M9. Aircraft Structures

Training Handbook
Basic Aircraft Maintenance Category A1.4

Module 9 – Aircraft Structure
Manual No.: BCT-0011/M9 For Training Purpose Only Rev. 1: Mar 05, 2018
Copyright by GMF Learning services
Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual
Module 9
Aircraft Structure
for
Basic Aircraft Maintenance
Category A1.4 Copyright by GMF Learning Services
i
FOREWORD
This training handbook “M9.Aircraft Structure” is developed and prepared for Basic Aircraft Maintenance who will responsible to perform maintenance
task and activities in according with the specified requirements of the Aviation Regulations and to meet the Authority requirements. Base on the above
mention, this hand book should be used only for training purposes and has been customized to GMF AeroAsia.
It must not be used as a reference at any time. For any document related tasks, the updated this traininghandbook should be consulted.
Any suggestion for improving the content of this handbook should be addressed to GMF AeroAsia Learning Services.
ii
Module 9 Chapters
9.1. General Concepts
9.2. Fuselage
9.3. Wings
9.4. Stabilizers
9.5. Flight Control Surface
9.6. Nacelle/Pylons
9.7. Landing Gears
9.8. Skin Fairings
9.9. Access and Inspection door
iii
TRAINING OBJECTIVE
The objective of this training are:

• To provide the aircraft technician skill.
• Improve skill and technique within environment of work.
• Be able to perform aircraft maintenance activities with a specific aircraft and tools.
• Understands a handle safety and precautions in area of responsibility.
iv
METHODE OF ASSESMENT
Delegates will be graded on the basis of continuous assessment for their performance in training, with written examination at the end of training and On
the Job Training.
To PASS, the delegate must obtain at least:
• 70 marks on the written examination.
• Absence from more than 5% of the planned duration of training shall be cause for failing attend of training.
v
REFERENCE
The following reference materials have been used for the development of this training handbook:
• Integrated Training System, Modul 7 Maintenance Practices EASA Part 66
• FAA-H-8083-30 General Handbook/2008
• FAA-H-8083-31 Airframe Handbook/2012
vi
Module 9
Aircraft Structure
9.1 General Concepts
1
Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable
subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
• A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
• The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
• A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
• The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
• The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions.
• The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate.
2
Airworthiness Requirements
Safety means more than only that the aircraft must be capable to withstand the most severe loadings it will encounter during its service life.
It should not be difficult for the flight crew to control it under all circumstances. This means the aircraft should also show sufficient positive
stability during all flight phases and attitudes through out the flight envelope. These requirements are applicable for all large aircraft. This
means aircraft with a maximum mass not less than 5700 kg. Excluded are reciprocating-engine aircraft, seaplanes and skiplanes.
EASA Certification Specification (CS) -25 is based on Part 25 of the Federal Aviation Administration (CASR Part 25). Consists of:
Section 1 – Regulations
• Sub-part A - General
• Sub-part B - Flight
• Sub-part BB - Flight - Emergency Power or Thrust
• Sub-part C - Structure
• Sub-part D - Design and Construction
• Sub-part E - Power Plant
• Sub-part F - Equipment
• Sub-part G - Operating Limitations and Information
• Sub-part J - Gas Turbine Auxiliary Power Unit Installations
• Appendices A-J.
Section 2 - acceptable means of compliance and interpretations
Section 3 - reserved
Section 4 - the basic code (part 25 of the federal aviation regulations of the USA, up to and including amendment No. 53).
3
From the structural point of view sub-parts C (STRUCTURE)and D (DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION) are the most important. They give the
applied loads or the procedures to obtain the applied loads. They also give requirements fordesign other than loads.
Safe-Life
The major focus of structural design in the early development of aircraft was on strength, now structural designers also deal with fail-safety,
fatigue, corrosion, maintenance and inspectability, and producability.In safe-life design products are designed to survive a specific design
life with a chosen reserve.
The Safe-life design technique is employed in critical systems which are either very difficult to repair or may cause severe damage to life and
property. These systems are designed to work for years without requirement of any repairs.The safe life design principle requires that major
structural elements be replaced after a fixed number off light cycles. These parts cannot be repaired or refurbished to extend the
component's life. The basis for safe-life design is fatigue analysis.
An extremely thorough investigation disclosed that the cause of the break-ups was metal fatigue brought about by the flexing of the
structure during the pressurization and depressurization cycles. The continued flexing of the structure caused by the pressurization and
depressurization cycles fatigued the metal to such an extent that a crack developed at a square come of a cut-out in the structure and the
large amount of pressure differential caused the structure to virtually explode. When the cause of the structural failure was determined, new
emphasis was placed on fail-safe design of aircraft structures. Stress risers, or portions of the structure where eliminated. Joints and
connections are carefully prestressed to minimize the cyclic stresses from the flight loads.
The life of a structure may depend more on how it is loaded than on the total number of times it is loaded, or on the maximum amount of
the loads themselves.Safe life design is a common method to predict the durability of a design in many industries and portions of jet
engines and aircraft. It is employed by manufacturers when it is understood that regular structural inspection of their products would not be
possible or practical. Components are removed from service when their calculated safe life expires, regardless of the condition of the
component.
4
Safe life is based on laboratory testing of simple specimens that are cyclically-loaded to create test points in a S-N curve. Damage initiates naturally
within the material microstructure and grows to final failure.
The resulting S-N curve has three major limitations :
1) Due to the large scatter in life time, many tests must be performed to get a statistically-confident data set;
2) The simple test specimens are not similar to the design of complex components (lack of similitude); and
3) The analysis usually considers only the peak stress that the component should see. The design method does not account for any unforeseen rogue
flaws in the material, nor rare stress spikes in operation.
Thus, large safety factors are applied to the design allowable life to theoretically ensure that any naturally-initiated damage will not pose a threat to the
acceptable reliability for the life of the structure. The safety factors may be in terms of life or load, or in the case of pressure vessels, both life and
5
load. While the goal of safety factors (or ‘knockdown factors’ or ‘margins of safety’, as they are also known) is admirable, their implementation is arbitrary
at best. Using them leads to structures that are heavy and overly conservative, and add to the cost of manufacturing (in terms of necessary raw material,
processing, and machining). There is no standardized way of implementing these factors across industries, because institutional knowledge will often
trump hard physics when it comes to design.
Fail-Safe Design
The fail-safe design principle uses multiple load paths to ensure structural integrity. If one loadpath cracks completely through, or sustains
accidental damage; the remaining load paths carrythe additional load. This type of design is common on modern jet aeroplanes.
Examples include:
• Multiple stringers and ribs in wings.
• Multiple wing panels.
• Multiple stringers and frames in fuselage construction. This construction also breaks the fuselage skin into redundant panels.
• Bonded and bolted fittings (often called back-to-back fittings), and bonded and bolted landing gear beams.
The fail-safe principle also requires that any damage will be detected during an inspection, and then repaired. Some types of damage produce effects
that are obvious, such as flapping fuselage skin panels, or wing tank leaks. This obvious damage is considered part of the fail-safe inspections.
Fail-safe design is a good philosophy, and worked well for many decades. Infact, fail-safe design still provides the basis for most new aeroplane designs.
However, operational experience shows that some of the assumptions of fail-safety do not hold true.
Cracks usually develop in several elements at the same time, making the alternate load paths weaker. This is called "multiple site cracking". Corrosion
weakens alternate load paths, and accelerates crack growth.
6
To compensate for these deficiencies in fail-safe design, the damage tolerance philosophy was developed.
Damage Tolerance
The damage tolerance principle requires that any aeroplane damage is detected, and repairedbefore the strength is below a minimum level.
Damage Tolerant Design
Fail-safe structure forms the basis for damage tolerant design. Damage tolerance improves on fail-safety by considering multiple site cracking, and the
residual strength of partially failed structural elements. Damage tolerance also considers the effects of environmental damage (corrosion), and discrete
damage (accidental).
Damage Tolerance
Concept Maximum structural strength capability occurs at the beginning of an aeroplanes life. Theoperating loads are much smaller than the ultimate
strength. As the aeroplane ages, thestrength slowly reduces, due to crack growth and/or corrosion damageBefore the strength becomes less than the
residual requirement, the damage is detected andrepaired back to original capability.
This process continues through out the life of the aeroplane.
7
8
Structural Classification
When designing aeroplanes, loads to which the various parts
exposed must be taken into consideartion. These loads are
different for each part of the construction. A difference is made
between Primary, Secondary and Tertiary constructions. When
choosing materials for maintenance work, this must be taken
into account.
Owing to the difficulty of formulating repair constructions for

members or parts of similar size designed to take different loads,
the airframe structure has been divided into thre classifications.
To assist users in the determination of the strength standards
required for repairs, the component Structure Illustration are
normally classified into Primary, Secondary or Tertiary Structure.
Colours denote the classifications (shown in repair manuals and
drawings) :
Primary Structure - RED/White
Secondary Structure - YELLOW/Hatched
Tertiary Structure - GREEN
The definitions of structure classification (for repair purposes

only) are:
9
Primary Structure
These parts of the airframe are highly stressed and if damaged may cause failure of the aircraft and loos of life of the aircrew (might result in the
structural collapse of the aircraft or cause it to go out of control), e.g. spars, longerons, engine mounting. Stressed skin, etc.
Secondary Structure
These parts of the airframe are highly stressed but, if damaged will not cause failure of the aircraft or loss of life of the crew, e.g. flooring (nternal
structure for supporting equipment), which is normally stronger than is necessary and if damaged locally would not collapse. They are sometimes shown
as Yellow (or Hatched) in repair manuals and drawings.
Secondary structure often gives the aerodynamic shape to the aircraft construction. On the basis of the main sections, the difference between Primary
and Secondary can be clearly illustrated.
Tertiary Structure.
These are lightly stressed parts (unstressed or only lightly stressed parts)such as fairing, wheel shields, minorcomponent brackets, etc. They are often
shown in GREEN (or stippled) in repair manuals or drawings.
10
The structure diagrams are coloured or specially shaded to represent the various classifications. Primary structures are coloured red or shown white.
Secondary structures are coloured yellow or shown hatched. Tertiary structures are coloured green or shown stippled. If there is any doubt whatsoever,
as to whether a piece of structure is primary or secondary, it is safest to assume it is primary.
Dimensions and Locations

In order to determine a particular location in an aeroplane, it is divided into three (imaginary) planes that are at an angle of 90 0 to each other.
The zero point of the W.L. (Z Sta.) depends on the type of aeroplane. The zero point of the W.L.in this picture is 148.5 inches below the lowest point.The
zero point of the B.L. (X Sta.) is the centre line of the aeroplane. Lookingin the direction of flight, there are left-hand and right-hand buttock lines. The
left-hand buttocklines are indicated by a minus sign and the right-hand ones with a plus sign.The wings, horizontal and vertical stabilizers, and
powerplants of most aeroplane types havetheir own location identification system.
11
Zonal Identification Systems
The location identification system is used to pinpoint the various locations in an aeroplane. Thestation numbers make it possible to indicate the location
of the centre of gravity, the distributionof the load, the location of the compartments and of parts. To localize parts more easily and tolocalize where
work must be done, the aeroplane is divided into:
12
• Major zones
• Major sub-zones
• Unit zones
Major zones are identified by hundred as follows:
• 100 FUSELAGE LOWER SECTION
• 200 FUSELAGE TOP SECTION
• 300 STABILIZERS
• 400 NACELLES
• 500 LEFT WING
• 600 RIGHT WING
• 700 LANDING GEAR
• 800 DOORS
13
14
15
16
Each major zone is divided into sub zones broken down by 10 sub-zones is Unit
Unit zones are identified by a three digit number. An example of a location identification system is 212:
• 200 : upper half of body (major zone)
• 10 : Cockpit (major sub-zone)
• 2 : zone number on the right-hand side (unit zone)
Where necessary, the uneven zone number refers to the

left·hand zone, and an even number indicates a right·hand
zone. Large construction sections, including doors and
control surfaces, have their own zone numbers.
Aircraft Structural Design
Although the major focus of structural design in the early

development of aircraft was on strength, now structural
designers also deal with fail-safety, fatigue, corrosion,
maintenance and inspect ability, and productt ability.
Structural Concepts
Modern aircraft structures are designed using a semi-

monocoque concept- a basic load-carrying shell reinforced
by frames and longerons in the bodies, and a skin-stringer
construction supported by spars and ribs in the surfaces.
Proper stress levels, a very complex problem in highly

redundant structures, are calculated using versatile
computer matrix methods to solve for detailed internal loads. Modern finite element models of aircraft components include tens-of-thousands of
degrees-of-freedom and are used to determine the required skin thicknesses to avoid excessive stress levels, deflections, strains, or buckling.
17
The goals of detailed design are to reduce or eliminate stress concentrations, residual stresses, fretting corrosion, hidden undetectable cracks, or single
failure causing component failure. Open sections, such as Z or J sections, are used to permit inspection of stringers and avoid moisture accumulation.
18
Fail-safe design is achieved through material selection, proper stress levels, and multiple load path structural arrangements which maintain high
strength in the presence of a crack or damage. Examples of the latter are:
a) Use of tear-stoppers
b) Span wise wing and stabilizer skin splices
Analyses introduce cyclic loads from ground-air-ground cycle and from power spectral density descriptions of continuous turbulence. Component
fatigue test results are fed into the program and the cumulative fatigue damage is calculated. Stress levels are adjusted to achieve required structural
fatigue design life.
19
Design Life Criteria -- Philosophy
Fatigue failure life of a structural member is usually defined as the time to initiate a crack which would tend to reduce the ultimate strength of the
member.
Fatigue design life implies the average life to be expected under average aircraft utilization and loads environment. To this design life, application of a
fatigue life scatter factor accounts for the typical variations from the average utilization, loading environments, and basic fatigue strength allowables.
This leads to a safe-life period during which the probability of a structural crack occurring is very low. With fail-safe, inspectable design, the actual
structural life is much greater.
The overall fatigue life of the aircraft is the time at which the repair of the structure is no longer economically feasible.
Scatter factors of 2 to 4 have been used to account for statistical variation in component fatigue tests and unknowns in loads. Load unknowns involve
both methods of calculation and type of service actually experienced.
Primary structure for present transport aircraft is designed, based on average expected operational conditions and average fatigue test results, for
120,000 hrs. For the best current methods of design, a scatter factor of 2 is typically used, so that the expected crack-free structural life is 60,000 hrs, and
the probability of attaining a crack-free structural life of 60,000 hrs is 94 percent as shown in the following figure and table.
With fail-safe design concepts, the usable structural life would be much greater, but in practice, each manufacturer has different goals regarding aircraft
structural life.
System Installation Provision
Consideration needs to be given to the construction of the fuselage where it may be necessaryto increase its structural integrity.
For example:
• The installation of brackets for the attachment of system components such as hydraulicsystem reservoirs, fuel filter modules and system shut off
valves etc.
• Increasing structural strength will be required in areas of high load; landing gear andengine attachments would be a good example of this.
20
• The installation of firewalls to prevent the spread of fire from hot sections of the aircraftsuch as engine nacelles and APU housing.
• Some system fluid lines, ducting and controls will have to be routed through the aircraftstructure. This will weaken the structure; the
manufacture will keep this in mind duringthe design stage and keep this to a minimum.
• Control cables are used extensively throughout the aircraft to operate different aircraftsystems, these control cables will be routed through the
aircraft structure, and specialconsideration will need to be given to the routing of these cables to protect the aircraftstructure from the cables.
This is accomplished by the use of grommets, fairleads andpressure seals.
21
Not only is the routing of control cable important, the routing of hydraulic system fluid lines, electrical cables, fuel lines, pneumatic system ducting and
air-conditioning distribution must beconsidered and provisions made for the attachment and correct routing of these systemcomponents.
Drains and Ventilation Provision
At places in aeroplane structures where collection of fluids may be expected, drainage points are provided.
To prevent unintended pressure differentials and the accumulation of hazardous gases,structures are supplied with means of ventilation.
Drainage
External and internal holes and drain paths are provided in aircraft structures to prevent waterand other fluids collecting within the structure. These
fluids could cause a fire or corrosion.
External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and tail unit to drainany fluids overboard. These drains are always open.
Drain valves are fitted along the lowest points of the pressure cabin. These drain valves are open when the aircraft cabin is unpressurised, but closed
when the cabin is pressurized to prevent loss of cabin pressure. In the simplest type, a rubber diaphragm forms the seal. Other types of drain valve are
illustrated in figure.
Sometimes a levelling compound is used to prevent fluid collecting in cavities. The compounddirects fluid to the drains. The internal structure of an
aircraft is provided with tubes, channels, dams and drain holes to direct the flow of fluid towards external drain points. An example of this is the holes
drilled in stringers to allow fluids to drain down to the bilge area.
Lightning Strike Protection (LSP) and Static Dissipation
22
If a lightning bolt strikes an unprotected structure, up to 200,000 amps of electricity seeks thepath of least resistance. In the process, it may vaporize
metal control cables, weld hinges oncontrol surfaces and explode fuel vapours within fuel tanks if current arcs through gaps aroundfasteners. These
direct effects also typically include vaporization of resin in the immediate strikearea, with possible bum-through of the laminate. Indirect effects occur
when magnetic fields andelectrical potential differences in the structure induce transient voltages, which can damage andeven destroy onboard
electronics that have not been EMF (electromagnetic field) shielded orlightning protected.
No matter whether an aircraft is aluminium or composite, when lightning hits an aircraft it needsa path for the electricity to flow through. On an
aluminium skin, the electricity will flow throughthe skin and discharge out the static wicks.
LSP strategies have three goals: provide adequate conductive paths so that lightning currentremains on the structure's exterior; eliminate gaps in this
23
conductive path to prevent arcing atattachment points and ignition of fuel vapours; and protect wiring, cables and sensitiveequipment from damaging
surges or transients through careful grounding, EMF shielding andapplication of surge suppression devices where necessary.
Normally the structure of an aircraft consists of metallic assemblies which ensure an excellent electric conductibility; however certain insulating
intermediate parts stop the continuity in large zones. The continuity is restored by means of strips, screws or grounding lugs fitted between metallic
assemblies. Hinged parts (control surfaces, doors, hatches, etc.), removable parts (unhinged inspection doors, etc.), are provided with one or several
bonding means shunting each part where conductibility may be interrupted. For particular zones such as fuel tanks, engines and APU, the bondings
provide an efficient circulation of static potential; bonding strips and screws are connected to the main structure.
Extemal protruding parts, metallic or not, is provided with electrical leads connected to the main structure. Antennas and other equipment are not
bonded due to the fact that a flash of lightning could damage only the element struck without endangering the other parts of the aircraft.
Composite Structure
Since composites do not conduct electricity, lightning and static protection has to be built into the structure.
24
Traditionally, conductive paths in composite structures have been established in one of the following ways:
• Bonding aluminium foil to the structure as the outside ply
• Bonding aluminium or copper mesh to the structure either as the outside ply orembedded one ply down
• Incorporating strands of conductive material into the laminate. All require connecting theconductive pathways to the rest of the aircraft in order to
give the current an amplenumber of routes to safely exit the aircraft. This is typically achieved by using metalbonding strips (i.e., electrical bonding)
to connect the conductive surface layer to anintemal "ground plane," which includes metal components such as engines, conduit, etc.
• A fine aluminium screen may be laminated under the top layer of fabric. If this method isused on a carbon/graphite component; it is usually
sandwiched between two layers offibre glass to prevent a galvanic potential.
• A thin aluminium foil sheet may be bonded to the outer layer of composite during themanufacturing process.
• Aluminium may be flame sprayed onto the component. This is molten aluminium that issprayed on like paint. Some companies will just paint the
component with an aluminizedpaint (often a primer paint).
• In some structures, a piece of metal is bonded to the composite to allow the dissipationof the electrical charge out to another metal component or
static wick. In some cases, allmetallic components are connected via strips of aluminium or copper, effectively formingan internal "cage" throughout
the airframe.
Because lightning strikes can attach to metal fasteners in composite structures, it may bedesirable to prevent arcing or sparking between them by
encapsulating fastener nuts or sleeveswith plastic caps or polysulfide coatings.
For external surface protection, a number of metal and metalized fibre products have been developed, typically woven and nonwoven screens and
expanded foils. These mesh·likeproducts enable the lightning's current to quickly transmit across the structure's surface,reducing its focus.
Electrical Bonding
Bonding is the electrical interconnection of all metal parts of an aircraft, provided for the following reasons:
• Gives a low resistance path for earth return circuits.
25
• Reduce radio interference.
• Reduces danger from lightning strikes.
• Prevents the accumulation of local static charge.
• Ensures that all metal is connected to the ground earth poimt and to static discharges if fitted.
Normally the structure of an aircraft consists of metallic assemblies which ensure an excellent electric conductibility; however certaiin insulating
itermediate parts stop the continuity in large zones. The continuity is restored by means of strips, screws or grounding lugs fitted between metallic
assemblies. Hinged parts, removable parts are provide with one or several
bonding means shunting each part where conductibility may be
interrupted. Such as fuel tanks, engines and APU, the bondings provide an
efficient circulation of static potential; bonding strips and screws are
connected to the main structure.
Different manufacturers usse different methods to dissipate the electrical

charge on composite structures. These are a few different methods:
• Aluminium wires may be woven into the top layer of composite

fabric. This is usually done with fibreglass or Kevlar and not with
carbon/graphite.
• A fine aluminiium screen may be laminated iunder the the top layer
of fabric.
• A thin aluminium foil sheet may be bonded to the outer layer of

composite during the manufacturing process.
Stresses Acting on an Aircraft Structure
Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to resist stress. In
26
designing an aircraft, every square inch ofwing and fuselage, every rib, spar, and even each metal fittingmust be considered in relation to the physical
characteristicsof the material of which it is made. Every part of the aircraftmust be planned to carry the load to be imposed upon it.
The determinationof such loads is called stress analysis. Althoughplanning the design is not the function of the aircrafttechnician, it is, nevertheless,
important that the technicianunderstand and appreciate the stresses involvedin order toavoid changes in the original design through improper repairs.
The term “stress” is often used interchangeably with theword “strain.” While related, they are not the same thing.External loads or forces cause stress.
Stress is a material’sinternal resistance, or counterforce, that opposes deformation.The degree of deformation of a material is strain. Whena material is
subjected to a load or force, that material isdeformed, regardless of how strong the material is or howlight the load is.
There are five major stresses to which allaircraft are subjected:
• Tension
• Compression
• Torsion
• Shear
• Bending
Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pullsomething apart. The engine pulls the aircraftforward, but air resistance tries to hold it back. The
result istension, which stretches the aircraft. The tensile strength ofa material is measured in pounds per square inch (psi) and iscalculated by dividing
the load (in pounds) requiredto pull thematerial apart by its cross-sectionalarea (in square inches).
Compression is the stress that resistsa crushing force.The compressive strength of a material isalso measured in psi. Compression is the stress that tends
toshorten or squeeze aircraft parts.
Torsion is the stress that produces twisting.While moving the aircraft forward, the enginealso tends totwist it to one side, but other aircraft components
hold it oncourse. Thus, torsion is created. The torsion strength of amaterial is its resistance to twisting or torque.
Shear is the stress that resists the force tending to causeone layer of a material to slide over an adjacent layer.[Figure 1-14D] Two riveted plates in tension
subject therivets to a shearing force. Usually, the shearing strengthof a material is either equal to or less than its tensile orcompressive strength. Aircraft
27
parts, especially screws, bolts,and rivets, are often subject to a shearing force.
Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension.The rod has been shortened(compressed) onthe inside of the bend and stretched on the
outside of the bend.
A single member of the structure may be subjected toa combination of stresses. In most cases, the structuralmembers are designed to carry end loads
28
rather than sideloads. They are designed to be subjected to tension orcompression rather than bending.
Strength or resistance to the external loads imposed duringoperation may be the principal requirement in certainstructures. However, there are
numerous other characteristicsin addition to designing to control the five major stresses thatengineers must consider. For example, cowling, fairings,
andsimilarparts may not be subject to significant loads requiringa high degree of strength. However, these parts must have streamlined shapes to meet
aerodynamic requirements, such as reducing drag or directing airflow.
Construction Methods of Aircrafts

Aircraft structures have evolved fully as much as have their powerplants. The very first airframes were made of open trusses of either wood strips or
bamboo. The aerodynamic surfaces were made of lightweight wood covered with cotton or linen fabric, shrunk and made airtight with a syrup-like
collodion product that dried to a hard film.
The next major development came with the welded steel tube fuselage structure that replaced the wooden truss. This structure is strong, but it has the
disadvantage that to give it a streamlined shape, a superstructure must be built around the load-bearing truss. This adds weight but is needed for
aerodynamic smoothness and aesthetics.
The next logical step in the evolution of aircraft structure was to replace the wooden monocoquewith a thin aluminium alloy monocoque. This
decreased the dependence upon skilled craftsmenfor its construction and made mass production of interchangeable parts practical and costeffective.
Pure aluminium is weak, but during World War I, the Germans discovered that by alloying aluminium with copper, manganese, and magnesium, they
could increase its strength withoutincreasing its weight. This new alloy was called Duralumin, and it was the forerunner of thehigh-strength and
lightweight alloys (7017 aluminium alloy) that we use in aircraft constructiontoday.
Metal stressed-skin aircraft structure has been the standard since the 1930s, but a new era isdawning, that of composites. Composite structure can be
made stronger, lighter in weight, morerigid, and less costly than metal. We have experienced what may be termed a plasticsrevolution. Early plastic
materials such as celluloid and Beetleware gave promise of a low-cost,easy-to-manufacture material, but they did not have the strength needed for
structuralapplications. One of the first plastic materials used in aviation was a thermosetting phenolformaldehyderesin that was reinforced with paper or
linen cloth. This phenolic material, tradenamed Micarta or Tufnol, pioneered in the early 1930s, is still used for control cable pulleys and fairleads and for
electrical insulators.
29
Modern composite materials use fibres of graphite and Kevlar as well as glass for mostapplications, with boron and ceramic used in some special
applications. These fibres areprimarily bonded into an epoxy resin matrix. Composite structural components have theadvantage over metal of being
lighter in weight, stronger, more rigid, and better able towithstand the sonic vibrations that are commonly encountered in aircraft structure.
30
31
The military forces have been responsible for much of the development in advanced composite structure because performance and the successful
accomplishment of military goals have always been more important than cost. The airlines have also contributed to its development because every
pound of weight saved by replacing metal with composite materials adds a pound of payload capability for each flight and reduces the fuel burn.
32
Maintenance and repairs to aeroplanes must be done well, fast and at the right location. That is why the aeroplane maintenance mechanic must know
where the part to be repaired or replaced.
When constructing an aeroplane, a distinction is made between the main

sections and the subsections. The main sections are connected to each
other in a particular order in various ways. The main sections of the
33
aeroplane construction are:
• The fuselage
• The wings
• The landing gears
• The empennage (consisting of the vertical and horizontal stabilizers, rudder and elevator)
• The propulsion systems (powerplants, also referred to as engines).
Stressed Skin Construction Method
To take the maximum advantage of metal, most aircraft structure is of the stressed skin. A type of aircraft structure in which all or most of the stresses are
carried in the outside skin. A stressed skin structure has a minimum of internal structure. There are two types of metal stressed skin: monocoque and
semimonocoque.
Fuselage
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing aircraft. It provides space for cargo, controls, accessories,passengers, and other equipment.
In single-engine aircraft,the fuselage houses the powerplant. In multiengine aircraft,the engines may be either in the fuselage, attached to thefuselage,
34
or suspended from the wing structure. There are twogeneral types of fuselage construction:truss and monocoque.
Truss Type
A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, such asbeams, struts, and bars to resist deformationby applied loads.The truss-framed fuselage is
generally covered with fabric.The truss-type fuselage frame is usually constructed of steeltubing welded together in such a manner that all membersof
the truss can carry both tension and compression loads.
In some aircraft, principally the light, singleengine models, truss fuselage frames may be
constructed of aluminum alloy and may be riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross-
bracing achieved by using solid rods or tubes.
Monocoque Type
The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on thestrength of the skin or covering to
carry the primary loads.
The design may be dividedinto two classes:
1. Monocoque
2. Semimonocoque
Different portionsof the same fuselage may belong to eitherof the two classes, but most modern aircraft are consideredto be of semimonocoque type
construction.The true monocoque construction uses formers, frameassemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage.
The heaviest of these structural members arelocated at intervals to carry concentrated loads and at pointswhere fittings are used to attach other units
such as wings,powerplants, and stabilizers. Since no other bracing membersare present, the skin must carry the primary stresses andkeep the fuselage
rigid. Thus, the biggest problem involvedin monocoqueconstruction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable limits.
35
Semimonocoque Type
To overcome the strength/weight problem of monocoqueconstruction, a

modification called semimonocoqueconstruction was developed.
It also consists of frameassemblies, bulkheads, and formers as used in the

monocoque design but, additionally, the skin is reinforced by longitudinalmembers
called longerons. Longerons usually extend acrossseveral frame members and help
the skin support primarybending loads. They are typically made of aluminum
alloyeither of a single piece or a built-up construction.
Stringers are also used in the semimonocoque fuselage. Theselongitudinal

members are typically more numerous and lighterin weight than the longerons.
They come in a variety of shapesand are usually made from single piece aluminum
alloyextrusions or formed aluminum. Stringers have some rigiditybut are chiefly
used for giving shape and for attachment ofthe skin. Stringers and longerons
together prevent tension and compression from bending the fuselage.
Other bracing between the longerons and stringers can alsobe used. Often referred to as web members, these additionalsupport pieces may be installed
vertically or diagonally. Itmust be noted that manufacturers use different nomenclatureto describe structural members. For example, there is oftenlittle
difference between some rings, frames, and formers.
One manufacturer may call the same type of brace a ring ora frame. Manufacturer instructions and specifications for aspecific aircraft are the best
guides.The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily ofalloys of aluminum and magnesium, although steel andtitanium are sometimes found in
areas of high temperatures.
Individually, no one of the a fore mentioned components is strong enough to carry the loads imposed during flight andlanding. But, when combined,
those components form astrong, rigid framework. This is accomplished with gussets,rivets, nuts and bolts, screws, and even friction stir welding.A gusset
is a type of connection bracket that adds strength.
36
To summarize, in semimonocoque fuselages, the strong,heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and these,in turn, hold the stringers, braces,
web members, etc. All aredesigned to be attached together and to the skin to achievethe full strength benefits of semimonocoque design. It isimportant
to recognize that the metal skin or covering carriespart of the load. The fuselage skin thickness can vary with theload carried and the stresses sustained
at a particular location.
The advantages of the semimonocoque fuselage are many.The bulkheads, frames, stringers, and longerons facilitate thedesignand construction of a
streamlined fuselage that is bothrigid and strong. Spreading loads among these structures andthe skin means no single piece is failure critical. This
meansthat a semimonocoque fuselage, because of its stressed-skin construction, may withstandconsiderable damage and stillbe strong enough to hold
together.
Fuselages are generally constructed in two or more sections. On small aircraft, they are generally made in two or three sections, while larger aircraft may
be made up of as many as six sections or more before being assembled.
37
Wings
Wings are airfoils that, when moved rapidly through theair, create lift. They are built in many shapes and sizes.Wing design can vary to provide certain
desirable flightcharacteristics. Control at various operating speeds, theamount of lift generated, balance, and stability all change asthe shape of the wing
is altered. Both the leading edge andthe trailing edge of the wing may be straight or curved, orone edge may be straight and the other curved. One or
bothedges may be tapered so that the wing is narrower at the tipthan at the root where it joins the fuselage. The wing tip maybe square, rounded, or
even pointed.
The wings of an aircraft can be attached to the fuselage atthe top, mid-fuselage, or at the bottom. They may extendperpendicular to the horizontal plain
of the fuselage or canangle up or down slightly. This angle is known as the wingdihedral. The dihedral angle affects the lateral stability ofthe aircraft.
38
LANDING GEAR
The landing gear is the principle support of the airplanewhen parked,

taxiing, taking off, or when landing. The most common type of landing gear
consists of wheels,but airplanes can also be equipped with floats for
39
wateroperations, or skis for landing on snow.
The landing gear consists of three wheels—two mainwheels and a third wheel positioned either at the front orrear of the airplane. Landing gear
employing a rearmountedwheel is called conventional landing gear.
Airplanes with conventional landing gear are sometimesreferred to as tailwheel airplanes. When the third wheel islocated on the nose, it is called a
nosewheel, and thedesign is referred to as a tricycle gear. A steerable nosewheelor tailwheel permits the airplane to be controlledthroughout all
operations while on the ground.
EMPENNAGE
The correct name for the tail section of an airplane is empennage. The empennage includes the
entire tail group, consisting of fixed surfaces such as the vertical stabilizer and the horizontal
stabilizer. The movable surfaces include the rudder, the elevator, and one or more trim tabs.
THE POWERPLANT
The powerplant usually includes both the engine andthe propeller. The primary function of the
engine is to provide the power to turn the propeller. It also generates electrical power, provides a
40
vacuum source for some flight instruments, and in most single-engine airplanes, provides a source of heat for the pilot and passengers. The engine is
covered by a cowling, or in the case of some airplanes, surrounded by a nacelle.
The purpose of the cowling or nacelle is to streamline the flow of air around the engine and to help cool the engine by ducting air around the cylinders.
The propeller, mounted on the front of the engine, translates the rotating force of the engine into a forwardacting force called thrust that helps move
the airplane through the air.
Structure Assembly Techniques

There are many different assembly methods used by the manufacture, it should be remembered that it is far easier to remove a nut and bolt than it is to
de-rivet a component. Those items that are removed on a regular basis are normally secured by the nut and bolt method.
Riveting
Sheets of metal must be fastened together to form the aircraft structure, and this is usually donewith solid aluminium alloy rivets.There are many
locations on an aircraft where it is not possible to reach both sides of thestructure, and special blind rivets must be installed.
Rivets and other permanent types of fastener used in aircraft construction may be divided intofour classes as follows:
41
• Solid
• Tubular;
• Blind
o Cherrylock
o Tucker Pop
• Special Purpose
o Hi-Lok
o Taper-Lock
Only the solid-shank rivet increases, when it is properly installed, in size and strength. A steelbolt, for example, will actually decrease in diameter when it
is installed and torqued. Somemanufacturers of special fasteners attempt to duplicate the natural action of solid-shank rivetsby putting expanding
sections on the fasteners pulling stems. Most of these special fasteners only approximate the natural shank expansion of a driven solid-shank rivet.
Rivets are always supplied to the operator with one head already formed and the shank plain to permit insertion into the rivet hole, the opposite end
being formed into a head by manual or mechanical means.
Solid rivets have the greatest strength and are therefore preferable to any other type of rivet, but they can only be used where there is access to both
sides of the structure.
Bolting
Maintenance accesses, replaceable and movable structural parts are normally attached bybolts.Boltings are non permanent fasteners, This is necessary in
order to perform periodicinspections and maintenance work. The replacement of parts and system components alsorequire the use of non permanent
fasteners. Some examples are:
42
• Bolts and Nuts
• Screws
• Studs and Inserts
• Pins
• Clamps
• Bayonet Fittings
Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in aircraft construction design. They consist of cap screws or studs that capture and join other parts,
and are secured with the mating of screw threads.
There are two main types of bolted joint designs. In one method the bolt is tightened to acalculated clamp load, usually by applying a measured torque
load. The joint will be designedsuch that the clamp load is never overcome by the forces acting on the joint (and therefore thejoined parts see no
relative motion).The other type of bolted joint does not have a designed clamp load but relies on the shear strength of the bolt shaft. This may include
clevis linkages, joints that can move, and joints that rely on locking mechanism (like lock washers, thread adhesives, and lock nuts).
43
The clamp load, also called preload, of a cap screw is created when a torque is applied, and isgenerally a percentage of the cap screw's proof strength.
Cap screws are manufactured tovarious standards that define, among other things, their strength and clamp load. Torque chartsare available that
identify the required torque for cap screws based on their property class orgrade.
When a cap screw is tightened it is stretched, and the parts that are captured are compressed.The result is a spring-like assembly. External forces are
designed to act on the parts that have been compressed, and not on the cap screw.
The result is a non-intuitive distribution of strain; in this engineering model, as long as the forces acting on the compressed parts do not exceed the
clamp load, the cap screw does not see any increased load. This model is only valid when the members under compression are much stiffer than the
capscrew.
The most common mode of failure is overloading. Operating forces of the application produceloads that exceed the clamp load and the joint works itself
loose, or fails catastrophically.
Over torquing will cause failure by damaging the threads and deforming the hardware, thefailure might not occur until long afterward. Under torquing
can cause failures by allowing a jointto come loose. It may also allow the joint to flex and thus fail under fatigue.
Corrosion, embedment and exceeding the shear stress limit are other modes of failure. Bolted joints may be used intentionally as sacrificial parts,
44
intending to fail before other parts, as in a shear pin.
Bonding
On more and more aircraft, bonding is also used to attach stringers, stiffener, etc, to structureskin.Lightweight materials can often be used with adhesive
bonding rather than with conventionalfastening, simply because the uniform stress distribution in the joint permits full utilization of thestrength and
rigidity of the adherents. Payloads in aircraft can be increased.
The following are possible advantages of properly designed adhesive bonded joints:
• Adhesive bonds provide airtight joints.
• Electrochemical corrosion is reduced or laminated.
In a bonded joint adhesives are electrically insulated from each other; there are no holes toexpose base metal, and cladding, anodize and other corrosion
protection surfaces are not destroyed.
• Higher fatigue life of joints may possibly allow reduced sheet gauges.
• Residual strength of damaged structure, which is adhesively bonded, can be large. In a laminated panel, cracks may grow for some time in only
one layer; in stiffened panels, cracks may grow more slowly across a bonded area than across a rivet line.
• Aerodynamic surface smoothness of adhesively bonded structure is excellent.
Adhesively bonded joint may suffer from the following limitations:
• Assembly may be more expensive than for conventional joints.
• Very extensive process control over the entire bonding procedure is required.
• Curing temperatures of some adhesives may degrade other components.
• Service degradation of bonds is difficult to check. Bonded joints shall not be used in any application in which a complete bond failure or obvious
partial failure could cause loss of the aircraft. Bonded joints shall be classified for structural application as follows as a means for designating
levels and types of inspection and peel strength requirements.
45
Bonded Joint Design
In practice, bonded structures must sustain a combination of forces. For maximum

strength,loading stresses should be directed along the lines of the adhesive's greatest
strength.Cleavage and peel stresses should be avoided. Moreover, the type of
substrate, its thickness,and the adhesive must be analyzed for the optimum area of
overlap.
Joints can compensate for a variety of mechanical stresses, minimize stress

concentrations onthe bondline, and optimize the characteristics of the substrates
being bonded. Lap joints, asimple layer on layer, are generally strongest. The length of
an overlap increases strength butby decreasing amounts. Increasing the width of the
overlap produces a proportional increase instrength.
Most data on adhesive lap shear and peel strengths is based on simple lap joints made
onaluminium-alloy substrates. But many other joint designs are successful. For
example, metalssuch as mild steel are often bent or folded to form durable joints. Sheets that cannot be bent orfolded can be bonded together using
profiles (a connection method) designed for theapplication. For instance, tapering the edges of a stiffener reduces high-stress concentrationscaused by
abrupt sectional changes.
Aircraft Symmetry Checks

Leveling the Aircraft
The position or angle of main components is related to a longitudinal datum line parallel to the aircraft centre line and a lateral datum line
parallel to a line joining the wing tips. Before these positions or angles are checked, the aircraft should (generally) be brought to the rigging
position (i.e. with the lateral and longitudinal datum lines horizontal) by means of jacks or trestles, depending on the particular aircraft type,
with the wheels just clear of the ground.
46
For the purpose of checking the level of smaller types of aircraft, fixed or portable datum pegs or blocks, on which can be rested a straight-
edge and spirit level and which are generally attached to the fuselage parallel to or co-incident with the datum lines, are used, although in
some instances parts of the structure which run parallel with the datum lines (e.g. top longerons or canopy rails of some aircraft) may be
utilized. A typical leveling arrangement is shown in Figure.
Another method of leveling the aircraft is the 'grid' method illustrated in Figure . The grid plate is a permanent fixture on the floor of the
aircraft and, when the aircraft is to be leveled, a plumb bob is suspended from a predetermined position in the roof of the aircraft over the
grid plate. The adjustments necessary to the lifting gear to bring the aircraft to the level position are indicated by the grid scale, true level
being obtained when the plumb bob is immediately over the centre point of the grid.
The method of bringing the aircraft to the rigging position depends largely on the size and type of aircraft and whether a nose wheel or tail
wheel configuration applies.
A level site capable of bearing the load to be applied should be selected for the operation otherwise, where trestles are used, it may not be
possible to level the aircraft and where jacks are used, the danger of the jacks toppling and dropping the aircraft would exist.
47
Rigging checks should not normally be undertaken in the open, but if this is unavoidable the aircraft should be positioned nose into wind. In
any case the aircraft should not be lifted in strong winds or gusts.
The weight and loading of the aircraft for the rigging check should be exactly as described in the manual or as quoted on the original rigging
chart supplied by the manufacturer. Variations from this condition, especially in the case of larger aircraft, will prohibit a comparison with the
original figures. In any case the aircraft should not be lifted until it is ensured that the maximum jacking weight (if any) specified by the
manufacturer will not be exceeded.
All equipment which may cause damage to the aircraft during the lifting operation should be moved away before lifting is commenced
and no personnel other than those directly connected with the rigging check should be permitted on or around the aircraft for the
duration of the complete operation.
For most aircraft the brakes should be OFF and the wheels chocked prior to lifting but for aircraft fitted with levered suspension
undercarriage units the wheels should be left unchocked.
Tail Wheel Aircraft
The tail should be raised to an approximately level position by means of the appropriate jacks or adjustable trestle accurately positioned
under the rear lifting position. Where single-engine aircraft in particular are concerned, it may be necessary to weight down the tail to
prevent the aircraft nosing over due to the weight of the engine. This weight must not be allowed to swing but must touch the ground and
be secured by a taut rope to that part of the aircraft specified by the manufacturer.
The appropriate jacks or adjustable trestles should be accurately positioned under the main lifting points and the aircraft raised evenly by
operating both jacks or trestle gears together until the wheels are just clear of the ground and the aircraft is in the (approximate) rigging
position.
The lateral and longitudinal levels should be checked and adjusted as necessary by means of the lifting gear. Where hydraulic jacks are used,
the locking devices provided must be applied immediately the aircraft has been correctly positioned and, to ensure the safety of personnel,
at any time when the jack is not actually being operated during the lifting of the aircraft.
48
If steady trestles are placed under the wings after the aircraft has been supported in the rigging position, it must be ensured that they are
not in contact with the wings when incidence or dihedral checks are being made, that no adjustments are made to the lifting gear with the
steady trestles in position and that the trestles are removed before any attempt is made to lower the aircraft.
Nose Wheel Aircraft
The appropriate trestles or jacks should be accurately positioned under the main, nose and (if applicable) tail positions. The main and nose
lifting gear should be operated simultaneously and evenly until the aircraft is just clear of the ground and the operation completed.
Rigging Checks
Although the dihedral and incidence angles of conventional modern aircraft cannot be adjusted (with the possible exception of adjustable
tailplanes) they should be checked at specified periods and after heavy landings or abnormal flight loads (see Module 7 Study Notes) to
ensure that the components are not distorted and that the angles are within permitted limits. The relevant figures together with permitted
tolerances are specified in the appropriate manual for the aircraft concerned, but the actual figures relevant to an individual aircraft are
recorded in the aircraft log book.
The usual method of checking rigging angles is by the use of special boards (or the equivalent) in which are incorporated or on which can be
placed an instrument for determining the angle, i.e. a spirit level or clinometer as appropriate. On a number of aircraft the rigging can be
checked by means of sighting rods and a theodolite.
Sequence of Rigging Checks
A suitable sequence for checking the rigging is as follows; it is essential that the checks should be made at all the positions specified in the
relevant manual.
• Wing dihedral angle(s)
• Wing incidence angle(s)
• Engine alignment
49
• Tail plane lateral level or dihedral
• Tail plane incidence angle
• Vertically of fin
• Symmetry check
Checking Aircraft with Rigging Boards
Dihedral
The dihedral angle should be checked in the specified positions with the special boards provided by the aircraft manufacturer or, if no such
boards are provided, with a straight-edge and clinometer. The methods of checking with both types of board are shown in Figure .
NOTE: Certain portions of the wings or tailpianes may sometimes be horizontal or, on rare occasions, anhedral angles may be present.
Incidence
The incidence is usually checked in at least two specified positions, inboard and outboard, on the component to ensure that it is free from
twist.
a) There are a variety of types of incidence boards, some having stops at the forward edge which must be placed in contact with the
leading edge of the wing, whilst others are provided with location pegs which fit into some specified part of the structure, but the main
purpose in each case is to ensure the board is fitted in exactly the position intended and, if the rigging is correct, that a clinometer on
50
the top of the board will register zero or within a permitted tolerance about zero. In most instances the boards are kept clear of the wing
contour (so that the incidence check is not influenced by any irregularities which may occur in the contour) by means of short feet
attached to the board. A typical wooden incidence board is shown in Figure although, of course, some are manufactured of metal.
b) It must be borne in mind that modifications in areas where incidence boards are located may affect results.
For example, if leading-edge de-icing shoes were fitted this might seriously affect the position taken up by a board having a leading edge
stop as shown in Figure .
Figure Typical Incidence Board
c) Where possible, the verticality of the incidence board should be checked with a plumb bob. Where the checks are being taken in the
open and it is difficult to steady the plumb bob due to wind, the suspension of the plumb bob in a container of oil or water will be of
assistance.
Verticality of Fin
After the rigging of the tail planes has been checked, the verticality of the fin relative to a lateral datum can be checked from a given point on
either side of the top of the fin to a given point on the port and starboard tail planes respectively; the measurements should be similar
within prescribed limits. When the verticality of the fin stern post has to be checked, it may be necessary to remove the rudder and drop a
plumb bob through the rudder hinge attachment holes, when the cord should pass centrally through all the holes. It should be noted that
51
some aircraft have the fin offset to the longitudinal centre line to counteract engine torque.
Engine Mountings
Engines attached to the wings are usually mounted with the thrust line parallel to the horizontal longitudinal plane of symmetry but not
always parallel to the vertical longitudinal plane, since, due to their disposition along the wing, the outboard engines are often offset a
degree or so to enable the slipstream from the propellers to converge on the tail plane. The check to ensure that the position of the engine,
including the degree of offset, is correct depends largely on the type of mounting, but usually entails a measurement from the centre line of
52
the mounting to the longitudinal centre line of the fuselage at a point specified in the relevant manual. (See also Figure ).
Symmetry Check
Figurel illustrates the principle of a typical symmetry check, the relevant figures and tolerances for which will be found in the appropriate
manual, although the actual measurements relating to the aircraft concerned are given in the aircraft log book.
a) For the smaller types of aircraft the measurements between points are usually taken by means of a steel tape. It is recommended that a
spring balance should be used on the longer distances to obtain an equal tension, 51b usually being sufficient.
b) Where the larger types of aircraft are concerned, it is more usual to chalk the floor locally under the positions where the dimensions are
to be taken, to drop plumb bobs from the checking points, marking the floor with an 'X' immediately under the point of each plumb
bob and then to measure the distance between the centre of the markings. This method has the advantages of ensuring more accurate
measurement and reducing the amount of walking necessary on main planes and tail planes.
Rigging Checks on Biplanes
In general the rigging checks applicable to single-engined biplanes during reassembly after overhaul are as follows, but specific
requirements relating to a particular type of aircraft should be ascertained from the relevant approved manual.
The centre-section should be placed on suitable trestles and the centre-section struts and wires (complete with fork-ends) attached.
NOTE: It is important that the fork-ends should be screwed the same number of turns on each end of the wire to provide for subsequent
adjustment.
The centre-section should be erected onto the fuselage and the stagger and lateral symmetry checked. The stagger should be checked by
dropping plumb bobs from the leading edge of the upper portion of the centre-section (or other defined position) and measuring the
distance from the plumb bobs to the leading edge of the lower portion of the centre-section (or other defined position). If necessary, the
stagger can be adjusted by means of the front centre-section struts on most aircraft of this type. The symmetry about the centre line should
be checked by measuring from plumb bobs to the sides of the fuselage and can be adjusted, if necessary, by means of the bracing wires.
53
NOTE: It is essential that the centre-section rigging checks should be accurately carried out, since small errors in the centre-section bracing
can result in large errors in the general rigging.
The port (or starboard) top main plane should be attached to the centre-section, care being taken to ensure that the main plane is
adequately supported during the assembly. The landing wires should then be attached to the centre-section, the port (or starboard) lower
main plane attached to the centre section, the interplane struts, flying wires and incidence wires fitted and the whole assembly lightly
tensioned up. The completed side of the aircraft should be steadied with a trestle whilst the opposite side is assembled in the same order.
NOTE: Although usually of similar appearance, front and rear interplane struts are usually of slightly different lengths to compensate for
wing contour, thus it is important to ensure that the correct strut has been fitted in the correct position.
After assembly the fuselage level should be re-checked and adjusted as necessary, after which the main planes should be trued-up by
adjustments to the appropriate wires, the aim being to achieve the correct dihedral first and then to work the incidence and stagger
together. Care must be taken during rigging to ensure that the main flying and landing wires are not over-tensioned to the extent of
bowing the main plane spars or interplane struts.
NOTE: The specified lengths and permitted tolerances applicable to all wires are given in the rigging diagrams appropriate to the aircraft
type, but the actual figures to which the aircraft had previously been rigged is recorded in the aircraft log book. If using the same
components it is advisable to re-rig to the log book figures, since these may have been determined specifically to counteract a flying fault.
After the rigging of the main planes has been completed, it should be ensured that all fork-ends, etc., are in safety, are not 'butting' against
the ends of the fitting and have been correctly locked, that the wires are in streamline and that anti-chafing discs and spreader bars are
correctly fitted to prevent vibration of the wires.
Empennage
The empennage should be attached in accordance with the instructions contained in the relevant manual and adjusted (where this is
possible) to within the limits specified in the relevant rigging diagram. It should be noted that the tailplane struts are usually handed
and, unless these are correctly positioned, the fairings will not be in line of flight.
54
NOTE: Tailplanes provided with an adjustment mechanism must be set to the neutral position before checking is commenced.
Twin-Engine Biplanes
The general procedure for rigging twin-engined biplanes is basically similar to that described above for single-engined biplanes but it must
be ensured that the weight of the engines is taken up on the appropriate struts before completing the general rigging.
Checking Rigging with Sighting Rods
This method of checking rigging is used mainly on the larger types of aircraft and consists basically of sighting with a theodolite the
positions of datum marks on a series of rods of graduated lengths, each of which is inserted into a specified jigged position on the underside
of the aircraft.
For the initial check, the aircraft should be brought to the rigging position and the sighting rods inserted at the appropriate stations.
NOTE: Since any rod can be fitted into any socket, it is important to ensure that the rods are inserted in their correct positions.
A theodolite, erected at an appropriate distance and position from the aircraft should be levelled up with the datum mark on the master
sighting rod (usually the shortest rod fitted under the fuselage) and then readings should be taken from this sighting line at each rod station
and recorded. A typical method of taking the readings is illustrated in Figure.
Large Aeroplane Symmetry Check Procedure
To check larger types of aircraft, it is usual to chalk the floor locally under the positions where the dimensions are to be taken, to drop plumb
bobs from the checking points, marking the floor with an X immediately under the point of each plumb bob and then to measure the
distance between the centre of the markings. This method has the advantages of ensuring more accurate measurement and reducing the
amount of walking necessary on main planes and tail-planes.
Chapter ATA 05 of the AMM gives the instructions for the levelling, measurement and alignment operations of the aircraft. It gives
measurement instructions to find possible structural deformations after hard landings, too much turbulence, after the replacement or major
repair of a part of the structure, etc.
55
Tables give information about the measurements recorded on the first three aircraft at zero flight hours. They can be used as a guide in
appraising the structural and aerodynamic condition of an aircraft after major repairs or after an aircraft has been subjected to manoeuvres
requiring an alignment check.
Deviations from given values do not automatically mean that the aircraft is not serviceable. These deviations must be appraised from the
structural and aerodynamic points of view in order to determine their effects on flight safety.
In the event of important deviations, visually check for presence of the following failures:
1. Localized structural failures such as:
• Buckled or cracked skins, stiffener, machined parts. Peeled-off paint.
• Tore or torn fasteners.
2. Structural failures resulting in:
• Fuel leaks in tank areas
• After the replacement or major repair of a part of the structure
• Air leaks in pressurized areas
Interference of moving parts of a mechanism Leaks in air conditioning, hydraulic or fuel systems Short circuits Refusal to closure of doors and
access panels due to surrounding structure distortion Required excessive control surface trim limiting control range.
Lowering the Aircraft
Before any attempt is made to lower the aircraft to the ground it must be ensured that wing supports and any other equipment which
might foul and damage the aircraft are moved clear. The aircraft should be lowered evenly and, when the aircraft weight is accepted on the
undercarriage, the jacks should be further lowered to ensure that they can be removed without fouling the aircraft structure.
56
Definitions
Anhedral - An inclination outwards and downwards relative to the lateral datum.
Dihedral - The angle (or angles) at which the wings and tailplanes are inclined outward and upward relative to the lateral datum.
Flying Wires - Wires the principal function of which is to transfer the lift of the main planes to the main structure. These wires are sometimes
termed 'lift wires'.
Landing Wires - Wires which brace the main plane against forces opposite in direction to the direction of lift, as occur, for example, in
landing. These wires are sometimes termed 'anti-lift wires'.
Incidence - The angle between the chord line of the wing or tailplane and the longitudinal datum.
Incidence Wires - Wires bracing the main plane structure in the plane of a pair of front and rear struts.
Stagger - The distance between the leading edge of the lower plane and the projection of the leading edge of the upper plane on the chord
of the lower plane.
57
Module 9
Aircraft Structure
9.2 Fuselage
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
2
Fuselage Construction
The fuselage is the body of the aircraft, to which the wings, tail, engine and landing gear attach.Because of the tremendous loads that are imposed upon
the fuselage structure, it must havemaximum strength and, as with all of the parts of an aircraft, it must also have minimum weight.Stressed-skin-type
fuselages are used in modern transport aircraft.
The main limitation of a stressed-skin structure is that it cannot tolerate any dents ordeformation in its surface. We have all seen this characteristic
demonstrated with a thinaluminium beverage can. When the can is free of dents, it will withstand a great amount of forceapplied to its ends, but if we
put only a slight dent in its side, it can be crushed very easily fromtop or bottom.
Most fuselages of transport aircraft are semi-monocoque structures. It is shaped by a number of frames and stringers that keep each other at the correct
distance. The skinpanel is attached to these stringers by means of rivets or glue. Sheets of different thicknessesare used. The big advantage of these
fuselage constructions is that an area is created that isnot blocked anywhere by extra means of strengthening. Extra means of strengthening are
onlynecessary at those places where large forces are transmitted. This is the case at places wherewings, tail surfaces, engines and landing gears are
attached to the fuselage. In addition, thisoccurs at those places where weak spots are created in the construction as a result of missingframes and
stringers, as at doors, windows and hatches. Special strengthening is used at thoseplaces in the fuselage where the area is used for stowing the retracted
landing gears.
The fuselage is made of separate assemblies which are riveted together.The cabin floor structure divides the fuselage into two areas, the main deck and
the lower deck.The main deck includes the cockpit and the cabin. The lower deck normally includes the avionics compartments, the landing gear bays
and the fwd, aft and bulk cargo compartments. Support struts and crossbeams support the cabin floor structure.
Primary Structure
The frames and the forward and aft pressure bulkheads are primary structural components ofthe fuselage. Each frame is a 'Z' or other sectioned
circumferential member carrying pressureloads in hoop tension. The frames are generally spaced at approximately twenty-inch intervalsalong the
fuselage. The bulkheads consist of webs that fit the sectional contours of theaeroplane. These bulkheads are reinforced by beams attached to the webs.
The floor beams are primary structural components of the fuselage. Each floor beam carries atension load and is attached at its ends to a frame.
The stringers are primary structural members. They are hat- or 'Z'-section which extendlongitudinally along the fuselage. Other longitudinal members
3
considered primary are the creasebeams and the keel beams. Skin and reinforcing structure around opening is primary. Basicstructure associated with
the wheel wells is primary.
4
Stringers and Other Longitudinal Members
Stringers are multiple failsafe (as a result of theirmultiplicity) longitudinal members

designed toprovide stiffness to the skin and help to provide thelongitudinal strength to
the fuselage.
Intercostals (or webs) are short longitudinalmembers which may span between only
twoadjacent frames, to provide some local structuralreinforcement at or around
windows and doors forexample.
A horizontal beam extends along each side of thefuselage level with the top of the floor.
These beamsare known as the crease beams because they areattached to the fuselage
skin at the "crease" formed by the intersection between the upper and lowerlobes of the
fuselage cross-section.
The keel beams comprise the beam between the main landing gear wheel wells and the
beamwhich passes beneath the centre wing box. The beam between the wheel wells is a
reinforcedbox structure which carries pressurization loads originating on the sealed floor
structure acrossthe wheel well area. Both of the beams carry the bending loads acting
along the lower fuselageacross the cavities for the centre wing box and the wheel well.
Longerons are any longitudinal structural component of an aircraft's fuselage which are
larger than the stringers.
Doublers and Waffles
Doublers and waffles are sometimes bonded to the inside of fuselage skins, or integrally machined, or the skin between the doubler/waffle is thinned by
acid etching. Their purpose is to stop or retard the growth of a crack that may begin to propagate in the skin. This 'tear stopper' function provides some
fail safe element to the fuselage skin.
5
6
Blowout panels
Blowout panels are provided wherever there is a danger of an excessive pressure

differentialacross a structural membrane causing structural damage. They are, for example,
provided in the cabin floors should there be a sudden decompression in a cargo hold due to a
cargo hold door coming open during flight for example. The blowout panels 'blowout' in such
a situation to release the excess pressure in the cabin and thus safeguard the structural
integrity of the floor (which may also hold the flight control cables).
Blowout panels can also be found on cockpit doors and other doors to prevent a differential
pressure causing the door to be jammed or damaged.
The fitting and maintenance of blowout panels and their seals is critical, and procedures and
figures such as retaining bolt torque loading must be applied in strict accordance with the
applicable AMM.
7
8
9
10
11
Pressure Sealing
To make it possible to use pressurized cabins, the front and rear of the
fuselage construction and the landing gear areas are closed off by a
pressure bulkhead.The cockpit, the cabin, the avionics compartment
and the cargo compartments are normally pressurized. The radome, the
wing centre box, the landing gear bays, the belly fairing and the
cone/rear fuselage are normally not pressurized.
It would be impractical to build the pressure vessel of an aircraft that is

airtight, as pressurization is accomplished by flowing more air into the
cabin than is needed and allowing the excess air toleak out. There are
two types of leakage in an aircraft pressure vessel; controlled and
uncontrolled. The uncontrolled leakage is that in which air escapes
around door and window seals, control cables and other openings in the
sealed portion of the structure, and thecontrolled leakage through the
outflow valve and the safety valve. This controlled leakage is far more
than the uncontrolled and it determines the amount of pressure in the
cabin.
Pressurization control systems can be of the pneumatic or electronic type, with the electronic type incorporating electrically controlled outflow valves.
Wing-to-Body Fairings
The wing-to-body fairings serve as aerodynamic fairings, are made of aluminium alloy or ahoneycomb composite lay-up, and are secondary structure.
The wing-to-body fairings are attached to the wing surface and the fuselage skin. A cut-out inthe fairing allow for the passage of the main landing gear.
Other cut-outs with panels or doorsare provided as access to equipment within the fairing.
12
A blowout panel on each wing-to-body lower fairing protects the aeroplane skin in that area fromexcessive pressure build-up. Each panel is held by a
hinge and secured by shear rivets, with anenergy absorbing retaining strap to limit panel opening. An aerodynamic deflector is included to hold panel
open and prevent uncontrolled buffeting, if the panel opens.
Fuselage Fire Zones
For the purposes of fire protection and extinguishing, all compartments of an aeroplane areclassified A, B, C, D or E, as follows:
• Class A - Visual detection of smoke and have an accessible in-flight fire extinguisher available
• Class B - Crew can move all contents by hand, and reach all parts of the compartment with a hand fire extinguisher.
• Class C - Smoke or fire detectors are installed and a built in fire extinguisher system controlled from the cockpit.
• Class D - A fire will be completely confined without endangering safety of the aircraft or occupants. Must be completely lined with fire-
resistant material.
• Class E - Cargo-only aircraft. Separate smoke or fire detector installed, and means to shut-off airflow to, or within, the compartment. Must be
completely lined with fire resistant material, and window shades closed.
Design Features for Pressurized Airframes

Butt Joint
The construction of this type of joint is such that a forward skin panel and aft skin
panel arejoined together by an internal butt strap. When this joint is assembled, there
is a gap betweenthe forward skin panel and aft skin panel. This gap is filled with what
is commonly referred to asa fillet seal. This type of joint allows for the expansion and
contraction of the fuselage and at thesame time providing adequate pressurization
sealing. This kind of connection is used to join the fuselage sections together.
13
Lap Joint
The construction of this type of joint is such that the upper skin panel overlaps the lower skinpanel. During the assembly of the joint the upper skin and
lower skin area of contact has a faying surface seal applied to it. The joint is then made while the sealant is still wet. This kind of connection is used to join
the skin panels together at the longitudinal edge.
14
15
Nose Radome
The nose radome extends forward from theforward pressure bulkhead.
The two mainfunctions of the radome are to serve as afairing and to
house the weather radar antennaand the glide slope antenna director
bar.
The radome is a cone-shaped structure offibreglass and is hinged at

two places, usuallyto the top side of the forward bulkhead.
Furtherattachment of the radome is by fastenerswhich screw into clips
on the bulkhead. In theopen position, the radome is supported byrods.
The weather radar antenna is cantileveredfrom the forward bulkhead.

The nose of theradome is equipped with erosion protectionand a layer
of conductive spray paint providesstatic dissipation, but is not enough
to interferewith the operation of the weather radar or anyother
antenna which may be mounted inside the radome.
Wing to Fuselage Attachment

One method that can be used to support the wing is a simple four-pin
attachment method.
However, because of the thrust and drag loads (fore and aft loading)
this simple four-pin designmay not be sufficient for big airliners. Another way of overcoming the fore and aft loads imposedby the wing is to attach the
fuselage frames to the wing spars, mainly used for bigger aircraft. This is known as integral wing attachment.
16
17
Bolted Wing Attachment
This kind of attachment is mainly used in smaller aeroplanes. The following description belongs to the Saab 2000.
There are eight wing-to-fuselage attachment fittings on the mainframe. They transmit the load to the fuselage during flight for multiple load path
redundancy. The aluminium attach fittings are put in position on the front and the rear spar to engage the related fuselage attach fittings.
18
19
Integral Wing Attchment
Most big aeroplanes are designed with this kind of wing attachment. There are also somesmaller aeroplanes like the Embraer 145, which also use this
kind of design. The following description is of airbus aeroplanes.
The wing centre box structure extends across the width of the fuselage and is a continuation of the wing cantilever box. The wing box is usually attached
to two primary frames of the fuselage; they are also part of the wing centre-box structure. These frames are normally made of aluminium alloy and of
integral kind (machine milled). The wing box distributes the wing loads in the fuselage and can form an optional integral fuel tank.
20
Landing Gear Attachment to the Fuselage
The landing gear loads are the largest loads on the aircraft. For this reason, the transfer ofthese loads to the fuselage shell requires extensive local
reinforcement.
The wing spars along with additional structural members, support and attach the main landinggear to the wings on larger transport aircraft. The
retractable landing gear system is required to move, the upper shock strut is supported by trunion fittings. These are shafts that fit to the shock strut and
pass through fittings, which are bolted to the fuselage.
21
Horizontal Stabilizer to Fuselage Attachment
Modern high-speed transport category aeroplanes have adopted the use of an adjustablestabilizer. The aft portion of the stabilizer incorporates hinge
assembles that are attached to thefuselage structure. The forward section of the stabilizer has a drive mechanism, which changes the pitch of the
stabilizer.
22
Vertical Stabilizer to Fuselage Attachment
One method of construction is to attach the vertical stabilizer fore and aft spars to the fuselage using fittings. These fittings may be permanent or allow
for the vertical stabilizer to be removed. Another method used is to make the vertical stabilizer an integral part of the aft fuselage. The vertical stabilizer
spars enter the fuselage and become part of the aft fuselage frames. The skin panels of the vertical stabilizer tie directly onto the skin panels of the
fuselage.
23
24
Doors
There are a number of different kinds of doors in an aeroplane. When talking about doors thatare part of the pressurized cabin, the following are
included:
• cabin doors;
• cargo compartment doors;
• access doors to equipment compartments that are part of the pressurized cabin.
These doors should meet the following requirements:
• The doors must be opened and closed from the inside and the outside;
• Instructions for closing and opening them must be easy to read and simple to understand;
• There must be an indication on the cockpit as well as a mechanical indication near the door itself that the door is properly closed.
In addition, cargo doors must:
• Be constructed in such a way that, in closed position, they are part of the total strength ofthe fuselage construction.
The doors in the pressurized cabin can be divided into two groups:
• Plug-type doors;
• Non-plug-type doors.
25
Door Safety
Proximity sensors attached to the door for 'Door Closed, 'Door Locked' and 'Girt Bar Activated' give an indication to the flight crew at time anyone of
these conditions is not met.
Door Seals
Usually a silicon rubber seal is installed around the door. When the door is closed, the seal is pushed against the door frame of the fuselage. The seal
usually has holes at equal intervals, which let the cabin air to the seal inside and vice versa. When the door is closed and the cabin is pressurized, the door
seals inflate because of the pressure difference between inside and outside.
26
27
Plug-type Doors
Doors that close the fuselage from the inside are called plug-type doors.
Plug-type doors are a little bigger than the dimensions of the doorjamb in
which they fit. For this reason, the door in open position is sometimes kept
inside the pressurized cabin. Another possibility is that the door has what is
known as gates. They make the door smaller while opening or closing so
that it can be brought outside the pressurized cabin when it is in open
position.
The advantages of a plug-type door are:
• The total load is distributed over the whole doorjamb;
• The doors
close tighter as the pressure increases.
28
Non-Plug-Type Doors
Doors that close from the outside are called non-plug-type doors. The hinges and the closingmechanism of this type of door must carry all the forces
that are caused by pressuredifferences. For the above mentioned reasons, the large cargo compartment doors have heavylocking mechanisms. These
locks are at the exact locations where the frames in the fuselageand the cargo door are broken. The lock forms the connection between these frames
when thedoor is closed. In this way, non-plug-type doors add to the total strength of thefuselage construction.
Operation and Locking
This kind of door is mainly used for cargo compartments. Depending on the dimensions of thedoors, they are equipped with counterbalance mechanism
for manual operation, electrical motoractuation or hydraulic actuation.
The locking hooks keep each cargo door in the closed position. To show this condition there areindication windows in the access panel of the cargo
door. The green mark shows that the safetymechanism locks each locking unit in its latched position. The red marks show that the lockingunits are not
locked and satisfactory. When the cargo doors are locked, the door seal makes therelated cargo compartment pressure-tight. To balance the difference
in pressure on the groundand in the cargo compartments, there is a vent door in each cargo door. This spring-loaded ventdoor opens inboard and
remains in this position until the cargo door is correctly locked.
Drift Pins
The drift pin mechanism is installed in the middle of the cargo door. It decreases the contour offsetbetween the fuselage and the door. The drift pin
mechanism includes the linkage assemblyand the drift pins with the related bellcranks and the connection links. The linkage assemblytransmit the
movement of the safety shaft to the bellcranks. They operate the connection linkswhich retract or extent the drift pins. When the cargo door is correctly
locked, the extended driftpins engage with the pockets of the fuselage frame.
Door Seals
The door seal made usually of silicone rubber integrated with fabric is a round hose-type sealwith inflation holes. The door seal is installed in the
retainers so that the inflation holes show tothe inner side of the cargo compartment. When the cargo door is in the closed position, the doorseal comes
into contact with the fuselage profile. Due to the higher internal pressure of thecargo compartment during the flight, the door seal is inflated via the
29
inflation holes so that thecargo compartment is sealed air-tight.
Door Indication and Warning
Electrical switches (micro switches or proximity switches) of the door warning system monitorthe closed and locked condition of the cargo door. They
30
send a signal to the cockpit indicationsystem when a cargo door is not locked. Then an indication warns the pilots about the unlockedcondition of the
door.
Pressure Door Warning System
The door warning system is an electrical circuit which gives the crew a visual warning when adoor is open or not latched.
These doors are included in the door warning system:
• The forward and aft entry doors
• The forward and aft galley service doors
• The forward and aft cargo compartment doors
• The lower nose compartment access (forward access) door
• The forward airstair door (if installed)
• Tire burst protector screens (if installed)
• The electronic equipment compartment external access door.
The door warning system has these components:
• A door warning module on the overhead panel in the control cabin The door warning module uses lights to warn the crew that doors areopen or
unlocked
• A miscellaneous switching module in the electronic equipment compartment
• Door warning sensors on the doors.
A MASTER CAUTION light identifies a malfunction.
A door warning light identifies the applicable door. Each door warning light has two bulbs.
One light continuously shows the words on the cap. One light illuminates the translucent cap as a warning. The illuminated colour is amber/opaque and
31
the non-illuminated colour is white/gray.
Cockpit Windows
The flight deck windows are again divided into two kinds: windshield (front windows) and sidewindows. The requirements that flight deck windows
must meet are significantly more severethan the requirements for cabin windows. This is understandable because the safety of the flightcrew must be
guaranteed under all circumstances. Windshields consist of layers of toughenedglass and plastics.
There is a heating element between the outside window and the plastic layer.The heating element is made of gold, tin oxide or indium oxide. The
outside window has a stiff,hard, scratch resistant layer. The synthetic middle layer keeps splinters from being spread in theflight deck if the inside
window breaks. Heating the windshields is necessary because:
• It increases the flexibility of the windshields;
• It keeps the windows free of ice;
• It keeps the windows from fogging over.
The construction of the cockpit window consists of a glass pane laminated to each side of apolyvinyl butyral (vinyl) interlayer or core.The inner glass
pane is the thicker of the two and is the primary load carrying member. Thevinyl interlayer, or core, acts as the "fail-safe" load carrying member and
prevents the windowfrom shattering if the inner pane should break. The outer pane has no structural significance,but provides rigidity and a hard,
scratch resistant surface.
The different layers of the windows expand and contract at different rates during a change intemperature. This can cause the layers to pull against each
other at their interface with greatforce causing intemal glass chipping and vinyl interlayer cracking, especially around the edges.
To prevent this windows have thin layers of a slippery material around the edges, called partingmaterial or slip planes, to allow the window layers to
slide against each other during expansionand contraction. Some windows have soft material layers around the edges or across the wholewindow that
will flex when the main structural layers pull against them.
Uneven heating, expansion and shrinkage, careless installation, ultraviolet rays, pressuredifferences and seeping in of humidity via leaks in the window
32
seals can all lead to delamination(the layers come loose), pealing, tearing or breaking. The side windows consist of layers oftoughened glass and plastics
just as the windshields.
In windows that can be heated (against fogging), the heating element is between the insidewindow and the synthetic layer.
33
Sliding Windows
The cockpit of modern transportcategory aeroplanes include two sliding windows (left and right)Installed at both sides. The flight crew can use these
sliding windows as emergency exits.
34
35
36
Cabin windows
Cabin windows really consist of three windows. The outside and the middlewindow are installed in the construction of the fuselage, but are of no
importance to the strengthof the fuselagle. The protective windows are installed in the wall panels. There is a smallventilation hole in the inside window
to allow adjustment for pressure differences between theinside and the outside window.
Cabin windows are made of a certain synthetic. The advantages are its extreme clearness andthat is weather proof. A disadvantage of this material is that
it is sensitive to solvents, strippingcompounds, ultraviolet rays and air pollution.
Each window is made with two panes. Each of the two panes can carry the full differential cabin pressure on their own. The panes are made of stretched
acrylic.Near the bottom of the inner pane, at the centre, there is a small vent hole to equalise thepressure between the panes in normal operating
conditions, but is not large enough to causesignificant pressure loss in the event of outer pane damage. It also helps to preventcondensation and
misting between the two panes.
In maintenance areas where fumes of solvents occur, all cabin windows within a radius of 5 mfrom the work spot must be covered. In some types of
aeroplanes (for example, the Boeing 747)the first few cabin windows are attached even more securely to lessen the effects of a possiblebird strike.
Windows are designed to preclude fogging and frosting by means of multiple pane constructionwith intervening cavities essentially isolated from cabin
interior air conditions.
A third pane known as the acoustic pane or scratch pane is a non-structural pane and is installed into the sidewall lining. It is made from polycarbonate.
37
Dummy Window
In areas of the cabin where equipment and furnishings (e.g. galleys and lavatories etc.) are located, cabin dummy windows are installed. This are made of
one layer of aluminium alloy plate.
38
Seats
Passenger seats are attached to seat tracks in the floor, and may be rearranged for differentpassenger configurations by moving the seats forward or aft
on seat tracks. Seat tracks arebeams of special cross section and are bolted to the floor structure. Tracks are provided withcircular cut-outs for seat studs
and lock pins, which lock the seats in position. Cut-outs in thetracks are spaced one inch apart. The seats are triple or double passenger type
Seat retention studs are mounted in the front and rear of each leg. At the rear of each leg is apivoted double retaining stud. Seat retention and locking is
by a spring loaded shear pin locatedat the rear of each leg.
39
Module 9
Aircraft Structure
9.3 Wings
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
2
Introduction
The lift, which produced by the wing, must be transmitted into the structure in such a mannerand in such a location that the aeroplane can be balanced
in every condition of flight and thestructure must be built in such a way that it can support all of the loads without any damagingdeflection.
The wing is mounted on the aeroplane in a location that places its centre of pressure just slightlybehind the point at which all of the weight of the
aeroplane is concentrated, the centre of gravity.
The centre of pressure travel on the wing chord produces some rather large torsional, ortwisting, loads on its structure, especially at the point where the
wing attaches to the fuselage.
In addition to the twisting loads imposed on the structure in flight, the wing is also subjected to bending loads. The weight is essentially concentrated at
the fuselage, but the lift is produced all along the wing. The wing spars, which are the main span-wise members of the structure, are designed to carry
these bending loads.
3
Cantilever and Non-Cantilever
A cantilever wing and a non-cantilever wing. A cantilever wing has noextemalsupports and its structural strength is derived from its internal design. The
advantage of this kindof wing is it eliminates drag caused by wing struts. Its disadvantage is the added weightrequired to give the wing its strength.
4
Truss-type Wing Construction
Fabric-covered aeroplane wings have a truss-type structure that has changed very littlethroughout the evolution of the aeroplane.
The main lengthwise members in a wing truss are the spars. In the past, these were all made of wood, but the more modern construction uses spars of
extruded aluminium alloy.
5
6
Stressed-Skin Wing Construction
In the same manner as the fuselage, wings have generally evolved from the truss form ofconstruction
to one in which the outer skin carries the greatest amount of the stresses.
Semimonocoqueconstruction is generally used for the main portion of the wing.
One of the advantages of an all-metal wing is the ease with which it can be built to carry all ofthe
flight loads within the structure so it does not need any external struts or braces. Such aninternally
braced wing is called a cantilever wing.
This configuration has become standard for transport aircraft, cantilever low wing, with retractable
landing gear. The aerofoil section of a cantilever wing is normally carries the stresses. Semi-
monocoque construction is generally used for the main portion of the wing is quite thick, and the
wing has a strong centre section built into the fuselage. The engines and landing gear attach to this
centre section. Rather than using the familiar two-spar construction, most of these wings are of the
multi-spar construction in which several spars carry the flight loads, and spanwise stiffeners run
between the spars to provide even greater strength.
Wing Torsion Box
It is critical that a wing can resist twisting forces, produced especially by the deflection of ailerons and the deployment of flaps and slats and changes in
angle of attack. Such twisting would change the flight characteristics of the aircraft, and in extreme circumstances, usually at high speed can cause
aileron reversal (a deflection of the aileron causes the wing to twist in the opposite aerodynamic sense, creating lift changes in opposition to that
intended by the pilot).
This can also occur when an aileron goes into dynamic 'flutter' and can lead to 'structuraldivergence' and catastrophic failure of the wing.Consequently,
most modem airliner wings consist of a 'torsion box' (or 'wing box') made up fromthe front and rear spars, and capped by the upper and lower skins.
7
8
9
The four components of this structure are primary structure. Other wing features such as leading edges and trailing edges and their associated devices,
are secondary structure, and often made from a composite material construction.
The wings of an aircraft are designed to lift it into the air.Their particular design for any given aircraft depends on anumber of factors, such as size,
weight, use of the aircraft, desired speed in flight and at landing, and desired rate of climb. The wings of aircraft are designated left and right,
corresponding to the left and right sides of the operator when seated in the cockpit.
Often wings are of full cantilever design. This means they are built so that no external bracing is needed. They are supported internally by structural
members assisted by the skin of the aircraft. Other aircraft wings use external struts or wires to assist in supporting the wing and carrying the
aerodynamic and landing loads. Wing support cables and struts are generally made from steel. Many struts and theirattach fittings have fairings to
reduce drag. Short, nearlyvertical supports called jury struts are found on struts thatattach to the wings a great distance from the fuselage. Thisserves to
subdue strut movement and oscillation caused bythe air flowing around the strut in flight.
The internal structures of most wings are made up of sparsand stringers running spanwise and ribs and formers orbulkheads running chordwise (leading
edge to trailing edge).The spars are the principle structural members of a wing.
They support all distributed loads, as well as concentrated weights such as the fuselage, landing gear, and engines. The skin, which is attached to the
wing structure, carries part of the loads imposed during flight. It also transfers the stresses to the wing ribs. The ribs, in turn, transfer the loads to the
wing spars.
10
In general, wing construction is based on one of threefundamental designs:
1. Monospar
2. Multispar
3. Box beam
Monospar
The monospar wing incorporates only one main longitudinal member in its construction. Ribs orbulkheads supply the necessary contour or shape to the
aerofoil. This kind of construction hasno application in transport category aeroplane wings, but is quit often used for flight controlsurfaces
Multi-Spar
The multi-spar wing incorporates more than one main longitudinal member in its construction.To give the wing contour, ribs or bulkheads are often
included.
Box Beam
The box beam type of wing construction uses two main longitudinal members with connecting bulkheads to furnish additional strength and to give
11
contour to the wing. This is the most used construction design for wings with integral wing tanks.
Due to the critical nature of the spar, usually some form of fail-safe method is used in theirdesign. This usually means the construction is made up of two
halves, each half of the spar web(top and bottom) can carry the entire load by itself, and a crack in one half of the web will notpropagate to the other
half. A crack-stopper is also often employed.
Modification of these basic designs may be adopted byvarious manufacturers.The monospar wing incorporates only one main spanwise orlongitudinal
member in its construction. Ribs or bulkheadssupply the necessary contour or shape to the airfoil. Althoughthe strict monospar wing is not common,
this type of designmodified by the addition of false spars or light shear websalong the trailing edge for support of control surfaces issometimes used.
The multispar wing incorporates more than one mainlongitudinal member in its construction. To give the wingcontour, ribs or bulkheads are often
included.
The box beam type of wing construction uses two mainlongitudinal members with connecting bulkheads tofurnish additional strength and to give
contour to the wing.A corrugated sheet may be placed betweenthe bulkheads and the smooth outer skin so that the wingcan better carry tension and
compression loads. In somecases, heavy longitudinal stiffeners are substituted for thecorrugated sheets. A combination of corrugated sheets onthe
upper surface of the wing and stiffeners on the lower surface is sometimes used. Air transport category aircraft often utilize box beam wing construction.
12
13
14
Wing Spars
The spars are the principle structural members of the wing. The spars support all distributed loads as well as concentrated weights, such as fuselage,
landing gear, and on mUlti-engined aircraft, the nacelles or pylons.
Spars are the principal structural members of the wing. They correspond to the longerons of the fuselage. They run parallel to the lateral axis of the
aircraft, from the fuselage toward the tip of the wing, and are usually attached to the fuselage by wing fittings, plain beams, or a truss.
Spars may be made of metal, wood, or composite materials depending on the design criteria of a specific aircraft. Wooden spars are usually made from
spruce. They can be generally classified into four different types by their crosssectional configuration.
Currently, most manufactured aircraft have wing sparsmade of solid extruded aluminum or aluminum extrusionsriveted together to form the spar. The
increased use ofcomposites and the combining of materials should makeairmen vigilant for wings spars made from a variety ofmaterials.
Most spars are built up from extruded 7075 aluminium alloy sections, with riveted aluminium alloy web sections to provide extra strength. More recent
aircraft have machined spars.
In an I–beam spar, the top and bottom of the I–beam are called the caps and the vertical section is called the web. The entire spar can be extruded from
one piece of metal but often it is built up from multiple extrusions or formed angles. The web forms the principal depth portion of the spar and the cap
strips (extrusions, formed angles, or milled sections) are attached to it. Together, these members carry the loads caused by wing bending, with the caps
15
providing a foundation for attaching the skin. Although the spar shapes in figureare typical, actual wing spar configurations assume many forms. For
example, the web of a spar may be a plate or a truss as shown in figure. It could be built up from light weight materials with vertical stiffeners employed
for strength. Spars usually taper from root to tip, because there is a greater amount of bending moment experienced towards the root whenever the
wing bends.
It could also have no stiffeners but might contain flangedholes for reducing weight but maintaining strength. Somemetal and composite wing spars
retain the I-beam conceptbut use a sine wave web.
Additionally, fail-safe spar web design exists. Fail-safemeans that should one member of a complex structure fail,some other part of the structure
assumes the load of the failedmember and permits continued operation. A spar with failsafeconstruction is shown in figure.
This spar is madein two sections. The top section consists of a cap riveted tothe upper web plate. The lower section is a single extrusionconsisting of the
lower cap and web plate. These two sectionsare spliced together to form the spar. If either section of thistype of spar breaks, the other section can still
carry the load.This is the fail-safe feature.
As a rule, a wing has two spars. One spar is usually locatednear the front of the wing, and the other about two-thirds ofthe distance toward the wing’s
trailing edge. Regardless oftype, the spar is the most important part of the wing. Whenother structural members of the wing are placed under load,most
of the resulting stress is passed on to the wing spar.False spars are commonly used in wing design. They arelongitudinal members like spars but do not
extend the entirespanwise length of the wing. Often, they are used as hingeattach points for control surfaces, such as an aileron spar.
16
Wing Spar Layout Configurations
Most manufacturers use a similar spar layout construction.Some use a third (middle spar), sometimes called an auxiliary spar, to help carry the
extrabending moments at the root and the engine and landing gear loads.
Loads on the Wing Spar
A wing spar is subject to two loads; shear force and bending moment.
The loads applied to a wing in flight and during landing are complex, but can be simplified to alift load during flight, decreasing from root to tip due to
the decreasing wing section andsometimes a twist is applied to the wing also (washout). This results in a decreasing shear force and bending moment.
For both load types, the maximum is at the wing root.
17
18
The inclusion of fuel tanks, wing mounted engines and wing mounting landing gear will modifythe diagrams considerably, with all those factors actually
providing shear force and bendingmoment relief at the wing root during flight, but will aggravate the root loads on landing. Finalaircraft design
configuration is a compromise as a result.
Separating the wing tanks into multiple compartments will increase the bending moment relief even further as shown in figure.
When a wing flexes upwards (known as 'sagging' due to the shape made when both wings areviewed from the front) the top surface goes into
compression and the bottom surface goes intocompression. The two surfaces also compress together, a load which must be withstood by thewing ribs.
The positions of the tensile and compressive loads are reversed when the momentthe aircraft is touching down on landing and also during taxiing.
Approximately halfway between the upper and lower surface of the wing (known as the 'neutralaxis), the structure is under no bending induced loads
whatsoever. The only load taken at thatpoint is shear load.
19
Consequently, the ideal cross section of a wing spar is onewhich has most of its material at the upper and lowerextremities, such as the'I' section.Such a
wing spar is comprised of three components; theshear web, which takes only the shear load, and the upperand lower books (or 'spar caps') which takes
thecompressive and tensile forces caused by the bendingmoment.
Wing Ribs
Ribs are the structural crosspieces that make up the framework of the wing. They usuallyextend from the wing leading edge to the rear spar or to the
trailing edge of the wing and givesthe aerofoil shape.
The ribs give the wingits cambered shape and transmit the load from the skin andstringers to the spars. Similar ribs are also used in ailerons,elevators,
rudders, and stabilizers.
They maintain the correct contour of the cross section of the wing, and withstand thecompressive force experienced between the upper and lower skins
when the wing bends up or down in fligh/landing.
A short rib, known as a false rib, is often placed between the main ribs at the leading edge, toincrease the strength at that part of the wing which is
vulnerable to bird strikes etc.Wing ribs may be pressed from sheet aluminium alloy in a hydropress, or they may be built up of sheet metal channels and
hat sections riveted to the skin to give it both the shape and rigidity it needs.
Wing ribs are usually manufactured from either wood ormetal. Aircraft with wood wing spars may have wood ormetal ribs while most aircraft with metal
spars have metalribs. Wood ribs are usually manufactured from spruce. Thethree most common types of wooden ribs are the plywoodweb, the
lightened plywood web, and the truss types. Of thesethree, the truss type is the most efficient because it is strongand lightweight, but it is also the most
complex to construct.
20
Figure hows wood truss web ribs and a lightenedplywood web rib. Wood ribs have a rib cap or cap stripfastened around the entire perimeter of the rib. It
is usually made of the same material as the rib itself. The rib cap stiffens and strengthens the rib and provides an attaching surface for the wing covering.
In Figure “A”, the cross-section of a wing rib with a truss-type web is illustrated. The dark rectangular sections are the front and rear wing spars. Note that
to reinforce the truss, gussets are used. In Figure “B”, a truss web rib is shown with a continuous gusset. It provides greater support throughout the entire
rib with very little additionalweight. A continuous gusset stiffens the cap strip in the planeof the rib. This aids in preventing buckling and helps to
obtainbetter rib/skin joints where nail-gluing is used. Such a rib can resist the driving force of nails better than the other types.
Continuous gussets are also more easily handled than the manysmall separate gussets otherwise required. Figure “C”shows a rib with a lighten plywood
web. It also contains gussets to support the web/cap strip interface. The cap strip is usually laminated to the web, especially at the leading edge.
A wing rib may also be referred to as a plain rib or a main rib. Wing ribs with specialized locations or functions are given names that reflect their
uniqueness. For example, ribs that are located entirely forward of the front spar that are used to shape and strengthen the wing leading edge are called
nose ribs or false ribs. False ribs are ribs that do not span the entire wing chord, which is the distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the
wing. Wing butt ribs may be found at the inboard edge of the wing where the wing attaches to the fuselage. Depending on its location and method of
attachment, a butt rib may also be called a bulkhead rib or a compression rib if it is designed to receive compression loads that tend to force the wing
spars together.
21
Since the ribs are laterally weak, they are strengthened in some wings by tapes that are woven above and below rib sections to prevent sidewise
bending of the ribs. Drag and anti-drag wires may also be found in a wing. In figure, they are shown crisscrossed between the spars to form a truss to
resist forces acting on the wing in the direction of the wing chord.
These tension wires are also referred to as tie rods. The wire designed to resist the backward forces is called a drag wire; the anti-drag wire resists the
forward forces in the chord direction. As shown on figure illustrates the structural components of a basic wood wing.
At the inboard end of the wing spars is some form of wing attach fitting as illustrated in Figure. These provide a strong and secure method for attaching
the wing to the fuselage. The interface between the wing and fuselage is often covered with a fairing to achieve smooth airflow in this area. The fairing(s)
can be removed for access to the wing attach fittings.
22
23
The wing tip is often a removable unit, bolted to the outboard end of the wing panel. One reason for this is the vulnerability of the wing tips to damage,
especially during ground handling and taxiing. Figure shows a removable wing tip for a large aircraft wing. Others are different. The wing tip assembly is
of aluminum alloy construction. The wing tip cap is secured to the tip with countersunk screws and is secured to the interspar structure at four points
with ¼-inch diameter bolts.
24
To prevent ice from forming on the leading edge of the wings of large aircraft, hot air from an engine is often channeled through the leading edge from
wing root to wing tip. A louver on the top surface of the wingtip allows this warm air to be exhausted overboard. Wing position lights are located at the
center of the tip and are not directly visible from the cockpit. As an indication that the wing tip light is operating, some wing tips are equipped ;with a
Lucite rod to transmit the light to the leading edge.
Wing Skin
The skin is part of the wing structure and carries part of the wing stresses. It is an essential loadbearing part of the wing structure. The upper wing surface
is usually made from aluminium alloy7075; this material has a high resistance to compression loads. The lower wing surface isusually made from
aluminium alloy 2024 as this material has excellent properties that withstandtension loads.
As airspeeds increased with their higher flight

loads, it became apparent that not only was
more strength needed for the skins of all-metal
wings, but more stiffness was also needed. And
to gain the strength and stiffness needed and
yet keep the weight down, at first the
manufacturers of some of the high-speed
military aircraft begin the construction of wing
skins with thick slabs of aluminium alloy. Then
they machine away some of the thickness but
leaves enough material in the proper places to
provide just exactly the strength and stiffness
needed.
Often, the skin on a wing is designed to carry part of the flight and ground loads in combination with the spars and ribs. This is known as a stressed-skin
design. The all-metal, full cantilever wing section illustrated in figure shows the structure of one such design. The lack of extra internal or external bracing
25
requires that the skin share some of the load. Notice the skin is stiffened to aid with this function.
To provide some fail-safe effect, the wing skins are fitted in 'planks' as shown in figure.A crack which starts in one crack will not normally propagate to
the adjacent plank, thusproviding more time for the crack to be found during the routine inspection programme of theaircraft.Fewer planks are required
on the top skin due to that fact that it is in compression most of thetime, and cracks are normally initiated by tensile cyclic loads.
Fuel is often carried inside the wings of a stressed-skinaircraft. The joints in the wing can be sealed with a specialfuel resistant sealant enabling fuel to be
stored directly insidethe structure. This is known as wet wing design. Alternately,a fuel-carrying bladder or tank can be fitted inside a wing.
Figureshows a wing section with a box beam structuraldesign such as one that might be found in a transport categoryaircraft. This structure increases
strength while reducingweight. Proper sealing of the structure allows fuel to be storedin the box sections of the wing.The wing skin on an aircraft may
be made from a wide varietyof materials such as fabric, wood, or aluminum. But a singlethin sheet of material is not always employed. Chemicallymilled
aluminum skin can provide skin of varied thicknesses.
On aircraft with stressed-skin wing design, honeycombstructured wing panels are often used as skin. A honeycombstructure is built up from a core
material resembling a beehive’s honeycomb which is laminated or sandwiched betweenthin outer skin sheets. Figure illustrates honeycombpanes and
their components. Panels formed like this arelightweight and very strong. They have a variety of useson the aircraft, such as floor panels, bulkheads, and
controlsurfaces, as well as wing skin panels. Figure shows thelocations of honeycomb construction wing panels on a jettransport aircraft.
26
27
A honeycomb panel can be made from a wide variety ofmaterials. Aluminum core honeycomb with an outer skin ofaluminum is common. But
honeycomb in which the core isan Arimid® fiber and the outer sheets are coated Phenolic®is common as well. In fact, a myriad of other
materialcombinations such as those using fiberglass, plastic, Nomex®, Kevlar®, and carbon fiber all exist. Each honeycomb structure possesses unique
characteristics depending upon the materials, dimensions, and manufacturing techniques employed. Figure shows an entire wing leading edge formed
from honeycomb structure.
28
29
30
Wing Attached Components
Leading and Trailing Edge Assemblies
Wing leading edge and trailing edge structures present a particular structural problem in thatthey do not flex at the same rate as the wing torsion box.
This means that their attachmentpoints can create a stress point, leading to a crack in the spar caps.Several methods are used to overcome this, which
include 'floating attachments' such as pianohinges, sacrificial doublers and corrugated strips (wiggle plates) as shown in figure.
31
32
33
For certain types of aircraft with engines attached to the wings, the wing also has a centre sparthat continues to beyond the outside engine pylon. The
connection to the main landing gearrequires an extra heavy construction.This consists of one or more auxiliary spars, that are connected to the rear spar
and sometimesgoes from the left side to the right side.Flap/slat tracks or hinges and flight control surfaces are bolted to the spars or reinforced ribs.
34
Landing Gear Attachment
The wing support structure for the landing gear has to be strengthened in order to accommodate the landing gear loads. The front trunion of the
landing gear can be attached to the rear spar of the wing. If the landing gear is attached in this manner, a support structure for the landing gear rear
trunion will be necessary; this may be a gear wing beam or may be an extra wing spar. This spar is called a false spar.
35
Wing Engine Pylon Attachment
Generally, there are three methods of wing pylon attachment:
• Drag strut installation
• Box beam installation
• Upper support arm installation
Drag Strut Installation
The wing pylon structure as illustrated in figureis a cantilever box beam consisting of twoupper and two lower longerons. Two side skins transmit the
vertical shears and a lower skinprimarily carries the lateral shear loads and also acts as a firewall. Forward and aft mountbulkheads are included to
transfer the engine loads to the pylon structure and the bulkheadstake the pylon loads onto the wing box structure via lug attachments to the wing
front spar of thepylon upper longerons and utilizes a rear drag strut to transfer the pylon lower longeron loads toa point between the wing front and
rear spars.
36
Box Beam Installation
In figure the pylon box beam design, which is to extend the box structure beyond the wingfront spar fitting and ends at the aft pylon fitting, which is
attached between the wing front andrear spars. This design puts more weight on the pylon, but saves weight on the wing box andminimizes some
potential fatigue problems at the wing lower surface.
The pylon is attached to the wing, through a fitting on the wing front spar for vertical and sideloads, to a fitting beneath the front spar on the wing lower
surface for thrust loads, and to afitting attached to wing box structure on the wing lower surface at the end of the pylon forvertical and side bending
loads.
Upper Support Arm Installation
37
This type of structure offers advantages such as:
• It is the most efficient structure to react the moment loads due to the overhanging engine; the moment arm A-D is obviously greater than A-B and,
therefore, a lighter structure is achieved.
• The most efficient configuration transfers the engine moment loads into the wing box structure and therefore further weight saving is obtained.
• This benefits the design of engine position closer to the wing lower surface for the purpose of engine-to-ground clearance.
• It inherently has the structural fail-safe feature due to the redundant design.
• The engine position can be located further forward without severe structural weight penalty.
The disadvantages are:
• Complicated structural analysis due to its redundant design.
• More rigging problems to ensure the proper structural load distributions.
• Interference with wing leading edge control systems such as control cables, rods, hydraulic tubes, heating ducts for de-icing, etc.
Flight Control to Wing Attachment
Figure shows an aileron hinge fitting. This fitting is machined from aluminium alloy and is bolted to the rear spar of the wing. The fitting has a bushing to
accommodate the nut and bolt assembly that passes through a bearing on the aileron hinge. The ailerons are usually hinged at three places.
Storage of Fuel
Wings and in some cases also the horizontal stabilizer, are used for the storage of fuel. Thearea between the front spars and the rear spars is used.
Various constructions are possible.
The viscosity of the fuel used and the safety requirements that are set for the storage of the fuelrequire good sealing.
One problem when sealing is that wings and tail surfaces are constantly moving in flight. In anintegral tank construction, the area between spars, ribs,
38
upper and lower skin panels is completely sealed off by rivets and all seams are closed with sealant so that no fuel can leak through.
39
40
The ribs forming the ends of fuel tanks differ from other ribs in that their webs extend to join theinside surfaces of the wing skin panels between the
stringers.
The wing ribs in the integral tanks act as baffle plates to prevent excessive fuel surges. Some of the wing ribs contain a series of baffle check valves to
prevent fuel flow away from the fuel boost pumps.
Access to some of the equipment located inside the fuel tanks is not directly possible throughthe fuel tank access panels. To obtain access to this
equipment, personnel must enter the tankthrough the nearest access panel and go through rib access openings into the areas betweenribs where no
access panel is provided
41
42
Module 9
Aircraft Structure
9.4 Stabilizers
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
2
Introduction
General Arrangement
The empennage of an aeroplane is the assembly of tail surfaces that are used both for controland for stability. Regardless of their location or
configuration, they serve the same functions.Longitudinal stability and control are provided by the horizontal surfaces, while directionalstability and
control are provided by vertical surfaces. The location of the horizontal tail surfaces must be taken into consideration because of the turbulence
produced by the airflow over the wings. Some aeroplanes have these surfaces located quite low on the fuselage.
A number of modem aeroplanes use the T-tail configuration. The horizontal tail surfaces
aremounted on top of the vertical surfaces. This keeps them out of the turbulence caused
by thewing and prevents the rudder being blanketed by the horizontal surfaces and losing
itseffectiveness in a spin.
The stabilizers usually are two or multispar structures.As far as the construction is
concerned, the wings, the stabilizers and the vertical stabilizers have much in common.
The vertical stabilizer is normally bolted to the top centre of special reinforced frames of the
tailfuselage section. The vertical fin is bolted to fitting-brackets to facilitate removal and
installation.
On modern aircraft such the Airbus A320 primary structural components of the
stabilizers(spars, ribs and skin panels) are made of laminations of Carbon Fibre Reinforced
Plastic(CFRP). All other components are made of the same material or Glass-Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) or of light alloy.
The trimmable horizontal stabilizer (THS) is a single-piece structure mounted through, andsupported by the fuselage tail section. The horizontal
stabilizer provides the supporting structurefor the LH and the RH elevator. The angle of incidence of the THS can be mechanicallyadjusted by means of a
trim control wheel located in the flight compartment. The THS isinstalled at the tail section in a large cut-out, and is attached to the fuselage at three
points, by the THS actuator and by the two hinge points on either side of the fuselage.
3
4
The correct name for the tail section of an airplane isempennage. The empennage includes the entire tailgroup, consisting of fixed surfaces such as the
verticalstabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer. The movable surfacesinclude the rudder, the elevator, and one or moretrim tabs.
A second type of empennage design does not requirean elevator. Instead, it

incorporates a one-piece horizontalstabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point.This
type of design is called a stabilator, and is movedusing the control wheel, just as you
would the elevator.
For example, when you pull back on the controlwheel, the stabilator pivots so the
trailing edge movesup. This increases the aerodynamic tail load andcauses the nose of
the airplane to move up. Stabilatorshave an antiservo tab extending across their
trailingedge.
The antiservo tab moves in the same direction as thetrailing edge of the stabilator. The
antiservo tab alsofunctions as a trim tab to relieve control pressures andhelps maintain
the stabilator in the desired position.
The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical stabilizer.During flight, it is used to
move the airplane’snose left and right. The rudder is used in combinationwith the
ailerons for turns during flight. The elevator,which is attached to the back of the
horizontal stabilizer,is used to move the nose of the airplane up anddown during flight.
Trim tabs are small, movable portions of the trailingedge of the control surface. These
movable trim tabs,which are controlled from the cockpit, reduce controlpressures. Trim tabs may be installed on the ailerons,the rudder, and/or the
elevator.
The stablisers are of fail-safe, multiple load path, all metal cantilever construction. Teh vertical stabilizer consists mainly of a four-spar box assembly with
chordwise ribs and endribs. The horizontal stabilizer is mounted at the top of the vertical stabilizers and each horizontal stabilizer section consists of a
main frame, detachable leading edge section and tip, adn a trailing edge section incorporating the elevators shrouds. The main frame is built in the from
of a two-spar torsion box.
5
The rudder and elevators each consists of a front and rear spar with chordwise ribs covered by honeycomb skin panels. Each elevator is attached to the
rear of the horizontal stabilizer at three hinge positions.
Horizontal stabilizer pivot.
The horizontal stbilizer pivots around two large bosses of a bracket at the top rear corner of the vertical stabilizer. Two lugs, which are integral with the
structure of the horizontal stabilizer fitt over the outside of the bosses.
6
An aircraft stabilizer is an aerodynamic surface, typically including one or more movable control surfaces, that provides longitudinal (pitch) and/or
directional (yaw) stability and control. A stabilizer can feature a fixed or adjustable structure on which any movable control surfaces are hinged, or it can
itself be a fully movable surface such as a stabilator. Depending on the context, "stabilizer" may sometimes describe only the front part of the overall
surface.
In the conventional aircraft configuration, separate vertical (fin) and horizontal (tailplane) stabilizers form an empennage positioned at the tail of the
aircraft. Other arrangements of the empennage, such as the V-tail configuration, feature stabilizers which contribute to a combination of longitudinal
and directional stabilization and control.
In aircraft, a V-tail (sometimes called a Butterfly tail or spelled Vee-tail) is an unconventional arrangement of the tail control surfaces that replaces the
traditional fin and horizontal surfaces with two surfaces set in a V-shaped configuration when viewed from the front or rear of the aircraft. The rear of
each surface is hinged, and these movable sections, sometimes called ruddervators, combine the tasks of the elevators and rudder.
The V-tail design utilizes two slanted tail surfaces toperform the same functions as the surfaces of a conventionalelevator and rudder configuration. The
fixedsurfaces act as both horizontal and vertical stabilizers
Longitudinal stability and control may be obtained with other wing configurations, including canard, tandem wing and tailless aircraft.The term canard
refers to a control surface thatfunctions as a horizontal stabilizer but is located infront of the main wings. The term also is used todescribe an airplane
equipped with a canard. In effect,it is an airfoil similar to the horizontal surface ona conventional aft-tail design. The difference is that thecanard actually
creates lift and holds the nose up, asopposed to the aft-tail design which exerts downwardforce on the tail to prevent the nose from rotatingdownward.
Some types of aircraft are stabilized with electronic flight control; in this case, fixed and movable surfaces located anywhere along the aircraft may serve
as active motion dampers or stabilizers.
A longitudinal stabilizer is used to maintain the aircraft in longitudinal balance, or trim: it exerts a vertical force at a distance so that the summation of
pitch moments about the center of gravity is zero. The vertical force exerted by the stabilizer to this effect varies with flight conditions, in particular
according to the aircraft lift coefficient and wing flaps deflection which both affect the position of the center of lift, and with the position of the aircraft
center of gravity (which changes with aircraft loading). Transonic flight makes special demands on horizontal stabilizers, since the crossing of the sound
barrier is associated with a sudden move aft of the center of lift.
7
Another role of a longitudinal stabilizer is to provide longitudinal static stability. Stability can be defined only when the vehicle is in trim; it refers to the
tendency of the aircraft to return to the trimmed condition if it is disturbed. This maintains a constant aircraft attitude, with unchanging pitch angle
relative to the airstream, without active input from the pilot. Since obtaining static stability often requires that the aircraft center of gravity be ahead of
the center of lift of a conventional wing, a stabilizer positioned aft of the wing is then often required to produce negative lift.
The elevators serve to control the pitch axis; in case of a fully movable tail, the entire assembly acts as a control surface.
The THS comprises of a centre spar box, the LH and RH spar boxes, the LH and RH leading edges, the LH and RH trailing edges, the LH and RH stabilizer
tips, the LH and RH stabilizer aprons and the stabilizer attach fittings. The main structural component of the THS is the stabilizer spar box, and all loads
on the horizontal stabilizer are transmitted through the centre spar box and its attachment fittings. The THS can be removed as a complete unit. The
elevators and rudders are hinged to brackets bolted to the rear spar of the stabilizers.
8
9
10
A typical conventional elevator control system is operated by thecontrol stick in the cockpit, and is hydraulically poweredby the elevator power
mechanism.
The operation of the elevator control system isinitiated when the control stick is moved fore or aft.When the stick is moved, it actuates the control
cablesthat move the elevator control bell crank. The bell cranktransmits the movement to the power mechanismthrough the control linkage. In turn, the
powermechanism actuates a push-pull tube, which deflects theelevators up or down. If the hydraulic system fails, thecylinder can be disconnected. In
this condition thecontrols work manually through the linkage of themechanism to actuate the elevators.
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER CONTROLSYSTEM.
Horizontal stabilizer control systems aregiven a variety of names by the various aircraftmanufacturers. Some aircraft systems are defined as unit
horizontal tail (UHT) control systems, while othersare labeled the stabilator control system. Regardless ofthe name, these systems function to control the
aircraftpitch about its lateral axis.
The horizontal stabilizer control system of theaircraft is representative of thesystems used in many aircraft. The slab-type stabilizerresponds to fore-and-
aft manual inputs at the controlstick and to automatic flight control system inputsintroduced at the stabilizer actuator. The actuator canoperate in three
modes: manual, series, or parallel.
Manual Mode
In this mode, pilot input alone controls the power valveInputs are transmitted through linkage to the mechanical input lever. The auxiliary lever is linked
in neutral by the servo ram centering springs, causing the mechanical input lever to rotate about its pivot point, moving the power shuttle valve. As the
valve shuttle is displaced from neutral, a valve error is established, and pressure is ported to the actuating pistons. The pressure moves the pistons and
the attached stabilizer in proportion to the input.
A mechanical feedback is transmitted through the differentiating lever, the load-relief bungee, and the mechanical input lever back to the power valve
shuttle, causing it to return to the neutral position.
For a constant velocity pilot input, a small constant valve error is established, and the stabilizer moves at a constant speed. When the pilot input stops,
the power shuttle valve is returned to neutral, and the stabilizer stops until a new input is introduced
11
Series Mode
In this mode, input signals from the automatic flight control system (AFCS) may be used independently or combined with manual inputs to control
stabilizer movement.
The series mode solenoid valve is energized, porting flight system hydraulic pressure to the electrohydraulic servo valve. Input signals from the AFCS
amplifier are applied to the coils of a torque motor in the servo valve, regulating flow from the valve to the servo ram.
The servo ram is connected to the auxiliary lever. Movement of the lever moves the mechanical input lever floating-pivot point. This movement causes
mechanical input lever rotation about the manual input point and moves the power shuttle valve, causing a valve error.
A linear transduces, mounted on the servo ram center line, and provides electrical feedback signals to the AFCS. Mechanical feedback is provided by the
differentiating lever, as in the manual mode. When operating in the series mode, control surface displacement is not reflected at the control stick
Parallel Mode
In this mode, input signals from the AFCS alone control stabilizer movement by input signals from the AFCS alone. Both series and parallel mode
solenoid valves are energized. Flight system pressure is ported to the electrohydraulic servo valve and the mechanical input lockout piston. Fluid
pressure stabilizes the lockout piston and holds the mechanical input lever. The transducer mounted on the servo ram provides an electrical signal
feedback to the AFCS.
There is no mechanical feedback, since the mechanical input is locked. Additional electrical signal feedback is provided by a transducer, which is
mechanically linked to the stabilizer actuating arm. In the parallel mode, the control stick follows the motion of the stabilizer. Should the pilot desire to
override the AFCS, he/she can overpower the lockout actuator with a stick force of 24 pounds.
Stop bolts are attached to the control stick pedal to limit fore-and-aft stick movement. The eddycurrent damper dampens out any rapid fore-and-aftstick
movement. All joints between the pushrods and bell cranks or idlers contain self-aligning bearings to compensate for any misalignment during
operation and airframe deflections in flight that might cause binding.
Artificial feel is provided by the artificial-feel bungee. The bungee consists of two springs, which have different spring constants. The stick force caused
by the bungee is proportional to stick displacement. At near neutral, the bungee provides a high stick force that decreases a short distance from neutral
and gradually increases with the amount of stick displacement. The electric trim actuator is mechanically linked to the artificial-feel bungee, and varies
12
the neutral position of the bungee to provide longitudinal trim of the aircraft. The actuator consists of one high-speed and one low-speed motor, a
gearbox, a brake, a ball detent clutch, and a threaded power screw. The actuator is manually controlled through inputs from the trim switch on the
control stick grip. When the stabilizer is in automatic trim, the actuator receives inputs from the AFCS. High speed is used during manual trim, and low
speed during automatic trim.
Directional Control Systems
Directional control systems provide a means of controlling and stabilizing the aircraft about its vertical axis. Most aircraft use conventional rudder control
systems for this purpose. The rudder control system is operated by the rudder pedals in the cockpit, and is powered hydraulically through the power
mechanism. In the event of hydraulic power failure, the hydraulic portion of the system is bypassed, and the system is powered mechanically through
control cables and linkage. When the pilot depresses the rudder pedals, the control cables move a cable sector assembly. The cable sector, through a
push-pull tube and linkage, actuates the power mechanism and causes deflection of the rudder to the left or right.
RUDDER CONTROL (YAW AXIS).
Rudder control, which affects the yaw axis, is provided by way of the rudder pedals. Rudder pedal movement is mechanically transferred to the left and
right rudder servo cylinders by the rudder feel assembly, the yaw summing network, and a reversing network.
Various aircraft manufacturers identify the horizontal stabilizer control system by different names. On one aircraft, it is called a unit horizontal tail (UHT)
control system. On another aircraft, it is called the stabilizer control system. Regardless of the variation in nomenclature, these systems function to
control the aircraft pitch about its lateral.
Pilot signals are conveyed through bell cranks and pushrods and a trim mechanism to the input linkage of the stabilizer actuator. A trim switch on the
control stick grip provides a means of setting stabilizer trim. Stabilizer trim is displayed by the stabilizer trim indicator located on the pilot’s lower
instrument panel.
13
Module 9
Aircraft Structure
9.5 Flight Control Surfaces
Category A1.4 Copyright by GMF Learning services
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
2
General Features
The Monocoque construction form is often used for the control surfaces. Considering theprimary flight controls, the elevator normally consists of a spar,
ribs and skinning panels. Whilethe rudder and aileron normally consists of a spar, honeycomb core and skinning panels.
Actuators and hinge brackets on all primary control are normally attached to the spar.Static dischargers are installed near the tip of the trailing edge.
They let static electricity discharge from the aircraft.
Aircraft flight control systems are classified as primary and secondary. The primary control systems consist of those that are required to safely control an
airplane during flight. These include the ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder. Secondary control systems improve the performance characteristics
of the airplane, or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces. Examples of secondary control systems are wing flaps and trim systems.
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

Airplane control systems are carefully designed to provide a
natural feel, and at the same time, allowadequate
responsiveness to control inputs. At low airspeeds, the controls
usually feel soft and sluggish,and the airplane responds slowly
to control applications.At high speeds, the controls feel firm
and the responseis more rapid.
Movement of any of the three primary flight controlsurfaces

changes the airflow and pressure distributionover and around
the airfoil. These changes affect thelift and drag produced by
the airfoil/control surfacecombination, and allow a pilot to
control the airplaneabout its three axes of rotation.
3
Design features limit the amount of deflection of flight control surfaces. For
example, control-stop mechanisms may be incorporated into the flight
controls, or movement of the control column and/or rudder pedals may be
limited. The purpose of these design limits is to prevent the pilot from
inadvertently overcontrolling and overstressing the aircraft during normal
maneuvers.
A properly designed airplane should be stable andeasily controlled during

maneuvering. Control surfaceinputs cause movement about the three axes of
rotation.The types of stability an airplane exhibits alsorelate to the three axes
of rotation.
AILERONS
Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. Theailerons are attached to
the outboard trailing edge ofeach wing and move in the opposite
directionfrom each other. Ailerons are connected by cables,bellcranks, pulleys
or push-pull tubes to each otherand to the control wheel.
Moving the control wheel to the right causes the rightaileron to deflect
upward and the left aileron to deflectdownward. The upward deflection of the
right ailerondecreases the camber resulting in decreased lift on theright wing.
The corresponding downward deflection ofthe left aileron increases the
camber resulting inincreased lift on the left wing. Thus, the increased lifton the
left wing and the decreased lift on the right wingcauses the airplane to roll to the right.
ADVERSE YAW
Since the downward deflected aileron produces morelift, it also produces more drag. This added drag attempts to yaw the airplane’s nose in the
direction of the raised wing. This is called adverse yaw.
4
The rudder is used to counteract adverse yaw, and the amount of rudder
control required is greatest at low airspeeds, high angles of attack, and with
large aileron deflections. However, with lower airspeeds, the vertical
stabilizer/rudder combination becomes less effective, and magnifies the
control problems associated with adverse yaw.
All turns are coordinated by use of ailerons, rudder, and elevator. Applying
aileron pressure is necessary to place the airplane in the desired angle of
bank, while simultaneously applying rudder pressure to counteract the
resultant adverse yaw. During a turn, the angle of attack must be increased
by applying elevator pressure because more lift is required than when in
straight-andlevel flight. The steeper the turn, the more back elevator
pressure is needed.
As the desired angle of bank is established, aileron and rudder pressures should be relaxed. This will stop the bank from increasing because the aileron
and rudder control surfaces will be neutral in their streamlined position. Elevator pressure should be held constant to maintain a constant altitude.
The rollout from a turn is similar to the roll-in exceptthe flight controls are applied in the opposite direction.Aileron and rudder are applied in the
direction of therollout or toward the high wing. As the angle of bankdecreases, the elevator pressure should be relaxed asnecessary to maintain altitude.
DIFFERENTIAL AILERONS
With differential ailerons, one aileron is raised a greater distance than the other aileron is lowered for a given movement of the control wheel. This
produces an increase in drag on the descending wing. The greater drag results from deflecting the up aileron onthe descending wing to a greater angle
than the downaileron on the rising wing. While adverse yaw is reduced, it is not eliminated completely.
FRISE-TYPE AILERONS
With a Frise-type aileron, when pressure is applied tothe control wheel, the aileron that is being raised pivotson an offset hinge. This projects the leading
edge of the aileron into the airflow and creates drag. This helps equalize the drag created by the lowered aileron on the opposite wing and reduces
5
adverse yaw.
The Frise-type aileron also forms a slot so that air flows smoothly over the
lowered aileron, making it more effective at high angles of attack. Frise-
type ailerons also may be designed to function differentially. Like the
differential aileron, the Frise-type aileron does not eliminate adverse yaw
entirely. Coordinated rudder application is still needed wherever ailerons
are applied.
COUPLED AILERONS AND RUDDER
Coupled ailerons and rudder means these controls arelinked. This is

accomplished with rudder-aileroninterconnect springs, which help correct
for ailerondrag by automatically deflecting the rudder at the sametime the
ailerons are deflected. For example, when thecontrol yoke is moved to
produce a left roll, theinterconnect cable and spring pulls forward on the
leftrudder pedal just enough to prevent the nose of theairplane from yawing
to the right. The force applied tothe rudder by the springs can be overridden
if itbecomes necessary to slip the airplane.
6
ELEVATOR
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Likethe ailerons on
small airplanes, the elevator isconnected to the control column in the
cockpit by a series of mechanical linkages. Aft movement of the control
column deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface up. This is
usually referred to as up elevator.
The up-elevator position decreases the camber of the elevator and

creates a downward aerodynamic force, which is greater than the
normal tail-down force that exists in straight-and-level flight. The overall
effect causes the tail of the airplane to move down and the nose to pitch
up. The pitching moment occurs about the center of gravity (CG). The
strength of the pitching moment is determined by the distance
between the CG and the horizontal tail surface, as well as by the
aerodynamic effectiveness of the horizontal tail surface.
Moving the control column forward has the opposite effect. In this case,
elevator camber increases, creating more lift (less tail-down force) on
the horizontal stabilizer/elevator. This moves the tail upward and itches
the nose down. Again, the pitching moment occurs about the CG.
As mentioned earlier in the coverage on stability, power, thrustline, and

the position of the horizontal tail surfaces on the empennage are factors
in how effective the elevator is in controlling pitch. For example, the
horizontal tail surfaces may be attached near the lower part of the
vertical stabilizer, at the midpoint, or at the high point, as in the T-tail
7
design.
T-TAIL
In a T-tail configuration, the elevator is above most of the effects of downwash from the propeller as well as airflow around the fuselage and/or wings
during normal flight conditions. Operation of the elevators in this undisturbed air makes for control movements that are consistent throughout most
flight regimes. T-tail designs have become popular on many light airplanes and on large aircraft, especially those with aft-fuselage mounted engines
since the T-tail configuration removes the tail from the exhaust blast of the engines. Seaplanes and amphibians often have T-tails in order to keep the
horizontal surfaces as far from the water as possible.
An additional benefit is reduced vibration and noise inside the aircraft. At slow speeds, the elevator on a T-tail aircraft must be moved through a larger
number of degrees of travel to raise the nose a given amount as compared to a conventional-tail aircraft. This is because theconventional-tail aircraft has
the downwash from thepropeller pushing down on the tail to assist in raisingthe nose. Since controls on aircraft are rigged in such amanner as to require
increasing control forces forincreased control travel, the forces required to raise thenose of a T-tail aircraft are greater than for aconventional-tail aircraft.
Longitudinal stability of atrimmed aircraft is the same for both types of

configuration, but the pilot must be aware that at slow speeds during
takeoffs and landings or stalls, the control forces will be greater than
for similar size airplanes equipped with conventional tails.
T-tail airplanes also require additional designconsiderations to counter

the problem of flutter. Sincethe weight of the horizontal surfaces is at
the top of thevertical stabilizer, the moment arm created causes
highloads on the vertical stabilizer which can result influtter. Engineers
must compensate for this byincreasing the design stiffness of the
vertical stabilizer,usually resulting in a weight penalty over conventionaltail designs.
When flying at a very high angle of attack with a lowairspeed and an aft CG, the T-tail airplane may besusceptible to a deep stall. In a deep stall, the
airflowover the horizontal tail is blanketed by the disturbedairflow from the wings and fuselage. In thesecircumstances, elevator or stabilator control
8
could bediminished, making it difficult to recover from thestall. It should be noted that an aft CG couldbe a contributing factor in these incidents
sincesimilar recovery problems are also found with conventional-tail aircraft with an aft CG.
Since flight at a high angle of attack with a lowairspeed and an aft CG position can be dangerous,many airplanes have systems to compensate for
thissituation. The systems range from control stops toelevator down springs. An elevator down spring assistsin lowering the nose to prevent a stall
caused by the aftCG position.
The stall occurs because the properlytrimmed airplane is flying with the elevator in a trailingedge down position, forcing the tail up and the nosedown.
In this unstable condition, if the airplaneencounters turbulence and slows down further, the trim tab no longer positions the elevator in the nose-down
position. The elevator then streamlines, and the nose of the aircraft pitches upward. This aggravates the situation and can possibly result in a stall.
The elevator down spring produces a mechanical load on the elevator,

causing it to move toward the nosedown position if not otherwise
balanced. The elevator trim tab balances the elevator down spring to
position the elevator in a trimmed position. When the trim tab becomes
ineffective, the down spring drives the elevator to a nose down position.
The nose of the aircraft lowers, speed builds up, and a stall is prevented.
The elevator must also have sufficient authority to hold the nose of the
airplane up during the roundout for a landing. In this case, a forward CG
may cause a problem. During the landing flare, power normally is
reduced, which decreases the airflow over the empennage. This, coupled
with the reduced landing speed, makes the elevator less effective.
From this discussion, it should be apparent that pilots must understand and follow proper loading procedures, particularly with regard to the CG
position.
Antiservo tabs are incorporated on the trailing edge todecrease sensitivity. In addition, a balance weight isusually incorporated ahead of the main spar.
Thebalance weight may project into the empennage or maybe incorporated on the forward portion of thestabilator tips.When the control column is
pulled back, it raises thestabilator’s trailing edge, rotating the airplane’s noseup. Pushing the control column forward lowers thetrailing edge of the
9
stabilator and pitches the nose ofthe airplane down. Without an antiservo tab, theairplane would be prone to overcontrolling from pilot-induced control
inputs.
RUDDER
The rudder controls movement of the airplane about itsvertical axis. This motion is called yaw. Like theother primary control surfaces, the rudder is
amovable surface hinged to a fixed surface, in thiscase, to the vertical stabilizer, or fin. Moving theleft or right rudder pedal controls the rudder.When the
rudder is deflected into the airflow, ahorizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction.
By pushing the left pedal, the rudder moves left. Thisalters the airflow around the vertical stabilizer/rudder,and creates a sideward lift that moves the tail
to theright and yaws the nose of the airplane to the left.Rudder effectiveness increases with speed, so largedeflections at low speeds and small
deflections at highspeeds may be required to provide the desired reaction.In propeller-driven aircraft, any slipstream flowing over the rudder increases
its effectiveness.
10
V-TAIL
The V-tail design utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to perform the same functions as the surfaces of a conventional elevator and rudder configuration. The
fixed surfaces act as both horizontal and vertical stabilizers.
The movable surfaces, which are usually calledruddervators, are connected through a special linkagethat allows the control wheel to move both
surfacessimultaneously. On the other hand, displacement of therudder pedals moves the surfaces differentially, therebyproviding directional control.
When both rudder and elevator controls are moved bythe pilot, a control mixing mechanism moves eachsurface the appropriate amount. The control
system forthe V-tail is more complex than that required for a conventional tail. In addition, the V-tail design is more susceptible to Dutch roll tendencies
than a conventional tail and total reduction in drag is only minimal.
SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

Secondary flight control systems may consist of the flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim devices.Secondary control surfaces are normally
constructed like rudders.
11
FLAPS
Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on practically all airplanes. These surfaces, which are attached to the trailing edge of the wing,
increase both lift and induced drag for any given angle of attack. Flaps allow a compromise between high cruising speed and low landing speed,
because they may be extended when needed, and retracted into the wing’s structure when not needed. There are four common types of flaps: plain,
split, slotted, and Fowler flaps.
The plain flap is the simplest of the four types. It increases the airfoil camber, resulting in a significant increase in the coefficient of lift at a given angle of
attack. At the same time, it greatly increases drag and moves the center of pressure aft on the airfoil, resulting in a nose-down pitching moment.
The split flap is deflected from the lower surface of theairfoil and produces a slightly greater increase in liftthan does the plain flap. However, more drag
is createdbecause of the turbulent air pattern produced behindthe airfoil. When fully extended, both plain and splitflaps produce high drag with little
additional lift.
The most popular flap on airplanes today is the slottedflap. Variations of this design are used for smallairplanes as well as for large ones. Slotted
flapsincrease the lift coefficient significantly more thanplain or spilt flaps. On small airplanes, the hinge islocated below the lower surface of the flap, and
whenthe flap is lowered, it forms a duct between the flapwell in the wing and the leading edge of the flap.
When the slotted flap is lowered, high-energy air fromthe lower surface is ducted to the flap’s upper surface.The high-energy air from the slot accelerates
the uppersurface boundary layer and delays airflow separation,providing a higher coefficient of lift. Thus, the slottedflap produces much greater
increases in CLmax than theplain or split flap. While there are many types ofslotted flaps, large airplanes often have double- and eventriple-slotted flaps.
These allow the maximum increase indrag without the airflow over the flaps separating anddestroying the lift they produce.
12
Fowler flaps are a type of slotted flap. This flap designnot only changes the camber of the wing, it alsoincreases the wing area. Instead of rotating down
on ahinge, it slides backwards on tracks. In the first portionof its extension, it increases the drag very little, butincreases the lift a great deal as it increases
both thearea and camber. As the extension continues, the flap deflects downward, and during the last portion of its travel, it increases the drag with little
additional increase in lift.
LEADING EDGE DEVICES
High-lift devices also can be applied to the leading edge of the airfoil. The most common types are fixed slots, movable slats, and leading edge flaps.
Fixed slots direct airflow to the upper wing surface anddelay airflow separation at higher angles of attack. Theslot does not increase the wing camber,
but allows ahigher maximum coefficient of lift because the stall isdelayed until the wing reaches a greater angle of attack.
Movable slats consist of leading edge segments, whichmove on tracks. At low angles of attack, each slatis held flush against the wing’s leading edge by
the highpressure that forms at the wing’s leading edge. As theangle of attack increases, the high-pressure area movesaft below the lower surface of the
wing, allowingthe slats to move forward. Some slats, however, arepilot operated and can be deployed at any angle ofattack. Opening a slat allows the air
below the wingto flow over the wing’s upper surface, delayingairflow separation.
Leading edge flaps, like trailing edge flaps, are used toincrease both CLmax and the camber of the wings. Thistype of leading edge device is frequently
used inconjunction with trailing edge flaps and can reduce thenose-down pitching movement produced by the latter.As is true with trailing edge flaps, a
small increment ofleading edge flaps increases lift to a much greaterextent than drag. As greater amounts of flaps areextended, drag increases at a
greater rate than lift.
SPOILERS
On some airplanes, high-drag devices called spoilers are deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag. Spoilers
13
are used for roll control on some aircraft, one of the advantages being the elimination of adverse yaw. To turn right, for example, the spoiler on the right
wing is raised, destroying some of the lift and creating more drag on the right. The right wing drops, and the airplane banks and yaws to the right.
Deploying spoilers on both wings at the same time allows the aircraft to descend without gaining speed. Spoilers are also deployed to help shorten
ground roll after landing. By destroying lift, they transfer weight to the wheels, improving braking effectiveness.
TRIM SYSTEMS
Although the airplane can be operated throughout a wide range of

attitudes, airspeeds, and power settings, it can only be designed to fly
hands off within a very limited combination of these variables.
Therefore, trim systems are used to relieve the pilot of the need to
maintain constant pressure on the flight controls. Trim systems usually
consist of cockpit controls and small hinged devices attached to the
trailing edge of one or more of the primary flight control surfaces. They are
designed to help minimize a pilot’s workload by aerodynamically assisting
movement and position of the flight control surface to which they are
attached. Common types of trim systems include trim tabs, balance tabs,
antiservo tabs, ground adjustable tabs, and an adjustable stabilizer.
TRIM TABS
The most common installation on small airplanes is asingle trim tab attached to the trailing edge of theelevator. Most trim tabs are manually operated by
asmall, vertically mounted control wheel. However,a trim crank may be found in some airplanes. Thecockpit control includes a tab position indicator.
Placing the trim control in the full nose-downposition moves the tab to its full up position. With thetab up and into the airstream, the airflow over
thehorizontal tail surface tends to force the trailing edge of the elevator down. This causes the tail of the airplane to move up, and results in a nose-down
pitch change.
If you set the trim tab to the full nose-up position, thetab moves to its full-down position. In this case, the airflowing under the horizontal tail surface hits
14
the taband tends to force the trailing edge of the elevator up,reducing the elevator’s angle of attack. This causes atail-down movement of the airplane
and a nose-up pitch change.
In spite of the opposite direction movement of the trim tab and the elevator, control of trim is natural to a pilot. If you have to exert constant back
pressure on the control column, the need for nose-up trim is indicated. The normal trim
procedure is to continue trimming until the airplane is balanced and the nose-heavy
condition is no longer apparent. Pilots normally establish the desired power, pitch
attitude, and configuration first, and then trim the airplane to relieve control pressures
that may exist for that flight condition. Any time power, pitch attitude, or configuration
is changed, expect that retrimming will be necessary to relieve the control pressures for
the new flight condition.
BALANCE TABS
The control forces may be excessively high in some airplanes, and in order to decrease
them, the manufacturer may use balance tabs. They look like trim tabs and are hinged
in approximately the same places as trim tabs. The essential difference between the
two is that the balancing tab is coupled to the control surface rod so that when the
primary control surface is moved in any direction, the tab automatically moves in the
opposite direction. In this manner, the airflow striking the tab counter-balances some
of the air pressure against the primary control surface, and enables the pilot to more
easily move and hold the control surface in position.
If the linkage between the tab and the fixed surface is adjustable from the cockpit, the
tab acts as a combination trim and balance tab, which can be adjusted to any desired
deflection. Any time the control surface is deflected, the tab moves in the opposite
direction and eases the load on the pilot.
ANTISERVO TABS
15
In addition to decreasing the sensitivity of thestabilator, an antiservo tab also functions as a trimdevice to relieve control pressure and maintain
thestabilator in the desired position. The fixed end ofthe linkage is on the opposite side of the surfacefrom the horn on the tab, and when the trailing
edge ofthe stabilator moves up, the linkage forces the trailing edge of the tab up. When the stabilator moves down, the tab also moves down. This is
different than trim tabs on elevators, which move opposite of the control surface.
This tab works in the same manner as the balance tabexcept that, instead of moving in the opposite direction,it moves in the same direction as the
trailing edgeof the stabilator. For example, when the trailing edgeof the stabilator moves up, the linkage forces thetrailing edge of the tab up. When the
stabilator movesdown, the tab also moves down.
Balancing
To lessen the force required to operate the primary control surfaces control surfaces are
usuallybalanced statically and dynamically.
The weight of an aircraft and its balance are extremelyimportant for operating an aircraft in a
safe and efficientmanner. When a manufacturer designs an aircraft andthe Authority certifiesit,
the specifications identify the aircraft’s maximumweight and the limits within which it must
balance.
The maximum allowable weight is based on the surfacearea of the wing, and how much lift it
will generateat a safe and appropriate airspeed. If a small generalaviation airplane, for
example, required a takeoff speedof 200 miles per hour (mph) to generate enough lift
tosupport its weight, that would not be safe. Taking offand landing at lower airspeeds is
certainly safer thandoing so at higher speeds.
Where an aircraft balances is also a significant factorin determining if the aircraft is safe to
operate. Anaircraft that does not have good balance can exhibitpoor maneuverability and
controllability, making itdifficult or impossible to fly. This could result in anaccident, causing
damage to the aircraft and injury tothe people on board. Safety is the primary reason forconcern about an aircraft’s weight and balance.
A secondary reason for concern about weight and balance,but also a very important one, is the efficiency ofthe aircraft. Improper loading reduces the
16
efficiency ofan aircraft from the standpoint of ceiling, maneuverability,rate of climb, speed, and fuel consumption. Ifan airplane is loaded in such a way
that it is extremelynose heavy, higher than normal forces will need to beexerted at the tail to keep the airplane in level flight.The higher than normal
forces at the tail will createadditional drag, which will require additional enginepower and therefore additional fuel flow in order tomaintain airspeed.
The most efficient condition for an aircraft is to havethe point where it balances fall very close to, or perhapsexactly at, the aircraft’s center of lift. If this
were thecase, little or no flight control force would be neededto keep the aircraft flying straight and level. In termsof stability and safety, however, this
perfectly balancedcondition might not be desirable. All of the factorsthat affect aircraft safety and efficiency, in terms ofits weight and balance, are
discussed.
Over a period of time, almost all aircraft have atendency to gain weight. Examples of how this canhappen include an airplane being repainted
withoutthe old paint being removed, and the accumulation ofdirt, grease, and oil in parts of the aircraft that are noteasily accessible for cleaning. When
new equipmentis installed, and its weight and location are mathematicallyaccounted for, some miscellaneous weight mightbe overlooked, such as wire
and hardware. For thisreason, even if the Authority does not require it, it is a goodpractice to periodically place an aircraft on scales andconfirm its actual
empty weight and empty weightcenter of gravity.
Weight and Balance Terminology
Datum
The datum is an imaginary vertical plane from whichall horizontal measurements are taken for balancepurposes, with the aircraft in level flight attitude.
Ifthe datum was viewed on a drawing or photograph ofan aircraft, it would appear as a vertical line which isperpendicular (90 degrees) to the aircraft’s
horizontalaxis. For each aircraft make and model, the locationof all items is identified in reference to the datum. Forexample, the fuel in a tank might be
60 inches (60")behind the datum, and a radio on the flight deck mightbe 90" forward of the datum.
There is no fixed rule for the location of the datum,except that it must be a location
that will not changeduring the life of the aircraft. For example, it wouldnot be a good
idea to have the datum be the tip of thepropeller spinner or the front edge of a seat,
becausechanging to a new design of spinner or moving the seatwould cause the
datum to change. It might be locatedat or near the nose of the aircraft, a specific
numberof inches forward of the nose, at the engine firewall,at the center of the main
17
rotor shaft of a helicopter,or any place that can be imagined. The manufacturerhas the choice of locating the datum where it is mostconvenient for
measurement, equipment location, andweight and balance computation. Figure showsan aircraft with the leading edge of the wing beingthe datum.
Arm
The arm is the horizontal distance that a part of theaircraft or a piece of equipment is located from thedatum. The arm’s distance is always given or
measuredin inches, and, except for a location which might beexactly on the datum, it is preceded by the algebraicsign for positive (+) or negative (−).
The positive signindicates an item is located aft of the datum and thenegative sign indicates an item is located forward ofthe datum. If the manufacturer
chooses a datum thatis at the most forward location on an aircraft (or somedistance forward of the aircraft), all the arms will bepositive numbers.
Location of the datum at any otherpoint on the aircraft will result in some arms being positivenumbers, or aft of the datum, and some arms
beingnegative numbers, or forward of the datum. Figure shows an aircraft where the datum is the leading edgeof the wing. For this aircraft, any item
(fuel, seat, radio,and so forth) located forward of the wing leading edgewill have a negative arm, and any item located aft ofthe wing leading edge will
have a positive arm. If anitem was located exactly at the wing leading edge, itsarm would be zero, and mathematically it would notmatter whether its
arm was considered to be positiveor negative.
The arm of each item is usually included in parenthesesimmediately after the item’s name or weight in theAircraft Specifications, Type Certificate Data
Sheet,or equipment list for the aircraft. In a Type CertificateData Sheet, for example, the fuel quantity might beidentified as 150 gallons (gal) (+138) and
the nosebaggage limit as 200 pounds (lb) (−55). These numbersindicate that the fuel is located 138" aft of the datumand the nose baggage is located 55"
forward of thedatum. If the arm for a particular piece of equipment isnot known, its exact location must be accurately measured.When the arm for a
piece of equipment is beingdetermined, the measurement is taken from the datumto the piece of equipment’s own center of gravity.
Moment
A moment is the product of a weight multiplied by itsarm. The moment for a piece of equipment is in fact atorque value, measured in units of inch-
pounds (in-lb).To obtain the moment of an item with respect to thedatum, multiply the weight of the item by its horizontaldistance from the datum.
Likewise, the moment of anitem with respect to the center of gravity (CG) of anaircraft can be computed by multiplying its weight bythe horizontal
distance from the CG.
A 5 lb radio located 80" from the datum would have amoment of 400 inch-pounds (in-lb) (5 lb × 8"). Whetherthe value of 400 in-lb is preceded by a
positive (+) ornegative (−) sign depends on whether the moment isthe result of a weight being removed or added andits location in relation to the
18
datum. This situationis shown in figure, where the moment ends upbeing a positive number because the weight and armare both positive.
The algebraic sign of the moment, based on the datumlocation and whether weight is being installed orremoved, would be as follows:
• Weight being added aft of the datum produces apositive moment (+ weight, + arm).
• Weight being added forward of the datumproduces a negative moment (+ weight, − arm).
• Weight being removed aft of the datum producesa negative moment (− weight, + arm).
• Weight being removed forward of the datumproduces a positive moment (− weight, − arm)
When dealing with positive and negative numbers,remember that the product of like signs produces apositive answer and the product of unlike signs
producesa negative answer.
Center of Gravity
The center of gravity (CG) of an aircraft is a pointabout which the nose heavy and tail heavy momentsare exactly equal in magnitude. It is the balance
pointfor the aircraft. An aircraft suspended from this pointwould have no tendency to rotate in either a nose-upor nose-down attitude. It is the point
about which theweight of an airplane or any object is concentrated.
19
Figureshows a first class lever with the pivot point(fulcrum) located at the center of gravity for the lever.Even though the weights on either side of the
fulcrumare not equal, and the distances from each weight to thefulcrum are not equal, the product of the weights andarms (moments) are equal, and
that is what producesa balanced condition.
Maximum Weight
The maximum weight is the maximum authorizedweight of the aircraft and its contents, and is indicatedin the Aircraft Specifications or Type Certificate
DataSheet. For many aircraft, there are variations to themaximum allowable weight, depending on the purpose and conditions under which the aircraft
is to beflown. For example, a certain aircraft may be alloweda maximum gross weight of 2,750 lb when flown inthe normal category, but when flown in
the utility category,which allows for limited aerobatics, the sameaircraft’s maximum allowable gross weight might onlybe 2,175 lb.
Rebalancing of Control Surfaces

This section is presented for familiarization purposes only.Explicit instructions for the balancing of control surfaces aregiven in the manufacturer’s service
and overhaul manuals forthe specific aircraft and must be followed closely.
Any time repairs on a control surface add weight fore or aft ofthe hinge center line, the control surface must be rebalanced.When an aircraft is repainted,
the balance of the controlsurfaces must be checked. Any control surface that is outof balance is unstable and does not remain in a streamlinedposition
during normal flight. For example, an aileron thatis trailing-edge heavy moves down when the wing deflectsupward, and up when the wing deflects
downward. Such acondition can cause unexpected and violent maneuvers ofthe aircraft. In extreme cases, fluttering and buffeting maydevelop to a
degree that could cause the complete loss ofthe aircraft.
20
Rebalancing a control surface concerns both static anddynamic balance. A control surface that is statically balancedis also dynamically balanced.
Static Balance
Static balance is the tendency of an object to remain stationarywhen

supported from its own CG. There are two ways inwhich a control surface
may be out of static balance. Theyare called underbalance and overbalance.
When a control surface is mounted on a balance stand, adownward travel of

the trailing edge below the horizontalposition indicates underbalance. Some
manufacturersindicate this condition with a plus (+) sign. An
upwardmovement of the trailing edge, above the horizontal
positionindicates overbalance. This is designated by a minus (–) sign.These
signs show the need for more or less weight in thecorrect area to achieve a
balanced control surface, as shownin figure.
A tail-heavy condition (static underbalance) causesundesirable flight

performance and is not usually allowed.Better flight operations are gained by
nose-heavy staticoverbalance. Most manufacturers advocate the existence
ofnose-heavy control surfaces.
Control surface flutter is one of the more serious problems high-speed

aeroplanes have had intheir design evolution. To eliminate flutter, it is
extremely important that the control surfaces bebalanced so that their
centre of gravity does not fall behind their hinge line.This is done by
21
attaching a carefully calculated mass-balance weight (usually of lead butsometimes made of depleted uranium) ahead of the hinge line.
Dynamic Balance
Dynamic balance is that condition in a rotating body whereinall rotating forces are balanced within themselves so that novibration is produced while the
body is in motion. Dynamicbalance as related to control surfaces is an effort to maintainbalance when the control surface is submitted to movementon
the aircraft in flight. It involves the placing of weightsin the correct location along the span of the surfaces. Thelocation of the weights are, in most cases,
forward of thehinge center line.
A large control surface can be difficult to move with conventional controls. For this reason, somecontrols have a portion of the surface extending out
ahead of the hinge line, like the overhangrudder in figure. When the rudder is deflected, air strikes the portion ahead of the hingeline and assists in
deflecting it and holding it deflected.
A balance panel is used on some large aeroplanes to assist the pilot in moving the ailerons. Thehinged balance panel forms a movable partition for the
sealed space ahead of the aileron.When the aileron is deflected upward, as seen in figure 3.44, the air over its bottom surfacespeeds up and produces a
low pressure through the vent gap below the balance panel. This lowpressure pulls the balance panel down and puts a force on the leading edge of the
aileron insuch a direction that it assists the pilot in holding the aileron deflected upward.
Such aerodynamic balancing will have no effect on hydraulically operated controls, sinceaerodynamic loads are not passed back to the cockpit via a
hydraulic system.
Rebalancing Procedures
Repairs to a control surface or its tabs generally increase theweight aft of the hinge center
line, requiring static rebalancingof the control surface system, as well as the tabs.
Controlsurfaces to be rebalanced should be removed from the aircraftand supported, from
their own points, on a suitable stand,jig, or fixture.
Trim tabs on the surface should be secured in the neutralposition when the control surface
is mounted on the stand.The stand must be level and be located in an area free of
aircurrents. The control surface must be permitted to rotatefreely about the hinge points without binding. Balancecondition is determined by the
behavior of the trailing edgewhen the surface is suspended from its hinge points. Anyexcessive friction would result in a false reaction as to
22
theoverbalance or underbalance of the surface.
When installing the control surface in the stand or jig, aneutral position should be established with the chord line ofthe surface in a horizontal position.
Use a bubble protractorto determine the neutral position before continuing balancing procedures.
Sometimes a visual check is all that is needed to determinewhether the surface is balanced or unbalanced. Any trim tabsor other assemblies that are to
remain on the surface duringbalancing procedures should be in place. If any assembliesor parts must be removed before balancing, they should
beremoved.
23
Module 9
Aircraft Structure
9.6 Nacelles / Pylons
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
2
General Features
On turbo-jet engine installations, cowl panels are designed to provide a smooth airflow over theengines and to protect them from damage. The entire
engine cowling system includes a nose cowl, hinged removable cowl panels, exhaust nacelle and trust reverser.
The pylon attaches to the wing and contains the strut. The strut supports the engine with forward and aftengine mounts.The fairings are aerodynamic
covers for the strut. The fairingshave access doors and panels to get access to components inside the pylon.
The primary functions of the nacelle are to:
• Cause a smooth airflow both around and into the engine to decrease drag and give better engine performance.
• Prevent damage to the external surface of the engine and its accessories.
• Give additional strength to the engine structure so it is more resistant to the forces that can cause it to bend (cowl load sharing).
• Permit service door access to the engine and its components.
3
All the skin-panels of nacelles made of composite are provided with lightning protection strips.
The nacelle is the fairings and the components that surround the engine. The nacelle gives an aerodynamically smoothsurface to the strut and engine.
The nacelle also contains theseitems:
• Inlet cowl
• Fan cowl
• Fan duct cowl and thrust reverser
• Primary exhaust nozzle
• Exhaust plug.
All the skin-panels of nacelles made of composite are provided with lightning protection strips.
The engine cowling gives an aerodynamically smooth surfaceinto and over the engine. It also gives a protective area forengine components and
accessories.
These are the parts of the engine cowling:
• Inlet cowl
• Fan cowl
• Thrust reverser.
Inlet Cowl
The inlet cowl sends air into the engine. The inlet cowl attachesto the engine.
Fan Cowls
The fan cowls give an aerodynamically smooth surface over thefan case. The fan cowls attach to the fan cowl support beam.
The fan cowls open for maintenance.
4
5
Thrust reverser
The engine exhaust system controls the direction of the engine exhaust gases.
The turbine exhaust system supplies an exit for the engine exhaust gases. This exit increases the velocity of the exhaust gases. This increases engine
thrust
The thrust reverser (T/R) system controls the direction of engine fan air exhaust for forward and reverse thrust. Reverse thrust helps decrease the speed
of the airplane after landing or during a rejected take off (RTO).
The T/R control system uses the hydraulic actuators to move the translating sleeves. The sleeves move aft of the cascades during a deploy operation.
Each drag link permits its blocker door to move into the fan air exhaust flow as the sleeve move aft.
The blocker doors change the direction of the fan air exhaust out through the cascades. This causes reverse thrust. The cascades do not move.
Nacelle
The nacelle is housing, separate from the fuselage that holds engines, fuel, or equipment on an aircraft. In some cases for instance an aircraft's cockpit
may also be housed in a nacelle, which essentially fills the function of a conventional fuselage. The covering is typically aerodynamically shaped.
It includes the structure commonly referred to as engine cowling, and also encompasses other components such as the inlet cowl, fan cowl, thrust
6
reverser, core cowl and exhaust system.
Nacelles or pods are streamlined enclosures used on multi-engine aircraft primarily to house the engines. They are located below, or at the leading edge
of the wing or on the tail of the aircraft.
An engine nacelle or pod consists of skin, cowling, structural members, a fire-wall, and engine mounts. Skins and cowlings cover the outside of the
nacelle. Both are usually made of sheet aluminum alloy, stainless steel, or titanium. Regardless of the material used, the skin is usually attached to the
framework by rivets.
The framework can consist of structural members similar to those are of the fuselage. The framework would include length ways members, such as
longerons and stringers, and width ways/vertical members, such as bulkheads, rings, and formers.
A nacelle or pod also contains a firewall, which separates the engine compartment from the rest of the aircraft. This bulkhead is usually made of stainless
steel, or titanium sheet metal.
The design of the nacelle involves both the external shape and the inlet internal geometry. The design of the engine inlet is generally the job of the
airframe manufacturer, not the engine manufacturer and is of great importance to the overall efficiency.
The outer curvature of the cowl nose is as important as the inner contour shape. The cowl nose contour must be designed to avoid excessive local
velocities in high sped flight. Here the design philosophy is somewhat similar to the fuselage and wing approach; supercritical velocities can be
permitted far forward on the cowl provided the local velocities are subsonic well forward of the location of the maximum nacelle diameter.
Commonality between engine installations, left and right, wing and tail, etc. is made as complete as possible. Airlines keep spare engines in a neutral
configuration, i.e., with all parts installed that are common to all engine positions. Only the uncommon parts must be added to adapt the engine to a
particular position. A neutral engine for the DC-10 consists of the basic engine with all accessories installed, generator electrical leads coiled, certain
hydraulic and fuel lines not installed, nose cowl not installed, and engine control system not installed.
One of the most difficult design problems is fitting all the necessary equipment within the slender pylon. Fuel lines, pneumatic lines, engine and reverser
controls, electrical cables, and numerous instrumentation leads must fit closely and yet permit maintenance access. The nacelle is made as small as
possible but must provide space for all accessories plus ventilation for accessory and engine cooling.
7
One can use some of the pictures in this section for initial nacelle sizing when the actual engine dimensions are known. The nacelle diameter tends to be
roughly 10% greater than the bare engine to accommodate various engine systems. The inlet itself extends about 60% of the diameter in front of the fan
face, and the actual inlet area is about 70% of the maximum area, although this varies depending on the engine type. For initial sizing, a representative
engine may be selected and scaled (within reason) to the selected thrust level. One would expect the engine dimensions to vary with the square root of
the thrust ratio (so that the area and mass flow are proportional to thrust). Statistically, the scaling is a bit less than the square root. The plots below show
the variation in nacelle diameter and length as the thrust varies.
The concept is sometimes called "rubberizing" an engine. Using the 85" diameter 38,250 lb PW2037 as a reference and scaling diameter by thrust to the
0.41 power yields reasonable diameters for engines over a very large thrust range. Somewhat more scatter is found in engine length but a 0.39 power
thrust scaling is reasonable here as well. We note that the plots below show engine diameter and length, rather than nacelle dimensions. The nacelle
must be scaled up as described above.
8
In single-engine aircraft, the power plant is mounted in the center of the fuselage. On multiengined aircraft, nacelles are usually used to mount the
power plants. The nacelle is primarily a unit that houses the engine. Nacelles are similar in shape and design for the same size aircraft. They vary with the
size of the aircraft. Larger aircraft require less fairing, and therefore smaller nacelles. The structural design of a nacelle is similar to that of the fuselage. In
certain cases the nacelle is designed to transmit engine loads and stresses to the wings through the engine mounts.
The streamlined structures (nacelles) onmultiengine aircraft are used primarily to house engines. The construction of a nacelle in general use designs
vary depending upon the manufacturer and the useto be made of the nacelle. On twin-engine airplanes, nacellesalso house the main landing gear and
related equipment. Whetherthe nacelle houses a reciprocating piston or jet engine, landing gear, or cargo, repair fundamentals are essentially the
sameas for a fuselage.
The nacelle must have sufficient strength towithstand the compression and shear loads it will be subjected to;its weight must be kept within allowable
limits; and the exterior must be aerodynamically suited for the nacelle's location on theaircraft.
Some aircraft have nacelles that are designed to house the landing gear when retracted. Retracting the gear to reduce wind resistance is standard
procedure on high-performance/high-speed aircraft. The wheel well is the area where the landing gear is attached and stowed when retracted. Wheel
wells can be located in the wings and/or fuselage when not part of the nacelle.
Figure shows an engine nacelle incorporating the landing gear with the wheel well extending into the wing root.
The framework of a nacelle usually consists of structuralmembers similar to those of the fuselage. Lengthwisemembers, such as longerons and stringers,
combine withhorizontal/vertical members, such as rings, formers, andbulkheads, to give the nacelle its shape and structuralintegrity. A firewall is
incorporated to isolate the enginecompartment from the rest of the aircraft. This is basically astainless steel or titanium bulkhead that contains a fire in
theconfines of the nacelle rather than letting it spread throughoutthe airframe.
Engine mounts are also found in the nacelle. These arethe structural assemblies to which the engine is fastened.They are usually constructed from
chrome/molybdenumsteel tubing in light aircraft and forged chrome/nickel/molybdenum assemblies in larger aircraft.
9
The exterior of a nacelle is covered with a skin or fitted witha cowling which can be opened to access the engine andcomponents inside. Both are usually
made of sheet aluminumor magnesium alloy with stainless steel or titanium alloysbeing used in high-temperature areas, such as around theexhaust exit.
Regardless of the material used, the skin istypically attached to the framework with rivets.
Cowling refers to the detachable panels covering those areasinto which access must be gained regularly, such as the engineand its accessories. It is
designed to provide a smooth airflowover the nacelle and to protect the engine from damage. Cowlpanels are generally made of aluminum alloy
construction.
However, stainless steel is often used as the inner skin aftof the power section and for cowl flaps and near cowl flapopenings. It is also used for oil cooler
ducts. Cowl flaps aremoveable parts of the nacelle cowling that open and closeto regulate engine temperature.
There are many engine cowl designs, shows anexploded view of the pieces of cowling for a horizontallyopposed engine on a light aircraft. It is attached
to the nacelleby means of screws and/or quick release fasteners. Somelarge reciprocating engines are enclosed by “orange peel”cowlings which provide
excellent access to componentsinside the nacelle.These cowl panels areattached to the forward firewall by mounts which also serveas hinges for
opening the cowl. The lower cowl mounts aresecured to the hinge brackets by quick release pins. The sideand top panels are held open by rods and the
lower panel isretained in the open position by a spring and a cable. All ofthe cowling panels are locked in the closed position by overcentersteel latches
which are secured in the closed positionby spring-loaded safety catches.
10
An example of a turbojet engine nacelle can be seen ,the cowl panels are a combination of fixed andeasily removable panels which can be opened and
closedduring maintenance. A nose cowl is also a feature on a jetengine nacelle. It guides air into the engine.
11
Nose Cowl
The nose cowl is the foremost section of the engine nacelle and provides maximum airflow intothe engine compressor. It is normally bolted to the
engine inlet case and its leading edge issupplied with anti-icing air.
The main structure of nose cowls is normally made of conventional sheet metal structure,riveted or bonded. The skinning panels are usually made of
composite sandwich acousticstructure.
12
Hinged Cowling
The hinged cowling (cowl doors) designed as large opening doors, usually
provided with quickreleaselatches, facilitate access to the engine built up
equipment. From structural point of viewthey can be divided into two categories:
• Cold section doors (fan case)
• Hot section doors (core engine)
Cold section doors are normally a sandwich construction with a Honeycomb core
and compositeskin panels.
Hot section door structure provides fire protection and support capability for
aerodynamic,inertial and engine loads that occur in flight and ground operation.
Cowl has ahold-open telescopic rods are attaches to abracket on the fan case and
to fittings on the fan cowl.
Very modern engine hot section doors are rather of composite than of metal
sheet construction,but to provide fire protection are covered with stainless steel
blankets and titanium alloys heatshields.
Pylons
Jets and turbofans, if not buried in the fuselage, or wing-roots, need to be pylon mounted under wing or rear fuselage. The side pylons for rear fuselage
mounting are sometimes called"stub-wings". Both must support the weight of the powerplant and transmit its thrust into the adjacent airframe.
The arrangement of engines influences the aircraft in many important ways. Safety, structural weight, flutter, drag, control, maximum lift, propulsive
efficiency, maintainability, and aircraft growth potential are all affected.
Engines may be placed in the wings, on the wings, above the wings, or suspended on pylons below the wings. They may be mounted on the aft
fuselage, on top of the fuselage, or on the sides of the fuselage. Wherever the nacelles are placed, the detailed spacing with respect to wing, tail,
fuselage, or other nacelles is crucial.
13
Wing-Mounted Engines
Engines buried in the wing root have minimum parasite drag and probably minimum weight. Their inboard location minimizes the yawing moment due
to asymmetric thrust after engine failure. However, they pose a threat to the basic wing structure in the event of a blade or turbine disk failure, make it
very difficult to maximize inlet efficiency, and make accessibility for maintenance more difficult. If a larger diameter engine is desired in a later version of
the airplane, the entire wing may have to be redesigned. Such installations also eliminate the flap in the region of the engine exhaust, thereby reducing
CLmax.
Wing-mounted nacelles can be placed so that the gas generator is forward of the front spar to minimize wing structural damage in the event of a disk or
blade failure. Engine installations that do not permit this, such as the original 737 arrangement may require additional protection such as armoring of the
nacelle, to prevent catastrophic results following turbine blade failure. This puts the inlet well ahead of the wing leading edge and away from the high
up-wash flow near the leading edge. It is relatively simple to obtain high ram recovery in the inlet since the angle of attack at the inlet is minimized and
no wakes are ingested.
As turbo-jet engines develop very little torque, their mountings can be less robust than thoserequired for turbo-prop engines. The latter have to be
mounted in tubular sub-frames out in frontof either the fuselage or wing, allowing plenty of vertical clearance between the propeller andthe ground.
The function of the engine pylons is:
• To support the engine
• To transmit the engine thrust to the aircraft
• To enable the routing and attachment of all the systems connected with the engine(electrical wiring, hydraulic, bleed air and fuel lines).
• To serve as fire-barrier between engine and aircraft structure.
Pylon structure, like whole aircraft structure, is divided into primary and secondary sections.
An aircraft engine mounting structure comprising a pylon box having an upper surface and at least one attachment element configured to be attached
to a front spar of an aircraft wing box, the front spar having a lower surface, the attachment element being configured to attach the rear face of the
pylon box to the front spar such that at least a portion of the upper surface of the pylon box lies above the lower surface of the front spar.
14
An aircraft engine mounting structure comprising a pylon box having an upper and a lower surface and at least one attachment element located
towards either the upper or lower surface of the pylon box and a plurality of attachment elements located respectively towards the opposing pylon box
surface, at least one of said attachment elements being configured to be attached to a front spar of an aircraft wing box, the front spar having a lower
surface, the attachment element being configured to attach the rear face of the pylon box to the front spar such that at least a portion of the upper
surface of the pylon box lies above the lower surface of the front spar, wherein at least one of said attachment elements is configured to react lateral
loadings and one of the attachment elements comprises a pinned link configured to be isolated from lateral loadings such that said structure is statically
determinate.
Since the box (primary structure) must carry all the loads and serve as a firewall, it is normally atitanium and steel alloy riveted sheet construction.
Secondary section of pylon which is not part of the firewall is normally made of compositepanels.
Firewalls
A firewall is a fireproof barrier used to prevent the spread of fire between or through buildings, structures, electrical substation transformers, or within
an aircraft or vehicle.
Powerplants together with their pylons are often divided into zones by fireproof bulkheads,usually made of stainless steel, titanium or thermoplastics.
15
Fire barriers divide the cavitieslocated between the engine and nacelle into compartments in order to limit the propagation offire.
Normally the hinged cowlings are also part of the firewall, but only effective when the doors areclosed. Hinged cowlings are surrounded by airtight fire
seals.
The general function of fire seal are as follows:
• Prevent entry of combustible matter into areas where auto-ignition may occur and avoidspropagation of fire.
• Confines effects of pneumatic duct and turbine rupture or major leaks.
• Prevents air from the hot section of the engine core from circulating in the fan case area.
16
• Facilitates the effective use of the fire detection system by containing the fire in one area.
17
18
Engine Mounts
The engine mount system serve as interface between the engine and the pylon. It is a fail-safe,damage tolerant design capable to transmit all the loads
from the engine to the aircraftstructure.
There is a forward and aft engine mount. Each engine mountattaches the engine to the strut. The forward engine mountattaches to the fan frame. The
aft engine mount attaches to theturbine frame.
There are basically three engine attachment configurations used for transport aircraft:
• wing mounted
• tail-side mounted
• tail mounted (inside or on top of it)
Most engines are attached to its pylon by two or three mounts. As the engine develops greatheat while working the mounting system must allow
expansion in all directions. Because of this,one of the mounts normally does not take thrust and allows the engine to expand in thelongitudinal direction.
19
20
21
22
Loads
The engine mount system must be capable of carrying side, vertical, thrust and torque loads.The system also provides vibration-dampening to soften
engine vibrations.
The engine supported by three mounts, two are situated at the engine top side and one (main trunion mount) at the inboard horizontal center line of
the engine. The upper mounts are attached to the respective forged front and rear engine mounting beams.
Engine thrust is transmitted from the engine to the aircraft structure by a thrust strut. The thrust strut is installed as a complete assembly between the
main trunnion housing and a rear fuselage pick-up point.
23
Front Mount
The front mount consists of a link fitted between the compressor intermediate case and front engine mounting. The link is loacted by two lugs on the
compressor intermediate case and secured by a chatterproof bolt assembly, the other end of the link is secured to the front engine monting beam by a
shoulder bolt.
Rear mount
The rear mount consists of two links secured at one end to the rear engine mounting by a chatterproof bolt, the other ends of the links are secured to the
LP turbine exhaust case by retaining pins and securing bolts
24
Module 9
Aircraft Structure
9.7 Landing Gear
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
2
INTRODUCTIONS
Aircraft landing gear supports the entire weight of an aircraftduring landing and ground operations. They are attached to primary structural members of
the aircraft. The type of gear depends on the aircraft design and its intended use. Most landing gear have wheels to facilitate operation to and from hard
surfaces, such as airport runways. Other gear feature skids for this purpose, such as those found on helicopters,balloon gondolas, and in the tail area of
some tail dragger aircraft. Aircraft that operate to and from frozen lakes and snowy areas may be equipped with landing gear that have skis. Aircraft that
operate to and from the surface of waterhave pontoon-type landing gear. Regardless of the type oflanding gear utilized, shock absorbing equipment,
brakes,retraction mechanisms, controls, warning devices, cowling, fairings, and structural members necessary to attach the gear to the aircraft are
considered parts of the landing gear system.
Numerous configurations of landing gear types can befound. Additionally, combinations of two types of gear are common. Amphibious aircraft are
designed with gear that allow landings to be made on water or dry land. The gear features pontoons for water landing with extendable wheelsfor
landings on hard surfaces. A similar system is used toallow the use of skis and wheels on aircraft that operate onboth slippery, frozen surfaces and dry
runways. Typically, theskis are retractable to allow use of the wheels when needed.
Landing Gear Arrangement
Three basic arrangements of landing gear are used: tail wheel type landing gear (also known as conventional gear), tandem landing gear, and tricycle-
type landing gear.
Tail Wheel-Type Landing Gear
Tail wheel-type landing gear is also known as conventional gear because many early aircraft use this type of arrangement.The main gear are located
forward of the center of gravity,causing the tail to require support from a third wheel assembly. A few early aircraft designs use a skid rather than a tail
wheel. This helps slow the aircraft upon landing and provides directional stability. The resulting angle ofthe aircraft fuselage, when fitted with
conventional gear,allows the use of a long propeller that compensates for older, under powered engine design. The increased clearance of the forward
fuselage offered by tail wheel-type landing gear is also advantageous when operating in and out of non-paved runways. Today, aircraft are
manufactured with conventional gear for this reason and for the weight savings accompanying the relatively light tail wheel assembly.
3
The proliferation of hard surface runways has rendered thetail skid obsolete in favor of the tail wheel. Directional controlis maintained through
differential braking until the speed ofthe aircraft enables control with the rudder. A steerable tailwheel, connected by cables to the rudder or rudder
pedals,is also a common design. Springs are incorporated fordampening.
4
Tandem Landing Gear
Few aircraft are designed with tandem landing gear. As thename implies, this type of landing gear has the main gearand tail gear aligned on the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
Sailplanes commonly use tandem gear, although many onlyhave one actual gear forward on the fuselage with a skidunder the tail. Generally, placing the
gear onlyunder the fuselage facilitates the use of very flexible wings.
5
Tricycle-Type Landing Gear
The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle-type landing gear. It is comprised of main gear and nose gear.
Tricycle-type landing gear is used on large and small aircraftwith the following benefits:
1. Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when braking, which enables higher landing speeds.
2. Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during landing and ground maneuvering.
3. Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft center of gravity is forward of the main gear, forces acting on the center of gravity tend to
keep the aircraft moving forward rather than looping, such aswith a tail wheel-type landing gear.
The nose gear of a few aircraft with tricycle-type landing gear is not controllable. It simply casters as steering is accomplished with differential braking
during taxi. However, nearly all aircraft have steerable nose gear. On light aircraft, the nose gear is directed through mechanical linkage to the rudder
pedals. Heavy aircraft typically utilize hydraulic power to steer the nose gear. Control is achieved through an independent tiller in the flight deck.
The main gear on a tricycle-type landing gear arrangement is attached to reinforced wing structure or fuselage structure. The number and location of
wheels on the main gear vary. Many main gear have two or more wheels.
Multiple wheels spread the weight of the aircraft over a larger area. They also provide a safety margin should one tire fail. Heavy aircraft may use four or
more wheel assemblies on each main gear. When more than two wheels are attached to a landing gear strut, the attaching mechanism is known as a
bogie. The number of wheels included in the bogie isa function of the gross design weight of the aircraft andthe surface type on which the loaded
aircraft is required toland.
6
Tricycle Gear
Wheeled undercarriages normally come in two types; Conventional or Tail-Dragger undercarriage, where there are two main wheels towards the front of
the aircraft and single , much smaller wheel or skid at the rear; or tricycle undercarriage where there are two main wheels (or assemblies) under the
wings and a third smaller wheel in the nose.
Modern aircarft have tricycle undercarriages. Tail-dragger are considered harder to land and take-off (because the arrangement is unstable, that is a
small deviation from straight-line travel is naturally amplified by the greater drag of the main-wheel which has moved farther away from the planes
center of gravity due to deviation).
The tricycle-type landing gear arrangement consists of many parts and assemblies. These include air/oil shock struts, gear alignment units, support units,
retraction and safety devices, steering systems, wheel and brake assemblies, etc.
A main landing gear of a transport category aircraft is illustrated with many of the parts identified as anintroduction to landing gear nomenclature
7
8
Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear
Further classification of aircraft landing gear can be made into two categories: fixed and retractable. Many small, singleenginelight aircraft have fixed
landing gear, as do a few lighttwins. This means the gear is attached to the airframe andremains exposed to the slipstream as the aircraft is flown.
Mechanisms to retract and stow the landing gear to eliminate parasite drag add weight to the aircraft. On slow aircraft, the penalty of this added weight
is not overcome by the reduction of drag, so fixed gear is used. As the speed of the aircraft increases, the drag caused by the landing gear becomes
greater and a means to retract the gear to eliminate parasite drag is required, despite the weight of the mechanism.
A great deal of the parasite drag caused by light aircraft landinggear can be reduced by building gear as aerodynamically aspossible and by adding
fairings or wheel pants to streamlinethe airflow past the protruding assemblies. A small, smoothprofile to the oncoming wind greatly reduces landing
gearparasite drag.
The thin cross section of the spring steel struts combine withthe fairings over the wheel and brake assemblies to raiseperformance of the fixed landing
gear by keeping parasitedrag to a minimum.
Retractable landing gear stow in fuselage or wingcompartments while in flight. Once in these wheel wells,gear are out of the slipstream and do not
cause parasite drag.Most retractable gear have a close fitting panel attached tothem that fairs with the aircraft skin when the gear is fullyretracted.
Other aircraft have separate doorsthat open, allowing the gear to enter or leave, and then closeagain.
NOTE:
The parasite drag caused by extended landing gear can be used by the pilot to slow the aircraft. The extension and retraction of most landing gear is
usually accomplished with hydraulics.
Retractable the gear reduces drag and increase airspeed without additional power. The landing gear normally retracts into the wing or fuselage through
on opening which may be covered by doors after the gear is retracted. The smooth door will provide for the unrestricted flow of air across the opening
that houses the gear. The retraction or extension of th landing gear is accomplished either electrically or hydraulically by landing gear controls from the
cockpit.
Warning indication are usually provided in the cockpit to indicate wether the wheels are extended and locked, or retrcated. In nearly all aircraft equipped
with retractable landing gear, a system is provided for emergency gear extension in the event landing gear mechanisms fail to lower the gear. The pilot
9
operating manual will specify the maximum speed at which the gearcan be lowered.
MAIN LANDING GEAR

Main landing gear must absorb large
downward forces of the aircraft. How many
landing gears with their wheels and brakes
are installed depends on the mass of the
aircraft. In develompment of commercial
aviation with ever larger aircraft, landing
gears were quickly produced in two wheel
versions.
The wheels have grown in relation to that, to

spread the load and keep the pressure on the
runway per wheel during landing as low as
possible. Aircraft now have four or six wheels
per main landing gear and more than two
landing gears per aircraft. The four or six
wheels are connected in pairs to the bogie
beams or also called gear trucks. Some bogie
beams consist of one, others of two parts,
where one part of the bogie beam can swing
to give the aircraft a shorter turning circle.
Multi-Axle
Small aircraft have just one wheel per landing gear, due to higher landing speed and weight aircraft; the main landing gears came to be supplied with
two or more wheels (development of multiple-axle landing gears) attached to one axle carrier or bogie beam. The bogie beams with their wheels often
10
just barely fit in their wheels. Therefore it is important that the bogie beam be in a certain position in relation to the strut when the landing gear is
retracted. This position is called the tilted position. Sometimes this is at an angle of 900, but sometimes also at another angle.
11
A bogie tilt jack is used to bring the bogie beam
12
in the tilted position and tilted position must remain unchanged as long asthe landing gear will get stuck and cannot be extended. The tilt cylinder is
operated hydraulically. In some types of aircraft, the tilted positon can also be lock mechanically.
Weight-on-Wheels Switch (Ground Switch, Squat swicth)
Certain systems of the aircraft require electrical control depending upon the condition of the aircraft (airborne or on the ground). The condition of the
aircraft is sensed by the landing gear ground and air safety sensors (proximity switches). The safety sensors transmit signals to circuits and relays to
provide “air” or “ground” control of the system or components. The landing gear systems controlled by air-ground sensing are the control lever lock
system and the antiskid system.
Other aircraft systems and components controlled by air-ground sensing are: APU fir horn system, thrust reverser, electrical system static inverter, drain
mast heater, stall warning system, flight recorder system, voice recorder system, airconditioning turbo fans, take-off warning system, electrical system,
flap load limiter system, and autobrake system.
NOSE LANDING GEAR

Almost all new aircraft are nose-wheel design, that important the pilot does not land the aircraft on the nose wheel (wheelbarrow) it will serious damage.
The nose wheel is usually dampened with a shock absorber or friction ring to prevent shimmy.
A torque link is fitted to maintain correct nose-wheel alignment. Most light aircraft have steering nose wheels. When on the ground a linkage is actuated
between the rudder pedals and the nose wheel. This disconnected automatically once that aircraft leaves the ground.
13
14
15
16
The nose gear shock strut works on the same principle as that the shock strut of
the main landing gear. In some cases, the long metering pin which slowly closes
the calibrated opening during retraction is missing. In these nose gears, the hole is
not closed until the last movement of retraction. This does not influence the
principle of shock absorbing. Most of the energy during the landing is absorbed
only by the main landing gear.
Shock Struts
True shock absorption occurs when the shock energy oflanding impact is
converted into heat energy, as in a shock strut landing gear. This is the most
common method of landing shock dissipation in aviation. It is used on aircraft of
all sizes. Shock struts are self-contained hydraulic units that support an aircraft
while on the ground and protect the structure during landing. They must be
inspected and serviced regularly to ensure proper operation. There are many
different designs of shock struts, but most operate in a similar manner, for
information on the construction, operation, and servicing of a specific aircraft
shock, consult the manufacturer’s maintenance instructions.
A typical pneumatic/hydraulic shock strut uses compressed air or nitrogen

combined with hydraulic fluid to absorb anddissipate shock loads. It is sometimes
referred to as an air/oilor oleo strut. A shock strut is constructed of two
telescopingcylinders or tubes that are closed on the external ends. Theupper
cylinder is fixed to the aircraft and does not move. Thelower cylinder is called the
piston and is free to slide in andout of the upper cylinder. Two chambers are
formed. Thelower chamber is always filled with hydraulic fluid and theupper
chamber is filled with compressed air or nitrogen. Anorifice located between the two cylinders provides a passagefor the fluid from the bottom chamber
to enter the top cylinderchamber when the strut is compressed.
17
Most shock struts employ a metering pin for controlling the rate of fluid flowfrom the lower chamber
into the upper chamber. During thecompression stroke, the rate of fluid flow is not constant. Itis
automatically controlled by the taper of the metering pin inthe orifice. When a narrow portion of the pin
is in the orifice,more fluid can pass to the upper chamber. As the diameter ofthe portion of the metering
pin in the orifice increases, lessfluid passes. Pressure build-up caused by strut compressionand the
hydraulic fluid being forced through the meteredorifice causes heat. This heat is converted impact
energy. Itis dissipated through the structure of the strut.
On some types of shock struts, a metering tube is used. Theoperational concept is the same as that in
shock struts withmetering pins, except the holes in the metering tube control theflow of fluid from the
bottom chamber to the top chamber duringcompression.
Upon lift off or rebound from compression, the shock strut tends to extend rapidly. This could result in a
sharp impactat the end of the stroke and damage to the strut. It is typical for shock struts to be equipped
with a damping or snubbing device to prevent this. A recoil valve on the piston or a recoil tube restricts
the flow of fluid during the extension stroke, which slows the motion and prevents damaging impact
forces.
Most shock struts are equipped with an axle as part of the lower cylinder to provide installation of the
aircraft wheels. Shock struts without an integral axle have provisions on the end of the lower cylinder for
installation of the axle assembly. Suitable connections are provided on all shock strut upper cylinders to
attach the strut to the airframe.
The upper cylinder of a shock strut typically contains a valvefitting assembly. It is located at or near the
top of the cylinder.The valve provides a means of filling the strut with hydraulicfluid and inflating it with air or nitrogen as specified by themanufacturer.
A packing gland is employed to seal the slidingjoint between the upper and lower telescoping cylinders. It isinstalled in the open end of the outer
cylinder. A packing glandwiper ring is also installed in a groove in the lower bearing orgland nut on most shock struts. It is designed to keep the
slidingsurface of the piston from carrying dirt, mud, ice, and snowinto the packing gland and upper cylinder. Regular cleaningof the exposed portion of
the strut piston helps the wiper doits job and decreases the possibility of damage to the packinggland, which could cause the strut to a leak.
18
To keep the piston and wheels aligned, most shock struts areequipped with
torque links or torque arms. One end of thelinks is attached to the fixed upper
cylinder. The other endis attached to the lower cylinder (piston) so it cannot
rotate.This keeps the wheels aligned. The links also retain the pistonin the end
of the upper cylinder when the strut is extended,such as after takeoff.
Nose gear shock struts are provided with a locating cam assembly to keep the
gear aligned. A cam protrusion is attached to the lower cylinder, and a mating
lower cam recess is attached to the upper cylinder. These cams line up the
wheel and axle assembly in the straight-ahead position when the shock strut is
fully extended. This allows the nose wheel to enter the wheel well when the
nose gear is retracted and prevents structural damage to the aircraft. It also
aligns the wheels with the longitudinal axis of the aircraft prior to landing
when the strut is fully extended. Many nose gear shock struts also have
attachments for the installation of an external shimmy damper.
Nose gear struts are often equipped with a locking or disconnect pin to enable
quick turning of the aircraft while towing or positioning the aircraft when on
the ramp or in a hangar. Disengagement of this pin allows the wheel fork
spindle on some aircraft to rotate 360°, thus enabling the aircraft to be turned
in a tight radius. At no time should the nose wheel of any aircraft be rotated
beyond limit lines marked on the airframe.
Nose and main gear shock struts on many aircraft are also equipped with
jacking points and towing lugs. Jacks should always be placed under the prescribed points. When towing lugs are provided, the towing bar should be
attached only to these lugs.
19
Shock struts contain an instruction plate that gives directionsfor filling the strut with fluid and for
inflating the strut. Theinstruction plate is usually attached near filler inlet and airvalve assembly. It
specifies the correct type of hydraulic fluidto use in the strut and the pressure to which the strut
20
shouldbe inflated. It is of utmost importance to become familiar withthese instructions prior to filling a shock strut with hydraulicfluid or inflating it with
air or nitrogen.
Shock Strut Operation
The inner construction of a shock strut.Arrows show the movement of the fluid during compressionand extension of the strut. The compression stroke of
theshock strut begins as the aircraft wheels touch the ground. Asthe center of mass of the aircraft moves downward, the strutcompresses, and the lower
cylinder or piston is forced upwardinto the upper cylinder. The metering pin is therefore movedup through the orifice. The taper of the pin controls the
rateof fluid flow from the bottom cylinder to the top cylinder atall points during the compression stroke. In this manner, thegreatest amount of heat is
dissipated through the walls of thestrut. At the end of the downward stroke, the compressed air in the upper cylinder is further compressed which limits
the compression stroke of the strut with minimal impact. During taxi operations, the air in the tires and the strut combine to smooth out bumps.
Insufficient fluid, or air in the strut, cause the compressionstroke to not be properly limited. The strut could bottomout, resulting in impact forces to be
transferred directly tothe airframe through the metallic structure of the strut. Ina properly serviced strut, the extension stroke of the shockstrut operation
occurs at the end of the compression stroke.Energy stored in the compressed air in the upper cylindercauses the aircraft to start moving upward in
relation to theground and lower strut cylinder as the strut tries to reboundto its normal position. Fluid is forced back down into thelower cylinder
through restrictions and snubbing orifices. Thesnubbing of fluid flow during the extension stroke dampensthe strut rebound and reduces oscillation
caused by the springaction of the compressed air. A sleeve, spacer, or bumperring incorporated into the strut limits the extension stroke.
Efficient operation of the shock struts requires that properfluid and air pressure be maintained. To check the fluidlevel, most struts need to be deflated
and compressed intothe fully compressed position. Deflating a shock strut can bea dangerous operation. The technician must be thoroughlyfamiliar
with the operation of the high-pressure service valve found at the top of the strut’s upper cylinder. Refer to the manufacturer’s instructions for proper
deflating technique of the strut in question and follow all necessary safety precautions.
21
Nose Wheel Centering (Centring Cams)
Because the nose wheel can be steered, it is necessary to be able to center the
inner strut in relation to the outer strut when the aircraft leaves the ground.
That its why the inner and outer struts have centring cams. Centring means that
the inner strut and the outer strut are mined up in relation to each other. The
wheels first return to the centre position, then the landing gear can be retracted
into the wheelwell. If the wheels are not centred, the landing gear cannot be
retracted.
Since most aircraft have steerable nose wheel gear assembliesfor taxiing, a
means for aligning the nose gear beforeretraction is needed. Centering cams
built into the shock strutstructure accomplish this. An upper cam is free to mate
into alower cam recess when the gear is fully extended. This alignsthe gear for
retraction. When weight returns to the wheelsafter landing, the shock strut is
compressed, and the centeringcams separate allowing the lower shock strut
(piston) torotate in the upper strut cylinder. This rotation is controlledto steer
the aircraft.Small aircraft sometimesincorporate an external roller or guide pin
on the strut. As the strut is folded into the wheel well during retraction, the roller or guide pin engages a ramp or track mounted to the wheel well
structure. The ramp/track guides the roller or pin in such a manner that the nose wheel is straightened as it enters the wheel well.
Shimmy Dampers
Torque links attached from the stationary upper cylinderof a nose wheel strut to the bottom moveable cylinder orpiston of the strut are not sufficient to
prevent most nosegear from the tendency to oscillate rapidly, or shimmy, atcertain speeds. This vibration must be controlled through theuse of a
shimmy damper. A shimmy damper controls nosewheel shimmy through hydraulic damping. The damper canbe built integrally within the nose gear,
22
but most often it isan external unit attached between the upper and lower shockstruts. It is active during all phases of ground operation whilepermitting
the nose gear steering system to function normally.
Steering Damper
As mentioned above, large aircraft with hydraulic steering hold pressure in the steering
cylinders to provide the required damping. This is known as steering damping. Some
older transport category aircraft have steering dampers that are vane-type.
Nevertheless, they function to steer the nose wheel, as well as to dampen vibration.
Piston-Type
Aircraft not equipped with hydraulic nose wheel steering utilize an additional external
shimmy damper unit. The case is attached firmly to the upper shock strut cylinder. The shaft is attached to the lower shock strut cylinder and to a piston
inside the shimmy damper. As the lower strut cylinder tries to shimmy, hydraulic fluid is forced through a bleed hole in the piston. The restricted flow
through the bleed hole dampens the oscillation.
A piston-type shimmy damper may contain a fill port toadd fluid or it may be a sealed unit. Regardless, the unitshould be checked for leaks regularly. To
ensure properoperation, a piston-type hydraulic shimmy damper shouldbe filled to capacity.
Vane-Type
A vane-type shimmy damper is sometime used.It uses fluid chambers created by the vanes separated by avalve orifice in a center shaft. As the nose gear
tries tooscillate, vanes rotate to change the size of internal chambersfilled with fluid. The chamber size can only change as fastas the fluid can be forced
through the orifice. Thus, the gear oscillation is dissipated by the rate of fluid flow. An internalspring-loaded replenishing reservoir keeps pressurized
fluidin the working chambers and thermal compensation of the orifice size is included. As with the piston type shimmy damper, the vane-type damper
should be inspected for leaks and kept serviced. A fluid level indicator protrudes from the reservoir end of the unit.
23
24
Non-Hydraulic Shimmy Damper
Non-hydraulic shimmy dampers are currently certified formany aircraft. They look and fit similar
to piston-type shimmydampers but contain no fluid inside. In place of the metalpiston, a rubber
piston presses out against the inner diameterof the damper housing when the shimmy motion is
receivedthrough the shaft. The rubber piston rides on a very thin filmof grease and the rubbing
action between the piston and thehousing provides the damping.
This is known as surface-effect damping. The materialsuse to construct this type of shimmy damper provide a long service life without the need to ever
add fluid to the unit.
EXTENSION RETRACTION
Landing gears are retracted during flight to reduce drag. This makes it possible to fly faster and it decreases fuel consumption. Depending on the type of
aircraf, there are main, nose and fuselage landing gears. For most aircraft, the main gears are retracted in a sideward direction and the nose landing gear
is retracted in a forward direction.
A hydraulic system rettracting and extending a landing gear normally takes its power from engine driven pumps, alternate system being availlable in
case of pump failure. On some light aircraft a self-contained “power pack” is used, which houses a reservoir and selector valves for the landing gearand
flap systems; an electrically driven pump may also be included, or the system may be powered by engine driven pumps. This type of system normally
provides for powered retraction of the landing gear, extension being by “free-fall”, with the assistance of spring struts.For large aircraft, because of the
weight, a hydraulic power system is used for retraction and extension of the landing gears. The retraction and extension system consists of the following
hydraulic components:
• A Selector valve.
• A Downlock actuator.
• A Retract actuator.
• A Door un-latch actuator.
• An Up-lock actuator.
• Several sequence valves; restrictors, and check valves.
25
26
Small Aircraft Retraction Systems
As the speed of a light aircraft increases, there reaches a pointwhere the parasite drag created by the landing gear in thewind is greater than the induced
drag caused by the addedweight of a retractable landing gear system. Thus, manylight aircraft have retractable landing gear. There are manyunique
designs. The simplest contains a lever in the flightdeck mechanically linked to the gear. Through mechanicaladvantage, the pilot extends and retracts
the landing gear byoperating the lever. Use of a roller chain, sprockets, and ahand crank to decrease the required force is common.
Electrically operated landing gear systems are also found onlight aircraft. An all-electric system uses an electric motorand gear reduction to move the
gear. The rotary motion of themotor is converted to linear motion to actuate the gear. This is possible only with the relatively lightweight gear found on
smaller aircraft. An all-electric gear retraction in figure.
27
A more common use of electricity in gear retraction systemsis that of

an electric/hydraulic system found in many Cessnaand Piper aircraft.
This is also known as a power pack system.A small lightweight
hydraulic power pack contains severalcomponents required in a
hydraulic system. These include thereservoir, a reversible electric
motor-driven hydraulic pump,a filter, high-and-low pressure control
valves, a thermal reliefvalve, and a shuttle valve. Some power packs
incorporate anemergency hand pump. A hydraulic actuator for each
gear isdriven to extend or retract the gear by fluid from the
powerpack, a power pack system whilegear is being lowered; the
same systemwhile the gear is being raised.
When the flight deck gear selection handle is put in the

geardownposition, a switch is made that turns on the electricmotor in
the power pack. The motor turns in the direction torotate the
hydraulic gear pump so that it pumps fluid to thegear-down side of
the actuating cylinders. Pump pressuremoves the spring-loaded
shuttle valve to the left to allowfluid to reach all three actuators.
Restrictors are used in thenose wheel actuator inlet and outlet ports
to slow down themotion of this lighter gear.
While hydraulic fluid is pumped toextend the gear, fluid from the
upside of the actuators returnsto the reservoir through the gear-up
check valve. When thegear reach the down and locked position,
pressure buildsin the gear-down line from the pump and the low-
pressurecontrol valve unseats to return the fluid to the
reservoir.Electric limit switches turn off the pump when all three gearare down and locked.To raise the gear, the flight deck gear handle is moved to
thegear-up position.
28
This sends current to the electric motor,which drives the hydraulic gear pump in the opposite directioncausing fluid to be pumped to the gear-up side of
the actuators.In this direction, pump inlet fluid flows through the filter.
Fluid from the pump flows thought the gear-up check valve tothe gear-up sides of the actuating cylinders. As the cylindersbegin to move, the pistons
release the mechanical down locksthat hold the gear rigid for ground operations. Fluid from thegear-down side of the actuators returns to the reservoir
throughthe shuttle valve. When the three gears are fully retracted,pressure builds in the system, and a pressure switch is openedthat cuts power to the
electric pump motor. The gear are heldin the retracted position with hydraulic pressure. If pressure declines, the pressure switch closes to run the pump
and raise the pressure until the pressure switch opens again.
Large Aircraft Retraction Systems
Large aircraft retraction systems are nearly alwayspowered by hydraulics. Typically, the hydraulic pump isdriven off of the engine accessory drive.
Auxiliary electrichydraulic pumps are also common. Other devices used in ahydraulically-operated retraction system include actuatingcylinders, selector
valves, uplocks, downlocks, sequencevalves, priority valves, tubing, and other conventionalhydraulic system components. These units are
interconnected so that they permit properly sequenced retraction andextension of the landing gear and the landing gear doors.
The correct operation of any aircraft landing gear retractionsystem is extremely important. Anexample of a simple large aircraft hydraulic landing
gearsystem. The system is on an aircraft that has doors thatopen before the gear is extended and close after the gear isretracted. The nose gear doors
operate via mechanical linkage and do not require hydraulic power. There are many gear andgear door arrangements on various aircraft. Some
aircrafthave gear doors that close to fair the wheel well after thegear is extended. Others have doors mechanically attachedto the outside of the gear so
that when it stows inward, thedoor stows with the gear and fairs with the fuselage skin.
In the system, when the flight deckgear selector is moved to the gear-up position, it positionsa selector valve to allow pump pressure from the
hydraulicsystem manifold to access eight different components. Thethree downlocks are pressurized and unlocked so the gearcan be retracted. At the
same time, the actuator cylinder oneach gear also receives pressurized fluid to the gear-up sideof the piston through an unrestricted orifice check valve.
Thisdrives the gear into the wheel well. Two sequence valves(C and D) also receive fluid pressure. Gear door operationmust be controlled so that it
occurs after the gear is stowed.
The sequence valves are closed and delay flow to the dooractuators. When the gear cylinders are fully retracted, theymechanically contact the sequence
valve plungers that openthe valves and allow fluid to flow into the close side of thedoor actuator cylinders. This closes the doors. Sequencevalves A and
29
B act as check valves during retraction. They allow fluid to flow one way from the gear-down side of the main gear cylinders back into the hydraulic
system return manifold through the selector valve.
30
To lower the gear, the selector is put in the gear-downposition. Pressurized hydraulic fluid flows from the hydraulicmanifold to the nose gear uplock,
which unlocks the nosegear. Fluid flows to the gear-down side of the nose gearactuator and extends it. Fluid also flows to the open side ofthe main gear
door actuators. As the doors open, sequencevalves A and B block fluid from unlocking the main gearuplocks and prevent fluid from reaching the down
side ofthe main gear actuators. When the doors are fully open, thedoor actuator engages the plungers of both sequence valvesto open the valves. The
main gear uplocks, then receivesfluid pressure and unlock. The main gear cylinder actuatorsreceive fluid on the down side through the open
sequencevalves to extend the gear. Fluid from each main gear cylinderup-side flows to the hydraulic system return manifold throughrestrictors in the
31
orifice check valves.
The restrictors slow theextension of the gear to prevent impact damage.There are numerous hydraulic landing gear retractionsystem designs. Priority
valves are sometimes used insteadof mechanically operated sequence valves. This controlssome gear component activation timing via
hydraulicpressure. Particulars of any gear system are found in theaircraft maintenance manual. The aircraft technician mustbe thoroughly familiar with
the operation and maintenancerequirements of this crucial system.
Retracting and/or Extending the landing gear is started from the flight deck by means of the landing gear handle. This handle is connected mechanically
or electrically to the selctor valveand the pilot can set it in the “UP”, the “OFF” (Neutral) or the “DOWN” position.
In the “UP” Position
If the landing gear handle is set in the”UP” position, an internal circuit in the selector valve supplies pressure from the hydraulic power system for:
• Unlocking and opening the wheelwell doors (by means of the unlatch and door actuators).
• Unlocking the landing gears (by means of the downlock actuator)
• Retratcing the landing gears (by means of the retract actuator)
32
• Closing the wheelwell doors (by means of the door and unlatch actuators).
33
In the “OFF”Position
All hydraulic components of the landing gear operation system on the “UP” as well as on the “DOWN” side are connected to the return line of hydraulic
power system. In this states, depending on the type of aircraft, the landing gears are locked by mechanical means, susch as the “Up-Lock” mechanism.
34
In the “DOWN” Position
If the landing gear handle is put in the “DOWN” position, pressure from the hydraulic power system is released via an internal circuit in the selector valve.
This pressure is used for:
• Unlocking and opening the wheelwell doors

• Unlocking the Up-Lock
• Extending the landing gear
• Closing the wheelwell doors
Selector lock
A landing gear safety circuit with solenoid that locks the control handle and selector valve from being able to move intothe gear up position when the
aircraft is on the ground. The safety switch, or squat switch, is located on the aircraft landing gear. A overriding the lock, such as a separate gated switch
to complete the circuit, or a mechanical means of avoiding the locking plunger, is provided for emergency use and for maintenance.
Downlock Mechanism
A downlock mechanism prevents undesired retraction of the landing gear when it is in the “Down Position”. Over center links which are between the
strut and the side brace, ensure that the side brace cannot pivot when it is in the “over-center” position.
The overcenter link will remain in the over center position by means of the spring force of “bungee springs”. During ground time and towing, the
overcenter mechanism is locked by landing gear lock pins for safety reasons.
Uplock Mechanism
The up-lock mechanism consist of a hook in which the landing gear is secured in the retracted position. The overcenter links mentioned before can also
be used for this purpose. In this case they work as described in the “Downlock” mechanism. In both case , an up-lock actuator is necessary to unlock the
up-lock.
35
Instead of an up-lock mechanism, the landing gears of some aircraft are kept in the “UP” position by hydraulic pressure. This is possible because
hydraulic pressure is availlable during the whole flight. If this pressure is lost for any reason, the landing gears come to rest in the uplocks or on the
wheelwell doors.
36
37
EMERGENCY EXTENSION
The emergency extension system lowers the landing gear ifthe main power system fails. There are numerous ways inwhich this is done depending on
the size and complexity ofthe aircraft. Some aircraft have an emergency release handlein the flight deck that is connected through a mechanicallinkage
to the gear uplocks. When the handle is operated, itreleases the uplocks and allows the gear to free-fall to theextended position under the force created
by gravity actingupon the gear. Other aircraft use a non-mechanical back-up, such as pneumatic power, to unlatch the gear.
Activated from the flight deck, when the free-fall valve is opened, hydraulic fluid is
allowed to flow from the gear-up side of the actuators to the gear-down side of the
actuators, independent of the power pack. Pressure holding the gear up is relieved, and
the gear extends due to its weight. Air moving past the gear aids in the extension and
helps push the gear into the down-and-locked position.
In some small aircraft, the design configuration makes emergency extension of the gear
by gravity and air loads alone impossible or impractical. Force of some kind must
therefore be applied. Manual extension systems, wherein the pilot mechanically cranks
the gear into position, are common. Consult the aircraft maintenance manual for all
emergency landing gear extension system descriptions of operation, performance
standards, and emergency extension tests as required.
Landing Gear Position Indicators
Landing gear position indicators are located on the instrumentpanel adjacent to the
gear selector handle. They are usedto inform the pilot of gear position status. There are
manyarrangements for gear indication. Usually, there is a dedicatedlight for each gear. The most common
display for the landinggear being down and locked is an illuminated green light.
Three green lights means it is safe to land. All lights outtypically indicates that the gear is up and locked, or
theremay be gear up indicator lights. Gear in transit lights areused on some aircraft as are barber pole
38
displays when agear is not up or down and locked. Blinking indicator lightsalso indicate gear in transit. Some manufacturer’s use agear disagree
annunciation when the landing gear is notin the same position as the selector. Many aircraft monitorgear door position in addition to the gear itself.
Consult theaircraft manufacturer’s maintenance and operating manualsfor a complete description of the landing gear indicationsystem.
• GREEN : the landing gear is “Down and Locked”
• RED : the landing gear is moving “UP” or “DOWN” (in transit)
• AMBER : the wheelwell doors are not closed
• Light Out : the particular landing gear is “UP” and the doors are closed and Locked.
WHEELS
Aircraft wheels are an important component of a landinggear system. With tires mounted upon them, they support theentire weight of the aircraft
during taxi, takeoff, and landing.The typical aircraft wheel is lightweight, strong, and madefrom aluminum alloy. Some magnesium alloy wheels alsoexist.
Early aircraft wheels were of single piece construction, much the same as the modern automobile wheel. As aircrafttires were improved for the purpose
39
they serve, they weremade stiffer to better absorb the forces of landing withoutblowing out or separating from the rim. Stretching sucha tire over a
single piece wheel rim was not possible. Atwo-piece wheel was developed. Early two-piece aircraftwheels were essentially one-piece wheels with a
removablerim to allow mounting access for the tire. These are stillfound on older aircraft.Later, wheels withtwo nearly symmetrical halves were
developed. Nearly allmodern aircraft wheels are of this two piece construction.
Wheel Construction
The typical modern two-piece aircraft wheel is cast or forged from aluminum or
magnesium alloy. The halves are bolted together and contain a groove at the mating
surface for an o-ring, which seals the rim since most modern aircraft utilize tubeless tires.
40
The bead seat area of a wheel is where the tire actually contacts the wheel. It is the critical area that accepts the significant tensile loads from the tire
during landing. To strengthen this area during manufacturing, the bead seat area is typically rolled to prestress it with a compressive stress load.
To the risk of explosion caused by heat generated by friction in the brakes during laning and taxiing, special safety precautions may be necessary when
handling and servicing brake, wheel and tyre assemblies, particularly in an extreme situation such as immediately after an abandoned take-off, when the
components may be overheated.
Wheel halves are not identical. The primary reason for this isthat the inboard wheel half must have a means for acceptingand driving the rotor(s) of the
aircraft brakes that are mountedon both main wheels. Tangs on the rotor are fitted into steelreinforced keyways on many wheels. Other wheels
havesteel keys bolted to the inner wheel halves.
Both wheel halves contain a bearing cavity formed into thecenter that accepts the polished steel bearing cup, taperedroller bearing, and grease retainer
of a typical wheelbearing set-up. A groove may also be machined to accept aretaining clip to hold the bearing assembly in place when thewheel
assembly is removed.
Some aircraft wheels are also fitted with a pressure relief valve, the purpose of which is to prevent over-inflation of the tyre. The inner wheel half of a
wheel used on a high performanceaircraft is likely to have one or more thermal plugs.During heavy braking, temperatures canbecome so great that tire
temperature and pressure rise to alevel resulting in explosion of the wheel and tire assembly.The thermal plug core is filled with a low melting pointalloy.
Before tire and wheel temperatures reach the point ofexplosion, the core melts and deflates the tire.
Fusible plugs or thermal plugs must be inspected visually.These threaded plugs have a core that melts at a lowertemperature than the outer part of the
plug. This is to releaseair from the tire should the temperature rise to a dangerous level. A close inspection should reveal whether any core has
experienced deformation that might be due to high temperature. If detected, all thermal plugs in the wheel should be replaced with new plugs.
41
42
Visually inspect the core of a thermal or fusible plugfor deformation associated with heat exposure. Replace all of theplugs if any appear to have begun to
deform.
Many thermal fuses are colour code using a died anodize coating on the plug surface. The colour denotes the temperature at which they melt and
release the tyre pressure. The following reasons could lead to a brake over-temeprature, melting the fuse
• Aborted take-off
• Intensive use of the brakes due to a short runway
• Intensive use due to consecutive periods of flight
• Malfunctioning brake units (dragging brake).
43
Aircraft Tires and Tubes

Aircraft tires may be tube-type or tubeless. They support theweight of the aircraft while it is on the ground and
providethe necessary traction for braking and stopping. The tires alsohelp absorb the shock of landing and
cushion the roughnessof takeoff, rollout, and taxi operations. Aircraft tires mustbe carefully maintained to
perform as required. They accept a variety of static and dynamic stresses and must do so dependably in a wide
range of operating conditions.
Aircraft tires are classified in various ways including by:type, ply rating, whether they are tube-type or tubeless,
and whether they are bias ply tires or radials. Identifying a tire by its dimensions is also used.
A common classification of aircraft tires is by type asclassified by the United States Tire and Rim
Association.While there are nine types of tires, only Types I, III, VII,and VIII, also known as a Three-Part
Nomenclature tires,are still in production.
Type I tires are manufactured, but their design is no longeractive. They are used on fixed gear aircraft and are
designatedonly by their nominal overall diameter in inches. These aresmooth profile tires that are obsolete for
use in the modernaviation fleet. They may be found on older aircraft.
Type III tires are common general aviation tires. They aretypically used on light aircraft with landing speeds of 160miles per hour (mph) or less. Type III
tires are relatively lowpressuretires that have small rim diameters when comparedto the overall width of the tire. They are designed to cushionand
provide flotation from a relatively large footprint. Type
III tires are designated with a two number system. The firstnumber is the nominal section width of the tire, and thesecond number is the diameter of the
rim the tire is designedto mount upon.
Type VII tires are high performance tires found on jet aircraft.They are inflated to high-pressure and have exceptional highload carrying capability. The
section width of Type VII tiresis typically narrower than Type III tires. Identification of
Type VII aircraft tires involves a two-number system. An Xis used between the two numbers. The first number designatesthe nominal overall diameter of
the tire. The second numberdesignates the section width.
44
Type VIII aircraft tires are also known as three-partnomenclature tires.They are inflated tovery high-pressure and are used on high-performance
jetaircraft. The typical Type VIII tire has relatively low profileand is capable of operating at very high speeds and very highloads. It is the most modern
design of all tire types. The threepartnomenclature is a combination of Type III and Type VII nomenclature where the overall tire diameter, sectionwidth,
and rim diameter are used to identify the tire. The Xand “–” symbols are used in the same respective positionsin the designator.
When three part nomenclature is used on a Type VIII tire,dimensions may be represented in inches or in millimeters.Bias tires follow the designation
nomenclature and radial tires replace the “–” with the letter R. For example, 30 X 8.8 R 15 designates a Type VIII radial aircraft tire with a 30-inch tire
diameter, an 8.8-inch section width to be mounted on a 15-inch wheel rim.
A Type VIII or three-part nomenclature tire isidentified by 3 parameters: overall diameter, section width, andrim diameter. They are arranged in that order
with the first twoseparated by an “X” and the second two separated by a “–.”
For example: 18 X 4.25—10 designates a tire that is 18 inches in diameter with a 4.25-inch section width to be mounted on a 10- inch wheel rim.
45
Ply Rating
Tire plies are reinforcing layers of fabric encased in rubberthat are laid into the tire to provide strength. In early tires,the number of plies used was
directly related to the load thetire could carry. Nowadays, refinements to tire constructiontechniques and the use of modern materials to build up
aircrafttires makes the exact number of plies somewhat irrelevant when determining the strength of a tire. However, a ply ratingis used to convey the
relative strength of an aircraft tire. Atire with a high ply rating is a tire with high strength able tocarry heavy loads regardless of the actual number of
pliesused in its construction.
Tube-Type or Tubeless
As stated, aircraft tires can be tube-type or tubeless. Thisis often used as a means of tire classification. Tires thatare made to be used without a tube
inserted inside have an inner liner specifically designed to hold air. Tube-type tiresdo not contain this inner liner since the tube holds the airfrom leaking
out of the tire. Tires that are meant to be usedwithout a tube have the word tubeless on the sidewall. Ifthis designation is absent, the tire requires a tube.
Consultthe aircraft manufacturer’s maintenance information for anyallowable tire damage and the use of a tube in a tubeless tire.
Bias Ply or Radial
Another means of classifying an aircraft tire is by thedirection of the plies used in construction of the tire, eitherbias or radial. Traditional aircraft tires are
bias ply tires. Theplies are wrapped to form the tire and give it strength. Theangle of the plies in relation to the direction of rotation of thetire varies
between 30° and 60°. In this manner, the plies havethe bias of the fabric from which they are constructed facingthe direction of rotation and across the
tire. Hence, they arecalled bias tires. The result is flexibility as the sidewall canflex with the fabric plies laid on the bias.
Some modern aircraft tires are radial tires. The plies in radialtires are laid at a 90° angle to the direction of rotation of thetire. This configuration puts the
non-stretchable fiber of theplies perpendicular to the sidewall and direction of rotation. This creates strength in the tire allowing it to carry high loads
with less deformation.
46
A bias ply tire has the fabric bias oriented withand A radial tire has the fiber strands of the ply fabric
across the direction of rotation and the sidewall. oriented with and at 90° to the direction of
Since fabriccan stretch on the bias, the tire is rotation and the tiresidewall. This restricts
flexible, and can absorb loads.Strength is obtained flexibility directionally and the flexibilityof the
by adding plies. sidewall while it strengthens the tire to carry heavy
loads.
Tire Construction
An aircraft tire is constructed for the purpose it serves. Unlikean automobile or truck tire, it does not have to carry a load fora long period of continuous
operation. However, an aircrafttire must absorb the high impact loads of landing and be ableto operate at high speeds even if only for a short time.
Thedeflection built into an aircraft tire is more than twice that of an automobile tire. This enables it to handle the forces duringlandings without being
damaged. Only tires designed foran aircraft as specified by the manufacturer should be used.
47
Carcass Plies
Carcass plies, or casing plies as they are sometimes called,are used to form the tire. Each ply consists of fabric, usuallynylon, sandwiched between two
layers of rubber. The pliesare applied in layers to give the tire strength and form thecarcass body of the tire. The ends of each ply are anchoredby
wrapping them around the bead on both sides of the tireto form the ply turn-ups. As mentioned, the angle of the fiberin the ply is manipulated to create
a bias tire or radial tireas desired. Typically, radial tires require fewer plies thanbias tires.
48
Tread
The tread is the crown area of the tire designed to come incontact with the ground. It is a rubber compound formulated toresist wear, abrasion, cutting,
and cracking. It also is made toresist heat build-up. Most modern aircraft tire tread is formedwith circumferential grooves that create tire ribs. The
groovesprovide cooling and help channel water from under the tirein wet conditions to increase adhesion to the ground surface.
Tires designed for aircraft frequently operated from unpavedsurfaces may have some type of cross-tread pattern. Olderaircraft without brakes or brakes
designed only to aid in taximay not have any grooves in the tread. An all-weather treadmay be found on some aircraft tires. This tread has
typicalcircumferential ribs in the center of the tire with a diamondpatterned cross tread at the edge of the tire. The tread is designed to stabilize the
aircraft on the operatingsurface and wears with use
Sidewall
The sidewall of an aircraft tire is a layer of rubber designed toprotect the carcass plies. It may contain compounds designedto resist the negative effects
of ozone on the tire. It also isthe area where information about the tire is contained. Thetire sidewall imparts little strength to the cord body. Its
mainfunction is protection.
The inner sidewall of a tire is covered by the tire inner liner.A tube-type tire has a thin rubber liner adhered to the innersurface to prevent the tube from
chafing on the carcassplies. Tubeless tires are lined with a thicker, less permeablerubber. This replaces the tube and contains the nitrogen orinflation air
within the tire and keeps from seeping throughthe carcass plies.
The inner liner does not contain 100 percent of the inflationgas. Small amounts of nitrogen or air seep through the linerinto the carcass plies. This
seepage is released through ventholes in the lower outer sidewall of the tires. These aretypically marked with a green or white dot of paint and mustbe
kept unobstructed. Gas trapped in the plies could expandwith temperature changes and cause separation of the plies,thus weakening the tire leading to
tire failure. Tube-type tires also have seepage holes in the sidewall to allow air trapped between the tube and the tire to escape.
Aircraft Brakes
All modern aircraft are equipped with brakes. Their properfunctioning is relied upon for safe operation of the aircrafton the ground. The brakes slow the
aircraft and stop it in areasonable amount of time. They hold the aircraft stationaryduring engine run-up and, in many cases, steer the aircraft during taxi.
On most aircraft, each of the main wheels isequipped with a brake unit. The nose wheel or tail wheeldoes not have a brake.
49
In the typical brake system, mechanical and/or hydrauliclinkages to the rudder pedals allow the pilot to control thebrakes. Pushing on the top of the
right rudder pedal activatesthe brake on the right main wheel(s) and pushing on the topof the left rudder pedal operates the brake on the left
mainwheel(s). The basic operation of brakes involves convertingthe kinetic energy of motion into heat energy through thecreation of friction. A great
amount of heat is developedand forces on the brake system components are demanding.Proper adjustment, inspection, and maintenance of the
brakesis essential for effective operation.
Types and Construction of Aircraft Brakes
Modern aircraft typically use disc brakes. The disc rotateswith the turning wheel assembly while a stationary caliperresists the rotation by causing friction
against the disc whenthe brakes are applied. The size, weight, and landing speedof the aircraft influence the design and complexity of thedisc brake
system. Single, dual, and multiple disc brakes are common types of brakes. Segmented rotor brakes are used on large aircraft. Expander tube brakes are
found on older large aircraft. The use of carbon discs is increasing in the modern aviation fleet.
Single Disc Brakes
Small, light aircraft typically achieve effective braking using asingle disc keyed or bolted to each wheel. As the wheel turns,so does the disc. Braking is
accomplished by applying frictionto both sides of the disc from a non-rotating caliper bolted tothe landing gear axle flange. Pistons in the caliper
housing under hydraulic pressure force wearable brake pads or liningsagainst the disc when the brakes are applied. Hydraulic mastercylinders
connected to the rudder pedals supply the pressurewhen the upper halves of the rudder pedals are pressed.
Floating Disc Brakes
A floating disk brake is illustrated in figure. A moredetailed, exploded view of this type of brake is shown infigure. The caliper straddles the disc. It has
threecylinders bored through the housing, but on other brakes thisnumber may vary. Each cylinder accepts an actuating pistonassembly comprised
mainly of a piston, a return spring, andan automatic adjusting pin. Each brake assembly has sixbrake linings or pucks. Three are located on the ends of
thepistons, which are in the outboard side of the caliper. Theyare designed to move in and out with the pistons and applypressure to the outboard side
of the disc. Three more liningsare located opposite of these pucks on the inboard side ofthe caliper. These linings are stationary.
50
The brake disc is keyed to the wheel. It is free to movelaterally in the key slots. This is known as a floating disk.When the brakes are applied, the pistons
move out from theoutboard cylinders and their pucks contact the disc. The discslides slightly in the key slots until the inboard stationarypucks also
contact the disc. The result is a fairly even amountof friction applied to each side of the disc and thus, therotating motion is slowed.
When brake pressure is released, the return spring in eachpiston assembly forces the piston back away from the disc.The spring provides a preset
clearance between each puckand the disc. The self adjusting feature of the brake maintainsthe same clearance, regardless of the amount of wear on
thebrake pucks. The adjusting pin on the back of each piston moves with the piston through a frictional pin grip. Whenbrake pressure is relieved, the
force of the return spring issufficient to move the piston back away from the brake disc,but not enough to move the adjusting pin held by the frictionof
the pin grip. The piston stops when it contacts the head ofthe adjusting pin. Thus, regardless of the amount of wear,the same travel of the piston is
required to apply the brake.
51
The stem of the pin protruding through the cylinder headserves as a wear indicator. The manufacturer’s maintenanceinformation states the minimum
length of the pin that needsto be protruding for the brakes to be considered airworthy.The brake caliper has the necessary passages machined intoit to
facilitate hydraulic fluid movement and the applicationof pressure when the brakes are utilized. The caliper housing also contains a bleed port used by
the technician to remove unwanted air from the system. Brake bleeding, as it is known, should be done in accordance with the manufacturer’s
maintenance instructions.
Fixed-Disc Brakes
Even pressure must be applied to both sides of the brakedisc to generate the required friction and obtain consistentwear properties from the brake
linings. The floating discaccomplishes this as described above. It can also beaccomplished by bolting the disc rigidly to the wheel andallowing the brake
caliper and linings to float laterally when pressure is applied. This is the design of a common fixed-discbrake used on light aircraft. The brake is
manufactured bythe Cleveland Brake Company and is shown in figure.
An exploded detail view of the same type of brake is shown in figure. The fixed-disk, floating-caliper design allows the brake caliper and linings to adjust
position in relationship to the disc. Linings are riveted to the pressure plate and backplate. Two anchor bolts that pass through the pressure plate are
secured to the cylinder assembly. The other ends of the bolts are free to slide in and out of bushings in the torque plate, which is bolted to the axle
flange. The cylinder assembly is bolted to the backplate to secure the assembly around the disc. When pressure is applied, the caliper and linings center
on the disc via the sliding action of the anchor bolts in the torque plate bushings. This provides equal pressure to both sides of the disc to slow its
rotation.
Dual-Disc Brakes
Dual-disc brakes are used on aircraft where a single disc oneach wheel does not supply sufficient braking friction. Twodiscs are keyed to the wheel
instead of one. A center carrieris located between the two discs. It contains linings on eachside that contact each of the discs when the brakes are
applied.
52
53
The caliper mounting bolts are long and mount through thecenter carrier, as well as the backplate which bolts to thehousing assembly.
Multiple-Disc Brakes
Large, heavy aircraft require the use of multiple-disc brakes.Multiple-disc brakes are heavy duty brakes designed for use with power brake control valves
or power boost mastercylinders, which is discussed later in this chapter. The brakeassembly consists of an extended bearing carrier similar to atorque
tube type unit that bolts to the axle flange. It supportsthe various brake parts, including an annular cylinder andpiston, a series of steel discs alternating
with copper orbronze-plated discs, a backplate, and a backplate retainer.
The steel stators are keyed to the bearing carrier, and thecopper or bronze plated rotors are keyed to the rotatingwheel. Hydraulic pressure applied to
the piston causes theentire stack of stators and rotors to be compressed. Thiscreates enormous friction and heat and slows the rotation ofthe wheel.
54
As with the single and dual-disc brakes, retracting springsreturn the piston into the housing chamber
of the bearingcarrier when hydraulic pressure is relieved. The hydraulicfluid exits the brake to the
return line through an automaticadjuster. The adjuster traps a predetermined amountof fluid in the
brakes that is just sufficient to providethe correct clearances between the rotors and stators.
Brake wear is typically measured with awear gauge that is not part of the brake assembly. Thesetypes
of brake are typically found on older transport categoryaircraft. The rotors and stators are relatively
thin, only about1⁄8-inch thick. They do not dissipate heat very well and have a tendency to warp.
55
56
Segmented Rotor-Disc Brakes
The large amount of heat generated while slowing the rotationof the wheels on large and high performance aircraft is problematic. To better dissipate
this heat, segmented rotordisc brakes have been developed. Segmented rotor-disc brakes are multiple-disc brakes but of more modern design than the
type discussed earlier. There are many variations.
Most feature numerous elements that aid in the control and dissipation of heat. Segmented rotor-disc brakes are heavy-duty brakes especially adapted
for use with the high pressure hydraulic systems of power brake systems. Braking is accomplished by means of several sets of stationary, high friction
type brake linings that make contact with rotating segments. The rotors are constructed with slots or in sections with space between them, which helps
dissipate heat and give the brake its name. Segmented rotor multiple-disc brakes are the standard brake used on high performance and air carrier
aircraft. An exploded view of one type of segmented rotor brake assembly is shown in Figure.
The description of a segmented rotor brake is very

similar tothe multiple-disc type brake previously
described. The brakeassembly consists of a carrier, a
piston and piston cup seal, apressure plate, an
auxiliary stator plate, rotor segments, statorplates,
automatic adjusters, and a backing plate.
The carrier assembly, or brake housing with torque

tube, isthe basic unit of the segmented rotor brake. It
is the part thatattaches to the landing gear shock
strut flange upon whichthe other components of the
brake are assembled.
On somebrakes, two grooves or cylinders are

machined into thecarrier to receive the piston cups
and pistons.
Most segmented rotor-disc brakes have numerous
57
individualcylinders machined into the brake housing into which fit thesame number of actuating pistons. Often, these cylinders aresupplied by two
different hydraulic sources, alternating everyother cylinder from a single source. If one source fails, thebrake still operates sufficiently on the other.
External fittings in the carrier or brake housing admit thehydraulic fluid. A bleed port can also be found.
A pressure plate is a flat, circular, high-strength steel,

nonrotatingplate notched on the inside circumference to fit
overthe stator drive sleeves or torque tube spines. The
brakeactuating pistons contact the pressure plate. Typically,
aninsulator is used between the piston head and the
pressureplate to impede heat conduction from the brake
discs. Thepressure plate transfers the motion of the pistons to
the stack of rotors and stators that compress to slow the
rotation ofthe wheels. On most designs, brake lining material
attacheddirectly to the pressure plate contacts the first rotor
in the stackto transfer the motion of the piston(s).Anauxiliary
stator plate with brake lining material on the sideopposite
the pressure plate can also be used.
Segmented multiple-disc brakes use retraction

springassemblies with auto clearance adjusters to pull the
backplateaway from the rotor and stator stack when brake
pressureis removed. This provides clearance so the wheel can
turnunimpeded by contact friction between the brake parts,
butkeeps the units in close proximity for rapid contact
andbraking when the brakes are applied. The number of
retractiondevices varies with brake design. Figure illustratesa
58
brake assembly used on a Boeing 737 transport categoryaircraft. In the cutaway view, the number and locations ofthe auto adjustment retraction
mechanisms can been seen.
Details of the mechanisms are also shown.Instead of using a pin grip assembly for auto adjustment,an adjuster pin, ball, and tube operate in the same
manner.
They move out when brake pressure is applied, but the ballin the tube limits the amount of the return to that equal tothe brake lining wear. Two
independent wear indicators areused on the brake illustrated. An indicator pin attached to thebackplate protrudes through the carrier. The amount that
itprotrudes with the brakes applied is measured to ascertain ifnew linings are required.
NOTE: Other segmented multiple-disc brakes may useslightly different techniques for pressure plate retraction andwear indication.
59
Module 9
Aircraft Structure
9.8 Skin and Fairings
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
2
INTRODUCTIONS
Aircraft fairing, a structure in aircraft design used to reduce drag and improve appearance. A fairing is a structure whose primary function is
to produce a smooth outline and reduce drag.
Aircraft must have an aerodynamically clean shape and a smooth external surface to give high performance. It is important to keep the
initial contour and smoothness of the external surfaces of the airplane.
Fairing provide aerodynamic smoothness for various areas of the fuselage. Wing-to-fuselage join, the leading edge of vertical fin-to-fuselage
join, and the nose radome and tail cone are are the primary faired areas ofthe fuselage. These component are non structural in nature and
are constructed of composite materials, ususally consisting of a honeycomb type construction.
The aerodynamic surfaces of the airplane are divided into three areas of aerodynamic smoothness as shown in Aerodynamic Smoothness
Areas.
Extra critical aerodynamic surfaces are those surfaces where the airflow has a direct effect on flight critical instruments, loss of local lift force,
or high drag or thrust loss caused by high-speed flow. The shape of structural components that have an effect on local lift forces must be
carefully controlled to prevent premature stalling. The extra critical areas are:
• Surfaces near the Pitot probes, angle-of-attack sensors, and static ports.
• Upper and lower surfaces forward of the wing leading edge that are common to the fixed leading edge, slats, or other leading edge
devices, and wingtips.
• Horizontal and vertical tail leading edge surfaces forward of the front spar.
• Leading edge areas of high-lift devices and flight control surfaces such as the wing trailing edge flaps, ailerons, and elevators.
• Surfaces on the nacelle or pylon.
Critical aerodynamic surfaces are those surfaces that must have a high level of aerodynamic smoothness. The critical areas are:
• Fuselage nose.
3
• Wing upper surface from the leading edge to the rear spar.
• The upper surface of the ailerons and the upper surface of the wings forward of the ailerons to the wing rear spar
• Both sides of the horizontal (upper and lower) and vertical tail (left and right) external surfaces of the front and rear spars
• Nacelle and pylon.
All other surfaces are non-critical aerodynamic surfaces.
4
On aircraft, fairings are commonly found on:
Cockpit fairing
Also called a "cockpit pod", it protects the crew on ultra-light trikes. Commonly made from fiberglass, it may also incorporate a windshield.
Fiberglass (or fibreglass) (also called glass-reinforced plastic, GRP, glass-fiber reinforced plastic, or GFRP) is a fiber reinforced polymer made
of a plastic matrix reinforced by fine fibers of glass. It is also known as GFK (for German: Glasfaserverstärkter Kunststoff).
Fiberglass is a lightweight, extremely strong and robust material, and is used for many products. Although its strength properties are
somewhat lower than carbon fiber and it is less stiff, fiberglass is typically far less brittle, and its raw materials much less expensive. Its bulk
strength and weight properties are also very favorable when compared to metals, and it can be easily formed using molding processes.
The plastic matrix may be a thermosetting plastic (most often epoxy, polyester or vinylester) or thermoplastic.
Common uses of fiberglass include high performance aircraft (gliders), boats, automobiles, bath tubs and enclosures, hot tubs, septic tanks,
water tanks, roofing, pipes, cladding, casts, surfboards and external door skins.
5
Nose Radome Fairing
The nose radome serves as a fairing for the forward end of the fuselage and houses the weather radar antena. It is a cone-shaped structure
of fiberglass honeycomb sandwich construction. The radome is attached to the fuselage with some hinge and latched, the radome is
protected from lightning strikes with strips and connected contact to the grounding on the fuselage.
The nose of theradome is equipped with erosion protectionand a layer of conductive spray paint providesstatic dissipation, but is not
enough to interferewith the operation of the weather radar or anyother antenna which may be mounted insidethe radome. The radome is
provided with lightning diverterstrips on the exterior surface.
Engine cowlings
Engine cowlings reduce parasitic drag by reducing the surface area, having a smooth surface and thus leading to laminar flow, and having a
nose cone shape, which prevents early flow separation. The inlet and the nozzle in combination lead to an isotropic speed reduction around
the cooling fins and due to the speed-squared law to a reduction in cooling drag.
The cowl contains and protects the engine components. Thecowl also controls the airflow through and around the engine.The inlet cowl
supplies a smooth airflow into the engine, the fan cowl is aft of the inlet cowl. The fan cowl attaches to thefan cowl support beam on the
engine
6
Fin and rudder tips
Fin and rudder tip fairings reduce turbulence at the tips
Fixed landing gear junctions
Landing gear fairings reduce drag at these junctions
Flap track fairings
Most jet airliners have a cruising speed between Mach 0.8 and 0.85. For aircraft operating in the transonic regime (about Mach 0.8–1.2),
wave drag can be minimized by having a cross-sectional area which changes smoothly along the length of the aircraft. This is known as the
area rule. On subsonic aircraft such as jet airliners, this can be achieved by the addition of smooth pods on the trailing edges of the wings.
These pods are known as anti-shock bodies, Küchemann Carrots, or flap track fairings, as they enclose the mechanisms for deploying the
wing flaps
Spinner
To cover and streamline the propeller hub
Tail cones
Tail cones reduce the form drag of the fuselage, by recovering the pressure behind it. For the design speed they add no friction drag.
The tail cone serves to close and streamline the aft end ofmost fuselages. The cone is made up of structural memberslike those of the
fuselage; however, cones are usually oflighter constructionsince they receive less stress than thefuselage.
Wing root (Wing-to-fuselage)
Wing roots are often faired to reduce interference drag between the wing and the fuselage. On top and below the wing it consists of small
rounded edge to reduce the surface and such friction drag. At the leading and trailing edge it consists of much larger taper and smoothest
out the pressure differences: High pressure at the leading and trailing edge, low pressure on top of the wing and around the fuselage.
7
In the overwing area, they are attached to the wing surface between the aircraft structure and the fairing is coated with a teflon-filled that
acts as a rub strip, under the wing they are attached to the wing surfaces and fuselage structure. All fairing attached by countersunk screws
with dimpled washers.
The wing-to-body fairings serve as aerodynamic fairings, are made of aluminium alloy or ahoneycomb composite lay-up, and are secondary
structure.The wing-to-body fairings are attached to the wing surface and the fuselage skin. A cut-out inthe fairing allow for the passage of
the main landing gear. Other cut-outs with panels or doorsare provided as access to equipment within the fairing.
A blowout panel on each wing-to-body lower fairing protects the aeroplane skin in that area fromexcessive pressure build-up. Each panel is
held by a hinge and secured by shear rivets, with anenergy absorbing retaining strap to limit panel opening. An aerodynamic deflector is
8
included tohold panel open and prevent uncontrolled buffeting, if the panel opens.
Wing tips
Wing tips are often formed as complex shapes to reduce vortex generation and so also drag, especially at low speed
Wheels on fixed gear aircraft
Wheel fairings are often called "wheel pants", "speed fairings". These fairings are a trade-off in advantages, as they increase the frontal and
surface area, but also provide a smooth surface, a faired nose and tail for laminar flow, in an attempt to reduce the turbulence created by the
round wheel and its associated gear legs and brakes. They also have the important function of preventing mud and stones from being
thrown upwards against the wings or fuselage, or into the propeller on a pusher craft.
9
Module 9
Aircraft Structure
9.9 Access and Inspection Door
1
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
LEVEL 3
2
INTRODUCTIONS
The purpose of the doors is to permit entry to or exit from the various aircraft compartment and area, they are movable units that give
access to the aircraft compartments (external and internal doors), types of doors on the aircraft:
• Forward and aft entry doors

• Forward and aft galley service doors
• Emergency exit doors
• Cargo doors
• Miscellaneous access doors.
Access doors permit normal or emergency entrance into or exit from the aircraft. Also, they provide access to servicing points and manually
operated drains.
Inspection doors provide access to a particular part of the aircraft being inspected or maintained. Access or inspection doors are either
hinged or removable.
They are fastened in the closed position with catch and locking mechanisms, screws quick release devices, or cowling type fasteners. Access
and inspection doors that are removable often have a stenciled identification number that is identical to a number stenciled near the
opening that they cover. Other access and inspection doors have a stenciled nomenclature to identify the opening that they cover.
3
Entry doors provide for entry and exit for passengers and crew members. They are located on the Left side, Forward and Aft, the service
doors located Forward and Aft on the right side; they are normally used for servicing the galley.Some of doors (overwing, service, and entry)
are availlable as emergency exits.
Thera are a number of different kinds of doors in an aircraft. When talking about doors that are part of the pressurized cabin, the following
are included
• Cabin doors;
• Cargo compartment doors;
• Access doors to equipment compartments that are part of the pressurized cabin.
These doors should meet the following requirements:
• The doors must be opened and closed from the inside and the outside;
• Instructions for closing and opening them must be easy to read and simple to understand;
• There must be an indication on the cockpit as well as a mechanical indication near thedoor itself that the door is properly closed.
4
In addition, cargo doors must:
• Be constructed in such a way that, in closed position, they are part of the total strength ofthe fuselage construction.
The doors in the pressurized cabin can be divided into two groups:
• Plug-type doors;
• Non-plug-type doors.
Plug-type Doors
Doors that close the fuselage from the inside are called plug-type doors. Plug-type doors are alittle bigger than the dimensions of the
doorjamb in which they fit. For thisreason, the door in open position is sometimes kept inside the pressurized cabin. Anotherpossibility is
that the door has what is known as gates. They make the door smaller whileopening or closing so that it can be brought outside the
pressurized cabin when it is in openposition.
5
The advantages of a plug-type door are:
• The total load is distributed over the whole doorjamb;
• The doors close tighter as the pressure increases.
6
Non-Plug-Type Doors
Doors that close from the outside are called non-plug-type doors. The hinges
and the closingmechanism of this type of door must carry all the forces that are
caused by pressuredifferences. For the above mentioned reasons, the large
cargo compartment doors have heavylocking mechanisms. These locks are at
the exact locations where the frames in the fuselageand the cargo door are
broken. The lock forms the connection between these frames when thedoor is
closed. In this way, non-plug-type doors add to the total strength of thefuselage
construction.
The locking hooks keep each cargo door in the closed position. To show this
condition there areindication windows in the access panel of the cargo door.
The green mark shows that the safetymechanism locks each locking unit in its
latched position. The red marks show that the lockingunits are not locked and
satisfactory. When the cargo doors are locked, the door seal makes therelated cargo compartment pressure-tight. To balance the difference
in pressure on the groundand in the cargo compartments, there is a vent door in each cargo door. This spring-loaded ventdoor opens
inboard and remains in this position until the cargo door is correctly locked.
Door Safety
Proximity sensors attached to the door for 'Door Closed, 'Door Locked' and 'Girt Bar Activated' give an indication to the flight crew at time
anyone of these conditions is not met.
Electrical switches (micro switches or proximity switches) of the door warning system monitorthe closed and locked condition of the cargo
door. They send a signal to the cockpit indicationsystem when a cargo door is not locked. Then an indication warns the pilots about the
unlockedcondition of the door.
7
The door warning system is an electrical circuit which gives the crew a visual warning when adoor is open or not latched.
Door Seals
Usually a silicon rubber seal is installed around the door. When the door is closed, the seal is pushed against the door frame of the fuselage.
The seal usually has holes at equal intervals,which let the cabin air to the seal inside and vice versa. When the door is closed and the cabinis
pressurized, the door seals inflate because of the pressure difference between inside andoutside.
The door seal is installed in the retainers so that the inflation holes show tothe inner side of the cargo compartment. When the cargo door is
in the closed position, the doorseal comes into contact with the fuselage profile. Due to the higher internal pressure of thecargo
compartment during the flight, the door seal is inflated via the inflation holes so that thecargo compartment is sealed air-tight.
Doors Service
The miscellaneous service doors give access to areaswith components that require regular servicing.
Blowout door is on the pressure bulkhead, it hinges opendownward to give access to the components.The door has a spring-loaded latch
system. This protects thestructure if the pressure bulkhead fails.. Each panel is held by a hinge and secured by shear rivets, with anenergy
absorbing retaining strap to limit panel opening. An aerodynamic deflector is included tohold panel open and prevent uncontrolled
buffeting, if the panel opens.
Cockpit Windows
The flight deck windows are again divided into two kinds: windshield (front windows) and sidewindows. The requirements that flight deck
windows must meet are significantly more severethan the requirements for cabin windows. This is understandable because the safety of the
flightcrew must be guaranteed under all circumstances. Windshields consist of layers of toughenedglass and plastics.
There is a heating element between the outside window and the plastic layer.The heating element is made of gold, tin oxide or indium
oxide. The outside window has a stiff,hard, scratch resistant layer. The synthetic middle layer keeps splinters from being spread in theflight
deck if the inside window breaks. Heating the windshields is necessary because:
8
• It increases the flexibility of the windshields;
• It keeps the windows free of ice;
• It keeps the windows from fogging over.
The construction of the cockpit window consists of a glass pane laminated to each side of apolyvinyl butyral (vinyl) interlayer or core.The
inner glass pane is the thicker of the two and is the primary load carrying member. Thevinyl interlayer, or core, acts as the "fail-safe" load
carrying member and prevents the windowfrom shattering if the inner pane should break. The outer pane has no structural significance,but
provides rigidity and a hard, scratch resistant surface.
The different layers of the windows expand and contract at different rates during a change intemperature. This can cause the layers to pull
9
against each other at their interface with greatforce causing intemal glass chipping and vinyl interlayer cracking, especially around the
edges.To prevent this windows have thin layers of a slippery material around the edges, called partingmaterial or slip planes, to allow the
window layers to slide against each other during expansionand contraction. Some windows have soft material layers around the edges or
across the wholewindow that will flex when the main structural layers pull against them.
Uneven heating, expansion and shrinkage, careless installation, ultraviolet rays, pressuredifferences and seeping in of humidity via leaks in
the window seals can all lead to delamination(the layers come loose), pealing, tearing or breaking. The side windows consist of layers
oftoughened glass and plastics just as the windshields. In windows that can be heated (against fogging), the heating element is between
the insidewindow and the synthetic layer.
Access doors and panels that you can remove and install during maintenance are identified by a three-digit numbers the major zones, sub-
zones, and zones as follows:
• Major zones - The first number is a number from 1 through 8 followed by two zeroes.
• Subzone - The first number is the major zone number; the second number is a number from 1thru 6 or 9; the third number is a
zero.
• Zone - The first two numbers are the subzone numbers. The third number shows a componentor group of components that
are the same in the subzone.
10

M9. Aircraft Structures

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

M9. Aircraft Structures

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Training Handbook

Basic Aircraft Maintenance Category A1.4

Basic Aircraft Maintenance

The objective of this training are:

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

Section 2 - acceptable means of compliance and interpretations

The resulting S-N curve has three major limitations :

• Multiple stringers and ribs in wings.

• Multiple wing panels.

Damage Tolerant Design

This process continues through out the life of the aeroplane.

Owing to the difficulty of formulating repair constructions for

Primary Structure - RED/White

Secondary Structure - YELLOW/Hatched

Tertiary Structure - GREEN

The definitions of structure classification (for repair purposes

Dimensions and Locations

Zonal Identification Systems

Major zones are identified by hundred as follows:

• 100 FUSELAGE LOWER SECTION

• 200 FUSELAGE TOP SECTION

• 500 LEFT WING

• 600 RIGHT WING

• 700 LANDING GEAR

• 200 : upper half of body (major zone)

• 10 : Cockpit (major sub-zone)

• 2 : zone number on the right-hand side (unit zone)

Where necessary, the uneven zone number refers to the

Aircraft Structural Design

Although the major focus of structural design in the early

Modern aircraft structures are designed using a semi-

Proper stress levels, a very complex problem in highly

b) Span wise wing and stabilizer skin splices

Design Life Criteria -- Philosophy

System Installation Provision

Drains and Ventilation Provision

Lightning Strike Protection (LSP) and Static Dissipation

• Bonding aluminium foil to the structure as the outside ply

• Gives a low resistance path for earth return circuits.

• Reduce radio interference.

• Reduces danger from lightning strikes.

• Prevents the accumulation of local static charge.

Different manufacturers usse different methods to dissipate the electrical

• Aluminium wires may be woven into the top layer of composite

• A thin aluminium foil sheet may be bonded to the outer layer of

Stresses Acting on an Aircraft Structure

Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to resist stress. In

There are five major stresses to which allaircraft are subjected:

Construction Methods of Aircrafts

When constructing an aeroplane, a distinction is made between the main

aeroplane construction are:

• The landing gears

• The propulsion systems (powerplants, also referred to as engines).

Stressed Skin Construction Method

The design may be dividedinto two classes:

To overcome the strength/weight problem of monocoqueconstruction, a

It also consists of frameassemblies, bulkheads, and formers as used in the

Stringers are also used in the semimonocoque fuselage. Theselongitudinal

The landing gear is the principle support of the airplanewhen parked,

wateroperations, or skis for landing on snow.

Structure Assembly Techniques

• Bolts and Nuts

• Studs and Inserts