the soil water
was discharged through soil macropores, resulting in
The soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) is the curve easy dehydration. With the same soil water suction, the
describing how soil water suction changes with soil soil water contents of the SAP treatments were almost
moisture content. The curve reflects the relationship larger than the CK treatment, especially at T1, and the
between soil pore condition and soil water content. increasing water contents were positively correlated
In this study, the SWCCs in all treatments changed with the SAP concentrations. The slopes of the SWCCs
similarly with different sampling stages, but the soil in the SAP treatments were more moderate than those
3374 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381

A B C

L-SAP-T1-C1 ×673 L-SAP-T1-C2 ×718 L-SAP-T1-C3 ×734

D E F

L-SAP-T2-C1 ×673 L-SAP-T2-C2 ×644 L-SAP-T2-C3 ×703

G H I

L-SAP-T3-C1 ×578 L-SAP-T3-C2 ×734 L-SAP-T3-C3 ×766

Fig. 4 Morphological characteristics of various samples under different conditions. L-SAP represents the mixed super-absorbent
polymers (SAPs) and soil samples. T1, T2 and T3 denote the first, second and third sampling times, as Oct. 16, Oct. 26 and Nov.
5, respectively. C1, C2 and C3 denote the concentrations of the SAP in the dry soil, as 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3%, respectively. ×578–766,
magnification.

CK C1 C2 C3
1 200 1 200 1 200
T1 T3
Soil water suction (kPa)

T2
1 000 1 000 1 000
800 800 800
600 600 600
400 400 400
200 200 200
0 0 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Gravimetric water content (%)

Fig. 5 Soil water characteristic curves during the process of dehydration and rehydration. T1, T2 and T3 denote the first, second
and third sampling times, as Oct. 16, Oct. 26 and Nov. 5, respectively. CK, C1, C2 and C3 denote the concentrations of the super-
absorbent polymer in the dry soil, as 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3%, respectively.

of the CK and followed the order of C3>C2>C1≥CK. capacity, and vice versa. According to the SWCC
Under a certain soil water suction, the higher the SAP changes at different sampling stages, the differences in
concentration, the stronger the soil water holding soil water contents between various treatments declined
 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381 3375

following continuous wetting and drying cycles, indicating
that the soil water retention capacity would decrease
with the reuse of the SAP.
The SWCC data under different soil water suctions
were fitted with the Gardner equation, and the
corresponding expressions for different treatments are
shown in Table 3. The correlation coefficients of each
expression were larger than 0.98, which confirmed that
the expressions could be used for quantitative analysis.
In the expressions, parameter a represents the soil
water holding capacity, the greater the value of a, the
stronger the soil water holding capacity. Parameter b
represents the trend of the water characteristic curve,
that is, the change in soil water content with change in
soil water suction. The larger the value of b, the steeper
the curve and the greater the change in SWCC (Leong
and Rahardjo 1997). Compared the parameters a with b,
the more obvious effects of the SAP on soil water holding
capacity were observed with greater SAP concentrations,
and the effects weakened with increasing sampling time.
At soil water suctions of 30, 500 and 1 500 kPa, different
soil water constants for field water holding capacity,
effective water content and permanent wilting point were
calculated using the SWCC expressions (Table 4). All
of the above soil water constants for the SAP treatments
were larger than those of the CK, and the differences
between the SAP and control treatments increased with
the SAP concentrations.
The soil specific water capacities (SSWCs) under
different soil water suctions are shown in Table 5. SSWC
decreased with increasing suction, and the reduced
rates of SSWC were negatively correlated with soil water
suction. At T1, when the soil water suction was lower
than 100 kPa, the SSWCs under different treatments
declined in the following order of CK>C1>C2>C3, which
indicated that the water supply capacity decreased with
increasing SAP concentration. At T2 and T3, the SSWCs
showed almost opposite trends to those observed at T1,
and they increased by 4.0–29.9% (T2) and 1.0–11.6% (T3)
with the SAP concentrations of C2 and C3. Combined
with the changes in RSWC (Fig. 1), it could be inferred
that the SAP was not conducive to increasing the SSWC,
and the SSWC would be reduced under extreme drought
condition (T1). The soil water supply capacities were
improved with SAP application under mild drought (T2)
and sufficient irrigation (T3).
3.6. Distribution and stability of soil aggregates
The distribution of soil aggregates in CK treatment
was changed during the process of dehydration and
rehydration (Fig. 6). At T1, the percentage of soil water-
stable macro-aggregates (R0.25) in the SAP treatments
were 15.7–33.3% greater than in the CK treatment,
however there were no regular changes with the SAP
concentrations. At T2 and T3, larger values of R0.25 were
obtained with higher SAP concentrations. Application
of the SAP increased the proportion of large aggregates
(0.25–2.0 mm) above that of the CK treatment and
sharply decreased the proportion of water-stable micro-
aggregates less than 0.053 mm. The MWD and GMD
values in all SAP treatments were significantly larger
than those of the CK, and opposite changes of ELT and
D were observed, except at the SAP concentration of
C1 at T3 (Table 6). Especially at T2, the MWD and
GMD values increased significantly with increasing
SAP concentration, while the ELT and D values showed
opposite trends.

Table 3 Soil water characteristic curve and specific water capacity expressions under different super-absorbent polymer (SAP)
concentrations
Time1) Treatment2) Soil water characteristic curve expressions3) Specific water capacity expressions4) Correlation coefficient
T1 CK θ=38.78S–0.186 C(θ)=7.21S–1.186 0.990
C1 θ=39.04S –0.174
C(θ)=6.79S–1.174 0.991
C2 θ=39.59S–0.162 C(θ)=6.41S–1.162 0.995
C3 θ=39.75S–0.145 C(θ)=5.76S–1.145 0.983
T2 CK θ=39.37S–0.172 C(θ)=6.77S–1.172 0.983
C1 θ=40.34S–0.160 C(θ)=6.45S–1.160 0.991
C2 θ=42.39S–0.153 C(θ)=6.49S–1.153 0.994
C3 θ=50.63S–0.169 C(θ)=8.56S–1.168 0.998
T3 CK θ=40.75S–0.168 C(θ)=6.85S–1.168 0.994
C1 θ=41.20S–0.168 C(θ)=6.92S–1.168 0.997
C2 θ=40.74S–0.153 C(θ)=6.23S–1.153 0.996
C3 θ=44.89S–0.168 C(θ)=7.54S–1.168 0.998
1)
T1, T2 and T3 denote the first, second and third sampling times, as Oct. 16, Oct. 26 and Nov. 5, respectively.
2)
CK, C1, C2 and C3 denote the concentrations of the SAP in the dry soil, as 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3%, respectively.
3)
θ (%) denotes the soil water content; S (kPa) is the soil water suction.
4)
C(θ) (mL g–1) denotes the soil specific water capacity; S (kPa) is the soil water suction.
3376 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381

Table 4 Effects of the super-absorbent polymers (SAPs) natural alternating dry and wet cycles, SAPs applied to
concentrations at three sampling times on various soil water soil will produce frequent shrinkage and expansion, go
constants
through a series of decomposition and transformation
Field water Effective Permanent
phases, and interact with soil particles. In the present
Time1) Treatment2) holding water content wilting
capacity (%) (%) point (%) study, with drying and wetting cycles the RSWCs of the
T1 CK 20.60 12.21 9.95 SAP and soil mixtures decreased gradually (Fig. 1).
C1 21.60 13.24 10.94 This result is consistent with previous research (Bai
C2 22.82 14.47 12.11 et al. 2010; Han et al. 2013; Banedjschafie and Durner
C3 24.27 16.14 13.77 2015). The changes in physical and chemical structure
T2 CK 21.93 13.52 11.19 of L-SAP samples were observed by ESEM and ATR-
C1 23.41 14.92 12.52 FTIR analysis. It was found that a large amount of the
C2 25.19 16.38 13.85 soil mineral colloids were adsorbed on the SAP surface
C3 28.50 17.71 14.71 with the drying and wetting cycles, which destroyed the
T3 CK 23.01 14.35 11.93
smoothness of the SAP (Fig. 4). ATR-FTIR spectra
C1 23.27 14.50 12.06
showed that the Si-O-Si bonds, -OH bonds, and different
crystalline silica that belonged to soil mineral colloids of
C2 24.21 15.74 13.31
the L samples appeared in the L-SAP samples, indicating
C3 25.35 15.80 13.14
1) that the soil mineral colloids had reacted with the SAP,
T1, T2 and T3 denote the first, second and third sampling
times, as Oct. 16, Oct. 26 and Nov. 5, respectively. resulting in changes in the functional groups (Fig. 3). The
2)
CK, C1, C2 and C3 denote the concentrations of the SAP in the SAP could absorb more soil mineral colloids following the
dry soil, as 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3%, respectively.
interactions between the SAP and soil particles allowing
the soil mineral colloids to enter into the SAP, destroying
4. Discussion its molecular structure and reducing its water absorbing
capacities (Fig. 4-G–I). Yu et al. (2012) showed that the
4.1. Functional groups and morphological charac- water release capacity of SAPs might be related to the
terizations of the SAP and soil mixtures contact between soil particles and SAP. Ai et al. (2021)
found that soil moisture content played a role in water
For most SAPs, the main chain or graft side chain absorbing and releasing capacity of SAPs. This study
contains strongly hydrophilic carboxyl groups and provided direct evidence that the physical and chemical
hydroxyl groups. These groups can ionize and combine interactions between SAPs and soil particles was one
with water molecules to form hydrogen bonds, allowing of the most important factors influencing soil moisture
SAPs to absorb water in their network structures. Under holding capacity of soil treated with SAPs.

Table 5 Effects of the super-absorbent polymers (SAPs) concentrations on soil specific water capacities under different water
suctions at three sampling times
Soil specific water capacity (mL g–1)
Time1) Treatment2)
10 kPa 30 kPa 50 kPa 100 kPa 300 kPa 500 kPa 1 000 kPa 1 500 kPa
T1 CK 4.70×10–1 1.28×10–1 6.97×10–2 3.06×10–2 8.34×10–3 4.55×10–3 2.00×10–3 1.23×10–3
C1 4.55×10 –1
1.25×10 –1
6.88×10 –2
3.05×10 –2
8.39×10 –3
4.61×10 –3
2.04×10 –3
1.27×10–3
C2 4.42×10 –1
1.23×10 –1
6.81×10 –2
3.04×10 –2
8.49×10 –3
4.69×10 –3
2.09×10 –3
1.31×10–3
C3 4.13×10 –1
1.17×10 –1
6.53×10 –2
2.96×10 –2
8.40×10 –3
4.68×10 –3
2.12×10 –3
1.33×10–3
T2 CK 4.56×10 –1
1.26×10 –1
6.91×10 –2
3.07×10 –2
8.46×10 –3
4.65×10 –3
2.07×10 –3
1.28×10–3
C1 4.47×10–1 1.25×10–1 6.90×10–2 3.09×10–2 8.64×10–3 4.78×10–3 2.14×10–3 1.34×10–3
C2 4.56×10 –1
1.29×10 –1
7.13×10 –2
3.21×10 –2
9.03×10 –3
5.01×10 –3
2.25×10 –3
1.41×10–3
C3 5.80×10 –1
1.61×10 –1
8.83×10 –2
3.93×10 –2
1.09×10 –2
5.99×10 –3
2.66×10 –3
1.66×10–3
T3 CK 4.65×10 –1
1.29×10 –1
7.10×10 –2
3.16×10 –2
8.75×10 –3
4.82×10 –3
2.15×10 –3
1.34×10–3
C1 4.70×10–1 1.30×10–1 7.17×10–2 3.19×10–2 8.85×10–3 4.87×10–3 2.17×10–3 1.35×10–3
C2 4.38×10–1 1.24×10–1 6.85×10–2 3.09×10–2 8.68×10–3 4.82×10–3 2.17×10–3 1.36×10–3
C3 5.12×10–1 1.42×10–1 7.82×10–2 3.48×10–2 9.64×10–3 5.31×10–3 2.36×10–3 1.47×10–3
1)
T1, T2 and T3 denote the first, second and third sampling times, as Oct. 16, Oct. 26 and Nov. 5, respectively.
2)
CK, C1, C2 and C3 denote the concentrations of the SAP in the dry soil, as 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3%, respectively.
 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381 3377

80
>2 mm 1–2 mm 0.5–1 mm 0.25–0.5 mm
70 0.25–0.053 mm <0.053 mm R0.25
The contents of soil aggregates (%)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
CK C1 C2 C3 CK C1 C2 C3 CK C1 C2 C3
T1 T2 T3
Treatment

Fig. 6 Effects of the super-absorbent polymers (SAPs) on the distribution of soil aggregates under different treatments. T1, T2
and T3 denote the first, second and third sampling times, as Oct. 16, Oct. 26 and Nov. 5, respectively. CK, C1, C2 and C3 denote
the concentrations of the SAP in the dry soil, as 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3%, respectively. R0.25 denotes the content of aggregates that
are larger than 0.25 mm. Data are mean±SD (n=5).

Table 6 Effects of the super-absorbent polymer (SAP) cycles, and the promotion of crop root growth (Yang
concentrations on soil aggregate parameters at three sampling et al. 2021). Previous studies have shown that the effect
times1)
of application of a SAP on soil properties under natural
Time2) Treatment3) MWD (mm) GMD (mm) ELT (%) D
rainfall and evaporation influences increased over time.
T1 CK 0.27 Bc 0.16 ABc 60.06 ABa 2.55 Aa
In the present study, the proportions of 0.25–2.0 mm soil
C1 0.37 Aa 0.22 Aa 49.20 Ac 2.46 Bc
aggregates were mostly increased following three drying
C2 0.33 Bb 0.19 Bb 53.79 Ab 2.54 Ab
and wetting cycles (Fig. 6), which indicated that the SAP
C3 0.39 Ba 0.23 Ba 46.78 Ac 2.48 Ac
T2 CK 0.23 Bd 0.13 Bd 64.50 Aa 2.65 Aa enhanced the cementation effect on soil aggregates,
C1 0.35 Ac 0.19 Ac 51.62 Ab 2.57 Ab especially the proportion of >2.0 mm soil aggregates.
C2 0.38 Ab 0.21 Ab 49.20 Bc 2.54 ABc This result is consistent with that of Yang et al. (2021).
C3 0.44 Aa 0.23 Ba 46.54 Ad 2.50 Ad Wang et al. (2009) also showed that the proportion of
T3 CK 0.39 Ac 0.20 Ac 50.20 Ba 2.55 Aa >2.0 mm soil aggregates was significantly increased with
C1 0.40 Ac 0.21 Ac 48.12 Aa 2.54 Aa an increase in SAP concentration, in agreement with our
C2 0.53 Ab 0.29 Ab 36.99 Bb 2.43 Bb results, indicating that suitable amounts of SAPs can
C3 0.56 Aa 0.34 Aa 31.24 Bc 2.34 Ac improve the proportion of soil aggregates.
1)
MWD denotes mean weight diameter; GMD denotes geometric In general, >0.25 mm aggregates are referred to as
mean diameter; E LT denotes unstable aggregates index; D
denotes fractal dimension. water-stable macro-aggregates, while those of <0.25 mm
2)
T1, T2 and T3 denote the first, second and third sampling aggregates are referred to as water-stable micro-
times, as Oct. 16, Oct. 26 and Nov. 5, respectively.
3)
CK, C1, C2 and C3 denote the concentrations of the SAP in the
aggregates. The greater the amount of water-stable
dry soil, as 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3%, respectively. macro-aggregates, the more stable the soil structure.
Within sampling times, values with the same lower case or upper
MWD and GMD may accurately reflect the stability of
case letter are not significantly different at P<0.05 and P<0.01,
respectively, according to the Duncan test. soil aggregates with different grain sizes. Zheng et al.
(2018) found that the larger the MWD and GMD values,
the more stable the soil structure. D is also an important
4.2. SAP effects on structure and stability of soil
tool to evaluate soil quality. The smaller the D value of
aggregates
aggregates, the more stable the soil structure is. The
R0.25, MWD and GMD values in all SAP treatments were
The improvement of soil structure after application of the significantly larger than those of the CK, and opposite
SAP might be due to the cementing effect of the SAP, changes of ELT and D were observed (Table 6), which
granular shrinkage after water absorption and release indicated that the proportion of >0.25 mm aggregates and
3378 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381
the stability of soil aggregates were enhanced. Some
studies were consistent with our results (Parsakhoo and
Mostafa 2020; Sun et al. 2020; Yang et al. 2021), but
they did not consider the differences in distribution and
stability of soil aggregates during wetting and drying
cycles. We found that the values of R0.25, MWD, GMD,
E LT and D didn’t change regularly with different SAP
concentrations at T1. However, larger values of R 0.25
were obtained with higher SAP concentrations at T2 and
T3. The proportion of <0.053 mm soil aggregates was
inversely related to the change in R0.25 at T2 and T3. It
was speculated that the SAP induced bonding of the
water-stable micro-aggregates (<0.053 mm) to water-
stable macro-aggregates (>0.25 mm) particle sizes,
reducing the possible damage to soil aggregates caused
by the alternation of dry and wet cycles, and improving
soil structure stability. After three drying and wetting
cycles, there were no significant differences in MWD,
GMD, ELT and D values between CK and C1 treatments,
which indicated that small SAP concentrations had
inconspicuous effects on soil aggregates. As discussed
above, the effect of SAPs on the distribution and stability
of soil aggregates were closely related to suitable SAP
concentrations, and the interaction times between SAPs
and soil particles. Yang et al. (2021) reported that
excessive SAPs would accumulate between soil particles
or macro-pores, and expand after water absorption, then
the number of aggregates in soil would decrease resulting
in deterioration of the soil structure. A preliminary
conclusion was that the SAP improved the stability of soil
aggregates, and induced greater uniformity of soil texture.
The SAP concentration and the time for interaction
between the SAP and the soil particles might be the
main factors that affect the formation and stability of soil
aggregates.
4.3. SAP effects on soil water holding and supply
capacities
Many studies have shown that SAPs can significantly
improve soil water holding capacity, and that there is a
positive correlation between soil water holding capacity
and SAP application (Yu et al. 2012; Xi and Zhang 2021).
Our former studies showed that the contributions of a
small amount of SAP to soil water holding capacity was
relatively small, and the ability to sustain soil water content
was also weak (Bai et al. 2013). We achieved similar
results by visually observing the SWCCs in this study.
The trends of the original SWCCs were not obviously
changed with SAP application, but the gravimetric water
contents were almost increased within 0–1 500 kPa, which
might be related to the improved water holding capacity
of the soil capillary pores. The slopes of the SWCCs in
the SAP treatments were more moderate than in the CK
treatment and changed in the order of C3>C2>C1≥CK
(Fig. 5). This indicated that when the soil water suction
decreased, the SSWCs of the SAP treatments decreased
more slowly than that of the CK. By fitting SWCCs, we
further verified that the higher the SAP concentration,
the greater the change in the soil water holding capacity,
and that the change was reduced by drying and wetting
cycles. The SAP increased the effective water content
and permanent wilting point, and such soil water constants
were positively correlated with the SAP concentrations.
These results were consistent with that found by Vesna
et al. (2013) in a field experiment.
SSWCs are one of the important indicies for evaluating
soil water supply capacity and drought resistance. In
this study, when the soil water suction was less than
100 kPa, the SAP failed to increase the SSWCs, and
reduce the soil water supply capacity under the condition
of severe drought (T1). Under slight drought (T2) or
sufficient irrigation (T3), the SAP was helpful in improving
the soil water supply capacity. Under severe drought,
although SAP application could increase the soil water
holding capacity, the water absorption rate of the SAP
was greater than that of soil, and the limited water in
the SAP and soil mixture might have been preferentially
absorbed and maintained in the SAP three-dimensional
network structure, so it was difficult to effectively supply
water to the soil for timely drought mitigation. The risk of
water competition between SAP and soil intensified with
increased SAP concentration. Under slight drought or
sufficient irrigation, the water could satisfy the requirement
of both SAP and soil, and the soil water supply capacity
was improved to different degrees. Therefore, when
applying SAP for increasing soil water supply capacity,
attention should be paid to both the applied concentration
and the soil moisture condition. Our former study
found that maintaining adequate soil moisture was a
precondition for water retention and improvement of soil
properties with SAP application in agriculture (Bai et al.
2010). Further research is need to focus on the above
factors.
4.4. SAP effects on the three-phase ratio of soil
The three-phase ratio of soil is the volume ratio of soil solid,
liquid and gas phases, and it is often taken as a measure
of soil quality in place of properties, such as porosity,
soil moisture and hydraulic conductivity. Maintenance
of favorable soil three-phase ratios is one of the most
important goals in agriculture. The application of SAPs
can change soil moisture characteristics, soil pore size
 JI Bing-yi et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2022, 21(11): 3368–3381
and the soil pore network (Ostrand et al. 2020). SAPs
may increase soil moisture and decrease soil permeability,
this might be dependent on the SAP swelling effect after
absorbing water, resulting in compaction of surrounding
soil particles and the reduction of soil permeability (Guo
et al. 2019). In our study, SAP application noticeably
increased the SLPRs, resulting in relative decreases in
the SAPRs. Such changes were positively related to
SAP concentrations, and negatively correlated with the
number of drying and wetting cycles. Combining these
results with the differences in SWCCs and proportions
of soil aggregates between different treatments further
confirmed that the SAP could significantly increase the
soil water holding capacity in this experiment (Fig. 5),
and the numbers of soil macropores were reduced, while
the medium and small pores were increased with SAP
application, resulting in more uniform distribution of soil
pores. Wu et al. (2021) found that SAPs could effectively
obstruct the flow of the free water existing in the soil and
maintain a relatively uniform distribution of soil moisture.
Over time, part of the SAP gradually penetrate the
pores within soil aggregates, and the SAP concentration
affected their ability penetrate soil pores (Sojka et al.
2007). When the application concentrations of SAPs
exceed a certain threshold, the SAPs would absorb water
and expand, which could block soil pores and cause soil
particles to adhere together, and also affect the circulation
and exchange of water and air in the soil (Yang et al.
2021). It is well understood that SAPs are suitable for
soil with more macrospores, and the soil pores are more
uniform to satisfy the root growth of crops (Kenta et al.
2019).
5. Conclusion
This study simulated the effects of a SAP on soil structure
and some soil hydro-physical properties under severe
water deficit (T1), slight water deficit (T2) and sufficient
soil moisture (T3), with the SAP concentrations of 0%
(CK), 0.1% (C1), 0.2% (C2) and 0.3% (C3). Following
continuous wetting and drying, SAP treatments increased
RSWCs by 10.3–121.8% above the CK except at T3.
The soil water supply capacity was reduced under severe
drought, and improved by 1.0–29.9% at higher SAP
concentrations under mild drought and sufficient irrigation
conditions. Attention should be paid to SAP application
concentration and soil moisture condition, when applying
SAPs for increasing soil water supply capacity. Through
varying valence bond structures and morphological
characteristics of the SAP and soil mixtures, it was shown
that the physical and chemical reactions between the
SAP and soil mineral colloids, such as Si-O-Si bonds,
3379
-OH bonds and different crystalline silica were important
factors that changed the soil water holding capacity with
SAP application. SLPRs were increased significantly and
SAPRs were reduced with SAP treatments, and higher
SAP concentrations resulted in more marked changes
in the three-phase ratios of soil. The SAP applied in this
study is recommend for soil with large pores. Excessive
SAP application would aggravate the deterioration of soil
permeability. Compared with the CK, the proportions
of large soil aggregates (0.25–2.0 mm) were increased,
while the small aggregates (<0.053 mm) were decreased
gradually with SAP application, which indicated that
the SAP mainly adhered to <0.053 mm soil aggregates
to >0.25 mm soil water-stable aggregates. The MWD,
GMD, D and ELT values of soil aggregates were accurate
and reliable means by which to characterize soil structure
stability, and higher stability was observed with SAP
application. The effect of the SAP on the stability of soil
structure was closely related to SAP concentration and
the interaction between the SAP and soil particles. It
was found that even under a relatively extreme dry–wet
alternate cycle, SAP treatment improved soil moisture
and water supply capacity, increased the soil water-stable
macro-aggregate proportion, and enhanced soil structure
stability. The results indicated that reasonable application
of SAPs could improve the buffer power of soil against
wetting and drying in arid and semi-arid farmland. The
SAP is not recommended for application in severe drought
conditions. Application of the SAP at a concentration
of 0.3% is recommended as this concentration seemed
suitable under alternating wet and dry conditions in this
experiment. Further studies should determine long-
term influences of SAPs application on water supply
capacity, porosity, and soil structure stability, as well as an
economic evaluation in practice, so as to supply a more
rational and scientific basis of applying SAPs to farmland.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (41601226) and the Agricultural
Science and Technology Innovation Project of the Chinese
Academy of Agricultural Sciences.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Executive Editor-in-Chief ZHANG Wei-li
Managing Editor WENG Ling-yun