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9
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Activity Pack
9781447959410 Crocodile tears
People who fake being
sad are often said to be
‘crying crocodile tears’.
A scientific study recently
discovered the reason
for this metaphor. When
962-5 crocodiles eat, air is
forced through holes
in their skulls and out
through their eyes causing
them to weep. This
makes the animals look
as though they feel sorry
for killing and eating their
prey (when of course,
they’re not). Crocodiles
have their eyes, ears and
nostrils on the tops of
their heads, so that they
can lie low in the water as
they wait to attack.

A LW AY S L E A R N I N G
 Mark Levesley • Penny Johnson • Iain Brand • Sue Kearsey • Sue Robilliard

A LW AY S L E A R N I N G
CONTENTS
How to use this book 4 9C2 Project 2: Enzyme investigation 49
9C3 Project 3: Teeth 50
Biology
9D Biology transition to GCSE
9A Genetics and evolution
9Da Threat from disease 51
9Aa Monsters and myth 5
9Da Command words (L&C) 52
9Aa Environmental variation 6
9Da Diseases 54
9Ab Inherited variation 8
9Db Control systems 56
9Ab Probability (WS) 10
9Dc Testing medicines 58
9Ac DNA 12
9Dc Median and quartiles (WS) 60
9Ad Genes and extinction 14
9Dd Ecology 62
9Ae Natural selection 16
9De In and out 64
9Ae Convincing arguments (L&C) 18
9De Combatting pandemics 66
9Ae Recreating animals 20

9B Plant growth
9Ba On a farm 21
Chemistry
9Ba Reactions in plants 22 9E Making materials
9Bb Plant adaptations 24 9Ea Materials of the future 67
9Bc Plant products 26 9Ea About ceramics 68
9Bc Clarity and emphasis (L&C) 28 9Eb Polymers 70
9Bd Growing crops 30 9Eb Peer review (WS) 72
9Be Farming problems 32 9Ec Composite materials 74
9Be Bias and validity (WS) 34 9Ed Problems with materials 76
9Be Organic farming 36 9Ed Biased language (L&C) 78
9Ee Recycling materials 80
9C Biology revision and projects 9Ee Material failures? 82
9Ca Revising KS3 Biology 37
9Ca Cells, systems and movement 38 9F Reactivity
9Cb Other organ systems 40 9Fa Demolition 83
9Cc Reproduction and health 42 9Fa Types of explosion 84
9Cd Energy in ecosystems 44 9Fa Active and passive (L&C) 86
9Ce Genetics and evolution 46 9Fb Reactivity 88
9C1 Project 1: Animal smuggling 48 9Fc Energy and reactions 90

2
9Fc Percentage loss or gain (WS) 92 9J Force fields and electromagnets
9Fd Displacement 94 9Ja Mission to Mars 145
9Fe Extracting metals 96 9Ja Force fields 146
9Fe Alfred Nobel 98 9Ja Cohesion in writing (L&C) 148
9Jb Static electricity 150
9G Chemistry revision and projects 9Jc Current electricity 152
9Ga Revising KS3 chemistry 99 9Jd Resistance 154
9Ga Separating substances 100 9Jd Rounding numbers (WS) 156
9Gb Chemical reactions 102 9Je Electromagnets 158
9Gc Physical and chemical 104 9Je Humans in space 160
9Gd The periodic table 106
9Ge Earth and atmosphere 108 9K Physics revision and projects
9G1 Project 1: Carbon capture 110 9Ka Revising KS3 physics 161
9G2 Project 2: Electrolysis investigation 111 9Ka Models in science 162
9G3 Project 3: Nanoparticles 112 9Kb Energy 164
9Kc Forces 166
9H Chemistry transition to GCSE 9Kd Waves and fields 168
9Ha Art and chemistry 113 9Ke Machines 170
9Ha Short answers (L&C) 114 9K1 Project 1: Ears and eyes 172
9Ha Ions 116 9K2 Project 2: Going faster 173
9Hb Energy transfers 118 9K3 Project 3: Speed limits 174
9Hc Rates of reaction 120
9Hd Chemical equations 122 9L Physics transition to GCSE
9Hd Standard form (WS) 124 9La Physicists 175
9He Equilibria 126 9La Differences 176
9He Frescos 128 9Lb Fields 178
9Lb Long answers (L&C) 180
Physics 9Lc Cause and effect 182
9I Forces and motion 9Ld Links between variables 184
9Ld Information from graphs (WS) 186
9Ia Moving things 129
9Le Models 188
9Ia Forces and movement 130
9Le Physics research 190
9Ia Energy for movement 132
9Ib Purpose and audience (L&C) 134 Glossary 191
9Ic Speed 136
Periodic Table 202
9Ic Equations and graphs (WS) 138
9Id Turning forces 140 Index 203
9Ie More machines 142
9Ie Supplying the energy 144

3
HOW TO USE
THIS BOOK
ENVIRONMENTAL
9Aa VARIATION
WHAT CAUSES ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION?
The monster pumpkin in photo A did not get
that big by chance. The plant was carefully
looked after and given all the resources it
needed, including additional light, water,
warmth and mineral salts.
An organism’s surroundings are its
environment. In all environments there are
environmental factors that can change the
organism, including other organisms and
non-living factors such as temperature or
A | This pumpkin had to be moved to a festival by the army. It
the amount of light. These non-living factors was grown in Lymington, Hampshire and had a mass of 371.5 kg.
are called physical environmental factors.
1 Suggest what physical environmental factors
allowed the pumpkin in photo A to grow so big.
2 a | Describe two physical environmental factors
in your environment at the moment.
b | Apart from physical factors, what other
environmental factors are in your environment?
The features of an organism are its characteristics.
The differences between the characteristics of organisms
are known as variation. Environmental variation is
variation caused by an organism’s environment.
In humans, examples of environmental variation include
scars and hairstyles. Scars are made by physical
environmental factors, such as fire or sharp objects.
Hairstyles follow fashion, which is an environmental
factor caused by other people in your environment.
B C
6
If you are having trouble finding information
about something, use the Index, on
pages 203–204.
Questions are spread throughout the page so
you can answer them as you go along.
I can … boxes help you to reflect on what you
have learned. Consider each statement carefully
and think about how well this applies to you.
4
You should be able to answer the question
at the top of the page by the time you
have finished the page.
In 2008, some Japanese cherry
tree seeds spent 6 months in
space. When planted back on Fact boxes contain fascinating facts for
Earth the trees flowered 6 years
early. Scientists are still trying to
work out why. you to think about.
3 a | Describe the environmental
variation shown in photos B,
C and D.
b | Suggest what environmental
The Key words for the page are in bold.
factor has caused the variation
in each case. You can look up the meaning of these
D words in the Glossary, on pages 191–201.
Continuous and
discontinuous
Pumpkins, such as the one shown in photo
A, can have a large spread of different sizes,
from very small to enormous, and everything
in between. Variation that can have any value
between two points is continuous variation.
Variation that can only have a value from a limited
set of possible values is discontinuous variation.
4 a | Identify three types of environmental
variation in photo E.
b | State whether each type of variation you
identified is continuous or discontinuous,
explaining your reasoning.
5 Explain whether each example of E | Hair length shows continuous variation but
variation in photos B, C and D is having piercings is discontinuous (you cannot have
continuous or discontinuous. half a piercing).
Classification
Classification is sorting organisms into groups. The
smallest group an organism is classified into is its species.
Members of the same species can reproduce with one
another and their offspring will also be able to reproduce.
Sometimes environmental variation makes classification
difficult. In 2003 some ancient human bones were
discovered on Flores Island in Indonesia. The bones were
from adults who were just over 1 m tall − much shorter than
human adults today. Some scientists think that the bones
were from our own species of human but that a shortage of
a mineral called iodine in the diet meant that the people did
not grow very tall. Other scientists think that these people
were from a different species, which is now extinct.
6 A plant growing on a seashore has pink flowers at F | Professor Mike Morwood explaining why
the top of a stem, which has pairs of oval leaves he thinks the Flores Island people were from
along its 10 cm length. On a nearby island there a different species.
are similar plants but they are over 50 cm tall and
have dark purple flowers. Scientists took seeds
from plants in both areas and grew them in the
laboratory. They all grew to look the same.
a | What does this tell you about the plants from the
I can …
■ identify different types of environmental
two areas?
b | Use this example to explain how environmental ■
variation and explain their causes
explain how environmental variation can
variation can make it difficult to identify plant cause problems with classification.
species.
7
 MONSTERS
9Aa AND MYTH
The bones in photo A are from a terrible fire-
breathing dragon that roamed southern Poland
long ago. The creature was slain by Krak, a
shoemaker’s apprentice who later became king.
The city of Krakow was built in his honour.
The bones are obviously not from a dragon.
They are probably from a whale and a mammoth.
Myths often originate from people finding the bones
of extinct creatures, which they cannot explain.
The idea of one-eyed giants (Cyclops) from Ancient
Greek mythology probably came from the discovery
of mammoth or elephant skulls, which have a large
central hole for the animal’s trunk. A | These ‘dragon bones’ hang outside Krakow cathedral.

In 1676, Robert Plot (a university professor) was given

part of an enormous thighbone. He concluded that
it was from a giant human. It was actually a dinosaur
bone but no one knew about dinosaurs at the time.
Later, William Buckland (1784–1856) carefully
studied a set of huge bones. In a scientific paper
published in 1824, he hypothesised that the bones
came from a large extinct reptile. Its species name
is now Megalosaurus bucklandii, in his honour, and
it was the first dinosaur described in a science
journal. However, many scientists at the time were
B | an elephant skull
not convinced by Buckland’s hypothesis because he
was quite eccentric. His hobby was eating strange
things and ‘mouse on toast’ was a favourite. a | What does ‘extinct’ mean?
1
b | Suggest a way in which extinction
C | a model of Megalosaurus bucklandii and a human happens.

2 a | What variation is there between

the two species in photo C?
b | How can variation be caused?
Give two ways.

3 What is a species?

4 What genus is Buckland’s dinosaur in?

5 DNA is a substance found in cells.

Where in the cell is it found?

5
 ENVIRONMENTAL
9Aa VARIATION
WHAT CAUSES ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION?

The monster pumpkin in photo A did not get

that big by chance. The plant was carefully
looked after and given all the resources it
needed, including additional light, water,
warmth and mineral salts.
An organism’s surroundings are its
environment. In all environments there are
environmental factors that can change the
organism, including other organisms and
non-living factors such as temperature or
A | This pumpkin had to be moved to a festival by the army. It
the amount of light. These non-living factors was grown in Lymington, Hampshire and had a mass of 371.5 kg.
are called physical environmental factors.

1 Suggest what physical environmental factors

allowed the pumpkin in photo A to grow so big. In 2008, some Japanese cherry
a | Describe two physical environmental factors tree seeds spent 6 months in
2
in your environment at the moment. space. When planted back on
Earth the trees flowered 6 years
b | Apart from physical factors, what other early. Scientists are still trying to
environmental factors are in your environment? work out why.

The features of an organism are its characteristics.

The differences between the characteristics of organisms
are known as variation. Environmental variation is
variation caused by an organism’s environment. 3 a | Describe the environmental
variation shown in photos B,
In humans, examples of environmental variation include C and D.
scars and hairstyles. Scars are made by physical
environmental factors, such as fire or sharp objects. b | Suggest what environmental
factor has caused the variation
Hairstyles follow fashion, which is an environmental
in each case.
factor caused by other people in your environment.

B C D

6
Continuous and
discontinuous
Pumpkins, such as the one shown in photo
A, can have a large spread of different sizes,
from very small to enormous, and everything
in between. Variation that can have any value
between two points is continuous variation.
Variation that can only have a value from a limited
set of possible values is discontinuous variation.

4 a | Identify three types of environmental

variation in photo E.

b | State whether each type of variation you

identified is continuous or discontinuous,
explaining your reasoning.

5 Explain whether each example of E | Hair length shows continuous variation but
variation in photos B, C and D is having piercings is discontinuous (you cannot have
continuous or discontinuous. half a piercing).

Classification
Classification is sorting organisms into groups. The
smallest group an organism is classified into is its species.
Members of the same species can reproduce with one
another and their offspring will also be able to reproduce.
Sometimes environmental variation makes classification
difficult. In 2003 some ancient human bones were
discovered on Flores Island in Indonesia. The bones were
from adults who were just over 1 m tall − much shorter than
human adults today. Some scientists think that the bones
were from our own species of human but that a shortage of
a mineral called iodine in the diet meant that the people did
not grow very tall. Other scientists think that these people
were from a different species, which is now extinct.

6 A plant growing on a seashore has pink flowers at
the top of a stem, which has pairs of oval leaves
along its 10 cm length. On a nearby island there
are similar plants but they are over 50 cm tall and
have dark purple flowers. Scientists took seeds
from plants in both areas and grew them in the
laboratory. They all grew to look the same.
a | What does this tell you about the plants from the
two areas?
b | Use this example to explain how environmental
variation can make it difficult to identify plant
species.
F | Professor Mike Morwood explaining why
he thinks the Flores Island people were from
a different species.
I can …
■ identify different types of environmental
variation and explain their causes
■ explain how environmental variation can
cause problems with classification.
7
 INHERITED
9Ab VARIATION
HOW IS INHERITED VARIATION CAUSED?

Offspring get a mixture

of characteristics from their
parents. We say they inherit these
characteristics. The variation in these A | inherited variation in dragon fruit
characteristics is inherited variation.
Examples include human eye colour,
dimpled chins and blood groups.

1 Give three examples of inherited

variation in dragon fruit.

2 a | Look at photo B. From which

parent has the child wearing
glasses inherited her myopia?

b | Give another characteristic

that one child in the photo has
inherited from one parent.

3 What is the difference between

environmental and inherited variation? B | Children inherit characteristics from their parents.

The instructions for inherited characteristics are stored in the genetic information found
inside the nuclei of cells. In sexual reproduction, two gametes (one male and one female)
fuse during fertilisation to produce a zygote. Since the zygote contains genetic information
from two parents, the offspring will have some characteristics of each parent.
Every gamete contains slightly different genetic
information; no two gametes are identical. For example,
in people with dimpled chins, some of their gametes The genetic information in any two
carry the instructions for a dimpled chin and some of humans only differs by about 0.1%.
Humans and chimpanzees share
their gametes may not. Since all gametes are different,
98% of their genetic information.
brothers and sisters do not look exactly the same.

C | Brothers (and sisters) share similar characteristics (but

only identical twins look identical). 4 Which of the people in photo C
are brothers?

5 Where in a gamete is genetic

information stored?

Z 6 List three of your characteristics

X
W Y that are caused by your genetic
T U V information.

8
Inherited variation can also be continuous or discontinuous. Different blood groups in Scotland
One example of discontinuous inherited variation is blood group. 3000000
Every person has one of four different blood groups, referred to as
2500000
A, B, AB or O. Other examples of discontinuous inherited variation

Number of people
include having a dimpled chin and being able to roll your tongue. 2000000

Examples of continuous inherited variation include human height and 1500000

skin colour. However, like many characteristics, these can also be affected
by environmental factors. For example, tall parents are likely to produce 1000000
tall children but children can only grow tall if they eat a healthy diet.
500000

7 Explain why tongue-rolling ability is a discontinuous variation. 0

A B AB O
Blood group
8 What factors affect how tall people grow?
D | Data about discontinuous
9 Suggest a variation in tomatoes caused by both genetic variation can be plotted on a bar
information and environmental factors. Explain your reasoning. chart, with gaps between the bars.

E | Height and skin colour are both affected by genetic Variation in height of Year 9 students
120
information and environmental factors. Diet can affect
height and sunlight makes skin darker. 100
normal distribution
Number of students

80
Characteristics that show continuous variation
usually give a ‘bell shape’ when plotted on a bar 60
chart. We can make this more obvious if we join
the tops of the bars with a smooth curve. This 40

shape is known as a normal distribution (and is 20

the shape we often see in characteristics that show
continuous variation). 0
9

9
14

15

15

16

16

17

17

18

18
5-

0-

5-

0-

5-

0-

5-

0-

5-
14

15

15

16

16

17

17

18

18

10 a | State whether variation in each of Height groups (cm)

the characteristics below is inherited,
environmental or both, and whether F | Data about continuous variation can be plotted on a
each is continuous or discontinuous. bar chart without gaps between the bars.
Present your answer as a table.
natural skin having a hair naturally
eye colour colour scar length curly hair
blood speaking dimpled having an height
I can …
group Welsh chin earring ■ identify different types of inherited variation
■ explain how sexual reproduction causes
b | Suggest one characteristic you would inherited variation
expect to show a normal distribution.
■ identify a normal distribution.
9
9Ab PROBABILITY
HOW DO WE USE STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY?
Statistics is collecting, analysing and presenting data. We use statistics when we:
■ collect data (e.g. using samples to Are you interested in dinosaurs?
estimate values)
23% 25%
■ draw conclusions (e.g. finding
correlations using scatter graphs or Interested
calculating averages) Somewhat interested
Can’t say either way
■ present findings (e.g. drawing graphs)
Somewhat uninterested
■ make predictions. 17%
10% Uninterested

1 What sort of chart is chart A?

25%

2 The results from the survey in

chart A have been converted A | 13 867 people in Japan were asked how interested they were
into percentages. What is a in dinosaurs. The findings could be used to decide whether to use
percentage? dinosaurs in an advert.

Using statistics
Clothing manufacturers collect measurements from people. They then draw conclusions by calculating
averages and drawing graphs. For example, a company could use graph B to predict how many shirts
with a certain sleeve length they are going to sell. Different sleeve lengths needed by men in a sample
You could also use graph B to work out how likely it is 60
In a normal distribution
that a shopper would need 95 cm long sleeves. You can curve, the mean is the
50
see that there is a much greater chance of a shopper same as the mode (most
common value in a set of
needing a 90 cm sleeve than a 95 cm sleeve. The values) and the median
Number of men

40
chance of something happening is called its probability. (middle value in a set of
values).
30
3 What is probability?
20

4 Look at graph B. Is a shopper picked

at random more likely to need 84 cm 10

sleeves or 94 cm sleeves?
0
B 80 85 90 95 100
Men’s formal shirt sleeve length (cm)
Probabilities are often shown as percentages. This is how often a particular outcome occurs in every
100 times something happens. If you flipped a coin 100 times, and it landed on tails 52 times, the
probability of getting tails was 52/100 or 52%. This is the experimental probability. We can show
probability on a scale, such as diagram C. The probability of an impossible event is 0%. The probability
of an event that is certain to happen is 100%.

10
 discovering a
live dinosaur
percentage 0%
fraction
decimal 0 0.25
C | a probability scale impossible more unlikely
Method
A | Throw two dice 100 times and each time
add the two numbers to get a score.
B| Record the number of times you get each
score in a tally chart.
C| Calculate the experimental probability of getting
each of the 11 different possible numbers.
If there is a 76% chance
of rain, it means that if
you had that period of
time 100 times over, on
76 occasions it would rain
in your area.
D | Weather apps show theoretical probabilities,
worked out using computer models. A theoretical
probability is what you would expect to happen.
Carry out the instructions in the Method.
5
Give your answers as percentages and
decimals.
6 What is the theoretical probability,
as a decimal, that a child will have
achondroplasia if one parent has it?
7 What is the theoretical probability of
throwing a number less than three with
one die? Give your answer as a fraction,
a decimal and a percentage.
getting ‘tails’ on the Sun rising
a coin flip tomorrow
50% 100%
¼ ½ ¾
0.5 0.75 1
even chance more likely certain
Probabilities can be given as decimals.
To change a percentage to a decimal, write it
as a fraction over 100 and then divide.
For example, 52% = 52/100 = 0.52.
Probabilities can also be shown as fractions.
For example, with the six-sided die there is a 1/6
probability of rolling a '1' and a 5/6 probability of
rolling 'not 1'.
Probability and inheritance
Some diseases and conditions are caused by the
genetic information in our cells. People with one of
these conditions may want to know the theoretical
probability of passing it on to their children. An
example is achondroplasia (‘ack-on-drO-play-
zee-a’). People with achondroplasia do not grow
very tall (up to about 130 cm).
■ If neither parent has achondroplasia, the
theoretical probability of their child having it
is 0.003%.
■ If one parent has achondroplasia, the
theoretical probability of a child having it is
50%.
■ If both parents have achondroplasia, the
theoretical probability of a child having it is
75%.
I can …
■ explain what probability is
■ calculate probabilities and display them in
different forms.
11
9Ac DNA
HOW IS GENETIC INFORMATION STORED?
Rosalind Franklin
(1920–1958)
At lunchtime on 28 February
1953, two men burst into
The Eagle pub in Cambridge
and one of them announced:
‘We have discovered the
secret of life.’ Their names
were James Watson and
Francis Crick. They had just Maurice Wilkins
made a cardboard model of (1916–2004)
a substance called DNA.
Watson and Crick used their
own and other scientists’ data
to build their model. They Francis Crick
showed their first attempt to James Watson (1916–2004)
Rosalind Franklin, who told (born 1928)
them it was wrong.
A | Watson and Crick made a model of DNA, showing that it consists of two
Along with Maurice Wilkins, joined spiral strands – a ‘double helix’. They used data from other scientists,
Rosalind Franklin had been taking including Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.
photos of DNA using X-rays.
Photo B is one of her photos, which Wilkins showed to Watson at the
start of 1953. Although it looks like a blurry X, Watson knew that only
spiral molecules could form this pattern. With this information, Watson
and Crick finished their model. They published a paper about it in a
journal called Nature on 25 April 1953. Wilkins and Franklin published
their work in the same edition. Afterwards, Franklin worked on other
things but Wilkins spent some years testing Watson and Crick’s
hypothesis, and making small corrections to their model.

1 Suggest how Watson and Crick were able to find other

scientists’ data.

2 Draw a table to show what each scientist in photo A did to

help discover the structure of DNA.
B | Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray
Chromosomes photo. Cross shapes are
DNA is found in structures called chromosomes made by spiral molecules.
inside the nuclei of cells. Each chromosome
contains one enormously long DNA molecule. Your biggest chromosome contains 4316
It is DNA that stores genetic information, which genes. If stretched out, its DNA molecule
controls inherited characteristics. would be 8.5 cm long.
12
 A human cell nucleus contains 46 chromosomes,
which contain genes.
Genetic information is not stored
in all parts of a DNA molecule
but only in sections called
genes. A few characteristics
(such as the ABO blood Each chromosome contains
group) are controlled by one a single molecule of DNA.
gene. Most characteristics are
controlled by many genes. C | Two different genes
on these chromosomes
have been stained so
3 Give two examples that they glow (one
of characteristics green and one red).
controlled by genes.

Most of your cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 in all).

Both chromosomes in a pair contain the same genes and are
the same size, apart from the sex chromosomes. Girls have
two X sex chromosomes, which are the same size. Boys have
one X and one much smaller Y sex chromosome.
Unlike body cells, gametes only contain 23 chromosomes.
When two gametes fuse, the resulting zygote has 46
chromosomes, as shown in diagram E. After a zygote has
formed, cell division occurs over and over again, forming a
ball of cells. Each of these cells contains identical copies of
the same 46 chromosomes.
D | chromosome pairs (× 3000)
egg-making cell sperm-making cell

46 46
4 What sex is the person whose chromosomes
are shown in photo D? Explain your reasoning.

5 How many chromosomes does the nucleus of

each of these cells contain:
a | sperm cell b | heart muscle cell
23 23 23 23
gametes c | egg-making cell d | zygote?
The egg-making cell The sperm-making cell
makes egg cells in pairs. makes sperm cells in pairs. 6 a | Look at photo C. Two different genes have
Each egg cell contains Each sperm cell contains been stained so that they glow. How many
23 chromosomes. 23 chromosomes. copies of each gene are there?
fertilisation
b | Explain why there are this number of copies.

7 Draw a diagram to show how DNA, chromosomes,

cell division
46 genetic information and genes are linked.

The zygote contains

46 chromosomes -
23 from the sperm cell I can …
and 23 from the egg cell.
■ outline how the structure of DNA was discovered
E | A zygote contains the chromosomes carried ■ explain the importance of DNA
in both the egg cell and the sperm cell.
■ describe the relationship between chromosomes,
DNA, genes, genetic information and nuclei. 13
 GENES AND
9Ad EXTINCTION
HOW CAN GENETIC INFORMATION CAUSE EXTINCTION?

Around 65 million years ago, 75% of the Earth’s

species became extinct, including the dinosaurs.
Many scientists think that a giant meteorite hit the
Earth, throwing so much dust into the atmosphere
that it blocked out the sunlight. Evidence for this
includes the remains of a 180 km wide crater near
Mexico, which was formed at this time.

1 a | State one physical environmental factor

that the meteorite changed in habitats
on Earth.

b | Explain the effect this may have had on A | The meteorite impact 65 million years ago
animal populations. released more energy than a million nuclear bombs.

The adaptations of an organism are due to its genes. Changes in an ecosystem

can affect species in an area because they may no longer be so well adapted to
the new conditions. The organisms can become endangered or even extinct.
Changes include:
■ changes in physical
environmental factors
■ competition from other
organisms
■ disease
■ human activities
B | Thylacines were killed in Tasmania to
(e.g. hunting, clearing
protect sheep. The last one died in 1936.
habitats, using poisons).

Competition C | The Hawaiian

Grey squirrels came to the UK in the 1870s and now the native red squirrels silversword plant
became endangered
are rare. One inherited variation between the species is that greys store more
because goats, which
fat in their bodies. So, if there is little food during a long winter, greys are were introduced by
more likely to survive. Greys are better adapted than reds. humans, ate it. Strict
In woodland, greys and reds are in competition for food. Greys can digest protection, introduced
unripe acorns but reds cannot. So, greys eat the acorns before the reds, in 1992, saved it from
meaning the reds get less food. When food is limited, more of the better-fed extinction.
greys survive and reproduce. Grey squirrel populations then increase faster,
leaving even less food for reds.
14
Grey squirrels also carry squirrel pox. This disease does
2 How are squirrels adapted for:
not affect greys but it kills reds.
a | climbing trees
b | balancing on branches?
eyes on side of head for
good all-round vision, a | Why might a squirrel population
3
to spot predators decrease during a long winter?
grey squirrel
b | How are grey squirrels better
red squirrel adapted to long winters than
reds?

c | Explain how genes are

responsible for this.

4 Why have red squirrels

disappeared from most of the UK?

5 Conifer trees have smaller

long, bushy tail for long, strong hind sharp claws for seeds and thinner, more flexible
balance legs for leaping gripping tree trunks branches than trees with
broad leaves. Suggest why red
D | Red and grey squirrels share many adaptations but greys squirrels may be better adapted
are bigger than reds. to conifer forests than greys.

Preserving
biodiversity This ‘frozen zoo’ contains gametes from
9000 species of animals.
We lose the opportunity to make use of species that
become extinct. Extinctions also upset ecosystems E
and change food webs. So, we need to preserve the
biodiversity (number of different species) on Earth.
Ways of doing this include banning the hunting
of certain animals, setting up nature reserves and
starting breeding programmes. We can also store
parts of organisms (e.g. seeds, gametes) that can
be used to produce the organisms again if they
become extinct. These materials are stored at low
temperatures in gene banks.

6 Red squirrels died out in Cornwall in the 1980s. There are

plans to reintroduce them. What could be done to help the
reintroduced red squirrels to survive?
I can …
7 Suggest one reason for saving the silversword plant.
■ explain how organisms
Predict an effect of global warming on the population of become endangered or extinct
8
polar bears. Explain your reasoning. ■ explain how adaptations affect
the survival of organisms
9 Explain how a gene bank can allow a plant species to ■ explain some ways of
survive if it becomes extinct in the wild. preserving biodiversity.
15
 NATURAL
9Ae SELECTION
WHAT IS DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION?

Photos A and B show inherited

variation in peppered moths.
The speckle pattern varies and
some moths have genes that
make them black.

What causes inherited A | The pale peppered moth is B | The black peppered moth is
1
variation? hard to spot. hard to spot.

In the 1850s most peppered moths around Manchester

were pale. By 1895, 98% of them were black. During this
time many factories were built and these churned out Some grey squirrels have black fur.
huge amounts of soot, turning buildings and trees black. There is a large population of black
squirrels in Cambridgeshire.
Birds could easily spot the pale moths on the blackened
buildings and trees, and so more pale ones were eaten.
The black moths were harder to spot and so more of them
survived and reproduced, and their numbers increased. 2 a | Explain why black peppered
moths survived better around
This is an example of natural selection caused by a
Manchester than pale ones at
change in the environment. The environment is ‘selecting’ the end of the 19th century.
certain genetic variations in characteristics, which are
passed on to the next generation. b | Use the term ‘genes’ to explain
why the number of black moths
gradually increased.
Salty seas a | Predict how the number of black
3
The shoreline in photo C is not made of sand… but the moths around Manchester has
bones of millions of fish. The Salton Sea in California was changed in the last 100 years.
originally full of fresh water, but got more and more salty.
b | Use the idea of natural selection
This caused most of the fish species to die out. to explain your prediction.

C | The Salton Sea formed between 1905 and 1907 when a river
flooded a low-lying area. Today the sea is 25% more salty than
the Pacific Ocean.

16
 Numbers of tilapia best adapted for different
The only fish still living in the Salton amounts of salt in the water
Sea are of a species called tilapia. 1. The graph shows the number of fish
in the water after it had become a little
They are usually found in fresh or

Numbers of tilapia with the best adaptations

2. By chance,
bit salty. Most of the fish were best some of the
slightly salty water. If tilapia from a adapted for these conditions. fish were best
freshwater lake are put into water adapted to
from the Salton Sea, they die. The even more
salty water.
tilapia in the Salton Sea have become When the sea
Some tilapia
better adapted to more salty water. thrive best in became more
less salty water, salty, it was
This gradual change in an adaptation others are better these fish
is due to natural selection. When adapted to more that were more
salty water. If likely to survive
the Salton Sea started getting salty, there is enough and reproduce.
by chance some tilapia had genetic food, they will
variations that allowed them to cope all survive.
better with the salt. More of these fish
survived than those that could not
cope so well with the salt. So, more less salty more salty
Saltiness of the sea
of the ‘salt-tolerant’ fish reproduced,
and the next generation of tilapia
D | Environmental change often causes natural selection.
therefore contained more of the ‘salt-
tolerant’ fish. As the sea got saltier,
this process happened over and over 4 a | What characteristic has been ‘naturally selected’ in
again. Today all the Salton Sea tilapia fish in the Salton Sea?
fish can cope with very salty water. b | How has this selection occurred?

Evolution
A change over time in the characteristics of organisms is known as evolution.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) both
developed a hypothesis that natural selection causes evolution. This is now usually
called ‘Darwin’s theory of evolution’.
As evolution occurs, a population can become a new species. Many scientists now
think that some dinosaurs evolved into birds over millions and millions of years.

5 a | What is a hypothesis?
b | How does a hypothesis become a theory?

6 What is evolution?

7 Explain how natural selection can produce a new

species if two populations of the same organism
become separated. (Hint: Think about the definition
of a species.)

E | Microraptor was a
dinosaur with feathers
and four wings.
Microraptor fossils are
125–120 million years old.
I can …
■ recall that individuals in a
population vary genetically
■ explain how natural selection
works on these variations.
17
 CONVINCING
9Ae ARGUMENTS
HOW ARE CONVINCING ARGUMENTS MADE?
Scientists use arguments to explain and justify their
ideas or to challenge other scientists’ ideas. A convincing
argument needs a logical order of information. One way of
doing this is shown in the blue panel on the right.

In 1835, Charles Darwin was in the Galapagos Islands,

where he noticed differences between mockingbirds
on different islands. Darwin thought that mockingbirds
produced more offspring than could survive, and those
that, by chance, had better adaptations for the conditions
were more likely to survive. Over time this ‘natural
selection’ could cause a species to change. If groups
of the same species were separated they would evolve
differently, depending on the conditions. The mockingbirds
evolved differently because the conditions on each island
were different. Darwin collected evidence for nearly
30 years. This included studying
finches that he had collected from the
Galapagos. Darwin said that one species
of finch had reached the Galapagos and
then evolved into different species, each
of which ate different things.
eats large, eats large,
tough nuts soft seeds

A | A mockingbird from B | A mockingbird from

Española Island, one of the Genovesa Island, one of
Galapagos Islands. the Galapagos Islands.

1 Which sentence would more clearly start an

argument in favour of Darwin’s theory, X or Y?
Explain your reasoning.
X: There can be little doubt that the theory of
evolution, proposed by Charles Darwin, is
correct. eats small seeds eats small insects
and insects
Y: Darwin first got an idea about evolution by
observing mockingbirds. C | Darwin’s illustration of his finches

18
 2 a | A convincing argument explains an idea.
Which sentence is best for this, L, M or N? Explain your reasoning.
L: Darwin’s idea was that some organisms in a habitat were more likely to survive than others.
M: Darwin said that all organisms varied and that those that by chance had better adaptations
for a habitat would be more likely to survive and pass on those adaptations to their offspring.
N: Darwin said that the organisms that survived were more likely to reproduce and pass on their
adaptations for survival.

b | A convincing argument gives evidence to support an explanation.

Which sentence is best for this, P, Q or R? Explain your reasoning.
P: To provide evidence, Darwin studied the differences between finches from the Galapagos Islands.
Q: Darwin spent 30 years collecting evidence for his theory, including ideas about bird beak shapes.
R: Darwin showed that the finches on the different Galapagos Islands were very similar but each
had a different beak, which was best adapted for the specific food on each particular island.

Darwin’s was not the only idea about evolution.

3 a | Some people did not agree with
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829) thought that an Darwin’s idea about the finches.
organism could change during its lifetime and would Suggest a counter argument
pass on these changes to its offspring. to explain why some finches
developed big beaks. Write a
sentence that starts ‘However,
some scientists still believed
Lamarck and thought…’
b | Write a sentence that explains
why Darwin did not think this
To reach fish in deeper water, wading birds stretch their legs. counter argument was correct.
This makes their legs slightly longer.

Darwin finally published a book, On the

Having slightly longer legs is passed on to the next generation.
Birds in this generation also stretch their legs.
Origin of Species, in 1859. Alfred Russel
Wallace came up with the same idea, but it
is Darwin who has the credit because of all
the evidence he had collected.

4 Your answers to questions 1, 2 and

3 have formed an argument. Write
a summary sentence for it.

Over many generations, the wading birds’ legs become much longer.

D | Lamarck’s idea
I can …
■ construct balanced, convincing arguments.

19
 RECREATING
9Ae ANIMALS
CAN WE BRING EXTINCT
tusks help to push snow
out of the way to find food
large size (larger
objects transfer energy
to their surroundings
ANIMALS BACK TO LIFE? less quickly, keeping
them warmer)
Woolly mammoths became extinct about 4000
thick, oily
years ago, probably due to hunting by humans hair to keep
and the Earth getting warmer. We know that they it warm
were hunted because spear marks have been
found in mammoth remains. We also know that large feet to
the Earth started getting warmer about 10 000 stop it sinking
into the snow
years ago. Scientists think that as this happened
the plants that mammoths ate could only be
found further and further north, and so the
mammoths’ habitat got smaller and smaller.

A | The largest mammoths were about 4 m tall with a

mass of about 8 tonnes.

1 What environmental variation has been

found in mammoth remains?

2 Give two examples of inherited variation

between elephants and mammoths.

3 Woolly mammoths had 58 chromosomes.

B | Remains of a baby woolly mammoth discovered
in ice in Eastern Siberia.
Woolly mammoths and elephants probably evolved
from one species, about 6 million years ago.
Elephants evolved to cope with hot conditions
(such as having large ears to cool their blood) and
mammoths evolved to cope with the cold.
DNA can be found in frozen mammoth remains.
Some scientists think we could use this to recreate
a mammoth, using a process called cloning. This
could help us to better understand how current
global warming might affect endangered species.
However, a ‘cloned mammoth’ may not behave in
a natural way, so the experiment may not be valid.
It is unlikely we could clone dinosaurs because their
DNA will have decomposed after 65 million years.
20
a | What long molecule do chromosomes
contain?
b | How many chromosomes would a
mammoth sperm cell have?
c | What sections of chromosomes contain
instructions for a cell?
a | Explain how mammoths were adapted to
4
their habitat.
b | How might their adaptations have limited
them to only living in certain areas of the
world?
5 Suggest how mammoths may have evolved
their hair, when the species they evolved
from had very little hair.
Should we recreate mammoths
using cloning? Write an argument
for or against.
9Ba ON A FARM
Farmers use criteria to decide whether it is
worthwhile to farm in a certain way. Criteria are
a set of standards used to judge things. Some
criteria that a farmer may use are:
■ Will it make money?
■ Will it harm the environment? A | Wheat is the UK’s most common crop. It is used for
foods (e.g. bread), animal feed and to make biofuels.
■ Will it affect my family life?
World wheat production and usage
The costs of growing crops include seeds, 740
machinery, fertiliser, pesticides, diesel and wages World wheat production
720
for workers. A farmer then needs to know how

World wheat production (million tonnes)

World wheat usage
much the crop can be sold for. The values of 700
crops go up and down, so the farmer may not be 680
sure how much the crop will be worth when it is
ready to be sold. 660

640
Some farmers try to avoid harming the
environment by using very few chemicals. This 620

is known as organic farming. Organic foods are 600

often expensive to produce and so cost more in
580
the shops.
560

540
20 5

20 6

20 7

20 8

20 9

20 0

20 1

20 2

20 3

20 4

5
0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/1

/1

/1

/1

/1

/1
4/
05

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

13

14
0
20

Year

B | world wheat production and usage

1 a | What process do wheat plants use to make

their own food?
b | Suggest the name of a carbohydrate that
wheat plants store in their seeds.
c | Explain the effect of a lot of cloudy weather
during a year on the amount of wheat that is
harvested.

2 Look at graph B. Suggest one year in which the

price of wheat was high. Explain your reasoning.

C | Organic farming can be labour intensive. This farmer

3 Why do farmers use fertilisers on their crops?
is removing weeds from his potato crop. The yellow
flowers belong to mustard plants. They attract an insect
4 Explain why the farmer in photo C needs to plant
pest called wireworm away from the potato plants. mustard to protect his potatoes.

21
 REACTIONS
9Ba IN PLANTS
WHAT CHEMICAL REACTIONS HAPPEN IN PLANTS?
willow tree
(mass = 76.74 kg)
The Greek scientist Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
thought that plants ate soil and used their A | Van Helmont planted a small tree
roots to suck it up. Some people believed and gave it only water, as he watched
it grow for 5 years. He measured the
this until Belgian scientist Jan Baptista van masses of the pot, soil and the tree
Helmont (1580–1644) did the experiment in before and after the 5-year period.
diagram A.
small willow tree
(mass = 2.27 kg)
1 How do van Helmont’s results provide evidence
to disprove Aristotle’s theory?

2 Some people suggested that the extra mass of

the tree came from the water that he added. Was
this a sensible suggestion? Explain your answer.

Today we know that plants make their own food using

carbon dioxide and water. These are the reactants (raw 5 years
materials) for photosynthesis. The products are a watered
sugar, called glucose, and oxygen. We can show what regularly

happens in a word equation.

mass of pot + dry soil mass of pot + dry soil
carbon dioxide + water ➝ glucose + oxygen = 90.72 kg = 90.66 kg

Light is needed to make photosynthesis happen. A substance called

chlorophyll, found inside chloroplasts in many plant cells, captures the
energy transferred by light. This energy then becomes stored in the glucose.
Photosynthesis can occur at different rates (speeds). If there is less
light, photosynthesis is slower. If there is a shortage of a raw material,
photosynthesis is also slower. A variable that slows down the rate is a
limiting factor.

3 List the reactants in photosynthesis.

4 Where in a plant cell does photosynthesis occur?

5 Why do plants in a field only photosynthesise during the day?

6 Draw a flow chart to show how energy from the Sun becomes
B | You can often see stored in a plant.
bubbles of oxygen being Canadian pondweed produces oxygen bubbles. The more
7
produced by aquatic bubbles, the faster photosynthesis is happening.
plants.
a | State three limiting factors of photosynthesis.
b | Explain how each limiting factor might prevent the number
22 of bubbles increasing.
Aerobic respiration
Every living cell in a plant needs a supply of glucose for
energy. Energy is needed to help the plant grow and to
make new substances. The chemical energy stored in the
glucose is released by aerobic respiration:
glucose + oxygen ➝ carbon dioxide + water
Photosynthesis only happens when there is light but
8 What is the test for carbon dioxide?
9 Graph C shows the levels of oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the water
around a pondweed plant.
How the concentrations of two gases
C dissolved in water vary over a day,
in a beaker containing pondweed

Concentrations
respiration happens all the time. During the day, a plant X
produces more oxygen from photosynthesis than it needs
for respiration and so oxygen is given off.

of gas
Glucose is carried to all parts of a plant in the form of Y

sugars dissolved in water. Phloem vessels, which are 05:00 A B C D

made from chains of living phloem cells, carry the sugar Time of day
solution. This is how roots get glucose for respiration.
They also need oxygen, which they get from the soil. If a | Which letter (A–D) do you think
soil becomes flooded or waterlogged, roots cannot get represents a time of 23:00?
enough oxygen and so the plant can die. b | Which line shows the oxygen
concentration, X or Y?
c | Explain why line X goes up
between letters B and D.
D

xylem
vein
phloem

Mangrove plants are adapted to living

in waterlogged areas by having special
roots (pneumatophores) that poke
up above the surface of the water to
get air.

10 Why do root cells need

oxygen?
11 Why is flooding of fields a
problem for growing crops?
I can …
■ explain what happens when plants photosynthesise and respire
■ explain how the rate of photosynthesis can be affected
23
 PLANT
9Bb ADAPTATIONS
HOW ARE PLANTS ADAPTED FOR GETTING WHAT THEY NEED?

Roots hold plants in place and absorb water

(containing dissolved mineral salts). Plants need
chemical elements from mineral salts to stay
healthy. For example, plant root cells need to
have potassium to absorb water properly.
Plants that live in soils that are low in mineral salts
may get them from insects! Venus flytraps have
leaves with specialised cells that form ‘trigger trigger
hairs’. If an insect touches a hair more than once, hairs
a signal is sent to cells in the ‘hinge’. These cells
change shape and the trap shuts. Enzymes then hinge
digest the insect, releasing mineral salts.

Water A | a Venus flytrap

Roots are adapted to their function by being
branched and spread out, helping them to get
water from a large volume of soil. They also have 1 a | Why do you think a Venus flytrap hair
needs to be touched more than once?
root hair cells to give them a large surface area
(Hint: Think about when it rains.)
so they can quickly absorb water.
b | Where does a Venus flytrap get its
potassium from?

c | Why might it die without a source of

One rye grass plant can grow roots with
potassium?
a total length of over 600 km in about
4 months.
Once absorbed, water passes to
xylem vessels in the centre of the
root. These long tubes are formed
when chains of xylem cells
root hair become hollow, as they die. The
xylem vessel tubes carry water and dissolved
soil mineral salts to the leaves.
Water is needed for
water and many reasons, such as
mineral salts photosynthesis, keeping leaves
cool, and filling up cells to keep
them expanded and firm. If there
B | Many root hair cells form root hair
tissue, which covers parts of roots. is too little water, the cells sag
and the plant droops – it wilts.
24
 2 Describe the route that water takes
from the soil to a leaf.
3 How are the following cells
adapted for their functions:
a | xylem cells
b | root hair cells?
4 Give four reasons why plants need
water.
Light
The leaves of many plants are broad and have a large
surface area for trapping light. They are often arranged
on a plant so that the upper leaves do not shade the
lower ones too much.
Inside a leaf, there are different layers of tissue.
Epidermis cells produce a waxy layer (cuticle) to
stop the leaves losing too much water. Palisade
cells are adapted to their function by containing
lots of chloroplasts (where photosynthesis occurs).
The chloroplasts move nearer to the surface of the leaf
in dim light. They move in the opposite direction in bright
light to stop them being damaged.

cuticle
upper
epidermis
chloroplast
palisade
cell
xylem vessels
C | In this radial arrangement of leaves the carry water vein
upper ones do not shade the lower ones too phloem vessels
carry food
much.
spongy
cells
lower
epidermis
Carbon dioxide guard cell
Stomata are small holes in a leaf that are carbon stoma
dioxide water
opened and closed by guard cells. Stomata cuticle
vapour
oxygen
are shut at night and open when it is light.
Gases, such as carbon dioxide, enter and D | inside a leaf
leave the leaf by diffusion through open
stomata. Leaves are thin, so the carbon In which cells, in diagram D, will no
5
dioxide does not have to diffuse very far into photosynthesis occur?
a leaf before getting to cells. Plants also lose
water and oxygen through stomata. This 6 Why do you think stomata shut at night?
swapping of different gases is called gas
exchange. 7 What cells control gas exchange?

8 Describe how a leaf is adapted to allow

E | a stoma (× 2500) palisade cells to get all the resources they
need.

I can …
■ describe how leaves, roots and stems are adapted
for their functions
■ explain how substances enter and leave plants.
25
 PLANT
9Bc PRODUCTS
WHY DO PLANTS MAKE LIPIDS, CARBOHYDRATES AND PROTEINS?

Farmers grow different crops to produce a vast range of

different substances obtained from plants. However, all the
substances found in a plant depend on the glucose from
photosynthesis for their production.

Lipids
Plants make many different lipids. These are a group of
insoluble substances that include fats and oils. A | Rapeseed is grown to produce oil,
which can be used for cooking. Beehives
The cuticle of a plant leaf contains lipids to make it may be brought in to help pollination and
waterproof. Plants also use lipids to make parts of cells, for so increase the number of seeds formed.
example cell membranes. Fats and oils are often found in
plant seeds, where they are used as energy stores. They can
also be found in the flesh of some fruits, such as avocado, to
encourage animals to eat the fruits and so disperse the seeds.

1 What substance must plants produce in order to

make lipids? glucose starch
(monomers) (a polymer)
2 Give one use that humans have for plant lipids. B | The monomer used to make starch is
glucose.

Carbohydrates
The glucose molecules made in photosynthesis can be linked
together to form a polymer called starch. This molecule
stays in the chloroplasts until photosynthesis stops. The
starch is then broken down into small sugar molecules and
transported to phloem vessels (see page 23), in which they
The leaf is treated to remove all
are carried to other parts of the plant. the chlorophyll and then iodine
solution is added.

3 When is starch broken down in chloroplasts, during C | A variegated leaf (it has areas of white)
the day or night? Explain your reasoning. being tested with iodine solution.

In some plants, these sugars are converted back into starch

4 What would happen if you added
in storage organs, such as potatoes, or seeds. The sugars iodine solution to some chips?
are also used to make another polymer called cellulose, Explain your reasoning.
which is used to make plant cell walls.
5 Explain the results of the test
You can test for starch by using iodine solution. This turns shown in photo C.
the starch a blue-black colour, as shown in photo C.
6 Why do seeds need starch?
26
Proteins
Proteins are also a type of polymer. They are long chains of molecules
called amino acids (of which there are many different kinds). However,
to make amino acids a plant needs a good supply of mineral salts
called nitrates.
Proteins have many
functions. All enzymes
are proteins, such
as those needed for nitrates
photosynthesis and
respiration. Seeds
also contain a store of
protein to supply amino
glucose different amino acids protein
acids to make new
proteins as a seedling D | proteins are chains of amino acids
starts to grow.

7 Give two uses for each of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins in plants.

8 Why do plants not grow well if there is a lack of nitrates in the soil?

Seeds
Seeds contain a store of all the resources that a new seedling will Just five seeds from the
need to grow, until its leaves can open and start to photosynthesise. castor oil plant can be
Diagram E shows what happens during germination. enough to kill an adult
human. The seeds contain
2 The entry of water 3 The enzymes a protein called ricin, one
allows molecules to digest the starch of the most poisonous
move around so starch to glucose.
enzymes that reactions can Enzymes work natural substances.
enzymes
occur. It also faster if it is
triggers the glucose warmer.
release of
enzymes.

4 The glucose
seed 1 Water enters the
coat enters. embryo,
Oxygen allowing
also enters. it to respire
food store
and grow.
containing
starch embryo

E | processes that occur during germination

I can …
■ explain how and why
9 What are the enzymes in diagram E made out of? plants make different
substances
10 List three substances you would expect to find in a seed ■ explain the importance
and explain the function of each. of nitrates.
27
 CLARITY AND
9Bc EMPHASIS
HOW CAN WE EMPHASISE POINTS CLEARLY?
Scientific writing must be clear so
that a reader easily understands clarity: straightforward sentence
the information. Clarity can be emphasis: short, punchy sentence with a single idea
achieved by using straightforward
sentences arranged in a logical emphasis: the V Biofuels are fuels made from organisms.
order. Clarity is also improved by word ‘biodiesel’ Biodiesel and bioethanol are examples.
using words and phrases that link is emphasised Biodiesel is made from oils in the seeds
sentences to each other and to by being put at of plants such as rapeseed and soy but
the topic. the beginning bioethanol is made by fermenting sugar
of the sentence from plants such as maize and sugar cane.
A reader will better understand the
main points if they are emphasised. Short sentences
clarity: paragraph starts by explaining what biofuels are
are used for emphasis. Putting important things at
and then gives examples of how they can be made
the start of a sentence also emphasises them.

Some students were asked to

poor emphasis: does not explain why this is an advantage
write a paragraph explaining
the advantages of biofuels.
Advantages of biofuels
Two paragraphs
W Some biofuels can be made of cooking oils from
are shown (W poor clarity: restaurants. Overall, biofuels produce less carbon dioxide.
and X). Both there is a lot This means that carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere
paragraphs of needless in lesser amounts and this helps to control climate change.
contain the same repetition and This is because using biofuels puts 50–60% less carbon
the points are dioxide into the air. New types of crops can be grown by
information but farmers in poor countries and this is good because it gets
not in a logical
one is clearer. order them money to use for their families to have a better life.

poor emphasis: better to start with the advantage to emphasise it

clarity: clear ordering of ideas, with
the most important advantage first poor clarity: start with the advantage, then explain it

emphasis: advantage at the start

Advantages of biofuels of the sentence, giving it emphasis
X Biofuels can help to control climate change because they reduce the
amounts of carbon dioxide being added to the atmosphere by 50–60%.
Another advantage is that farmers in poorer countries can have a better emphasis: the advantage is at
standard of living by growing new crops that they can sell. The costs and the start of this second sentence
problems of disposing of waste cooking oils from restaurants can also be clarity: the phrase ‘another
reduced because some biodiesel can be made from the waste oils. advantage’ clearly links this
sentence to the topic
clarity: least important advantage (which only clarity: the advantage is followed
applies to one type of biofuel) at the end and explained by an example

28
1 Paragraph Y has been written to answer this question: How are fuels that contain bioethanol made?

Bioethanol
Y Most engines cannot use pure bioethanol. For this reason it is usually mixed with petrol.
Starch or sugar from crops is used to make bioethanol. Fermentation turns the starch or
sugar into ethanol. Examples of crops include maize and sugar cane.

a | Explain why this paragraph is not clearly written.

b | Rewrite the paragraph in a clearer order, with a better emphasis on answering the question.
c | Explain how you have made the paragraph clearer.

2 Paragraph Z has been written as the opening sentence to a paragraph explaining what biodiesel is.

Biodiesel
Z Biodiesel, the most common biofuel used in Europe, is made from oils in seed crops that
include rapeseed and soy.

Rewrite this sentence so that it forms the opening sentence to a paragraph about:
a | types of common biofuels b | types of plants used to make biofuels.

3 Use the bullet points to write a paragraph explaining why some people are against biofuels.
Make the point of each sentence clear, make the order of your ideas clear and link your
sentences clearly.
■ growing biofuel crops needs
land
■ increased demand for maize
will increase prices
■ maize will become more
expensive
■ poor farmers are attracted by
the money made from growing
biofuel crops
■ rainforests will be cut down by
farmers in poorer countries
■ there will be less land area A
available for growing food

I can …
■ order ideas clearly, using appropriate emphasis.
29
 GROWING
9Bd CROPS
HOW DO FARMERS MAKE SURE THEIR CROPS GROW WELL?

Farmers want to get as much useful product

(yield) from their crops as possible. They do
this in a variety of ways.
Forests are cut down to make farmland.
Hedgerows are removed to create more
space for big machines. Machines can
plant and harvest crops faster than humans.
Greenhouses can also be used to make sure
that plants have the best conditions for growth.
A | The wheat at the top was grown without phosphates
added. The wheat at the bottom was grown in the same
Fertilisers conditions but using a phosphate fertiliser.
Fertilisers contain mineral salts, such as
potassium, phosphates and nitrates. Farmers
use artificial fertilisers and natural ones such
as manure (animal waste). Microorganisms,
called decomposers, break down manure and
release the mineral salts.

1 Describe the effect of too little

phosphate.

2 a | Write down two other mineral salts

that plants need.
b | Why do plants need these?
(Hint: look back at 9Bb and 9Bc.)
Pesticides
Pesticides kill pests (organisms that damage
crops). Insecticides kill insect pests.
Fungicides kill fungi that cause plant diseases.
Herbicides (weedkillers) kill weeds, which
compete with the crop plants for water, light
and mineral salts. Modern herbicides are
selective; they kill weed plants with broad
leaves but not crop plants with narrow leaves
(such as wheat).
B | A blocked sprayer nozzle has meant that a
selective herbicide has not been applied to all of
this field.
3 In poorer countries, families grow their own
crops. Explain the effect an increase in the
following will have on their food supply:
a | number of people in a family
b | number of pests.
4 a | Suggest why a farmer might want to use
a selective herbicide.
b | Why might a farmer in a poorer country
not use a selective herbicide?

30
 Wheat variety
grown widely
Varieties today

A variety is a group of plants that have been bred

to have certain characteristics. Some differences
between varieties are not easy to see. For
example, the modern wheat variety in photo C is Wheat variety
much less likely to get a disease called ‘rust’ than from the 1950s
the old variety.
Different varieties are sometimes bred with
each other to produce offspring that hopefully
have the characteristics of both breeds. This is
cross-breeding and is one way of creating a C | wheat varieties
new variety.

5 a | Why would the apple in

photo D not be sold in
D | Cross-breeding shops?
could be used to
remove the bitter b | What could be done to
taste from this make a red-fleshed apple
apple variety but that could be sold?
keep its red flesh. Look at photo C. Suggest
6
two reasons why the 1950s
variety of wheat is not grown
today.

New varieties are also created using selective breeding. This is

when only plants with certain characteristics are used to breed. Orange carrots were
For example, a breeder may want to produce a variety of wheat that is selectively bred in the
short, so the wind is less likely to blow it over. Two short parent plants Netherlands in the
are bred. Then only the shortest offspring are selected and used to 1500s. Some people
breed the next generation. In the next generation only the shortest think that this was
plants are selected and bred. This process is repeated and repeated, to show support for
and over many generations a new variety of short wheat is produced. William of Orange (who
was fighting for Dutch
independence) but it is
E | wild carrots (on the left) and a more likely that it was to
modern variety
make carrots less bitter.

7 Describe how wild

carrots would have I can …
been selectively bred
to produce the variety ■ describe how pests and
we grow today. human populations alter food
supply
8 Farms in the UK ■ explain ways in which farmers
today produce 35% boost food production
more food per m2 ■ explain some ways in which
than they did in 1973.
plant varieties are created.
Explain how.
31
 FARMING
9Be PROBLEMS
WHAT PROBLEMS CAN FARMING CAUSE?
Clearing land (to make space for crops or
machinery) destroys habitats, reducing the
populations of organisms.
Worldwide, it is estimated that about
12 hectares (the area of a British village)
of trees are cut down every minute.
Fertilisers
Fertilisers can wash into rivers and lakes. The
phosphates and nitrates cause fast growth of
algae and plants, which block out light causing
a lot of them to die. As decomposer bacteria
break down the dead material, they use up
the oxygen in the water, causing fish to die (as
shown in photo B).
B | fish killed due to a lack of oxygen
1 Explain why an increase in bacteria in a
lake can reduce the populations of fish.
2 Why do extra nitrates in lakes cause
algae and plants to grow quickly?
3 Draw a flow chart to explain why the
fish in photo B have died.
32
A | This
rainforest
was cleared
to graze
cattle. The
steep slopes
are now
prone to
erosion.
Pesticides
Insecticides can kill helpful insects that eat pests or
pollinate plants. Some insecticides are persistent (do
not break down in the environment). Predators in a food
chain may eat many animals containing small amounts
of insecticide meaning that the top predator gets a large
amount of the substance, which may harm it.
In 2014, the EU banned the use of some ‘neonicotinoid’
insecticides on flowering crops. These insecticides
made the plants poisonous for most of the growing
season. The ban was based on evidence that the
insecticide made nectar and pollen poisonous to bees.
Selective herbicides only kill plants that have broad
leaves and so a crop, like wheat, is not affected.
However, many plants in hedges have broad leaves
and are killed.
C | a march in favour of banning neonicotinoids
 4 a | Draw out a food web of the
following: Sparrowhawks eat
blue tits and dormice. Wheat is
eaten by caterpillars and aphids.
Caterpillars feed on hazel trees,
as do dormice. Blue tits feed on
aphids and caterpillars.
b | This food web is from a
hedge next to a wheat field.
What would happen to the
populations of the organisms if a
farmer sprayed the wheat with:
i | a general insecticide
ii | a selective herbicide?
Varieties
Farmers often plant the same variety of crop. Since all the
plants are identical, if one gets a disease then all the others
will. A new disease can wipe out the entire crop.
Planting a single crop variety over a large area reduces
biodiversity. The food webs become smaller, and if a
disaster hits the area it takes much longer to recover than
if the area was very biodiverse.
6 In 19th century Ireland, most people survived by
growing and eating one variety of potato (lumper).
Between 1845 and 1852 more than a million people
starved. Suggest why.

5 Suggest why neonicotinoids 7 A huge area of land is planted with wheat for many
were banned for use on rapeseed years. The farmer wants to grow rapeseed instead.
crops but not on wheat. Explain why the rapeseed may not give a good yield.

COMBUSTION carbon dioxide (CO2) RESPIRATION

in the air

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RESPIRATION RESPIRATION

FEEDING
Some plants carbon compounds carbon compounds
D | This area is all planted with one variety of (e.g. trees) in plants in animals
are burned. In certain conditions
oil palm.
plant and animal
remains become Most dead plants,
fossil fuels. dead animals and
Plants remove carbon dioxide from the animal droppings are
atmosphere when they photosynthesise. broken down by
decomposers (e.g.
Carbon is ‘stored’ in trees but the carbon fungi). Decomposers
in crops is soon released back into the also respire.
coal and oil oil and
atmosphere, when the crops are used power station natural gas
for food or fuel. Due to the destruction
of forests and burning of fossil fuels, the E | the carbon cycle
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
has been increasing for the last 200 years.
Extra carbon dioxide is thought to be
causing global warming. The carbon cycle I can …
shows the processes by which carbon ■ use models, for example food
dioxide is removed and released. webs and the carbon cycle,
to explain changes in an
8 Farming affects many parts of the carbon cycle. Identify ecosystem
as many of these as you can and explain the effects. ■ recognise the advantages and
disadvantages of different
9 Draw a table to show the advantages and disadvantages
farming methods.
of clearing land, insecticides, herbicides and fertilisers.
33
 BIAS AND
9Be VALIDITY
WHAT ARE BIAS AND VALIDITY?
Bias is a shift away from a true meaning or value.
Sometimes it is done on purpose and sometimes
by mistake.

Intentional bias
Herbicide-tolerant (or HT) soybean is a variety that is not
killed by a selective herbicide called glyphosate, which
kills common weeds (such as milkweed). Milkweed
plants are important for monarch butterflies, as they
lay their eggs on them. The bars on graph B show the
numbers of monarch butterflies that migrated from the
USA to Mexico each winter. Some scientists think that
increased planting of HT soybean means that farmers
are getting rid of more milkweed, reducing butterfly
A | HT soybean growing
numbers. Others blame the reduction of butterflies on
deforestation in Mexico and new weather patterns.
Sometimes people do not
HT soybean growing and monarch butterflies in Mexico 1996 – 2013
present all the data from
Number of monarch butterflies in Mexico

B 100 1200
90 investigations and only
Percentage of soybean crop

1000 choose data that support

that was HT soybean (%)

80
HT soybean % their ideas. Graph C shows
in winter (millions)

70 800
60 how data could be selected
50 600 from graph B to show bias.
butterfly
40 numbers
400
30
1 a | What is graph C
20 200 trying to get you
10
to believe?
0 0
b | Explain how this
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013

graph is biased.
Year
c | Suggest who
How growing HT soybean affected monarch butterflies might create a
C in Mexico 1997 – 2003
90 600 graph like this.
HT soybean %
Number of monarch butterflies

Explain your
Percentage of soybean crop

in Mexico in winter (millions)

80
that was HT soybean (%)

butterfly 500 reasoning.

70
numbers
60 400 Which figures
2
50 would you use from
300
40 graph B to show a
30 200 continual decrease
20 in monarch
100
10 butterflies?
0 0
1997 1999 2001 2003
34 Year
What someone says or writes is ‘balanced’ if the points in
favour and the points against something are considered D | advantages and disadvantages of growing HT
soybean
equally. Bias occurs when the points selected do not
give the full picture. Cartoon E shows how information Advantages Disadvantages
from table D could be used in a biased way.
easier management expensive
of weeds
We all know that
HT soybean is bad fewer glyphosate with time, weeds unaffected
news. It’s incredibly
expensive and creates sprayings needed by glyphosate become more
weeds that are than with other common meaning that other
impossible to
control. herbicides herbicides may be needed
glyphosate is not HT soybean may grow as
persistent a weed in other crops and
could be difficult to control

3 a | Why is what the person is saying in

cartoon E biased?

b | Identify words used in cartoon E that

E | bias against HT soybean
Accidental bias
Bias can be caused by systematic error, when
readings are all shifted away from the true values by
the same amount. For example, a thermometer with
an incorrectly printed scale may always read 1 °C
higher than the correct temperature.
Sampling can also cause accidental bias. Samples
must be taken at random and should not be chosen.
Otherwise, scientists might only take samples from
interesting areas or areas that are likely to give the data
that they expect. The estimated numbers of monarch
butterflies in graph B were calculated from samples. The
scientists used a computer program to randomly choose
the sample areas in which to count the butterflies.
Validity
Something is valid if it does what it is supposed to do.
A fair test is valid because only the effects of the
independent variable are measured. Results are valid
if they correctly measure what was supposed to be
measured. A valid conclusion for an investigation is
drawn using only the results of the investigation.
add weight to what is being said.
4 Write a biased paragraph to encourage
farmers to plant HT soybean.
5 Scientists used a computer to
randomly choose trees to sample in
a Mexican forest. They then counted
monarch butterflies on the trunks of
the trees, in the parts they could reach.
Why could this sampling cause bias?
6 “Graph B clearly shows that as more
HT soybean has been planted, the
number of monarch butterflies in
Mexico in winter has decreased.”
Explain why this is not a valid
conclusion. (Hint: think about what a
percentage tells you.)
I can …
■ identify bias
■ explain different sources of bias
■ explain whether something is valid.
35
 ORGANIC
9Be FARMING
IS ORGANIC FARMING BETTER THAN INTENSIVE FARMING?
In organic farming, only natural fertilisers, such as
manure, are used. And only small amounts of naturally
occurring substances can be used as pesticides, for
example sulfur or copper sulfate.
Organic farmers do not plant the same crops in the
same place every year, but rotate their crops. They
make sure that one crop in the rotation is a plant that
adds nitrates to the soil, such as clover. They also use
organisms to reduce the numbers of pest organisms –
this is known as biological control.

A | Powdery mildew fungus grows over plant leaves

but can be treated organically using copper sulfate
mixed with calcium hydroxide. However, this mixture
harms some soil microorganisms and helpful insects.

Some people prefer to eat organic foods. This

may be because they think they are healthier
than conventionally farmed foods. There is little
evidence for this though. Some people don’t
B | Hoverfly larvae are used to control aphids. like the idea of artificial substances being on
or in plants they eat. Others think that artificial
Powdery mildew affects photosynthesis in
pesticides and fertilisers cause too much
1 environmental damage.
plants.
a | Describe what happens in photosynthesis. Studies have shown that organic farms do have
b | Explain what effect powdery mildew would a greater biodiversity than conventional farms.
have on photosynthesis. However, organic farms take up much more
c | Explain how this would affect a farmer’s yield. space to provide the same amount of food.
Organic foods can also be very expensive.
2 Small amounts of magnesium mineral salts
are needed to make chlorophyll.
a | What is chlorophyll?
b | Describe how magnesium salts travel from
the soil into the leaves.
c | Explain how roots and stems are adapted Do you think we should make all
to this function. UK farming organic?
3 Name a helpful insect and explain why it is
helpful to farmers.

36
 REVISING KS3
9Ca BIOLOGY In 1982, Robin Warren
HOW DO SCIENTISTS WORK? Question
and Barry Marshall
asked: Why is a bacte-
The scientific method is a process in which an idea is rium called Helicobacter
developed and tested. The results are used as evidence. pylori found in people
Hypothesis with stomach ulcers?
Diagram A shows a common way to carry out the
scientific method. A hypothesis is an idea about why Stomach ulcers depend
something happens, and is usually based on scientific Prediction
on having Helicobacter
understanding. A prediction is then made. This is pylori in the stomach.
a statement that describes what will happen in an
New
If the bacteria are killed,
experiment if a hypothesis is correct. then the ulcers will heal.
hypothesis Experiment
needed
Experiments are carried out to test predictions,
Warren and Marshall
and the predictions are compared to the results. used antibiotics to kill
If the results match the prediction, this provides Data Helicobacter pylori in
evidence to support the hypothesis. people with
stomach ulcers.
After making a discovery, scientists write about it in
a scientific paper. The paper is sent to a journal The ulcers healed.
to be published. Most journals ask other scientists Data match
No
prediction?
who work in the same area of science to check the
papers. This is called peer review. Only if the other Warren and Marshall
scientists agree that the experiments were done Yes wrote about their
experiments, which
properly and that the conclusions are correct will the Hypothesis were published in a
paper be published. Peer review helps to make sure looks correct
peer-reviewed journal.
that we can trust scientific findings.
A | a common form of the scientific method
Sampling
Scientists often need to count large numbers of
things, such as the number of bacteria colonies
growing on agar in a Petri dish. Rather than
counting everything, they count the things in a
smaller sample. They then use the sample to
estimate how many things there are in the whole.
This can save a lot of time but if a sample is too
small the results may not be very accurate.

2 squares in the
Petri dish grid
× 50
100 squares in the dish
B | To estimate the number of
contain 8 colonies
bacteria colonies, we can place
× 50 a grid underneath the Petri dish.
contain 400 colonies We count the number of colonies
in several squares and multiply
the result.

37
 CELLS, SYSTEMS
9Ca AND MOVEMENT
WHAT ARE CELLS AND HOW ARE THEY ORGANISED?

All organisms are made of cells, which we Living things from the plant and animal kingdoms
7A
can observe using a microscope. have different cell structures.

A | using a microscope B | a plant cell cell wall, made of cellulose,

supports the cell.

Objective lenses to choose from. eyepiece chloroplast, where

The overall magnification is: lens photosynthesis happens.

magnification magnification permanent vacuole,

of eyepiece × of objective used for storage (animal
lens lens cells can have small
temporary vacuoles).
cell surface membrane,
controls what enters and
leaves the cell (also
The image is found in animal cells)
focused by
turning the mitochondrion, where
coarse and aerobic respiration
The specimen is
fine focusing takes place (also found
mounted on a slide
wheels, which in animal cells).
and placed on the
alter the distance
stage. nucleus, controls the cytoplasm, where the
between the
stage and the cell (also found in cell’s activities occur
objective lens. animal cells). (also found in animal cells).

8D C | different cell parts of a unicellular (one-celled) D | Prokaryotes, such as this bacterium, never have
protoctist nuclei, mitochondria or chloroplasts in their cells.

This protoctist uses flagella to move. flagellum circular chromosome

Others use cilia or pseudopods. (for movement) (controls the cell)

slimy layer (for protection)

eyespot to
detect light
cell wall (for protection and support)
mitochondrion storage vacuoles
cell surface membrane (to control
cell wall nucleus entry and exit of materials)
cell surface
Some protoctists cytoplasm (where chemical processes occur)
membrane
(such as algae)
have chloroplasts.

38
 Materials move into, out of and within cells cell surface membrane
7G by diffusion. All particles of all materials
8D are in a constant state of random motion.
In fluids, particles can move past each
other and so there is a gradual overall
movement of particles from a place where
there are more of them to a place where time
there are fewer of them.
Diffusion would be too slow to get materials
to all cells in a multicellular organism
(because materials would have to pass
through other cells). So, multicellular
organisms have efficient transport systems
to carry materials to (and wastes from) all outside cell inside cell outside cell inside cell
cells. Diffusion is too slow if cells are above
E | Diffusion allows substances to move into cells.
a certain size, and so most cells do not get
very big.
F | functions of the skeleton
Most animals have a circulatory system
7C Some bones
containing blood to transport materials (e.g. skull) are
around their bodies. for protection.

7A Organ systems Some bones

(e.g. backbone)
7C In multicellular organisms, cells of the same are for support.
type form tissues. Different tissues can
form organs, which work together in organ
systems. Your bones and muscles are
organs made of different tissues. Together, Some bones
your bones and muscles form your allow movement
at joints.
locomotor system, which supports your
body and allows you to move.
Red blood cells
are made inside

7C Movement some large bones.

8D Humans move using the locomotor system,

G | Muscles can only pull (not push) and so
in which bones are moved by muscles.
they are found in antagonistic pairs.
The study of how muscles and bones work
together is called biomechanics. The force exerted by the biceps as it contracts can be
measured by attaching a newtonmeter to the fingers.
Some muscles can exert more force than
others. Exercise can strengthen muscles shoulder blade biceps muscle
and allow them to exert more force.
Exercise can sometimes cause injuries to
tendons (tissues that connect muscles to
bones) or ligaments (tissues that connect
bones together in a joint). triceps muscle
tendons

When you lift your arm, the triceps muscle relaxes. 39

 OTHER ORGAN
9Cb SYSTEMS
HOW DO THE DIGESTIVE AND GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEMS WORK?

A balanced diet means eating the right amounts of different nutrients:

8A
■ carbohydrates (such as sugars and starch ■ lipids (such as fats and oils for energy
for energy) storage and insulation)
■ proteins (for growth and repair) ■ vitamins and minerals (for health).

We also need plenty of:

■ fibre (to keep the intestines ■ water (to help cells hold their shape
clean and working properly) and to dissolve substances).

Too much or too little of a nutrient can cause malnutrition, including obesity and
deficiency diseases such as scurvy. Active people and those who are growing need
more energy than less active people. Energy is measured in kilojoules.
Most nutrients in food must be digested. The digestive system is made up of lots of
different organs including those in the gut as well as organs such as salivary glands
and the liver. Muscles in the gut contract behind the food, squeezing it along. As it
moves, nutrients are broken down into small soluble molecules by biological catalysts
called enzymes. Soluble nutrients are then absorbed into the blood.
Gut bacteria help to break down some foods and can also produce useful substances,
such as vitamins.

A
Starch is partly digested
by enzymes in a digestive
Cereals, bread, rice juice called saliva.
and pasta contain
a lot of starch. Meat, fish, nuts and dairy
produce contain a lot of salivary gland
Cereals also
contain protein, and fat; they also
contain some minerals. teeth grind up food
fibre.
Proteins are digested by Muscles in the
enzymes in the stomach wall of the gullet
and small intestine. push food along.
Fruit and vegetables
contain a lot of vitamins,
minerals and fibre. Digested food is
absorbed through
the walls of the
Vitamins and minerals small intestine,
do not need to be which has folds,
digested since they villi and microvilli
are already soluble. to increase its
surface area.

To get a balanced diet, people should eat Fibre is not digested,

food from each of these groups every day. it is stored as faeces The large intestine
People should aim to eat more from the in the rectum and egested removes water
groups lower in the triangle. (or eliminated) by the anus. from undigested food.

40
7A Plant nutrition
9B Plants use photosynthesis (mainly in their leaves) to produce glucose.
Photosynthesis needs carbon dioxide (from the air) and water (which plants take
in through their roots, using specialised root hair cells). The roots also absorb
mineral salts (e.g. nitrates), which plants need to make certain substances.

7C Human gas exchange

8C Breathing is the During inhalation, muscles in the diaphragm and During exhalation, muscles in the diaphragm
between the ribs contract. The diaphragm moves and between the ribs relax. This reduces the
movement of muscles down and the ribs move up and outwards. size of the chest and so the pressure
to change the size of the This increases the size of the chest and so the inside it rises.
chest. The movement of pressure inside it drops.
air is called ventilation. Pressure in
the lungs is Pressure in
The alveoli in the lungs provide reduced, so the lungs
a large surface area and have atmospheric is increased,
pressure so air is
thin walls, which helps diffusion pushes air in. pushed out.
to happen quickly. Oxygen
diffuses in to the body and
carbon dioxide diffuses out.
This ‘swapping’ of gases is
called gas exchange.
Exercise strengthens the
breathing muscles and
increases the number of
overall overall
capillaries around the alveoli. movement movement
of carbon of oxygen
In an asthma attack the tubes dioxide
in the lungs get narrower and to the
start to fill with mucus, making heart to
plasma be pumped
it difficult to breathe and get
around the
enough oxygen into the body. body

7C Smoking network of capillaries red blood cell

8C Tar in cigarette smoke coats the
alveoli, reducing the speed of air sac alveolus
gas exchange. Over a long time B | the human gas exchange system
it causes the alveoli to break
apart (emphysema), reducing
their surface area. Carbon
monoxide sticks to haemoglobin
Plant gas exchange 7C
in red blood cells and stops Plants exchange gases through stomata in their leaves. 8C
them carrying so much oxygen. These are small holes that can be opened and closed by
Nicotine (an addictive drug) guard cells. When stomata are open, gases can diffuse
makes arteries narrower. between the outside of a leaf and the air spaces inside a leaf
(see page 44).

41
 REPRODUCTION
9Cc AND HEALTH
HOW DO MAMMALS AND FLOWERING PLANTS REPRODUCE?

Male and female mammals,

7B oviduct
such as humans, have different bladder
ovary
organs in their reproductive glands
uterus
systems. These produce urethra
cervix
different gametes. In sexual sperm duct

reproduction, male and female

testis
gametes fuse (fertilisation) in scrotum vagina
an oviduct, forming a zygote.
This grows into an embryo by A | male and female reproductive systems
cell division.
jelly coat allows only streamlined The top of the head contains substances that
one sperm cell to enter shape attack the outside of the egg cell. This
allows the sperm cell to burrow inside.
nucleus
nucleus
cell surface membrane The tail allows
it to swim.
cytoplasm contains Long spiral-shaped
a food store mitochondrion can release cell surface
lots of energy for the tail. membrane

B | an egg cell C | a sperm cell

After fertilisation, the embryo

implants into the lining of the
uterus and grows into a foetus.
The placenta gets food and
oxygen from the mother’s blood.
These are taken to the foetus by baby toddler
blood vessels in the umbilical zygote
cord. The foetus is protected by
the amniotic fluid, held in the
amnion.

adult adolescent

child

Changes during puberty

include: Girls – develop breasts
and the menstrual cycle
begins, in which ovulation
D | the human life cycle occurs once a month. Boys –
voices break, hair grows on face
and chest, and testes start
producing sperm cells.
42
N 7B Health
A drug is any substance that has an effect on the body. Drugs can affect
behaviour and health in everyone, including the health of unborn babies.

Carbon monoxide gas in cigarette smoke

can cause the premature birth of babies.

Depressants slow the speed with which impulses

(electrical signals) travel through the nervous system.

caffeine ecstasy heroin

The side-effects of Stimulants increase the speed These are all recreational
alcohol can include with which impulses travel drugs but these last two
vomiting. through the nervous system. are illegal.

E | different drugs

8B Plant reproduction
Flowering plants also
reproduce sexually
and use fruits for
seed dispersal, by
water, wind, animals
or explosions. Some
plants also use asexual
reproduction (e.g.
runners in strawberries
and tubers in potato
plants).
Pollen is carried from the anthers of one flower to the
stigma of another in pollination. Pollination is carried
out by animals (usually insects) or the wind.
pollen grain
The dandelion stigma
‘flower’ is actually pollen tube
many flowers. A style
pollen tube grows ovary
down the style of ovule
each flower and into egg cell
the ovule, where the
male gamete (inside
the pollen grain)
fertilises an egg cell.

The seedling grows

into a plant, which The fruits carry the
then has flowers. seeds to new areas.
This is seed dispersal. ovary turns
into a fruit

The seed starts to ovule turns

grow – it germinates. into a seed

F | life cycle of a dandelion

43
 ENERGY IN
9Cd ECOSYSTEMS
HOW DO ANIMALS AND PLANTS DEPEND ON ONE ANOTHER?
A lot of energy from the Sun is transferred by light.
9B
Plants use chlorophyll to trap this energy. During
Adaptations for 9B
photosynthesis, the energy is transferred to a photosynthesis
sugar called glucose. Oxygen is a by-product.
This can be summarised as: Plant leaves are adapted for photosynthesis.

carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen leaf is flat to give a large surface area to trap light

Glucose is an organic molecule (it contains a cuticle

chain of carbon atoms). Plants turn glucose into
a carbohydrate called starch, which is used as palisade cells
are packed with
an energy store. They also use glucose to make chloroplasts
other organic molecules, including different xylem tissue to
carry water up to
carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Some of these and throughout
the leaf
molecules need mineral salts (e.g. potassium,
phloem tissue
nitrates, phosphates) to make them. For example, to carry sugars
nitrates are needed to make amino acids, which away from the leaf
can be joined together to make proteins. leaf is thin so that
gases do not have
to diffuse far
Algae (which are protoctists) also
guard cell
photosynthesise. Most other organisms on Earth stomata allow gases to
carbon diffuse into and out of the leaf
depend on plants and algae for energy, and to dioxide
water
maintain levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in oxygen vapour
the atmosphere.
A | internal structure of a leaf

8C Cellular respiration
Organisms need energy for all the processes ■ releases less energy from each glucose
that happen in them (e.g. moving, making new molecule than aerobic respiration
substances). Plant and animal cells release energy ■ produces lactic acid, which must then be
from glucose using aerobic respiration: broken down (e.g. by the liver)
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water ■ makes muscles get tired quickly.
If an animal needs a sudden burst of energy (e.g. Anaerobic respiration can also take place in
to sprint away from a predator), muscle cells may microorganisms, where it is called fermentation.
not have enough oxygen to release all the energy There are different types, for example:
using aerobic respiration. The cells then also use
anaerobic respiration: ■ in yeast:
ethanol carbon
glucose lactic acid glucose +
(alcohol) dioxide
This type of respiration: ■ in yoghurt bacteria: glucose lactic acid
■ does not need oxygen
44
7D Interdependence
Organisms in an ecosystem depend on one another – they are interdependent.
Animals depend on plants for food. Food chains start with producers
(organisms that can photosynthesise). The energy in producers passes to
consumers. However, energy is ‘lost’ by each consumer (e.g. by moving,
keeping warm). So, there are fewer organisms further along a food chain.
This can be shown using a pyramid of numbers (such as diagram C).

algae krill gentoo leopard killer

penguin seal whale
producer primary secondary tertiary quarterny
consumer consumer consumer consumer
herbivore carnivore carnivore carnivore
prey of prey of leopard seals prey of killer whales top predator
penguins predator of krill predator of penguins

B | A food chain: many food chains can be combined to create a food web.

Many insects feed on nectar or pollen. Many plants depend on insect pollination to produce
8B
seeds. So, in turn, humans depend on insects to help produce some seeds and fruits to eat. If
pollinator populations decrease, it may be hard to feed the growing world population.

Organisms can affect physical environmental factors in their habitats. For example, trees
7D
keep temperatures low in woods in summer. Changes in physical environmental factors can
affect organisms. Seasonal changes are changes in environmental factors that happen every
year. They cause some animals to hibernate or migrate, and cause deciduous plants to lose
their leaves. Daily changes, such as changes in light, cause some animals to be active during
the day and others at night (nocturnal).
Some changes in habitats
killer whale
are caused by humans. For
example, poisons such as leopard seal
pesticides may kill organisms gentoo penguin
directly. Some poisons are
persistent and do not break krill
down, and accumulate in algae
greater and greater amounts
in organisms along a food C | The red dots on this pyramid of numbers show how a pesticide can
chain. These poisons may become more and more concentrated in animals further along a food chain.
affect organisms at the ends
of food chains.
45
 GENETICS AND
9Ce EVOLUTION
WHY DO SOME SPECIES BECOME EXTINCT AND OTHERS EVOLVE?

Cell nuclei contain genetic

9A chromosomes
information. This genetic information
controls cells and also many of the
characteristics of whole organisms.
Heredity is the passing on of genetic
information from parents to offspring.
The offspring from asexual
reproduction only inherit genetic
information from one parent (and
so are genetically the same as
their parent). Sexual reproduction
The nucleus of a cell A chromosome contains one
produces offspring that have contains chromosomes. long DNA molecule that is DNA is a
characteristics from two parents. A tightly coiled many times. double helix.
Proteins hold the shape together.
Human nuclei contain 46
chromosomes, made of a molecule
called DNA. Genetic information is stored in genes (sections of a DNA molecule in a chromosome).
In human reproduction, offspring receive 23 chromosomes from each parent.
The DNA molecule is a double helix. James Watson and Francis Crick worked out its shape in the
early 1950s. They built a model of DNA using data from other scientists, including X-ray pictures taken
by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, which showed patterns only produced by spiral molecules.

7D Variation and adaptation

9A A species is a group of organisms that can reproduce sexually with one another to produce more
organisms of the same type. There is a lot of variation in characteristics between different species.
Members of the same species have similar
characteristics but still show some variation.
Environmental variation (such as a suntan) is dark colour provides
caused by physical environmental factors. forward-facing eyes
camouflage against
to judge distances
Genes cause genetic variation (e.g. eye colour). the dark ocean if
predators look
Variation that can have any value within a spread streamlined
down
at it
of values is continuous variation (e.g. human body allows it
height). Variation that can only have certain values to swim fast
sharp teeth to
(e.g. shoe size) is discontinuous variation. pale belly provides grab the prey and
camouflage against tear it apart
Organisms survive if they are adapted to their the bright sky if
predators look up
habitats. They have adaptations for finding food, at it
powerful tail for
swimming fast
for avoiding being eaten and for coping with
the environment.
B | Animals have adaptations.

46
 Organisms compete for
C | Natural selection often takes place as a result of environmental
resources. If resources
change.
become scarce, species that
are better adapted to a habitat Numbers of organisms in a population best adapted
are more likely to survive. Other for different levels of moisture

species may die out in that Members of a The moisture level is currently ‘medium’
population naturally and most organisms are best adapted
area, or become extinct.

Numbers of organisms best adapted to

vary in their ability to this level of moisture.
to cope with the
If an environment changes, If the conditions get drier,
conditions. Most

different moisture levels

some members of a species these organisms will be better
are best suited to
may by chance have adapted than others in the
the current
population and so more
conditions. A few
characteristics that make likely to survive and reproduce.
are better suited
them better adapted to this Their offspring will also have
to wetter conditions
the characteristics that allowed
and a few are
change than others. The better- their parents to survive in the
better suited to
adapted individuals are more drier conditions.
drier conditions.
likely to survive (particularly
if resources are scarce). Over
time, more organisms with
the better characteristics will
wetter drier
survive and reproduce, and so Moisture level
the population will contain more
and more organisms with those characteristics. Nature is ‘selecting’ the organisms
that are best adapted to the conditions. This is called natural selection.
Charles Darwin proposed that natural selection over a long time causes evolution.

7D Biodiversity
9A Habitats with greater numbers of different species have greater
biodiversity. We need to preserve biodiversity because:
9B
■ organisms depend on one another
■ areas with greater biodiversity recover faster from disasters
■ there are many undiscovered substances in organisms that
could be useful to us (for food, medicines)
■ it preserves organisms with different genetic variations, which
may be useful if conditions change in the future.
Ways of preserving biodiversity include:
■ protecting habitats
■ cutting down pollution
■ encouraging farmers to plant a wide variety of crops.
In the future, genetic material from organisms could be used
to re-create extinct organisms or use their genes. So, genetic
material is saved in gene banks. Gene banks use very low D | The ‘seed bank’ at Kew Gardens,
near London, is kept at –20 ºC.
temperatures to preserve cells and tissues, such as plant seeds,
plant cuttings, pollen grains, and sperm and egg cells.
47
 ANIMAL
9C1 SMUGGLING
It’s not every day that you sit next to an iguana on In airports, animals are found in luggage using
an aeroplane, but passengers on a recent flight to the X-rays and dogs that have been trained to
Bahamas had some rare reptilian company. sniff out other animals. But animals are also
smuggled through ports in shipping containers
Thirteen Bahamian rock iguanas had arrived in the UK
and these are more difficult to detect due to the
from the Bahamas in February, in less comfortable
large sizes of the containers. Various detection
circumstances. Wrapped in socks and shoved into
methods are used, including sensors that detect
suitcases, they had then been loaded into an aircraft hold
temperature and carbon dioxide levels inside
for a nine-hour flight. Staff carrying out customs checks at
the containers.
Heathrow discovered the animals. One had already died.

A | one of the Bahamian iguanas

Bahamian rock iguanas (Cyclura rileyi) are critically
endangered and trading them is banned under the CITES
agreement. Grant Miller, head of the UK Border Force
CITES team, said: “Not only has Border Force made sure
that the criminals responsible for smuggling these animals
are behind bars, we’re also proud to have been able to
play a part in safeguarding the future of this species.”
B | This dog was found, using an X-ray
machine, in hand luggage at Dublin airport.
According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the
illegal trafficking of live animals is worth about
£12 billion per year, so continued hard work is
needed to bring the problem under control.

1 This story is from an online news site. The editor wants readers’ questions to be answered,
explaining the science. Choose one of the questions below and write a detailed answer for the site.
a | Why is it important that the Bahamian rock iguanas are returned to where they came from?
b | Why are temperature and carbon dioxide detectors useful in detecting concealed animals?
c | How do animals become critically endangered?
d | How do animals, such as iguanas, become different species over time?

2 Find out about CITES. Write a paragraph describing its purpose and how it works.

3 When writing a story, science journalists use ‘press releases’, information from online resources
(such as encyclopaedias) and their own scientific knowledge. Search for a ‘press release’ about
‘animal smuggling’ or ‘animal trafficking’ and write an article for an online newspaper. Use a variety
of sources and show where you have got all your information from. Use no more than 350 words.

48
 ENZYME
9C2 INVESTIGATION
Some tougher meats are often cooked or served with
certain fruits. This is not just to make them taste nice
but because the fruits contain substances that help
to make the meat more tender; they tenderise it.
These fruits contain enzymes. Enzymes are
molecules that act as catalysts; they speed up
chemical reactions. Many enzymes break down large
molecules into smaller molecules. There are lots of
enzymes of this type in your digestive system.
The enzymes in some fruits can break down the
proteins in the meat. This means that long strands
of protein are broken down into shorter ones, and
the meat is easier to chew.
Gelatine is a ‘gelling agent’. It is often used in A | Pineapple can be used to tenderise chicken.
cooking to make jellies, and is made from an animal
protein called collagen. There is a lot of collagen in tendons,
ligaments and skin. When gelatine is cooked, its long strands of
protein form a tangled mesh. As it cools, the long protein strands People who work in
trap water and the gelatine forms a jelly. If enzymes are added to pineapple-canning factories
break down the protein in gelatine, the protein strands become must wear protective
too short to become tangled up. This means that the mesh does clothing to stop the fruits
not form and the jelly will not ‘set’. causing skin damage.

the mesh of fibres traps water and flavourings

B | The long strands of collagen in
gelatine form a tangled mesh when
cooked. This mesh traps water as it
cools, and so a ‘jelly’ is formed.
Planning
You are going to plan and carry out an investigation of your
choice to find out how fruits affect gelling agents.
The following ideas may help you to make a choice but there
are plenty of other variables that you could test.
■ Which fruits contain enzymes that break down proteins?
■ Do fruits that stop gelatine forming a jelly also work on
vegetarian gelling agents such as agar?
■ Does cooking the fruits make a difference to how well their
enzymes break down proteins?
■ Do canned fruits work as well as fresh ones?
■ Do fruit juices contain enzymes that break down proteins?
Check that others in your class are not
allergic to any fruits you decide to try.
Remember do not eat or drink in a lab.

49
9C3 TEETH
COMMUNICATING WITH THE PUBLIC gingival crevice
enamel
Animals use their teeth to chop and grind up their food, making it dentine
gum
easier to swallow and starting the process of digestion. Predators
pulp cavity
may also use their teeth to kill their prey. Animals that lose their teeth
periodontal
often die of starvation. ligament
cementum
The enamel on your teeth is the hardest material in your body.
root canal
It cannot be replaced naturally and is gradually worn away by
chewing. Enamel is destroyed more quickly by acids in your food and
by acids produced by bacteria. The bacteria form a layer of plaque,
which needs to be removed by regular brushing. Bacteria can also
blood vessels bone
infect your gums and cause gum disease. Sometimes they can infect and nerves
the tissue under a tooth or in your jaw, causing a pus-filled abscess.
A | the parts of a human tooth
Fluoride helps to strengthen the enamel, making it more resistant to
wearing away. Fluoride is found in toothpastes and in tap water in some
areas. However, dentists recommend that your teeth are checked every
six months. Problems can then be spotted and dealt with early, and
hardened plaque can be removed.

Destruction of the enamel results in holes (cavities) and, if a dentist cavity abscess
does not fill them, they can cause toothache. In severe cases, the
tooth can become infected with bacteria and can die and fall out.

1 A dentist wants a waiting room leaflet entitled

‘Looking after your teeth means looking after your
diet’. Design and write a leaflet using information
from this page, what you know about diet and
bacteria, and some research. You should provide
explanations for the recommendations that you
make, and include:
B | This scan of an Ancient Egyptian
■ the problems with too many of the wrong sorts
mummy shows that the man inside may
of foods in your diet
have died of an infection caused by an
■ what plaque is and how it is formed abscess. His teeth were full of cavities
■ how bacteria feed. and he must have been in extreme pain.

2 A dentist may treat an abscess using antibiotics.

Do some research to find out how your body
fights infections like this and why antibiotics may
be needed. You should include what antibiotics
are, how they work and why it is important
to finish a course of antibiotics. Present your Research and prepare an
report as a leaflet to be inserted into a packet of
antibiotic tablets.
argument in favour of or against
adding fluoride to a water supply.
50
 THREAT FROM
9Da DISEASE
HOW HAS LIFE EXPECTANCY CHANGED?
In England and Wales in the 1840s, the median (average) age of death was 46 but today it is
83 years old. Many factors have made this change possible.
One major factor has been understanding how hygiene
prevents diseases. Hygiene means keeping things clean,
such as keeping drinking water separate from sewage
that contains human faeces. Sewage contains
pathogens, which are microorganisms that cause
diseases such as cholera and typhoid. cesspit
Diet has generally improved since the 1840s, which floor of living room street
means people are healthier and stronger and can fight off
diseases better. Immunisation, particularly in childhood,
helps protect people throughout their lives against
particular diseases.
In the 1950s, a disease called polio caused disabilities
in about 30 000 children in the UK and killed hundreds
of others. At its peak, it is estimated that the disease
A | People used to dump their waste in open cesspits under their homes,
affected over half a million people worldwide every year. but now sewage is removed from buildings in pipes.
Thanks to an international immunisation programme
there are only a few hundred cases each year in the
world today. Medicines also developed greatly in the 20th century,
including the introduction of antibiotics that help
people recover from bacterial diseases.
The main causes of death in developed countries are
now from diseases caused by changes inside the body
rather than from infections.

1 A poor diet can cause deficiency

diseases. Define the term deficiency
disease, giving an example.

2 Name two groups of microorganisms.

3 Explain why damage to nerves can affect

muscles.

4 Explain what is meant above where it

says that polio affected an estimated
half a million people.
B | These children cannot walk unaided because damage to their 5 Medicines taken by mouth are absorbed
nervous system caused by polio stopped their leg muscles working into the blood and enter cells by diffusion.
properly. Explain how diffusion happens.

51
 COMMAND
9Da WORDS
HOW DO COMMAND WORDS HELP WITH ANSWERING A QUESTION?

Questions in test and exam papers contain command words, which indicate how you should
answer the question. Table A shows some command words and what is needed in the answers.

A | Some command words used in questions.

Answers with words

Answer requires only facts
Name … Give … Write down … Answer needs one word or a few words.
State …
Describe … Usually needs a sentence or two to answer. Remember to present facts in a clear and
logical order.
Compare … Answer needs similarities and differences between two or more things and a comparison of
Distinguish between … those similarities and differences.
Answer requires reasons related to facts
Give a reason for … Explain … The reason must be linked well to facts/ processes/ changes to make them clear.
Evaluate … The answer should consider evidence for and against something, and draw a conclusion
about which is better, giving a clear reason why.
Answers with images
Draw … Sketch … Label … Some questions ask you to draw or sketch a diagram or chart, or add labels to something
that has already been drawn.
Data-handling
Using numbers:
Calculate … Estimate … These are maths-type questions. Make sure you show clearly how you worked out the answer.
Using graphs and charts:
Plot … Find … These are questions that ask you to interpret graphs or charts.
General
Complete … Fill in the missing words or parts of text or diagram.
Use information in … to … From a given text or image, use what it shows to answer the question. The question will
also contain one of the above command words.

When you write your answer, make sure you respond correctly to the command word. Make sure
you also check the number of marks for each question and that you give one good point in your
answer for each mark.

52
Look at these questions. Use information on the previous pages and
the guidance in the boxes to help you give the right kind of answer.

This answer needs two good This answer needs one example for 1 mark.
points. These need to be in a
logical order, such as saying
what life expectancy was in 1880
(1 mark) and by how much it has
1 Name one childhood disease. 1 mark
changed since then (1 mark).
Just saying ‘it has increased’ is
not really enough to score even 2 Describe how life expectancy has changed since 1880. 2 marks
1 mark.
3 Explain why a good diet can help people to survive
infections. 3 marks
This answer needs three good
points that link a good diet to 4 Compare the main causes of death in 1880 and 1997
being able to survive infection. shown in B. 3 marks
Here are two points that you
could use. Think of a third, B
then put them in a good order.
Causes of death in England and Wales in 1880 and 1997
■ Being healthy makes your

immune system more able to 100 % other, including infections

fight off infections. 90 % after childbirth and old age
■ Infections are caused by
80 % diseases caused by
pathogens getting into the pathogens
body and making us ill. 70 %
60 % lung and breathing
diseases
50 %
This answer needs three good heart and circulatory
40 % system diseases
points. For a ‘Compare…’
question, start by stating the 30 % cancers
main causes of death in 1880 20 %
shown in the chart (1 mark) and
10 %
the main causes of death in
1997 (1 mark). Then identify the 0%
main differences between these 1880 1997
(1 mark). Many bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics, so they
5
are no longer killed by them. Suggest an effect this may have
on average life expectancy in the future. Explain the reasoning
for your suggestion. 4 marks

To answer this well, you will need to show your

knowledge about the role of bacteria in infectious
diseases, and how these diseases affect life
expectancy. You will also need to say why antibiotics
may be used to treat bacterial infections. Using
all this knowledge, you can then suggest how life I can…
expectancy might change if antibiotics no longer kill
bacteria that cause infectious diseases.
■ identify command words and what they mean
■ respond appropriately to command words.
53
9Da DISEASES
HOW ARE VIRUSES LINKED TO DISEASE?

A disease is something that makes you ill. Diseases have many causes, as shown in Table A.

A | types of diseases, some examples and their causes

Type of disease Example Cause

infectious or polio, influenza, Ebola, microbe (e.g. bacterium, single-celled protoctist, virus) that gets into
communicable disease malaria, cholera, chickenpox the body and changes how it works
deficiency disease anaemia, kwashiorkor lack of a nutrient that the body needs for healthy growth and
development (the lack of different nutrients causes different diseases)
genetic or inherited sickle cell disease, a fault in the DNA (genetic material) in a cell that changes how the
disease haemophilia cell works
lifestyle disease lung cancer, heart disease factors in the way we live increase the risk of getting these diseases,
e.g. smoking tobacco, eating unhealthily, too little exercise
autoimmune disease type 1 diabetes when the body’s immune system attacks and damages cells in the body

Diseases caused by pathogens are called

communicable or infectious diseases, because
the pathogen that causes the disease can be
passed from person to person. Other types
of disease cannot be passed from person
to person, and so are non-communicable
diseases.

1 a | Give one example of a

non-communicable disease.

b | Explain why your example is

non-communicable.

2 Explain how you could become

B | A sneeze or cough can send out droplets containing infectious infected with cholera. (Hint: look at
pathogens at over 60 kilometres an hour to a distance of over 5 metres. page 51 to help you.)

The obvious effects of a disease are its symptoms.

For example, the symptoms of some infectious
diseases are a raised temperature and/or a rash.
38.4°C
3 Look at photo C. What are the
symptoms of chickenpox?

C | This child has chickenpox, which is a disease caused

by a virus.

54
 protein coat
Viruses of the virus virus

Many infectious diseases are caused by viruses. Most genetic

viruses are so small that they cannot be seen with a material from
the virus
light microscope. Viruses cause diseases such as polio, injected into
chickenpox and measles in humans but viruses can bacterium
infect all kinds of organisms.

Pithovirus sibericum is the largest known virus, bacterial cell

about the size of many bacteria. Pithovirus was
found in 30 000-year-old ice from Siberia and
could still infect protoctists called Amoeba.
D | These viruses are infecting a bacterium. After their protein coats
attach to the bacterial cell wall, they inject their genetic material into the
bacterium.

Viruses have a simple structure: an outer protein coat that

protects the genetic material inside. They contain none of the
other structures found in the cells of living organisms, and
cannot carry out life processes on their own. Many scientists
argue that viruses are not true organisms.
When a virus infects a cell, it takes over the cell’s genetic
material and makes the cell produce more viruses. The new
viruses break open the cell membrane and escape to infect
other cells. This cell damage is part of what makes us feel ill.

E
4 Name two life processes that viruses cannot
carry out.

5 Explain why viruses are not classed as living

F | Bluetongue disease mainly affects sheep. First seen in the organisms.
UK in 2007, the virus kills up 90% of infected animals.
6 Ebola is a human disease caused when the
Ebola virus infects cells lining blood vessels. One
symptom of Ebola is bleeding inside the body.
Suggest how the virus causes this bleeding.

7 Look at chart B on page 53 and identify

one block that includes only communicable
diseases. Then describe how the percentage of
deaths in that category has changed between
the years shown.

I can …
■ give examples of different kinds of diseases and describe
how they are caused
■ explain why there is no virus kingdom.
55
 CONTROL
9Db SYSTEMS
HOW ARE THE BODY’S RESPONSES CONTROLLED?

A virus causes the childhood infection chickenpox. After the

infection has cleared up, some of the viruses remain inside
nerve cells. Many years later the viruses may leave the nerve
cells and cause a disease called shingles.

Nervous system
The nervous system is the organ system that helps us to sense
changes in our surroundings and inside our bodies. It also
allows our bodies to respond to those changes. The organs of
A | Symptoms of shingles include headache, fever and a painful
the nervous system are the brain, spinal cord and nerves, all rash on an area of skin linked to a single large nerve.
of which contain nerve tissue formed from nerve cells.

brain Changes that we sense are called stimuli. Stimuli are detected by
B | some organs of
receptor cells in sense organs, such as the eyes, ears and skin.
the human nervous
system When a stimulus is detected, a receptor cell produces electrical
spinal cord
signals. These signals are called impulses and travel along
nerves, usually to the brain via the spinal cord. The brain
processes the information from receptor cells and sends electrical
nerves impulses back out along other nerve cells to effectors, such as
muscles and glands. Cells in muscles respond to these impulses
by contracting. Cells in some glands respond by releasing
hormones into the blood.

C | This cap measures electrical

responses to see which parts of
the brain are active during a task.

1 Name as many organs, tissues and

cells in the human nervous system as
you can.

2 Describe the functions of the organs,

tissues and cells that you named in
question 1.

3 Draw a flow chart to show the path

that the impulses take from touch
receptors in the skin of the fingers to
the muscles that lift your hand as you
pick up a pen.

56
Hormonal system
Hormones are substances that act as chemical messengers in the body. They are
In 2014 the world’s tallest
made in organs called glands, which release them into the blood. Target cells
and smallest men met. Sultan
or target organs respond to hormones in the blood by changing what they are Kosen is 2.51 m tall, and
doing. For example, the hormone adrenaline increases the pulse rate. Chandra Dangi is 0.55 m tall.
Sometimes a hormone from one gland causes the release of a different hormone Both heights have been caused
from another gland. For example, a hormone from the ovaries (oestrogen) causes by problems with the amount of
the pituitary gland to release a hormone that triggers ovulation. hormones their bodies make.

gland: thyroid gland: pituitary

hormone: thyroxine hormone: growth hormone
E
target organs: many target organs: many
response: controls normal response: controls normal
rate of many functions of growth of children
body e.g. respiration

gland: adrenal
hormone: adrenaline gland: pancreas
target organs: many hormone: insulin
including heart and lungs target cells: muscle and
response: increases liver cells
heart rate and response: cells take up
breathing rate sugar from blood

gland: ovary
hormone: oestrogen gland: testis
target organs: many hormone: testosterone
response: controls target organs: many
changes in a girl’s body response: controls
during puberty, and some changes in a boy’s body
changes in the menstrual cycle during puberty

D | the positions of important glands, and some of the effects of the hormones they produce

Comparing systems 4 State what is meant by a

Having two different response systems means we can respond in hormone.
different ways to different stimuli. Name one target organ for
5
adrenaline.
F | Comparison of nervous and hormonal systems 6 Suggest two kinds of target
cells for the hormone
Nervous system Hormonal system testosterone. Explain your
electrical impulses along nerves chemical messengers in blood answer.
short, rapid response to stimulus longer, slower response to stimulus 7 Identify two glands that might
impulses act only on the effector messengers can act on many target not be working properly in Sultan
connected to the nerve organs at the same time Kosen and Chandra Dangi, and
suggest why the men are such
You tread on something sharp. Suggest which control extreme heights.
8
system is best for responding to this stimulus. Explain
your answer.

9 When we see something dangerous, we start to release

adrenaline. I can …
a | Sketch a flow chart to show the pathways and organs
■ describe how the nervous system works
involved in this response.
b | Explain how this response prepares the body for
■ describe how hormones affect the body.
dealing with a dangerous situation. 57
 TESTING
9Dc MEDICINES
HOW ARE NEW MEDICINES TESTED TO SEE THAT THEY ARE SAFE?

A drug is a substance that affects how the body works.

Medicines are drugs that are used to help treat or prevent
disease. For example, antibiotics treat bacterial diseases by
killing bacteria, antivirals treat diseases caused by viruses
and vaccines help stop us being ill when particular pathogens
infect us.
We take medicines for particular effects they have on the body,
but all medicines affect the body in many other ways too. These
additional effects, which may be harmful, are often called side
effects. Different people may vary in the side effects they get
from a drug.

1 Explain why medicines are considered to be drugs.

2 a | Explain why a doctor might give a patient an

antibiotic for an ear infection.

b | The patient reads the information about the
antibiotic. The information says that the
antibiotic might cause a rash, loss of appetite
or a feeling of sickness. State the name given to
these problems.
A | Matthias Berg was born with very short arms
due to a side effect of the drug thalidomide,
which his mother took during pregnancy. He won
27 athletics and skiing medals and received the
Paralympic Order medal in 2011.

B | Many new medicines are developed from

plants that have been used for centuries as
herbal treatments. For example, artemisinin
was developed from the wormwood plant for
treating a disease called malaria.

All new medicines must go through

a rigorous testing process to make
sure they are safe and work well. This
includes finding out about the side
effects. At each stage of the process
the medicine is checked to see if it
worked well enough before moving on
to the next stage.

58
 C | the stages in testing medicines for treating infections
Stage What is done
1 tests on diseased cells,
tissues or organs in the
lab
2 tests on animals (not
always done)
3 tests on a few healthy
people
4 tests on many people
who have the disease
3 Why do new medicines
need to be tested
Why it is done before doctors can give
to see how much the medicine affects the them to patients?
pathogen inside cells, and to see if it harms
4 Suggest why testing of
the cells
new medicines has so
to see how all the systems in a body react to many stages.
the medicine without risk of harm to humans
to make sure the drug is safe for humans to 5 It may take 10 years
use and to check for general side effects for a medicine to go
through all the testing
to make sure the drug works well in humans,
to find the right amount to give (dose) and to stages. Suggest at least
check for side effects in different people one problem with this.

It is important to set up the last stage of testing

Fake medicines can work due to the placebo effect,
which is the effect of believing you will get better. This
effect can be particularly strong when treating pain.
carefully, so that the results can be trusted. As
many patients as possible should take part, so
that differences in results are not due to chance.
The test should also compare one group of people
taking the new medicine with a control group that
is as similar to the test group as possible, such
as in age, gender and ethnic type. Patients are
randomly placed in each group to reduce the risk of
bias in the results.
The control group may take a different medicine
that is already in use or, if there is not an existing
medicine, they will be given a placebo. A placebo
is something that looks identical to the medicine
but contains no drug.

6 Define the term placebo.

7 Explain why a placebo might make

you feel better.

8 Look at photo A. The problems with

thalidomide led to the much more
detailed and careful drug testing
that is done today. Explain how the
last stage of testing would have
been done on artemisinin (photo B).

D | Until drug testing was properly controlled, ‘quack doctors’ I can …

could sell treatments that they claimed would cure or prevent ■ describe the stages of testing new medicines
illness. Often patients got better when taking a ‘miracle cure’
just because they believed it would help them. ■ describe the use of control groups and
placebos in testing new medicines.
59
 MEDIAN AND
9Dc QUARTILES
WHAT DO THE MEDIAN AND QUARTILES OF A SET OF DATA TELL US?
Different people vary in their response to drugs. So, clinical trials often
der drug
analyse data by dividing the people in the trial into groups. For example, a Statins are a new won
test group might be divided into smaller groups based on resting pulse rate.
A group might be split into half – those with pulse rates of 65 or more beats
Statins in new health scare
per minute (bpm), and those with rates of less than 65 bpm. Scientists can Health experts warn against statins
then see if a drug has different effects depending on someone’s pulse rate.
Statins help you live longer
To divide a group into half, you need to find the middle value when the values
are written in order. This is the median. We can also divide a dataset into
A | Many people with heart disease take statins to
quarters to identify the quartiles. Quartiles are the values that are one-quarter help prevent heart attacks. Clinical trials have shown
and three-quarters into the set of values. Diagram B shows an example. that some people may be harmed by taking statins.

1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 interquartile range = UQ – LQ
B | The median and quartiles in a set of
¼ ½ ¾
values. (Remember, the values must be
lower median upper put in order first.)
quartile value quartile
LQ Median UQ
The interquartile range is the difference between the upper
quartile (UQ) and lower quartile (LQ) values in a dataset. For the
smallest largest
example shown in diagram B, it is:
value value
7–3=4
C | the interquartile range of a dataset

1 Using numbered steps:

a | write out how to find the median of a dataset
b | write out how to find the lower quartile and
upper quartile of a dataset.
Variation in height of Year 9 students
2 a | Find the median value, and the lower and 120
upper quartile values, in this dataset: median
28 13 4 25 21 14 6 19 35 17 22 34 11 16 8 100
Number of students

lower quartile upper quartile

b | Calculate the interquartile range for the 80 the interquartile
dataset in part a. range contains
60 50% of the values
Some variables, such as height, can take any value and so show
40
continuous variation. For a population, a continuous variable
plotted against numbers of organisms often forms a bell-shaped 20
curve. For example, the heights of most of the population are
close to the middle value, and few people are much taller or 0
9

shorter. This is called the normal distribution.

14

15

15

16

16

17

17

18

18
5-

0-

5-

0-

5-

0-

5-

0-

5-
14

15

15

16

16

17

17

18

18

We can show the median and quartile values on a normal

(cm)
distribution, as shown in graph D.
D | variation in height of students shows a normal distribution

60
The interquartile range ignores extreme values in a data set, and shows
3 If you looked at the two trees in E,
the range of the middle 50 per cent of the data. This is a more useful
on which tree would you see leaves
measure for comparing the variation in two different groups, because
that are much shorter or longer
extreme values can bias a comparison if the ranges of all the data
than others? Explain your answer.
are compared. A small interquartile range shows that the individuals
in a population show
little variation, while a narrow interquartile range wide interquartile range
large interquartile range 15 15
means there is a lot of
Number of leaves

Number of leaves
variation.
10 10

5 5

E | The leaf lengths on

two trees of the same 0 0
species show different 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
normal distributions. Length of leaves on tree A (cm) Length of leaves on tree B (cm)

In drug testing, data about features that might affect how well the drug works are collected.
The graph and chart in F show the results of a test to see how a statin affected the risk of heart
disease. Splitting the results into quartiles makes it easier to see how the drug worked well for
many people but not for everyone.

Changes in the risk of heart

F | The people in the Quartiles of people’s ability attack for different quartiles
increased risk
Change in risk of heart attack (%)

study were measured to absorb cholesterol of cholesterol absorption

top
for their normal ability to +20 quartile
absorb cholesterol from lower upper
+10 lowest middle middle
Number of people

their diets. The data for

cholesterol absorption quartile quartile quartile
0
were split into quartiles +16.6%
decreased risk

of cholesterol absorption –10

(graph on left). Then, the
quartiles were compared –20
for a change in the risk of –24.7%
–30
heart attack after using
107 126 148
statins (chart on right). –40 –34.3%
Cholesterol absorption index –37.7%

4 Look at F.
a | Explain why the data for cholesterol absorption were
split into quartiles.
b | Calculate the interquartile range for the data on I can …
cholesterol absorption. ■ calculate the median, quartiles and
c | Explain what the charts show about the effect of interquartile range of a simple dataset
cholesterol absorption on the success of reducing ■ interpret the use of quartiles in comparing
heart attack risk after using statins. variation in a large continuous dataset.
61
9Dd ECOLOGY
HOW CAN WE ESTIMATE ABUNDANCE?

Near the end of 2014 there were over 13 000 reported cases of
people infected with deadly Ebola in West Africa. However, it
was impossible to measure the exact number of Ebola infections
because it was difficult to collect data in many areas. Scientists
needed to estimate the number of cases.

1 State what we mean by ‘estimate’.

2 Explain why an accurate estimate of cases was

needed for controlling the Ebola outbreak.

Abundance is a measure of how common something is in

an area. To measure the abundance of an organism we need
to choose the right method for finding that organism. Some
examples are shown in B.
A | The bodies of people who die from Ebola are very
infectious. Moving these bodies can only be done safely while
wearing full protective clothing.

B | Different methods are used to

find different organisms. A quadrat is
used to sample static or slow-moving
organisms in an area. Beating a tree
causes organisms to fall onto a cloth.
Small organisms in tall plants are
trapped in sweep nets, and small
animals that run across the ground
can fall into pitfall traps.

3 Explain which method

you would use to find:
a | ground beetles
b | insects sitting on long
grass.

One measure of abundance is population size. It is rare that you can find all the
organisms in a population, or have time to count them all. Therefore, we take
samples to estimate the population size.
For the estimate, you must know the number of organisms in a sample, the size of
the sample area and the size of the whole area:

total size of area where the organism lives

population size = number of organisms in sample ×
area of sample

62
The accuracy of the estimate is how close it is to the true value
if every organism had been counted. Accuracy depends on:
Estimating the number of tigers in the wild is
■ sample size: the larger the sample, the more accurate the
difficult because small numbers are spread over
estimate (but the longer it takes to collect)
large areas. Sampling by taking photographs
■ ease of recording: if it is easy to find organisms in the and analysing faeces suggest there are only
sample area, the estimate should be more accurate 3000 – 4000 tigers left.
■ distribution: the estimate should be more accurate if the
organisms are spread evenly or randomly over an area
4 a | On a rocky shore there were three crabs
(rather than being clumped).
in a 0.5 m × 0.5 m quadrat. Estimate the
total crab population on the rocks, which
Distribution covered an area of 60 m long by 10 m wide.

Distribution is how organisms are spread out in the area. b | There are an estimated 7000 limpets living
Diagram C shows the three main types. in the same area. Which organism is more
abundant?
Random Regular Clumped

C | Distribution of organisms may be randomly scattered,

regularly spaced or clumped together.

Sometimes it is easy to see how organisms are distributed

and sometimes it is not. When it is not easy to see, scientists
sample along a line or ‘transect’ (shown in photo E). If there
is an even distribution, the organism will be found in every
D | Gannets nest in large colonies.
sample. If the distribution is clumped, the organism will only be
found in some samples.

5 a | Look at photo D. Describe the kind of

distribution the birds show. Explain your
answer.
b | Suggest how you could estimate the number
of gannets on the small island.

6 The crabs in question 4 are only found in a few

small pools between the rocks.
a | State how the crabs are distributed.
b | Suggest what effect this has on the accuracy
E | Carrying out a transect survey.
of your estimate of their population size.
Explain your answer.

There are many different types of grass, which

7
all have slightly different leaf shapes. How would
I can …
you find out which of four different species was ■ identify suitable apparatus for measuring
the most abundant in a large field? distribution and abundance
■ use data from abundance investigations to
estimate population size.
63
9De IN AND OUT
WHY IS SURFACE AREA:VOLUME RATIO IMPORTANT?

During the Second World War, one-sixth of the deaths of A | Diseases such as tropical sprue and coeliac disease reduce
Allied soldiers in tropical areas were caused by a disease the surface area for absorbing digested food substances.
called tropical sprue.

This disease reduces the surface area of the small intestine

and so reduces the diffusion of nutrients from the small
intestine into the blood. This can lead to deficiency diseases.

1 A lack of vitamin B12 getting into the body

causes a problem called anaemia.

a | Explain how vitamin B12 can diffuse into the Normal healthy villi increase
body. the surface area of the small
intestine for absorption of
b | Explain how tropical sprue could cause digested food substances.
anaemia.

SA:V ratio A person with tropical

Unicellular organisms have a large enough surface area that sprue has damaged,
diffusion can supply their inside volume with enough of what flattened villi.
they need. Larger organisms have too little outside surface
area compared with their volume to do this. So they have
organs with large surface areas compared to their volumes, in
order to quickly absorb substances. Transport systems then
carry those substances to all their cells.

Comparing surface area to volume is important in biology. We calculate

2 a | Explain how oxygen
it as a figure called the surface area:volume (SA:V) ratio. Diagram B
molecules enter an aerobically
shows this calculation for a cuboid.
respiring unicellular organism.

b | Many unicellular organisms length l

split into two after reaching
a certain size. Using ideas
about surface area, explain
why this is useful.
3 a | Name a human organ that
exchanges gases with air.
b | Describe how the surface
of this organ is adapted to
increase its surface area.
width w surface area:
• two sides have an area of l × h
• two sides have an area of l × w
• two sides have an area of w × h
so total surface area =
height h 2(l × h) + 2(l × w) + 2(w × h)
volume = l × w × h
SA:V ratio = surface area/volume
B | calculating the SA:V ratio of a cuboid

64
The SA:V ratio is also important when organisms lose
4 a | Calculate the SA:V ratio of a cuboid where
substances and energy. For example, mammals and birds
l is 3 cm, w is 2 cm and h is 1 cm. Show all
use energy to keep their bodies warm. This energy is
your working.
transferred to the environment across their surfaces. The
rate (speed) of transfer is faster for small animals than b | Compare the SA:V ratio for the cuboid in
bigger ones because small animals have a larger SA:V ratio. part a with the SA:V ratio of a cuboid that
Smaller animals cool faster than larger ones. has l = 6 cm, w = 4 cm and h = 2 cm.

5 a | For each anteater in

photo C, work out the
number of ants eaten
per gram of body
mass.

b | Suggest a reason
for the difference in
these values.

C | A typical silky anteater has a mass of less than 400 g

and eats up to 5000 ants a day. A typical giant anteater
partially permeable
has a mass of 40 kg and eats up to 30 000 ants each day.
membrane allows
sugar molecule molecules to pass
through if they are
small enough
Osmosis
Small molecules can pass through tiny holes in some membranes by diffusion.
Membranes that only allow some molecules to pass through them are partially water
permeable membranes. molecule

Osmosis is a type of diffusion. It is the overall movement of molecules of a

solvent through a partially permeable membrane (from where there are more X Y
of the molecules to where there are fewer).

6 Look at diagram D.
a | Which liquid (X or Y) contains more water molecules?
b | In which direction will there be an overall movement of water
molecules?
D | Osmosis occurs if solutions on each side
c | What is the name of this process? of a partially permeable membrane contain
d | Explain how this process occurs. different amounts of water molecules.

7 Use ideas
Normal red blood cells
E about osmosis
have a dimpled disc
to explain the
shape. People with kidney
shape of the
I can …
disease may have lumpy
cells in photo E. ■ give examples
or spiky red blood cells
of how surface
because the liquid plasma
8 Look at photo A. area:volume ratio
around them contains
Explain how affects organisms
more urea than normal
tropical sprue can ■ describe how
and draws water out of
cause diarrhoea osmosis happens.
the cells by osmosis.
by osmosis.
65
 COMBATTING
9De PANDEMICS
HOW CAN INFECTIOUS DISEASES CAUSE DEATHS ACROSS THE WORLD?
An infectious disease that infects many people over a short
time across several countries is called a pandemic. Many
people thought that with vaccination, antibiotics and better
hygiene, new dangerous infectious diseases were unlikely to
become pandemics. However, in 2014 an outbreak of Ebola
disease spread through several West African countries and
to other parts of the world.
Scientists are also concerned about the risk of a pandemic
of other viral diseases such as SARS, bird flu and swine
flu. Like Ebola, these diseases cannot be treated with
antibiotics because they are caused by viruses. An
infected person can pass on the virus to others before
they show symptoms of the disease. An outbreak of
A | ‘Spanish flu’ killed between 50 and 100 million people across the
SARS started in China in 2002 and rapidly spread to 37
world in 1918–19. Emergency treatment centres were needed to care
countries. It was controlled by isolating infected people for millions of patients.
and anyone they had been in contact with.

B | During the Ebola crisis, people travelling from some

countries were checked to try to prevent the disease spreading
to other parts of the world.
1 Was ‘Spanish flu’ a pandemic? Explain your
answer.
C | Some African countries were too poor to respond quickly
to the rapid increase in Ebola cases during 2014. Help was
provided by other countries, to try to prevent the disease
spreading across the world.

2 Explain why rapid international travel makes a

pandemic more likely.

3 Explain why isolation can be used to prevent Should all countries contribute money to
a pandemic. pay for developing vaccines or medicines
Explain why some countries are more able to to treat new infectious diseases as soon
4 as they are identified?
control a highly infectious disease than others.

66
 MATERIALS OF
9Ea THE FUTURE
Throughout time we have used chemical reactions to produce
new materials to help improve our lives. Today, scientists
continue to discover and invent new materials with special
properties and uses. Recently scientists have produced carbon
nanotubes that are 100 times stronger than steel, and flexible
aerogels that are lighter (less dense) than any other known solid.
The discovery and development of any new material is
extremely expensive, and teams of scientists compete with each
other to get money for research from governments and large
corporations. Great care is taken in examining ideas for research
before any money is given out.

A | Aerogels are often called ‘solid

smoke’ due to their appearance. They
are incredibly light but can support
B | Carbon nanotubes are made only of carbon atoms. They heavy loads and are excellent thermal
can be several millimetres in length but have diameters that are insulators. This block of aerogel has
about 50 000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. They a mass of only 2 g but can support
are extremely light and strong, and are very good thermal and a brick with a mass of 2.5 kg.
electrical conductors. Aerogels are used in squash and
tennis racquets but could have many
applications in the future.

1 What is formed in all chemical

reactions?

2 Name four examples of physical

C | Carbon nanotubes
could have thousands
of different applications,
including in clothing.
For example electronic
clothing, lightweight
bulletproof textiles and
clothes that do not
get dirty.
properties of a solid.
Name two substances that are
3
conductors of electricity and two that
are insulators.
4 a | What are all substances made up of?
b | What is a chemical bond?
Describe one possible future use for
5
electronic clothing.

67
 ABOUT
9Ea CERAMICS
WHAT MAKES CERAMICS USEFUL?

i ii
Ceramics are a range of hard, durable,
non-metallic materials, which are generally
unaffected by heat. Often formed by
heating and then cooling, ceramics include
traditional bricks, china and glass as well
as more modern materials used to make
artificial bones and protective coverings
iii
for spacecraft.
Ceramics all have similar physical properties,
which make them useful:
■ hard, stiff, strong when compressed,
and brittle
■ high melting points and heat resistant
■ good insulators of heat and electricity A | Different ceramics and their uses. (i) Glass is hard, rigid,
■ very unreactive. unreactive and can be transparent, making it ideal for windows,
bottles and jars. (ii) Porcelain is rigid, strong when compressed
and an electrical insulator; it is used to support the electrical
Porcelain is an electrical insulator. cables on pylons and stop electricity flowing through the
1 pylons. (iii) Ceramics are heat resistant and so used for the
a | Explain what this means. brakes in high-performance cars.
b | Why does this make porcelain a
useful material for use in metal
electricity pylons?
c | Give the name of another
electrical insulator. B

2 Name two properties of ceramics

that make them useful for making
artificial bones.

3 Ceramics are used for making cups

and mugs.
a | Name two properties of ceramics
that make them useful for this
purpose.
A spacecraft’s surface when re-entering the
b | Name one property of ceramics
that is not so useful for this Earth’s atmosphere can reach temperatures
purpose. of over 3000 °C. Special heat-insulating
ceramic tiles are used to prevent the heat
travelling into the spacecraft.

68
Making ceramics
The raw materials for traditional ceramics are clays (for making pottery) and sand (to make glass).

D | Glass is made by heating sand with other

C | China, porcelain and pottery items are moulded substances to temperatures above 1600 °C.
out of different types of clay and heated in kilns to Different kinds of glass will be formed depending
temperatures of around 1000 °C. on what substances are added to the sand.

When clay is heated, chemical reactions occur and new

4 Name three ceramic materials and
compounds, such as china and porcelain, are formed. a use for each one.
During cooling, crystals form and bind together in the
ceramic. The size of the crystals depends on the speed 5 a | Name two raw materials used to
of cooling. Slower cooling produces larger crystals make ceramics.
because the atoms have more time to form a grid-like b | Describe one similarity and one
lattice structure. This is similar to the formation of large difference in the manufacture of
china and glass.
crystals in granite when magma cools slowly.
6 a | Porcelain X has much smaller
In a lattice structure there are a large number of atoms, crystals in it than porcelain Y.
in a fixed regular pattern, all joined to each other by Suggest a reason for this.
strong bonds. An example is shown in diagram E. One b | Explain why larger crystals form if
reason why ceramics are stiff is because there are so the porcelain is made differently.
many atoms bonded to each other, with strong bonds, a | What one word describes the
7
in a rigid structure. The high strength of the bonds is the structure (how the atoms are
reason why ceramics have such high melting points. arranged) in most ceramic
Note that glass is slightly different because its atoms materials?
do not form a regular pattern, although the atoms are b | What do the different coloured
still held together by many strong bonds. spheres represent in diagram E?

8 Explain why ceramics like china are

E | This ceramic lattice,
which has no set
size, contains billions
of atoms of silicon,
oxygen, aluminium and
other elements joined
together by strong
chemical bonds.
hard and have high melting points.
I can ...
■ name some examples of ceramics and their
uses
■ explain why certain ceramics have
particular uses
■ explain how the properties of ceramics
can depend on their structure.
69
9Eb POLYMERS
WHAT MAKES POLYMERS SPECIAL?

Figure A shows a typical polymer. These substances have molecules

made of long chains, which contain repeated groups of atoms.

1 What is a polymer?

2 In the polymer shown in diagram A:

a | how many different types of atom are there
Repeating
b | how are the atoms held together? group of
atoms
3 Draw up a table with the following headings.

Object Polymer Properties that make

name polymer suitable for use
A | Molecules usually have a set number of
atoms, but the repeated groups of atoms in
Complete the table, choosing three different a polymer mean that they can vary in length.
objects from photo B. We call these ‘long-chain molecules’.

Rubber is a polymer obtained

from certain trees. It is soft and
sticky when hot, but it is hard
and brittle when cold. We use
rubber this rubber to make some glues,
PVC
but we cannot use it to make
poly(propene) things like car tyres.

The properties of rubber can

poly(ethene)
nylon
B | These items are all made of polymers.
Many have similar properties: strong, hard-
wearing, flexible, waterproof, unreactive, and
insulators of heat and electricity.
be changed by vulcanisation.
The rubber is heated with sulfur
and a reaction occurs that forms
cross-links between the long
molecules. These cross-links
make the rubber much harder and
tougher, and stop its properties
changing with temperature.

Silly Putty®, a polymer based on silicon chains, can flow, stretch, bounce,
snap and take imprints. Apollo 8 astronauts used it to stop their tools
floating about inside the spacecraft. C | Natural rubber
is produced from
rubber trees.
70
 cross-links

D | When natural rubber is warmed its molecules In vulcanised rubber, the cross-links stop the molecules
can slide over each other, so the rubber does not go sliding past each other, so the rubber goes back to its
back to its original shape after stretching. A material original shape when the stretching force is removed.
that keeps a new shape is said to be plastic. A material that does this is said to be elastic.

4 a | Explain why vulcanised rubber is elastic but not plastic.

b | Explain what you think would happen to rubber if too many
cross-links are formed. Use the word ‘molecules’ in your answer.
ethene
molecules
Rubber is a natural polymer. Other examples include DNA, proteins, starch
and cellulose. Scientists have developed a range of synthetic polymers,
mainly using raw materials obtained from crude oil. These polymers are
made in laboratories and factories by polymerisation reactions in which

polymerisation
lots of small molecules called monomers join together in chains. Diagram E
shows how poly(ethene) or polythene is formed from ethene.
Polymerisation reactions like this transfer energy to the surroundings,
making them warmer. Reactions that transfer energy to the surroundings
are exothermic. Reactions that absorb energy from the surroundings,
making them cooler, are endothermic.

Synthetic Monomer Properties Uses

polymer
poly(ethene)
poly(vinyl acetate) vinyl unreactive, flexible, sealants and molecule
(PVA) acetate plastic adhesives
poly(propene) propene strong, waterproof, textiles, ropes and E | During polymerisation
flexible, hardwearing car body parts ethene molecules join to form
poly(tetrafluoro- tetrafluoro- hard, heat-resistant, non-stick surfaces poly(ethene). Note that the name
ethene) ethene low friction surface for saucepans and of the polymer is based on the
(Teflon®) baking trays
name of the monomer with the
prefix ‘poly’.
5 a | What is the link between crude oil and synthetic polymers?
b | Identify a natural polymer in photo B.

6 a | Describe what happens in the reaction in diagram E.

I can ...
b | Draw the monomer used to make the polymer in diagram A.
■ name some examples
7 Choose a polymer from the table above that would make a good and uses of polymers
carpet for a hotel. Explain your choice. ■ explain some of the main
8 Why is the making of poly(ethene) said to be ‘exothermic’? properties of polymers
■ describe how polymers
9 Describe the differences between a lattice, a molecule and a
are made.
long-chain molecule.
71
9Eb PEER REVIEW
HOW ARE SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES CHECKED?
Scientists need to communicate their findings to:
■ check that their ideas are correct
■ help other scientists’ investigations
■ get recognition for their work
■ secure government grants (money) to continue
their research.
Scientists tell others about their discoveries by:
■ speaking at meetings and conferences
■ writing and posting papers on the web
■ writing books
■ publishing scientific papers in journals.

A scientific paper is a very detailed investigation

report. It will contain details of the aim,
hypothesis, method, results and conclusion of A | Stephanie Kwolek (1923–2014)
the investigation. References are included to list
the sources of information used. There are many scientific journals, including
some devoted to science education.
State two ways that a scientist can tell Stephanie Kwolek, who invented the polymer
1
others of their findings. Kevlar®, discovered a way of making nylon
in a beaker in 1959. She wrote a paper and
2 Explain what is meant by a hypothesis and
submitted it to the Journal for Chemical
a conclusion in a scientific investigation.
Education. The paper was peer reviewed and
then published. This brought her method to
Most scientific papers are checked by other
the attention of chemistry teachers all around
scientists, before they are published. This process,
the world in a time long before the Internet.
known as peer review, is outlined in diagram B.

Peer review is important because scientists can make

3 Why do scientists need to give
mistakes and draw the wrong conclusions. There have also exact details of the experiments
been a few occasions when scientists have been found to they have carried out?
have changed or misinterpreted their results to fit their ideas. a | What is meant by peer review?
4
It is important that other scientists check results and even
b | Explain why peer review is
try to repeat the experiments. Scientists are more likely to
important.
accept findings if they have been repeated by others.
The peer review process is not perfect. It can be time-consuming and expensive.
Millions of scientific papers are written each year, and just over one million are published.
Sometimes research papers by well-respected scientists can be passed by reviewers,
with little or no inspection. This can cause problems, if incorrect ideas are published.

72
 Scientists carry out investigations
B | The purpose of peer review to test an idea (hypothesis).
is to check the methods, results, Then they write a paper
conclusions and originality of a describing what they have done,
their results and conclusions.
scientific paper.

If there are problems, it

will be recommended
for revision and sent
back to the journal
to return to the
scientist. The
paper is then
revised and
sent back to
the journal
to be
checked
again. If everything is
correct, the paper
will be recommended
for acceptance.
The journal then
publishes the paper.

The paper is sent

to a scientific journal.
Editors at the journal read
The experts review the science content and check that it the paper and if it seems
is original (not copied from another scientist’s work). They will interesting and worthwhile
also check that the conclusions are valid. Sometimes they will it is sent to expert scientists
test the reliability of the data by repeating some of the experiments. for ‘peer review’.

In 2012, it was discovered that scientist Hyung-In Moon 5 Suggest reasons why some
had found a way of peer reviewing his own papers. He papers are never properly peer
had given them glowing reviews! The papers were later reviewed.
retracted (withdrawn) when his deception was discovered. Why might scientists write
6
papers containing made-up
C | John Dalton published data?
his ideas on the way
elements combine in 7 Draw a table to compare the
the early 1800s, before benefits and drawbacks of peer
peer review was used. review.
Scientists have now shown
that Dalton’s data cannot
be reproduced using his
methods. Some think that
Dalton did not record his I can ...
methods accurately but
others think that he cheated ■ describe the process of peer review
and made his results fit his ■ describe the advantages and
theory on atoms. disadvantages of peer review.

73
 COMPOSITE
9Ec MATERIALS
HOW ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS USED?

Composite materials (e.g. concrete, paper, plywood)

are combinations of two or more materials, with some
of the properties of each. For example, laminated
glass combines layers of glass with a clear polymer.
The glass is hard and rigid and the polymer is flexible.
The laminated glass is rigid and hardwearing, but holds
together under impact (it does not break up into pieces).
Many composite materials are made by mixing fibres
into a liquid resin which then sets hard. Different
A | Composite safety glass helps prevent injuries from
types of fibres and resins produce different composite flying pieces of glass.
materials with different properties and uses.

polyester resin

glass fibres

B | Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), a composite of glass
fibres in a polyester resin, is often used in boatbuilding
because it is strong, light and slightly flexible. The glass
fibres are easily moulded into complex shapes, which set
hard with the resin.
C | Kevlar®, one of the strongest known polymer
fibres, can be combined with polymer resins to
form extremely strong and light materials. Kevlar®
composites are often used for racing car and
speedboat bodies, such as this wave-piercing trimaran.

1 What is a composite material?

2 What is glass-reinforced plastic (GRP)?

3 Why are the properties of GRP useful in boat hulls?

4 Bulletproof vests are made of Kevlar® fibres embedded in a resin.

a | Explain why each of these materials is used.
b | What properties would be needed in a composite used for racing car bodies?

74
Concrete
Concrete is a composite material that has been used
for thousands of years. It is made from a mixture of
cement, sand, aggregate (crushed rocks) and water.
The cement powder and water form a material that can
be moulded into shapes and then sets hard. However,
hardened cement is not very strong and so aggregate is
added to give concrete its strength. In building projects,
steel rods are also added; this reinforced concrete is
even stronger, so will not crack under pressure.

Cement is mainly calcium oxide (lime) which is made

D | Concrete is strong, hardwearing and
by roasting calcium carbonate (limestone). The calcium
easily moulded into different shapes. It is
carbonate breaks down in a thermal decomposition widely used in the construction industry for
reaction: roads, bridges and buildings. Different mixes
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 have different properties and uses.

calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

Very high temperatures are needed because this is an
endothermic reaction. This means that it absorbs energy from
the surroundings, and this energy is stored in the products.

5 Explain why concrete is a composite material.

6 When zinc carbonate is heated, an endothermic

decomposition reaction occurs. Explain what this means.

When water is added to the concrete mixture it reacts with the calcium
oxide in an exothermic reaction. During exothermic changes energy
is transferred to the surroundings, so their temperature rises.

7 Look at Figure D. Explain why a steel grid is needed to

reinforce the concrete in this particular use.

8 When GRP resin is setting, it gets hot. E | As concrete sets it gets warmer
a | What type of reaction is happening? due to exothermic reactions.
The heat can cause the concrete
b | Explain what has happened in terms of energy transfer. to expand and crack.

The body of the B-2 I can ...

stealth bomber is F
■ explain composite materials,
made of a special giving examples
graphite fibre ■ describe and justify the uses of
composite that some composite materials
absorbs radio waves
■ explain what happens in thermal
and helps make it
decomposition, and exothermic
almost impossible and endothermic reactions.
to detect by radar.
75
 PROBLEMS WITH
9Ed MATERIALS
WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS OF MAKING AND USING MATERIALS?
acid rain wears soot blackens
Manufacturing materials usually uses energy released by the away stone buildings
combustion of fossil fuels. This uses up finite resources and
can produce compounds that damage the environment:
■ carbon monoxide, unburnt fuel and soot particles – caused
by incomplete combustion, due to lack of oxygen
■ sulfur dioxide – caused by sulfur impurities in fuels, can
form acid rain
■ nitrogen oxides – caused by high combustion temperatures,
can also form acid rain
A | Air pollution affects buildings as well
■ carbon dioxide – helps trap the Sun’s energy and so
as living things.
increases the greenhouse effect. This is thought to cause
global warming and climate change.
1 a | What causes incomplete
Different problems require different solutions. Incomplete
combustion?
combustion can be reduced by increasing the amount of oxygen
available during combustion. Removing sulfur impurities helps b | Write a word equation for
the combustion of sulfur.
reduce the amounts of acidic pollutants formed during combustion.
Reducing the quantities of fossil fuel used will slow down the c | Explain the meaning of the
increase of carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, as will terms greenhouse effect
and global warming.
increasing the use of carbon capture technology.

Old oil and Carbon dioxide Oil-fired power

gas platform. gas is captured station with
Carbon dioxide and compressed. carbon capture
is pumped down technology.
old oil and gas
pipelines.

carbon carbon
B | Carbon capture involves dioxide dioxide
removing carbon dioxide from
waste gases in power stations
and storing it underground.
carbon
dioxide
2 Suggest reasons
why the stonework in
photo A has become
both blackened and
The carbon dioxide
worn away. is trapped in old oil
and gas fields.
3 Explain how carbon
capture technology
could help protect
our Earth.

76
H Toxic substances
Factories can release toxic substances into the
polymer factory produces
waste containing mercury
environment. In 1956 doctors in Minamata, Japan, saw
an increase in people with serious nervous system
problems. This was traced to a factory producing eaten by
humans
chemicals for the polymer industry, which was releasing waste released
into the sea
mercury compounds into the sea. These were absorbed
by microorganisms and passed up the food chain. The mercury level
indicator
toxins did not break down and, because the larger eaten by
larger fish
animals ate many smaller animals, the concentration of Eaten by
the compounds increased in animals further up the food shellfish
chain. This process is called biomagnification. mercury
gets into
plankton eaten by small fish
4 a | Explain how water pollutants from factories
can get into humans.
C | Humans that ate the local fish in Minamata
b | Why do the levels of poisons increase up a accumulated very high levels of mercury.
food chain?

Biodegradability Each of the 13 billion polythene bags made

Many modern materials are designed to last for a each year is only used for about 20 minutes,
long time and not to break down naturally. They are but takes over 1000 years to rot away. Turtles
non-biodegradable and can cause pollution problems. and seals can mistake plastic bags for jellyfish
For example, when plastic bags made of polythene are and choke by swallowing them.
thrown away, they take a long time to break down, are
unsightly and can also harm organisms on land and in D
the sea.
Burning non-biodegradable polymers could reduce
the waste and produce useful energy. However, the
combustion of polymers releases toxic gases that
would pollute our atmosphere.
A better solution is to use biodegradable materials,
which break down in the soil. Many new biodegradable
polymers are made using renewable resources from
plants. This also helps to save our limited resources of 5 Explain one advantage and one
crude oil. disadvantage of non-biodegradable
plastics.

6 Describe two advantages of using

new biodegradable
bottle cap biodegradable plastic bags made from
corn starch.
similar cap after
60 days
I can ...
■ explain how making and using materials can
cause problems
E | Biodegradable polymers break down in landfill sites. ■ suggest ways of reducing these problems.

77
 BIASED
9Ed LANGUAGE
HOW CAN YOU RECOGNISE BIASED LANGUAGE?
Many texts are written to promote a particular point of view
or preference. Newspaper articles, political leaflets or adverts “There are two ways to be
often select facts and use language to persuade us to believe fooled. One is to believe
a particular idea. Even scientific reports based on facts can be what isn’t true, the other
biased. For example, if the research is funded by a company is to refuse to accept
looking for a particular answer, the conclusions might reflect what what is true.”
the company wants to promote. Søren Kierkegaard

1 Why might a scientist show bias towards a particular idea?

When considering any written report we should

2 Consider the text from the trade journal
be aware of possible bias and look for it in the in extract B.
language used and the way facts have been
used or ignored. a | What product is being promoted?
b | Write down a sentence from the text
Compare extracts A and B. Text A is from a that could be described as showing
government health department website and bias.
contains factual information and advice. Text
c | Identify a fact from the NHS website
B, from a manufacturing trade journal, includes that has not been mentioned in the
factual information but is also promoting a trade journal, and suggest why it has
product. not been mentioned.

Vitamin A, or retinol, is an essential

Health A–Z Live Well Care and support ingredient of a balanced diet. This
vitamin has several important functions,
Vitamins and minerals – Vitamin A including helping our vision in low light
Vitamin A is also known as retinol and has several important functions. situations. A deficiency in vitamin A
These include: can therefore lead to a condition called
• strengthening immunity against infections night blindness. Cheese is an excellent
source of vitamin A and is known to help
• helping vision in dim light
us see in the dark. Cheese should therefore
• keeping skin and the linings of some parts of the body healthy always be a part of everyone’s daily diet.
Good sources of vitamin A include: cheese, eggs, fortified low-fat spreads
and yoghurt
You should be able to get all the vitamin A you need from your daily diet.
Any vitamin A your body does not need immediately is stored for future use.
This means you do not need it every day. According to some research, having
more than an average of 1.5 mg a day of vitamin A over many years may
affect your bones, making them more likely to fracture when you are older.

A | adapted from www.nhs.uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/

Pages/Vitamin-A.aspx B | from a trade journal

78
Here are some questions you could ask 3 Read the statements in the debate
yourself when evaluating a text. shown in figure C.

■ Do the facts and the data used support the a | Which three people are biased
conclusions drawn? against the idea that climate change
is linked to the burning of fossil fuels?
■ Are there any important facts omitted or
have the data been selected carefully? b | Which person’s statement is biased
because the data used have been
■ Are any of the statements vague or unclear? selected carefully? Explain your
choice.
■ Will there be any personal benefit to the
writer or to their employer if people believe c | Why is the word ‘natural’ used in
what they have written? person 5’s statement?

If the answer to any of these questions is yes, d | Suggest a reason why person 3 and
then the writing may be biased. person 5 might be biased.

4 Person 4’s statement in this debate is

true, but what other information might
be needed to prove that increasing CO2
The simple levels caused temperatures to increase?
fact is that for the last
15 years the mean
global temperature
has not warmed. The oil Over the last
industry alone is 400 000 years increases in
not to blame for carbon dioxide levels have
increases in been accompanied by
greenhouse increases in global
gases. temperatures.
The burning The
of fossil fuels accounts for concentration of
more than 70% of all carbon dioxide in the
greenhouse gas air has increased by
emissions in more than 30% in the
industrial countries. last 50 years.

3 2

5 Burning coal
produces natural 6
substances that 6
are already in the
atmosphere.

C | Debate: Is the increased burning of

fossil fuels causing climate change?
I can ...
■ suggest reasons why writing may be biased
■ identify evaluate and compare texts for biased language.

79
 RECYCLING
9Ee MATERIALS
WHICH MATERIALS SHOULD BE RECYCLED?
The more materials we manufacture, the faster we
use up our Earth’s finite resources. Some of these
resources could even run out this century. In addition,
the more materials we use, the greater the amount of
waste we create.
Recycling means using the same materials again.
Years left
By recycling materials we reduce our use of limited
resources, save fuel and energy costs and reduce
the use of landfill sites.
B | Dumping waste in landfill sites is unsightly, a poor
use of land, and sometimes dangerous as it can leak
toxic substances and even catch fire.
A tonne of ore from a gold mine produces
about 5 grams of gold. However, a tonne of
discarded mobile phones can produce at
least 150 grams of gold, 3 kilograms of silver,
150 kilograms of copper and other metals.
1 Explain why metal ores are a finite resource.
How much longer are our reserves of fossil
2
fuels expected to last?
3 a | Suggest one way we can reduce our use
of landfill.
b | Describe two problems of using landfill sites.
80
Estimated years left of some finite resources
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
coal oil natural gold silver copper
gas
A | Our reserves of fossil fuels and metal ores will
eventually run out.
Recycling metals
As we use up our most valuable metal ores, we
will have to use sources that are harder to obtain
and contain less metal. This will require more time
and energy, and be more expensive. Recycling
metals will help save our resources of energy and
ores. It is usually fairly easy to recycle metals.
Once they are separated from other materials,
the metals can be melted down and used again.
Recycling glass
Many ceramics are not easy to recycle, but
glass is different. Once it has been collected and
separated by colour, it can be crushed and easily
melted to be moulded into new glass objects.
Although the raw materials for making glass
are fairly cheap and plentiful, it takes much less
energy to make recycled glass, so it reduces the
amount of fossil fuel used.
Recycling polymers 4 Describe two advantages of recycling
materials.
A symbol is stamped on objects made from
polymers to make recycling easier. Even with the 5 Suggest why glass is separated into
symbols it is difficult and expensive to separate different colours for recycling.
the different polymers, so recycling levels are still
quite low. 6 a | Suggest one reason why the amounts
of polymers recycled are low.
C | symbols for recycling b | It has been suggested that, instead
of using recycle labels, each kind of
Symbol Polymer Commonly found in ...
polymer is made in a particular colour.
polyethylene bottles for water, Suggest one advantage and one
01 terephthalate soft drinks and disadvantage of this idea.
cooking oil
PET
polyvinyl food packets, wire
03 chloride insulation and water Recycling concrete
pipes Concrete from demolished buildings was often
PVC
dumped in landfill sites. Now much of it is
polypropylene bottle caps, straws recycled using large crushing machines. The
05 and medicine bottles aggregate produced by these machines is used
for the foundations of roads and buildings.
PP

Recycling paper
Wood is a composite containing fibres of cellulose
and a natural adhesive called lignin. Paper is made
by boiling wood chips with water to form a pulp,
which is spread out on grids to dry. This forms a
new arrangement of cellulose and lignin, in sheets.
Paper is printed.
Pulp is squeezed
and dried to
remove water Waste paper
and form paper. is collected.

D | Machines crush concrete and sort the

aggregate into different sizes.

Heated and a | How is concrete recycled?

mixed to 7
Water is added
form pulp. to wash and b | What is recycled concrete used for?
remove ink.

8 Draw a flow chart to show the stages

Filtered to remove
excess water. involved in recycling paper.

E | Recycling generally produces low quality paper,

which is used to make newsprint and cardboard.
I can ...
■ explain the advantages of recycling
■ describe the recycling of some materials.
81
 MATERIAL
9Ee FAILURES?
WHAT UNFORESEEN PROBLEMS HAVE MATERIALS CAUSED?
Sometimes new materials have unexpected properties
that can cause problems. A composite material containing
asbestos, a natural ceramic fibre, was widely used in buildings
because of its good insulating and fireproof properties.
Unfortunately breathing in asbestos fibre dust can cause
asbestosis, leading to permanent lung damage. New ceramic
materials have now replaced asbestos for many uses.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are non-toxic and
non-flammable. They were developed to be safe to use in
aerosol sprays and fridges. Later, it was discovered that
CFCs were reducing ozone levels in the upper atmosphere.
A | Great care has to be taken when handling
Ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, and asbestos because it easily produces a dust.
so with less ozone more of this radiation reaches the Earth.
Not all unexpected properties are a problem, however. In the
1960s, scientists were working on a super-strong polymer to
be used as an adhesive for aircraft. One of those polymers
was very weak and was discarded. Then someone noticed
that it could be peeled off easily and re-used, and so the
sticky-note was invented.

1 Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using

B | The increase in ultraviolet radiation
has been linked to increased skin cancer
in young people.
C | The adhesive in sticky-notes can be
reused again and again.
asbestos as an insulator in cookers.
a | Name four different groups of waste that can be
2
sorted for recycling.
b | Suggest how one of the groups could be sorted
further to help recycling.
3 a | For each of the following materials give a description
and an example: ceramics, polymers, composites.

b | Choose one of the materials from question 3a.

Explain how and why it should be recycled.

c | Choose another example from question 3a. Describe

how its manufacture and use can cause problems.

Some people think that people who do not

recycle properly should be fined. What do
you think?
82
9Fa DEMOLITION

A | The three cooling towers at Didcot power station were demolished in 2014. The explosives were arranged so
that the towers imploded (collapsed in on themselves).

Large buildings and tall chimneys

that are no longer wanted can be
demolished by implosion using
explosives. Once the explosives are
detonated (set off), the implosion
is very fast and usually takes just a
few seconds. An expert makes sure
that the building falls into itself so
that other buildings nearby are not
damaged.
Occasionally, the demolition does not
work as expected. There is always a
risk that some of the debris could fly
out and hit spectators. Sometimes
the building may not collapse
completely and it may be left B | This tower block in China was only partly demolished by the
unstable and tilting at a dangerous implosion.
angle. If there are some undetonated
explosives left in it, it is dangerous
1 The detonation of explosives is a chemical reaction but
for workers to make it safe. the implosion is a physical change. State two differences
When the explosives are detonated, between physical changes and chemical reactions.
a large amount of energy is
2 State three hazards associated with demolition.
transferred to the surroundings.
Gases are produced and they
expand quickly, creating a high
3 What causes a gas to exert a pressure?
pressure. This produces a shock
wave and the very loud noise that 4 State three ways to increase the pressure of a gas.
we hear.

83
 TYPES OF
9Fa EXPLOSION
HOW DOES AN EXPLOSION HAPPEN?

For the ‘trashcano’ in photo A, a plastic bottle of liquid

nitrogen was put at the bottom of a dustbin filled with
water. Liquid nitrogen boils at –196 °C and so it quickly
turned into a gas. The pressure in the bottle increased until
the bottle gave way, causing an explosion.
As with all explosions, there was a sudden increase in
volume (due to the release of the nitrogen gas) and a huge
transfer of energy to the surroundings (forcing the water
and bin into the air).
This explosion was caused by a physical change because
no new substances were made. Physical changes can
cause natural explosions too, such as in volcanoes and
geysers (see photo B).

1 a | What physical change happens in a geyser?

b | Why is this a physical change?
A | A ‘trashcano’ can only be made
c | Why is this an explosion? under strictly controlled conditions.

The explosion in photo C was

B | In a geyser, superheated
water suddenly changes into
a gas, increasing its volume
by 1500 times and exploding
out of the ground.
C | The Buncefield fuel depot explosion
caused when a large petrol
in 2005 was heard 70 miles away.
storage tank was overfilled.
Petrol escaped from the tank
and some evaporated. The
petrol vapour formed a cloud
that spread out and mixed with
the air. A spark caused the
flammable petrol to explode
violently.
This explosion was caused
by a chemical reaction. New
substances were formed as the
petrol vapour suddenly ignited
and produced large amounts
of hot carbon dioxide gas and
water vapour.

84
 2 State whether the following changes are physical or chemical, giving a reason for
each answer:
a | heating solid wax until it changes to a liquid b | burning coal c | frying an egg.

3 What physical change happened before the Buncefield explosion?

4 Is a physical change or a chemical reaction occurring in photo C? Explain your

reasoning.

5 What happened to the temperature of the surroundings when energy was transferred
to them during the Buncefield explosion?

In a chemical reaction, atoms in the reactants are H

rearranged to form new products with different HH O H
O plus energy
properties. For example, hydrogen reacts with HH
O H
oxygen to form water. Hydrogen and oxygen are O H
gases but water is a liquid at room temperature. hydrogen oxygen water
We can show what happens in a word equation:
D | Particles are rearranged in a chemical reaction.
hydrogen + oxygen ➝ water

6 Write a word equation for the combustion of carbon.

In 2008, there was a massive
explosion in the Imperial Sugar
Increasing pressure Refinery in the USA. Very fine
sugar dust in the air was ignited by
The particle theory explains how the forces of particles hitting a spark. Fourteen people died in
the walls of a container cause pressure in gases. This model the disaster.
can also explain how gas pressure is increased by:

■ increasing the number of gas particles (so more particles hit a surface)
■ decreasing the size of the container (so particles hit a surface more often)
■ increasing the temperature (so the particles move faster and hit more
often and with more force).

I can …
gas particles in a container gas particles in a higher temperature ■ identify and explain
at room temperature smaller container the differences
between physical
E | increasing the pressure of a gas changes and
chemical reactions
■ use particle theory
7 Explain how pressure builds up in the trashcano (photo A). to explain gas
pressure and how it
8 Draw a diagram and use it to explain how an increase in the number can be changed.
of particles in a container increases the pressure.
85
 ACTIVE AND
9Fa PASSIVE
WHAT ARE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES?
Science reports can be written in either the active or passive voice.
The active voice emphasises the subject or performer of the action
so the reader knows who or what is responsible for the action.
We have analysed the results.
thermometer
The passive voice, in contrast, emphasises the object
or receiver of the action. stirrer
The results have been analysed.
Look at these two versions of a report of part of a science
experiment. The subject or performer of the action and
the object or receiver of the action have been highlighted. clamp

X I poured ethanol into a spirit burner. I lit the Bunsen burner .

beaker
Y Ethanol was poured into a spirit burner.
The Bunsen burner was lit. 100 cm3 water

spirit burner
1 Using the highlighting to help you, explain the differences
between X and Y. ethanol

2 State one advantage and one disadvantage of using:

a | the active voice b | the passive voice. A | apparatus for burning ethanol

The active voice: The passive voice makes it less clear who
■ is clearer to follow or what is responsible for the action. The
■ emphasises who the subject or performer is
subject or performer of the action may be
hidden because:
■ is now preferred for writing science reports.
■ we don’t know what it is or it is unimportant
For example:
■ the object or receiver of the action is
We designed an experiment.
more important or needs emphasising.
Wind disperses plant seeds.
For example:
Bubbles were produced - it may not be
important to say what produced the bubbles
An experiment was designed - we may not
know who designed it.

86
After a storage tank at the Buncefield oil depot exploded
3 Is version P of the report written in the
on the 11th of December 2005, the depot caught fire. active or passive voice? How do you
There were a lot of news reports about the event. Parts know?
of two different reports are shown in P and Q.
4 Which version (P or Q) emphasises:
P Q a | the fire itself
People over 70 miles The explosion was b | the effects of the fire on local residents?
away heard the heard by people 5 This sentence is from a report about
explosion. Residents in over 70 miles away. conserving energy in the home.
nearby streets saw dense Dense black smoke Energy is wasted in our homes.
black smoke pouring was seen pouring
from the oil depot. from the oil depot. Explain why the writer has used the
passive voice.

6 This sentence is from a report about

healthy eating in schools.
Children should eat at least five portions
of fruit or vegetables a day.
Explain why the writer has used the active
voice.

7 The diagrams in figure C show how to

obtain a sample of pure salt from rock salt.
Write a report of the experiment to obtain
pure salt from rock salt, explaining what is
done in each step:
a | in the active voice
B | houses near the Buncefield oil depot during the fire b | in the passive voice.
in 2005
8 Evaluate the reports you have written in
question 7. Consider:
a | which report was easier to write
b | which report is easier to understand.

I can …
■ present ideas and
opinions in the
active and passive
heat heat voices
■ evaluate different
ways of presenting
C | The steps needed to obtain a sample of pure salt from rock salt. the same
information.
87
9Fb REACTIVITY
HOW DO YOU COMPARE THE REACTIVITY OF METALS?

Some metals are more reactive than others.

Caesium is one of the most reactive metals,
and it blows up the trough when a small amount
reacts with water! Gold is very unreactive; nothing
happens if you put it in water.
The reactivity series is a list of metals in order of
reactivity, with the most reactive at the top.

Reaction
Reaction Reaction
with
Metal with cold with dilute
oxygen in
water acid
air
potassium A | Caesium reacts violently with water.
sodium

lithium 1 Name a metal that:

calcium a | reacts with water and dilute acids
magnesium b | reacts with oxygen but not water
Increasing reactivity

c | does not react with dilute acids or

aluminium
water, but reacts slowly with oxygen.
zinc
2 What is the ‘reactivity series’?
iron

tin
To decide where to place a metal in the reactivity
lead series, we can look at how vigorously it reacts
copper with water, acids and oxygen. For example, the
reactions with water and acids can produce
mercury
bubbles of hydrogen gas, and the more bubbles
silver formed the more reactive the metal is.
gold
The metals that react with water form a metal
platinum hydroxide and hydrogen:

Key
metal + water ➝ metal hydroxide + hydrogen

explosive
can catch reacts very The metals that react with dilute acids form a salt
fire quickly
and hydrogen:
reacts slow or partial
reacts
quickly reaction metal + acid ➝ salt + hydrogen
no
reaction The salts formed depend on which acid is
used. Chlorides are formed from hydrochloric
B | the reactivity series acid. Sulfates are formed from sulfuric acid.
Nitrates are formed from nitric acid.
88
The metals that react with oxygen form metal oxides:
3 Write the word equations
metal + oxygen ➝ metal oxide for these reactions:
This is an oxidation reaction as the metal has gained oxygen. a | sodium reacting with
water
b | magnesium reacting
Rusting with sulfuric acid
Iron and steel rust slowly when they are in contact with air and c | zinc reacting with oxygen.
water. They form brown flakes that gradually crumble and break
4 Barium reacts steadily with
away. Eventually all the metal corrodes away.
water.
Rusting can be prevented by using a physical barrier on the metal, Rubidium reacts explosively
such as paint or oil, to keep out the air and water. This is relatively with water.
cheap but is not suitable in all situations. Cobalt does not react with
Another way to prevent rusting is to attach blocks of a more water.
reactive metal (such as zinc or magnesium) to the iron or steel. The Put these three metals in
more reactive metal reacts with the water and oxygen instead of order of reactivity, with the
the iron. The metal is ‘sacrificed’ to protect the iron and so this is most reactive first.
called sacrificial protection. This method is often used for items in
contact with the sea because salt speeds up rusting. However, the
blocks need to be replaced regularly and this is expensive. C | Zinc blocks stop this steel hull
from rusting.

The iron originally

on Mars has rusted
over billions of years
making the planet
red. On the Moon,
however, the dark
areas on its surface
are made of a rock
that contains a lot of D | an iron-rich
rock collected
iron. The iron in these
from the E | an iron-rich
rocks has not rusted.
Moon in 1971 rock from Earth

5 State the conditions needed for iron to rust.

6 a | Give the name of two substances that can be used to

prevent rusting by providing a physical barrier.
I can …
b | Describe how they work. ■ describe the reactions of
Explain the different colours of the iron-rich rocks from the metals with water, dilute
7
Moon and from the Earth. acids and air
■ explain how metals are
8 Explain how sacrificial protection prevents iron from rusting. placed in the reactivity series
■ explain how physical barriers
and sacrificial protection
prevent rusting.
89
 ENERGY AND
9Fc REACTIONS
HOW DO WE GET ENERGY FROM A CHEMICAL REACTION?

Many chemical reactions that cause explosions need

oxygen. This can come from the air but explosives usually
have an oxidiser or oxidising agent mixed with them.
During the reaction, this substance releases oxygen.
Different oxidisers release different amounts of oxygen.
The more oxygen that is released, the quicker the reaction.

Potassium nitrate, KNO3, is the

oxidising agent that is mixed
with powdered charcoal to make
gunpowder. The potassium nitrate
releases oxygen, which reacts
A | In this test, probes measure the temperature
with the carbon in the charcoal increase with different mixtures of reactants and
to form carbon dioxide. The oxidiser for a mining explosive.
B | hazard symbol carbon is therefore oxidised by the
for oxidising
potassium nitrate.

When heated, potassium nitrate undergoes thermal

decomposition, releasing oxygen gas. We can confirm
that the gas is oxygen by using the test shown in
photo C.

1 Describe a test to show that a gas is oxygen.

2 Describe how the fuels in fireworks get enough

oxygen to cause explosions.

Explosives also react more quickly if the solid fuel is C | testing for oxygen using a glowing splint
broken down into tiny pieces. Chemical reactions take
larger piece smaller pieces
place on the surface of a solid. Small pieces of a solid
have a greater surface area than one large piece, so
there will be more particles exposed at the surface and
more reactions can take place.

3 Why do you think gunpowder is made in a

powder form?
smaller surface area larger surface area
slower explosion faster explosion

D | the effect of changing surface area

90
Exothermic or endothermic?
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
transferred and stored in different ways.
A cold pack uses an
A reaction in which energy stored in the reactants is transferred to
endothermic reaction.
the surroundings is an exothermic reaction. In the surroundings, Energy is transferred to
the addition of energy causes the temperature to increase. the reactants from the
Combustion and neutralisation reactions are exothermic. surroundings (the air and
A reaction in which energy is transferred from the surroundings skin). The loss of energy
to the reactants is an endothermic reaction. Thermal from the surroundings
reduces their temperature.
decomposition is endothermic.

State a type of reaction that is: E

4
a | exothermic b | endothermic.

5 Some zinc powder was stirred into copper sulfate

solution in a test tube.
Initial temperature of copper sulfate = 20°C
Final temperature of solution = 45°C
Explain whether an exothermic or endothermic reaction
occurred.

H H
Many exothermic reactions need O O H O
H C H O C O
energy to start them off. Methane O
O O H
is a hydrocarbon. As it burns, the H H
hydrogen and carbon atoms are both fuel
oxygen carbon dioxide water
oxidised. A lot of energy is transferred (methane)
to the surroundings during the reaction,
F | Methane burns to produce carbon dioxide and water.
so methane is used as a fuel.
However, a mixture of methane and oxygen does not burn without some energy to
start the reaction (for example, from a flame or spark). This input of energy is needed
to break some bonds in the reactants to separate some atoms. The reaction can then
start: atoms are rearranged, new bonds are formed and energy is transferred.
Some reactions, such as thermal decomposition, are endothermic and need a
continuous input of energy to keep them going.

6 Hydrogen gas was mixed with oxygen gas in a balloon and

nothing happened. Explain:
a | why nothing happened when the gases were mixed
I can …
b | what you need to do to start the reaction.
■ describe the test for oxygen
7 Gunpowder will only explode when there is an input of ■ explain how combustion
energy from heat or a flame. reactions can be speeded up
a | Describe the energy transferred in the endothermic part of ■ classify changes as
this process and explain why this is needed. exothermic or endothermic
■ explain why some reactions
b | Describe the energy transferred in the exothermic part of need a supply of energy.
this reaction.
91
 PERCENTAGE
9Fc LOSS OR GAIN
HOW DO WE WORK OUT THE PERCENTAGE LOSS OR GAIN IN MASS?
We often use percentages to express the amount of something present. To calculate a
percentage, first express the amount as a fraction of the total amount, and then multiply by 100:
For example, 40 g of magnesium oxide contains 24 g of magnesium.
What is the percentage of magnesium in magnesium oxide?
1 What is the percentage of
mass of magnesium oxygen in magnesium oxide?
Percentage of magnesium = × 100
total mass
2 18 g of water contains 2 g
24
= × 100 of hydrogen. Calculate the
40 percentage of hydrogen in
3 water. Give your answer to
= × 100
5 one decimal place.
300 What is 40% expressed as:
= 3
5 a | a decimal
= 60% b | a fraction in its simplest
form?
Percentage gain or loss
When some solids are heated they appear to lose mass as a gas is produced and escapes
from the container. During some oxidation reactions, there seems to be an increase in mass
because an element gains oxygen from the air to form a solid oxide. However, the Law of
Conservation of Mass states that mass cannot be created or destroyed, so:
total mass of reactants = total mass of products
We can find the mass of solids at the end of a reaction if we know the percentage gain or
loss in mass.

Example 1
10.0 g of magnesium carbonate was heated and lost 52% of its mass. What mass of solid was left?
First find the mass lost:
52
mass lost is 52% of 10 g = × 10 = 5.2 g
100
Then find the mass of solid left:
mass of solid left = initial mass – mass lost = 10.0 – 5.2 = 4.8 g

Remember that if the solid loses mass, the final mass will be less than the initial mass.

Example 2
5.00 g of copper was heated and increased in mass by 25%. What is the mass of solid after heating?
25
mass gained is 25% of 5.00 g = × 5.00 = 1.25 g
100
final mass of solid = initial mass + mass gained = 5.00 + 1.25 = 6.25 g

Remember that if the solid gains mass, the final mass will be more than the initial mass.
92
 4 100 g of calcium carbonate was heated.
It lost 44% of its mass. What is the mass
of solid left?

5 A piece of zinc with a mass of 4.0 g was

heated. It increased in mass by 20%.
What is the mass of solid formed?

Percentage change
When heated, copper carbonate decomposes:
copper carbonate ➝ copper oxide + carbon
dioxide
Calculate the percentage change in mass when: B | When green copper carbonate is heated, black
copper oxide is left behind. Carbon dioxide has escaped
■ mass of copper carbonate used = 12.4 g from the tube.
■ mass of copper oxide left = 8.0 g
First find the change in mass:
initial mass – final mass = 12.4 – 8.0 = 4.4 g
Then find the percentage change:
mass change 4.4
× 100 = × 100 = 35.5%
initial mass 12.4 (to 1 decimal
place)
When magnesium burns in air, it is oxidised and
gains mass as magnesium oxide forms:
magnesium + oxygen ➝ magnesium oxide
Calculate the percentage change in mass when:
■ mass of magnesium used = 2.4 g
■ mass of magnesium oxide formed = 4.0 g
Change in mass: = 1.6 g
1.6
Percentage change: = × 100 = 66.7%
2.4 (to 1 decimal
place)
C | Magnesium oxide is the white powder left in the
crucible when magnesium burns in air.
6 What is the percentage loss in mass when
8.4 g of magnesium carbonate is heated if
the mass of magnesium oxide left is 4.0 g?
Give your answer to 1 decimal place.
I can …
7 What is the percentage gain in mass
■ express one number as a percentage of another
when 4.0 g of calcium is heated in air
and forms 5.6 g of calcium oxide? ■ calculate percentage change.
93
9Fd DISPLACEMENT
HOW CAN WE USE THE REACTIVITY SERIES?

We can use the reactivity series to predict whether

A | Aluminium reacts with iron oxide in a
chemical reactions will take place. Each metal will react
vigorous reaction.
with compounds of the metals below it in the series.
Aluminium is more reactive than iron. It reacts with iron
oxide and takes the place of the iron:
aluminium + iron oxide ➝ aluminium oxide + iron
This is a displacement reaction. The aluminium has
displaced the iron.

B | You can think of aluminium as ‘pulling’ the oxygen away

from the iron.

This reaction needs an initial input of energy by lighting

a fuse. During the reaction, aluminium forms strong
bonds with oxygen and a large amount of energy
is transferred to the surroundings. The temperature
increases so much that the iron is formed as a molten
liquid. The molten iron is flowing out of the base of the
pot in photo A.
The same reaction, known as the thermite reaction, C | The thermite reaction produces molten
is used on a larger scale to join two sections of railway iron to weld the railway line.
track. The molten iron runs into the gap in the rail. As it
cools, it solidifies and welds the sections of rail together.

1 Select from the word equation above:

a | two elements b | two compounds.

2 What has been oxidised in the reaction between

aluminium and iron oxide?

94
 3 Use the reactivity series on page 88 to suggest the — zinc strip
name of a metal that:

a | could be used instead of aluminium to displace iron

from iron oxide

b | cannot displace iron from iron oxide.

4 Where does the energy that leads to the iron melting in

the thermite reaction come from?

Displacement reactions also take place in solutions. For example,

when a piece of zinc is dipped into copper sulfate solution, a
coating of copper forms on the surface of the zinc. Some of
the zinc takes the place of the copper and forms zinc sulfate
solution. If the reaction is left for long enough, the solution will D | Zinc slowly displaces copper from
turn colourless as only zinc sulfate solution will be left. copper sulfate solution because zinc
is more reactive than copper. The blue
Displacement reactions only work one way. Copper cannot
copper sulfate solution changes to
displace zinc from zinc sulfate solution because copper is less colourless zinc sulfate solution.
reactive than zinc.

5 a | What evidence in photo D shows that a reaction has taken

place?
b | Write the word equation for this reaction.
c | Explain why this displacement reaction occurs.

6 Use the reactivity series on page 88 to predict whether a

displacement reaction will take place in each case below.
Either complete the word equation or write ‘no reaction’.
a | magnesium + copper nitrate ➝
b | zinc + sodium chloride ➝
c | iron + silver nitrate ➝
d | copper + potassium sulfate ➝
E | A magnified piece of copper
e | silver + magnesium nitrate ➝ wire in silver nitrate solution.

7 Four metals, W, X, Y and Z, were placed in solutions of the

sulfates of these same four metals. They were observed to see
whether a reaction took place. The results are shown in the table. 8 Look at photo E.
Suggest the name of
Metal Metal W Metal X Metal Y Metal Z the crystals formed
sulfate on the surface of the
solution copper wire.
W sulfate reaction no reaction reaction
X sulfate no reaction no reaction no reaction
Y sulfate reaction reaction reaction I can …
Z sulfate no reaction reaction no reaction ■ explain what happens
in a displacement
Use the data to put the metals into a reactivity series, with the reaction
most reactive metal first. ■ predict whether a
displacement reaction
will occur.
95
 EXTRACTING
9Fe METALS
HOW DO WE GET METALS FROM THEIR ORES?

Platinum is so unreactive that it doesn’t cause

problems if put into the body. Like gold, it occurs
uncombined in its native state in the Earth’s
crust. Other metals are more reactive and occur
as compounds, including oxides, carbonates and
chlorides. An ore is a rock that contains enough of a
metal or metal compound to be worth mining. Reactive
metals need to be chemically extracted from their ores. A | This eye jewel is made of platinum. It is implanted
under the cornea of the eye and is not visible unless
the eye is turned. The procedure costs 500 euros.
Iron
Iron occurs as iron oxide in the ore haematite. The
oxygen is removed by heating the iron oxide with 1 a | Zinc can be extracted from zinc oxide
carbon. Carbon is more reactive than iron so it in a blast furnace. Suggest a suitable
reducing agent for the reaction.
displaces iron from iron oxide:
b | What is added at the bottom of the
iron oxide + carbon ➝ iron + carbon dioxide
blast furnace?
The carbon is oxidised by the iron oxide. At the same
2 a | State the type of reaction in which carbon
time, the iron oxide is reduced to iron as it has lost
is changed into carbon monoxide.
oxygen. Carbon is a reducing agent because it has
removed the oxygen from iron oxide. This reaction b | Explain your answer.
takes place in a blast furnace. Limestone is added to
remove the impurities, which are extracted as ‘slag’. 3 State what is meant by a reducing agent.

iron ore
carbon limestone

air blast in air blast in

slag out iron out

C | The temperature inside the blast furnace is so
B | a blast furnace for producing iron high that the iron flows out as a molten liquid.

96
Aluminium positive graphite electrodes

Aluminium occurs as aluminium oxide in an ore

called bauxite. Carbon is not reactive enough to
displace aluminium from aluminium oxide, so a
more powerful method of reduction is needed.
Electrolysis is used to extract the reactive negative
metals from their ores. This involves passing graphite
electrode
electricity through a molten metal compound. molten ore
The electricity transfers energy to the compound
and splits it up to obtain the metal. molten
aluminium
aluminium oxide ➝ aluminium + oxygen steel cell molten aluminium out

Iron could also be extracted using electrolysis but D | Electrolysis is used to extract aluminium from aluminium
it is too expensive. A lot of electricity would be oxide.
needed to heat the iron oxide to keep it molten,
and the process of electrolysis also requires vast
amounts of electricity. Electrolysis is only used to Metal Method of Ease of Date of first
extract the very reactive metals that cannot be extraction extraction isolation
obtained by heating their oxides with carbon. Potassium hard to 1807
Sodium extract 1807
4 a | Name two metals, other than iron, Lithium 1817
that can be extracted from their ores electrolysis
Calcium 1808
by heating with carbon
Magnesium 1808
b | Name two metals that are extracted
Aluminium 1825
from their ores by electrolysis.
(Carbon) getting before 3000 BCE
5 Suggest why carbon is shown: Zinc harder to about 500 BCE
a | between aluminium and zinc in the extract
Iron ores are
reactivity series in table E
Tin heated with
b | in brackets.
Lead carbon
6 Suggest why the most reactive metals Copper
were not extracted from their ores before 3000 BCE
Silver
before the 19th century.
Gold found in
Platinum native state easy to
Metals that occur in the native state and those
extract
that can be extracted by heating their oxides
with carbon have been known for a long time. E | The method of extraction of a metal depends on its
Metals that can only be extracted from their ores position in the reactivity series.
by electrolysis have been obtained much more
recently.
I can …
■ explain why the method used to extract a metal is
In the mid-1800s, aluminium was very related to cost and the metal’s reactivity
expensive to produce and was more ■ describe how metals are extracted from their ores
valuable than gold. Emperor Napoleon III by heating with carbon or by electrolysis
of France used aluminium plates and ■ explain what happens in oxidation and reduction
cutlery for his most honoured guests. reactions.
97
9Fe ALFRED NOBEL
SHOULD EXPLOSIVES BE BANNED?
Alfred Nobel was born into a family that manufactured tools and explosives,
including iron for cannons used in the Crimean War. He devoted himself to
the study of explosives, especially the manufacture of nitroglycerin.
In 1864 a shed used for the manufacture of nitroglycerin exploded, killing five
people, including Alfred’s youngest brother, Emil. Alfred continued to build further
factories, but he concentrated on improving the stability of the substances he
was developing so they would be safer and not explode unexpectedly.
A | Alfred Nobel (1833−1896)
Nobel invented dynamite in 1866; it was
was a Swedish chemist.
patented in 1867. This explosive is easier
and safer to handle than nitroglycerin as it
needs a detonator to start the reaction. Dynamite is still in daily use for
constructive purposes, such as quarrying, mining, road building and
demolition.
When another of Alfred’s brothers died in 1888, a French newspaper
published an obituary for Alfred by mistake.
‘Alfred Nobel, who became rich by finding ways to kill more people
faster than ever before, died yesterday.’

This shocked him and he decided to leave the majority of his money to
establish the Nobel Prizes. Since 1901, these prizes have been awarded
to individuals or groups of people from around the world for outstanding
achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine and literature, and for work
to promote peace.
B | Dynamite is used as
the explosive in quarrying, Svante Arrhenius was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903
which provides us with for his discovery of how compounds can carry electric currents. We can
building materials. now explain what happens when metals are extracted using electrolysis.
In 1997 a group called International Campaign
1 Many metal ores are obtained by the use of to Ban Landmines was awarded the Nobel
explosives in mining. Describe the energy Prize for Peace for their work in the banning
changes that occur in this process.
and clearing of anti-personnel mines.
2 Summarise how iron is extracted from iron
oxide.

3 Summarise how aluminium is extracted from

aluminium oxide. All explosives are dangerous and
Explain how the methods used for extracting should be banned. What do you
4
iron and aluminium are related to the positions think of this idea?
of the metals in the reactivity series.

98
 REVISING KS3
9Ga CHEMISTRY
WHY IS SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE NEEDED?

Diagram A shows some of the different words for potassium

used in different countries. Scientists need to understand
Kalium potas
research carried out by other scientists all over the world.
To make it easier to communicate, each element is given a
symbol. The symbol for potassium is K in every country. The potassium
names, symbols and spellings of elements and compounds are
agreed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC). Scientists also use the same units for measurements,
called SI units. potasio

Many chemical substances are hazardous. They can be used A

safely as long as the right precautions are taken. There is an
internationally agreed set of standard safety symbols to warn
people about the hazards of different chemicals.

When writing about science, many words have particular

meanings. Sometimes a word we might use in everyday speech
means something different in science. For example, the word
‘variable’ in science means something that can change in an
investigation. There are different types of variable:
■ the variable that you change is the independent variable
■ the variable that you measure is the dependent variable
■ the variables you keep the same are the control variables. B | the standard safety
If control variables are prevented from changing, then the only symbol for corrosive
substances, such as
variable that affects the dependent variable is the independent
some alkalis
variable. This is a fair test. It is also a valid investigation
(something is ‘valid’ if it does what it is supposed to do).
Words used to describe the quality of experimental results also
have particular meanings in science. A good set of experimental
results will be accurate (close to the real values), precise
(repeated measurements are close to each other), repeatable
(if the measurements are repeated, the values are very similar)
and reproducible (other scientists would get the same results
if they repeated the investigation). You can be more sure that
repeatable and reproducible data are correct and so data like
this are reliable.

99
 SEPARATING
9Ga SUBSTANCES
HOW DO THE DIFFERENT WAYS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES WORK?

7G The particle model

In science we use models to help make ideas easier to understand. For example, we
can explain some of the properties of matter if we imagine that it is made up of small
round particles that behave a bit like marbles. This particle model uses something we
know and understand (marbles) to explain how tiny invisible particles might behave.

7G States of matter and

8F changes of state
Each of the three states of matter has different melting evaporating
properties due to the arrangement of the particles.
For example, the particles in a solid are held by freezing condensing
bonds in a regular framework very close to each
other. They only vibrate about fixed points. This solid liquid gas

means that solids have fixed shapes and volumes A | changes of state
and do not flow. Particles in liquids and gases are
moving around all the time. Particles in liquids are close together but can move past each
other. Gas particles are far apart, and cause pressure when they bounce off objects.
If a solid is heated, the particles gain energy and start to move around more. The
solid melts to become a liquid. Changes of state are reversible changes (they can
easily be reversed, by changing the temperature, in this case). They are also physical
changes (because no new substances are created). New substances are formed in
chemical reactions, but remember that in both these types of change there is no
change in overall mass because particles are not created or destroyed.

coffee particle water particle

7E Mixtures
In a pure substance all the particles are the same. In a
mixture there are particles of different substances, but
they are not joined together.
A pure substance cannot be separated into simpler
substances using any of the separation methods on the
next page. Pure substances melt and boil at very specific
temperatures, which is how we can test purity. Mixtures B
melt and boil over a range of temperatures.
A solution is a mixture. A solution is formed when a solid dissolves in a liquid. The particles
of the solid separate from each other and mix in with the particles of the liquid. A solid that
can dissolve in a liquid is described as soluble. Dissolving is a physical change.

100
7G Diffusion
We can use the particle model to explain diffusion; substances
spread out and mix together even if we do not stir them up
because particles in liquids and gases are always moving and
bumping into each other.

7E Filtration
Insoluble solids can be separated from a liquid using a process called filtration
(or filtering). Diagram C shows how pure sugar is made from sugar cane by
separating the sugar from the insoluble substances in the plant.

The cane is chopped into
small pieces, and mixed
with the solvent (water,
shown in blue). The sugar
(grey) dissolves in the
water, but the rest of the
stem (green) is insoluble.
The mixture is then filtered. The
sugar solution passes through
the filter, because both water
particles and dissolved sugar
particles can fit through the tiny
holes in the filter paper. The
insoluble solids are trapped.
The solution is then heated
so that most of the water
evaporates. As the hot syrup
cools down, sugar crystals
form.

7E Chromatography Distillation
Many coloured dyes are mixtures of
different colours. Such mixtures can be
separated using chromatography.
Water particles travel up the paper. They
carry the particles of the dyes with them.
7E
Distillation can be used to separate a solvent
from a solution. The solution is heated and
the solvent evaporates. The vapour rises and
condenses as it cools down, turning back
into a liquid. In this way, the liquid solvent is
separated from the solution.
water out

condenser

cold
water
in distilled
solution
This dye is not very solvent
soluble in water.

heat
D E resistant
mat
heat
101
 CHEMICAL
9Gb REACTIONS
WHAT HAPPENS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS?

7H Atoms, elements and compounds

8F Air is a mixture of several gases. Some of these gases are elements (contain only one type of
atom) and some are compounds (made of two or more different types of atom bonded together).

Oxygen is an element. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a Nitrogen (N2) is an element. Water (H2O) is another
A molecule of oxygen compound made of two compound. In the air, water
contains two identical elements. A molecule of can be in the form of a gas
atoms. The formula of an carbon dioxide contains (water vapour), or drops of
oxygen molecule is O2. three atoms. liquid water (clouds).

7H Atoms and equations

8F We can use the particle model to show what B
8G happens when carbon reacts with oxygen.
In a lump of carbon, each carbon atom reacts
with an oxygen molecule to produce carbon dioxide.
The atoms in the reaction have been joined in a different way, but the total number of
atoms is the same at the end as it was at the start. This means the total mass of all the
substances is also the same at the start and the end.
We can show what happens in chemical reactions using word equations, where the
reactants are written to the left of an arrow and the products are shown on the right.
carbon + oxygen ➝ carbon dioxide
We can also show this in a symbol equation.
C + O2 ➝ CO2

8E Different reactions
There are millions of different chemical reactions, but they can be grouped into certain types.
■ In an oxidation reaction, a substance combines with oxygen. Example: metals oxidise
to form metal oxides.
■ Combustion is a specific type of oxidation reaction. Example: the combustion of
carbon, shown above.

102
 ■ In a thermal decomposition reaction, a substance breaks up into simpler
substances when it is heated. Example: calcium carbonate decomposes when
it is heated to give calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
calcium carbonate ➝ calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 ➝ CaO + CO2
■ In a displacement reaction, a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive
metal from a compound. Example: magnesium is more reactive than copper, so
when magnesium is mixed with copper chloride solution, it displaces the copper
from its compound.
magnesium + copper chloride ➝ magnesium chloride + copper
Mg + CuCl2 ➝ MgCl2 + Cu
■ In a neutralisation reaction an acid reacts with a base (see page 105).
Some combustion fuels, including
reactions fossil fuels
can be linked respiration
together,
such as in CO2 in atmosphere photosynthesis
green plants
the carbon and dissolved in water
cycle.
respiration by
death
decay organisms

C respiration
animals

8E Energy in reactions
9F In many reactions, energy is released. This makes the things immediately around
the reacting substances get hotter. This is called an exothermic reaction.
Combustion reactions are exothermic. Some reactions need some energy supplied
to start the reaction off, but an exothermic reaction releases far more energy than
this initial amount.
In other reactions energy is taken into the reacting substances. This makes
the things around them get colder. This is an endothermic reaction. Thermal
decomposition reactions are endothermic. For example, in the thermal
decomposition of calcium carbonate, energy must constantly be supplied (by
heating) to decompose it.

8G Speeding up reactions
Some reactions (such as explosions) happen very fast, and some (such as rusting)
happen quite slowly. A catalyst is a substance that changes the speed of a reaction
without being permanently changed itself. Catalysts are important in the chemical
industries and in catalytic converters that are used to clean up car exhausts.
103
 PHYSICAL AND
9Gc CHEMICAL
WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS?

Physical properties include things such as melting

points and hardness. Chemical properties describe A
the way a material reacts with other substances.
most reactive potassium
sodium Metals more reactive
8G Reactivity series calcium
than carbon are
extracted using
9F and metal ores magnesium
aluminium
electrolysis.

Metals all have similar properties (e.g. they all

conduct electricity). However, some metals are carbon
more reactive than others. The reactivity series
shows metals in order of how reactive they are. Metals less reactive
zinc
than carbon are
Carbon is a non-metal but reactions of carbon iron extracted using carbon
tin to displace the metal
can be compared with the reactions of metals. from its compound.
Carbon can be placed in the reactivity series lead For example:
between zinc and aluminium. copper iron oxide + carbon
silver iron + carbon dioxide
Most metals are found in the Earth as part of a
compound. For example, iron is usually found as gold
Unreactive metals such
as gold are found in their
iron oxide. The metal needs to be extracted from least reactive platinum native state.
its compound before it can be used. The way a
metal is extracted depends on its reactivity.
stomach acid
B most acidic

7F Acids, alkalis and 1

2
vinegar

indicators 3 fizzy drinks

Acids are a group of substances with similar properties.
4
Acids are found in many foods and drinks, and give a rainwater
sharp taste. Alkalis are a group of substances that have 5

a soapy feel. Very acidic or alkaline solutions are often 6 pure water

corrosive and must be handled carefully. 7

sea water
An indicator is a substance that changes colour 8
depending on how acidic or alkaline something is. soap
9
A common indicator is litmus. Litmus turns red in acids
and blue in alkalis. Other indicators, such as universal 10
toothpaste
indicator, give a range of colours that can be used to 11
work out how acidic or how alkaline a solution is on the 12 washing powder
pH scale. On this scale, a substance with a pH of 7
13
is neutral. hair dye
14
most alkaline oven cleaner
104
7F Neutralisation
A base is any compound that reacts with an acid to form a salt and water only. An alkali is
a soluble base. The reaction raises the pH of the acid and so is called neutralisation:
acid + base ➝ salt + water
Example with an alkali: hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide ➝ sodium chloride + water
HCl + NaOH ➝ NaCl + H2O
Example with an insoluble base: sulfuric acid + copper oxide ➝ copper sulfate + water
H2SO4 + CuO ➝ CuSO4 + H2O

8F Reactions of acids with metals

8G Most metals also react with acids. The reaction neutralises the acid, and the products are a
salt and hydrogen gas.
metal + acid ➝ salt + hydrogen
Example: zinc + sulfuric acid ➝ zinc sulfate + hydrogen
Zn + H2SO4 ➝ ZnSO4 + H2

9E Properties of other materials

Many different materials are used in the buildings and machines around us. Materials can
be grouped according to how they are made or their structure. Different materials have
different properties.
Ceramics, such as glass and pottery, all have similar physical properties, which make
them useful:
■ hard, stiff, strong when squashed, and brittle
■ high melting points and heat resistant
■ good insulators of heat and electricity
■ very unreactive.
Polymers are made up of molecules with long chains of repeated groups of atoms. They include
rubber, and ‘plastics’ such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and polythene. Many polymers are:
■ strong ■ flexible ■ unreactive
■ hard wearing ■ waterproof ■ good insulators of heat and electricity.
Composite materials are combinations of two or more materials. This group includes
materials such as concrete, paper and glass-reinforced plastic (GRP). Many composite
materials (such as GRP) are made by mixing fibres with resin. A composite material usually
has some of the properties of each of the materials that go into making it.

105
 THE PERIODIC
9Gd TABLE
WHY IS THE PERIODIC TABLE USEFUL?

7H Finding different elements

There are about 90 naturally occurring elements. Some are found in the atmosphere
but most are found in the Earth, usually in compounds with other elements.

47% oxygen 78% nitrogen

8.5% other
elements

3.5% calcium
5% iron 28% silicon 1% other gases,
8% aluminium mainly argon 21% oxygen

A | the most common elements found in the Earth's crust B | the most common elements in the atmosphere

7H Metals and non-metals

Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals. Most metals
are solids with high melting points, are strong and malleable, and good
conductors of heat and electricity. Non-metals are often substances with
low boiling and melting points, are brittle (when solid) and poor conductors
of heat and electricity.
When non-metals react with oxygen they form oxides. Non-metal oxides
that dissolve in water form acidic solutions. For example, sulfur dioxide
forms an acidic solution in water.
Metal oxides are bases that can neutralise acids.

106
8F Grouping the elements
In 1869 Mendeleev published a table of all the elements that were known at the
time, arranged so that patterns could be seen in their properties. He placed the
elements in order of increasing masses of their atoms, but he swapped a few of
them around so that they lined up in groups with similar chemical properties.
The modern form of this table is called the periodic table (most of which is
shown below). The metals are on the left and the non-metals on the right.

1 0
H He
2 3 4 5 6 7
metal
Li Be semi-metal B C N O F Ne
non-metal
Na Mg transition metals Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

C Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo

Horizontal rows are called periods, and vertical rows are called groups.
Elements in a group have similar properties.

8F Trends in properties
The periodic table can be used to predict the physical and chemical
D Li
properties of certain elements.

decreasing melting point

increasing reactivity
Na
For example, in group 1:
■ all the metals react with oxygen to form oxides with similar formulae, so if K

you know the formula for lithium oxide it is very easy to work out the formula Rb
for sodium oxide
Cs
■ the melting point gets lower as you go down the group
Fr
■ the reactivity increases as you go down the group, so if you know how fast a
reaction happens with sodium, you know it will happen faster with potassium.
There are also trends across the periods.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6

lithium carbon nitrogen (oxygen)

sodium magnesium phosphorus sulfur

oxides are more alkaline oxides are more acidic

E | There is a trend in acidity (pH) of element oxides across the periods in the periodic table.

107
 EARTH AND
9Ge ATMOSPHERE
HOW DO THE EARTH AND THE ATMOSPHERE CHANGE?

8E Changing the atmosphere

Some gases in the atmosphere Energy is Some energy is reflected
transferred back into space.
help to keep the Earth warm. from the Sun.
This is called the greenhouse
effect. Carbon dioxide is one Some emitted energy is
such greenhouse gas. However, transferred to space.
most of the fuels we use produce
carbon dioxide when they burn,
and the amount of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere is increasing. reaches surface
This will lead to the Earth getting The warm Earth
warmer (global warming), which emits energy.
could lead to climate change.
Most of the energy is Some emitted energy is absorbed by carbon
absorbed, causing an dioxide and other greenhouse gases and can
increase in temperature. be transferred back to the Earth’s surface.

A | how the greenhouse effect helps to keep the Earth warm

8H Structure of the Earth

The Earth is made of layers of
different types of material. We live
on the crust, which is the source
crust
of all the rock and metals we use
for building everything from houses
to computer chips. The Earth is
mantle
surrounded by the atmosphere.

outer core
(liquid)

inner core
(solid)

108
8H Earth resources
Metal ores are extracted from the Earth by mining, and building stone comes from
quarries. Mining and quarrying can harm the environment by destroying habitats and
causing pollution. Some metals are quite rare and expensive to find and extract.
Recycling metals:
■ cuts down on pollution caused by mining
■ reduces pollution from landfill sites
■ allows supplies of metals to last longer
■ often needs less energy than obtaining the metal from an ore.

8H The rock cycle

The rock cycle is a model that can be used to understand the formation of different rocks.

Rocks at the surface can be broken up.

The grains can be transported and then
deposited where they may eventually
form sedimentary rocks.

an
d rock at fr e e z i n g
ion surface
r os t
, e por
tra g

s new
in
n

Rocks from inside

er

magma
at h

the Earth can be

we

pushed up towards
the surface.
Molten magma from inside the
sediment Earth forms igneous rocks when
uplift
t

it cools down. If the rock cools

uplif

igneous under the surface it cools slowly

io n a n d
c o m m e n ta tio n

rock and forms large crystals. If the

and h e e
at

magma is released in a volcano as

r

he g and
pre s s u

lava, it cools quickly to form

p act

lti n g
g
a tin

igneous rocks with small crystals.

ce

in
e lt

me
m

sedimentary metamorphic
rock rock

rock in the
press t
ure and hea mantle

Rocks can be changed by the

immense heat and pressure deep
beneath the surface of the Earth.
These are metamorphic rocks,
C which means ‘changed form’.

Physical weathering happens when rocks are broken up by changes in temperature

or by water freezing in cracks. Chemical weathering happens when rainwater (which
is naturally slightly acidic) reacts with minerals in the rocks and weakens them.
109
 CARBON
9G1 CAPTURE
NEWS
Home UK World Business Education Technology Science Health Entertainment More

Carbon Capture and Storage gets going

Jan 2015
After the switching on of the first
commercial carbon capture and
storage (CCS) plant in Canada
in 2014, power companies in the
UK have submitted plans to build
a new coal-fired power station
in Yorkshire that will capture up
to 90% of the carbon dioxide
produced. The carbon dioxide will
be taken through a new pipeline
and permanently stored in rocks
beneath the North Sea. More
power stations like this will help to
reduce the UK's carbon emissions. A | The first UK CCS power station will be built next to the
Drax power plant in Yorkshire.

1 This story is from an online news site. The editor wants readers’ questions to be answered,
explaining the science. Choose one of the questions below and write a detailed answer for
the site.

a | Coal consists mainly of carbon. How is coal formed and why is it a non-renewable resource?

b | What is the carbon cycle? (Hint: It may be easier to answer this question using a labelled
diagram.)

c | Why is the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere increasing and why is this
likely to cause environmental problems?

2 Carbon dioxide captured from power stations is often pumped into the rocks in oil fields. This
process is called ‘enhanced oil recovery’. Find out what this is, and explain why using carbon
dioxide in this way may not help to reduce the amount put into the atmosphere.

3 Newspaper or magazine editors often write ‘editorials’ in which they give their own balanced
opinions on things discussed in their publication. Find out more about the benefits and
drawbacks of CCS plants, and use the results of your research to write a balanced editorial
that shows both sides of the argument. The final part of your editorial should give your own
conclusion about whether or not new CCS plants are a good thing.

110
 ELECTROLYSIS
9G2 INVESTIGATION
When a salt such as copper sulfate dissolves in
water, the crystals break up and form positively
charged particles of copper (called copper ions)
and negatively charged sulfate ions in the water.
In electrolysis, two electrodes are placed into the
solution and connected to an electricity supply and
the charged particles are attracted to the electrodes.
Copper metal forms at the electrode connected to
the negative terminal of the power supply.
Metals can be extracted from their ores using
electrolysis. However, for fairly unreactive metals
such as copper there are also other, cheaper,
methods that can be used.
A | Copper-coated electrodes are being lifted
Many uses of copper require the copper to be pure. from an ‘electrolysis’ bath. Pure copper has been
Electrolysis can be used to purify copper, by making deposited on the electrodes.
the impure copper the positive electrode. Copper
from this electrode turns into copper ions in solution,
and these are deposited on the negative electrode
as pure copper.
Copper is easy to recycle, and is the
third most recycled metal (after iron and
B | You can extract copper from copper aluminium). The copper collected to be
sulfate solution in a school laboratory. recycled is often mixed with other metals
What variables affect the amount of but it can be purified by electrolysis.
copper produced?

Planning
You are going to plan and carry out an investigation of your
choice to find out how different variables affect the amount
of copper produced during the electrolysis of copper sulfate
solution. Here are some variables you could investigate:
■ the volume of copper sulfate solution
■ the concentration of copper sulfate solution
■ the size of the current
■ the time for which the current flows
■ the size (or surface area) of the electrodes.

Copper sulfate is harmful.

Wear eye protection.

111
 9G3 NANOPARTICLES
COMMUNICATING WITH THE PUBLIC
Titanium dioxide is widely used as a white pigment,
in paint and things such as toothpaste. Since
titanium dioxide particles are good at reflecting all
wavelengths of light, it is used in sunscreens.
Titanium dioxide crystals can be made that are
much smaller than usual – only about 20 nanometres
across. These are examples of nanoparticles
(particles of 1 nm to 100 nm in diameter). Titanium
dioxide nanoparticles have different properties to the
larger crystals. They do not reflect all colours of light
but still absorb UV light from the Sun.
Making a material into nanoparticles often changes its A | This white sunblock contains titanium dioxide
crystals that are about 300 nm across. 'Invisible'
properties. This is mainly because the surface area of sunscreens contain titanium dioxide nanoparticles.
the material is greatly increased for the same mass. 1 nanometre = 1 millionth of a metre.
Nanoparticles made of various materials have many
uses. For instance, vehicle catalytic converters
can now be made using less platinum if this metal
is made into nanoparticles. Catalytic converters
have a mesh with a large surface area, through
which exhaust gases pass. For small engines, this
mesh is often made of an alloy of iron, chromium
and aluminium. This is coated with a layer of
large titanium dioxide crystals, to give the mesh a
rough surface (and more surface area), and this is
covered in a fine layer of platinum nanoparticles
(the catalyst). B | This catalytic converter is designed for use
on petrol-powered lawn mowers.

1 A motor exhibition needs a card to describe

the elements used in the catalytic converters
in small engines. For each element, outline
how it is extracted and describe one other
use of the metal, with a reason for this use.
2 In a catalytic converter it is important that
the exhaust gases come into contact with
a large enough surface area of catalyst.
Describe how the ratio between surface area
and volume changes as the particles get
smaller, and explain why less catalyst can
be used if it is made into nanoparticles.
Materials that come into contact
with humans are tested for safety.
Some people say that if previously
tested materials are made into
nanoparticles they must be tested
again. This will increase the cost of
using nanoparticles. Do you think
these materials need re-testing?

112
 ART AND
9Ha CHEMISTRY
Artists need to know about the properties of the different
materials they use. Today, they can choose from a
greater range of materials than ever before and they
can experiment with using old materials in new ways.

Many copper compounds are blue or green,

which has made them useful in paints. One artists’ A | To create this
pigment, called ‘verdigris’, has been made for artwork, Seizure,
Roger Hiorns filled
centuries by covering copper metal in vinegar and
a flat with copper
then scraping off the green compound that forms. sulfate solution.
Naturally occurring minerals containing iron, lead After a few weeks,
and mercury have been used in paints since ancient the solution was
times. Examples include brown haematite (Fe2O3), pumped out
white cerussite (PbCO3) and red cinnabar (HgS). leaving a covering
of copper sulfate
crystals.

© Roger Hiorns. All Rights Reserved, DACS 2015.

Artists also use chemical reactions. Antony Gormley often creates

sculptures made out of an iron alloy that slowly develops a surface
coating of rust. Colours can be applied to bronze sculptures
by using a blowtorch to apply compounds such as iron nitrate
(Fe(NO3)3).

B | The red colour on this 2000-year-old wall painting 1 Identify two reactions on this page that occur at
(fresco) from Pompeii is mercury sulfide. different rates, and describe how the rates are different.

2 Explain whether the reaction that occurs in a

blowtorch is exothermic or endothermic.
C | The colours on Gary Scott's bronze sculptures are
developed by using a blowtorch to apply compounds 3 a | A speck of Fe2O3 contains 1000 iron atoms.
such as potassium sulfide (K2S). How many oxygen atoms will it contain?

b | Write down the other four chemical formulae

shown on this page and identify the elements in
each compound.

4 Copper sulfate can be made by adding copper oxide

(a base) to sulfuric acid.

a | State what sort of reaction this is.

b | Write out an equation for this reaction.

c | What holds atoms together in a compound?

113
 SHORT
9Ha ANSWERS
HOW DO YOU WRITE 'SHORT ANSWER' EXAM QUESTIONS?

One mark answers A The keel of a boat is made out of a composite material.
One mark answers need you to recall a word or a State what is meant by the term COMPOSITE MATERIAL. (1)
piece of information. Your answer does not need to
be a full sentence, so make it as clear and as short
as you can.
Mark Scheme
The question in example A contains the command
Question Answer Notes Marks
words ‘State the meaning of…’. The word ‘define’
A a material made by do not allow ‘made (1)
can also be used for questions of this type. There is using two different of materials’ or an
more about command words on pages 52–53. materials together example

The answer to the question in example A contains a

classic mistake; the student has given an example
A | a one mark ‘define’ question
rather than stated the meaning. If a question wants you
to give an example, it will say ‘Give an example of…’.

Two or three mark short B Air is passed over heated copper by using two gas syringes.
As this is done, the volume of air inside the syringes decreases.
answers gas syringe A air
copper
gas syringe B

Two or three mark short answers need more planning.

■ The number of marks for the question tells you
the number of points to include. heat
Explain how heated copper removes oxygen from the air. (2)
■ Look carefully at the command word.
Mark Scheme
■ Don’t write out the information in the question; Question Answer Notes Marks
that doesn’t score marks. (But you may need to B An explanation linking: do not allow ‘absorbs’, (2)
use the information in the question.) • copper reacts with ‘takes in’.
oxygen (1) do not allow ‘air’.
■ Include scientific words. (These are often very • to form copper oxide (1)

important for getting the marks.)

■ Write clearly, using well-connected sentences. B | a two mark short answer question and the mark scheme
■ Check your spelling and punctuation.

1 Write a mark scheme for this question: Define the term ‘oxide’.

2 Here are some students’ answers to question B. The mark they scored is also shown.
P The copper reacts with air and becomes copper oxide. (1)
Q Copper attracts oxygen when heated. (0)
R The copper causes the volume of air in the two syringes to be reduced because it
reacts with oxygen in the air and becomes copper oxide. (2)
a | Explain why each of the answers has been given those number of marks.
b | Write out corrected or better versions of each answer.

114
Two or three mark short answer questions usually C Barium sulfate can be prepared as a white precipitate.
fall into three main categories: describe, explain and Describe how you could prepare a pure, dry sample of barium
sulfate from barium hydroxide solution and sulfuric acid. (3)
compare.
To ‘describe’ you need to link pieces of information.
You need to plan an order, and to think about which
descriptive words and which linking words to use.
■ Try drawing a flow chart or concept map to
help you order your information (but cross it out
afterwards).
■ Show place, position or time using prepositional
phrases (e.g. after an hour, during an eclipse, from
C | a ‘describe’ question
the results, in the solution, within the cell wall).
■ Use adjectives to describe things in detail (e.g. grey metal, lightweight fabric, strong polymer).
■ Use adverbs to give precise information about how, when and where things happen (e.g. place
the tube here, work quickly, only after the reaction is completed, sometimes the mixture spits,
the owl flies silently, it is usually necessary to clean the magnesium strip).
■ Link facts together with coordinating conjunctions (e.g. and, but, or).
■ Add information about a fact using a subordinating conjunction (e.g. as, because, when,
which).

To ‘explain’ you need to say how or why D Iron corrodes when it is left in moist air.
something happens. You may need to state what The reactivity series below shows iron and three other metals.
happens first and then explain the reason for it.
most reactive magnesium
■ Words that show cause and effect are often iron
useful (e.g. as a result, because, due to, for copper
this reason, since, so, the effect of which is).
least reactive gold

To ‘compare’ you need to say how one thing is (a) Explain which metal in the list will corrode
faster than iron. (2)
similar and/or different to another.
■ Comparative adjectives (e.g. faster, more acidic,
smaller) are very useful in these questions.
■ Some subordinating conjunctions (e.g.
whereas, although, despite) will also be helpful. D | an ‘explain’ question

Some questions can be worth up to 6 marks. For details on these longer answer questions see pages 182–183.

3 a | Draw out a flow chart for the answer to example C.

b | Identify three features of language that help to make this answer clear
and precise.

a | In example D, what are the two marks awarded for?

4 I can
b | Identify the subordinating conjunction in the answer to example D.
■ answer different types of
c | Identify the comparative adjective in the answer to example D. short answer questions

115
 9Ha IONS
WHY ARE IONS IMPORTANT IN CHEMISTRY?

The building in photo A is the Atomium building in Brussels. It is a

giant model of the arrangement of atoms in iron. However, it does
not accurately reflect how the atoms are held together.

Atoms contain a central nucleus with electrons around it. The

nucleus has a positive charge and the electrons have a negative
charge. The positive and negative charges balance each other out so
that atoms have no overall charge. Some atoms can, however, lose
or gain electrons and if this happens the charges no longer balance.
An atom that loses or gains electrons becomes an ion.

sodium atom – negative With the loss of an electron,

charges of electrons balanced the sodium ion has an
by positive charges in nucleus overall positive charge.
negative
electrons
swirl around electron
a positively loss
charged,
central nucleus
A | The Atomium building was constructed in 1958.

electron
gain

Thunderstorms, waterfalls and waves all

chlorine atom – negative With the gain of an electron, create negative ions from the substances
charges of electrons balanced the chloride ion has an
by positive charges in nucleus overall negative charge. in the air.

B | Ions are atoms that have lost or gained electrons, and so have a charge.

1 What type of charge does an electron have?

2 Explain why an iron atom has no overall charge.

3 What is an ion?

4 An iron atom loses electrons. State the type of charge

it will end up with.

In a metal, some of the electrons become free and are shared

between the atoms. You can think of this as positively charged
ions of the metal surrounded by a ‘sea of electrons’. The attraction
C | In metallic bonding, the electrons are able to move
between the positive and negative charges holds the structure freely and randomly in all directions.
together. We call this metallic bonding.

116
 potential difference
5 a | Look back at photo A. Suggest what the tubes
(voltage)
in the building represent.

b | Describe one poor point about using this model

for the structure of iron.

Metal conductivity
Knowing about metallic bonding allows us to understand why
metals conduct electricity. If you apply a voltage (a potential
difference) between two points on a piece of metal, electrons will
flow in the same direction. This flow of electrons transfers energy
and forms an electrical current.

D | When a voltage is applied to a piece of metal, an electrical

6 Explain why metals conduct electricity. current flows.

Ionic compounds The symbol for an

ion is the element
Metal atoms quite easily lose electrons and non-metal atoms easily symbol with a little
Na+ Cl- Li+ Br-
gain electrons. A positively charged metal ion and a negatively superscript + or –
charged non-metal ion attract one another. This force of attraction after it.
is called an ionic bond and this is another type of bonding. sodium chloride lithium bromide

Compounds held together with ionic bonds are ionic compounds. Different ions can
Many metals in the middle of the periodic table form ionic 2+ 2- 2+ 2- have different
Mg S Fe O
amounts of charge,
compounds with intense colours, which are used in artists’ colours.
as shown by the
Like electrons, ions can also carry an magnesium sulfide iron oxide numbers.

electrical current if they can move. So, solid

E | some common ionic compounds
sodium chloride will not conduct electricity
but molten sodium chloride will, and so will
sodium chloride solution.
7 What is the symbol for the ion formed from a sulfur atom?

8 a | What charge does a magnesium ion carry?

F | Ionic transition metal compounds are found in
b | Has a magnesium ion lost or gained electrons to form this ion?
oil paints.

9 Potassium bromide (KBr) is an ionic compound. Draw the ions

in this compound.

10 Solid lithium bromide contains charged particles but cannot

conduct electricity. Why not?

11 Suggest why swimmers should get out of the sea during a

thunderstorm.

I can
■ explain how ions are formed
■ describe metallic and ionic bonding
■ explain how metals and ionic compounds can conduct electricity.
117
 ENERGY
9Hb TRANSFERS
WHAT HAPPENS TO ENERGY IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES?

Bonds affect the properties of substances. For example, the

metallic bonding in magnesium is stronger than in sodium, which
is why solid magnesium is harder than solid sodium.
Metallic bonding is stronger if there are more free electrons and
ions with more charges. The more charges, the stronger the force
between opposite charges. In sodium each atom contributes one
electron to metallic bonding, leaving ions with a 1+ charge. However,
in magnesium the atoms contribute two electrons, leaving Mg2+ ions.

1 Potassium atoms contribute one electron to A | sodium – melting point: 98 °C; boiling point: 883 °C
metallic bonding, but calcium atoms contribute two
electrons. Explain which metal is likely to be harder.

2 Explain whether sodium or magnesium will conduct

electricity better.

Physical changes
To melt or evaporate a substance, energy must be supplied. The
energy breaks some of the bonds between particles. The stronger
the bonds, the more energy is needed to break them.

B | magnesium – melting point: 650 °C;

boiling point: 1090 °C

D | In some solar power stations, light is focused on a

central tower to melt an ionic compound called sodium
C | Sodium melts at 98 °C and boils at 883 °C. In some street lights, nitrate (melting point: 308 °C). This is then used to boil
electricity is passed through sodium gas to give a yellow light. water and so generate electricity using a turbine.

118
 3 Why is sodium used in some street lights but
magnesium is not?

4 Aluminium atoms can each contribute three

electrons to metallic bonding. Suggest how
the boiling point of aluminium will compare
with the boiling point of magnesium.

5 Describe the evidence on the previous page

to suggest that ionic bonding is stronger than
metallic bonding.

Melting and evaporation require an input of energy. They are

endothermic changes. The energy that enters makes the
particles move faster and breaks some of the bonds holding
the particles near to each other. The additional energy also
E | Making ice from water is exothermic. These ice sculptures are
means that the temperature of the substance can increase at a festival in China.
(but the temperature of things around it falls).
Freezing and condensation are exothermic processes. Particles lose energy
6 Draw a table to compare
and slow down, allowing bonds to form between them. The exit of energy
endothermic and exothermic
can reduce the substance’s temperature (but increase the temperature of
changes.
things immediately around it).

Chemical reactions
Unlike in physical changes, in chemical reactions new bonds form between For sweat to evaporate, an input of
different types of atoms. This produces new substances. When bonds are energy is needed. This energy comes
broken and made, energy is taken in and released. If a chemical reaction from your skin. As it loses energy to
gives out more energy than it takes in then it is an exothermic reaction. your sweat, your skin cools down.
These reactions cause a rise in temperature of things immediately around
them. Endothermic reactions lower the temperature of their surroundings.
We can show the differences in energy between the P Q
reactants and products in a reaction profile.
Energy within the

Energy within the

products
substances

substances

7 In diagram F, explain which reaction profile

(P or Q) shows an endothermic reaction. reactants reactants

a | A metal burns in air with a bright products

8
white light. Explain whether this is an
exothermic or endothermic reaction.
b | Draw a reaction profile for this reaction. Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

9 When barium hydroxide is mixed with F | reaction profiles for endothermic and exothermic changes
ammonium thiocyanate in a test tube, ice
forms on the outside of the tube.
a | Explain whether the reaction inside the
test tube is exothermic or endothermic. I can
b | The ice is formed from water vapour in
■ interpret and sketch reaction profiles
the air. Is this a chemical reaction or a ■ explain why changes are described as being exothermic
physical change? or endothermic
■ explain how bonding affects the properties of some
c | Describe the changes that occur to
substances.
water molecules as this process occurs.
119
 RATES OF
9Hc REACTION
WHAT CONTROLS THE RATE OF A REACTION?

Some chemical reactions

happen very slowly while A | When solutions of potassium B | In this painting by Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450–
iodide and lead nitrate are mixed, a 1516), the green pigments used for the grass and
others occur extremely
‘precipitate’ of yellow lead iodide forms. trees have slowly reacted with substances in the air
quickly. The rate of reaction and turned brown.
is how quickly a reaction
takes place.

1 Compare the
rates of the
reactions in
photos A and B.

To measure the rate of reaction, we either measure how quickly the reactants
are used up or how quickly the products are formed. For example, photo
C shows the reaction between calcium carbonate (marble chips) and
hydrochloric acid. Carbon dioxide gas is produced by the reaction. Some
results from the reaction are shown in table D and graph E.

C thistle funnel

D
Time (s) Volume of carbon dioxide
collected (cm3)
0 0
10 36
20 55
30 66
40 72
50 73
marble chips and hydrochloric acid 60 73

120
The mean rate of reaction is calculated by dividing the total How the amount of gas produced by the reaction
volume of gas by the time taken to collect it. changes with time

Volume of carbon dioxide collected (cm3)

80
mean rate of carbon dioxide formation = 73 cm3 / 40 s
= 1.8 cm3/s 70
60 The line gets The horizontal
You can see from graph E that the rate of reaction less steep as line shows that
changes. It is fastest at the start and gradually becomes 50 the reaction the reaction
slower. The reaction then stops. slows. has stopped.
40
The slope is No more gas
30 steepest at the is being made.
2 a | Describe how graph E shows when the start, showing
20
reaction stops. that the reaction
10 is fastest at
b | Give a reason why the reaction stops. the start
0
a | Calculate the mean rate of reaction 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
3
between the start and 8 seconds. Time (s)
E
b | Explain why this is a mean rate.

Changing rates
For particles to react, they need to collide with each other.
■ The harder two particles collide, the more likely they
are to react.
■ The more often particles collide, the more particles will
react.
One way of increasing the number of particles colliding
with each other is to increase the surface area of a
F | Increasing the surface area of a reactant increases the rate of
reactant. Diagram F shows that only the blue particles on reaction.
the surface of the block on the left can react with the red
particles. If you split up the blue block, then more of the
blue particles are on a surface and so can react.
The ratio between the surface area and volume is an important concept. We call this the surface area:volume
ratio or SA:V ratio. We calculate it by dividing the total surface area of something by its volume (see page 64).
When a substance is split into smaller pieces, its volume does not change but its surface area increases.
So, its SA:V ratio is greater. The greater the SA:V ratio, the faster the rate of reaction.

a | Calculate the SA:V ratio of a cube of side 3 cm. On the morning of 14 October 1913, in a
4
coalmine in Senghenydd, Wales a spark ignited
b | The cube is now split into 27 cubes of side 1 cm.
a pocket of methane gas. This explosion caused
Calculate the total SA:V ratio for the 27 cubes.
coal dust to be swept into the air. Coal dust has
c | How would splitting a large cube of calcium a large surface area. The dust then exploded and
into smaller cubes affect its rate of reaction this resulted in the deaths of 440 men and boys.
with water? The mine’s owner was fined £10.

5 What has to happen for two particles to react?

6 Sketch a copy of graph E, and add a line to show I can

the reaction if the marble chips had been smaller.
■ describe how rates of reaction change
7 Explain why the reaction in graph E is fastest at ■ explain the importance of surface area:volume
the start. ratios in chemical reactions.
121
 CHEMICAL
9Hd EQUATIONS
HOW ARE SYMBOL EQUATIONS USED AND BALANCED?

A salt is an ionic compound produced in a neutralisation reaction. Some

neutralisation reactions are shown by the word equations in the panel below.

nitric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium nitrate + water

hydrochloric acid + copper oxide copper chloride + water
calcium carbonate + sulfuric acid carbon dioxide + calcium sulfate + water

1 State the names of the salts found in the word equations above.

2 Write a word equation for the reaction between potassium

hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.

Symbol equations
We use symbols to represent the formulae of elements and compounds.
The formula for a compound clearly shows the elements it contains (which is A | Limestone is mainly calcium
not always obvious from a substance’s name). For example: carbonate, which reacts with acids in
rainwater. This is a neutralisation reaction.
hydrogen oxygen

nitric acid is HNO3 State the ratio of sodium

3
to oxygen in:
nitrogen 3 oxygen
a | sodium hydroxide
The small lowered numbers in a formula show the ratio of the different
b | sodium nitrate.
elements. If there is no number after an element that element is in the ratio of 1
compared with the others. So, nitric acid contains 3 times as much oxygen as Write a symbol equation
4
nitrogen. The ratio is 3:1. The ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is also 3:1. There are for the reaction between
the same amounts of nitrogen and hydrogen. The ratio is 1:1. magnesium carbonate
(MgCO3) and sulfuric acid
We use formulae in symbol equations. For example:
(H2SO4). The salt (MgSO4)
nitric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium nitrate + water is soluble.
HNO3 + NaOH NaNO3 + H2O

We can add state symbols to show the state different substances are in.
5 Explain whether sodium
State symbols are in brackets after each substance in a symbol equation:
nitrate is soluble in water
(s) for ‘solid’, (l) for ‘liquid’, (g) for ‘gas’ and (aq) for ‘aqueous’ (dissolved in water).
or not.
For example:
6 Re-write your answer to
nitric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium nitrate + water question 4 adding in state
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) symbols.

122
Balancing equations
In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants is always exactly the same as the total mass of
the products. This is because atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. So, when
we write out symbol equations we must have the same number of each atom on both sides of the
arrow. Doing this produces a balanced equation.
For example, this equation is balanced:
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

1 + 1 = 2 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
HNO3 + NaOH NaNO3 + H2O
1 nitrogen 1 nitrogen
3 + 1 = 4 oxygen 3 + 1 = 4 oxygen
1 sodium 1 sodium B
Balanced

This equation is not balanced:

HCl(aq) + CuO(s) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

1 hydrogen 2 hydrogen HCI + CuO

1 chlorine 2 chlorine
1 copper 1 copper
CuCI2 + H2O
1 oxygen 1 oxygen
C
Not balanced!
We need to balance equations by adding atoms. We cannot change
the formulae in the equation. Instead, we can put a large number in
front of a formula that then multiplies the elements after it.
For the unbalanced equation above (and in diagram C) we need
another hydrogen on the left of the arrow. We can get this by
doubling the ‘HCl’. We write ‘2’ in front of the HCl, meaning ‘2 lots
2HCI + CuO CuCI2 + H2O
of HCl’. This gives us two hydrogens. It also doubles the number of
chlorines because the 2 applies to HCl as a whole (and not just the
H). The equation is now balanced.
2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) H2O(l) + CuCl2(aq) D
Balanced at last!

7 Write out a balanced equation, using state 8 What are the names of the products
symbols, for: and reactants in the two reactions
shown on this page?
a | magnesium burning in oxygen (O2)
b | methane (CH4) reacting with oxygen
c | sulfuric acid reacting with sodium hydroxide I can
to produce Na2SO4(aq).
■ write balanced symbol equations with state
symbols.
123
 STANDARD
9Hd FORM
HOW IS STANDARD FORM USED?
The standard SI unit of length is the pea influenza virus iron atom
metre. We often want to measure things width: 8 mm width: 80 nm width: 0.14 nm
that are smaller than a metre and so we in metres: 0.008 m in metres: 0.000 000 08 m in metres: 0.000 000 000 14 m
use centimetres (cm), millimetres (mm),
micrometres (µm) and nanometres (nm).
Using these smaller units means that we
don’t end up with so many 0s in the numbers.

red blood cell haemoglobin molecule

1 a | How many times bigger is width: 8 µm width: 6.5 nm
a pea compared with a red in metres: 0.000 008 m in metres: 0.000 000 006 5 m
blood cell?
b | How many times bigger is A | There are 1000 mm in 1 m, 1000 µm in 1 mm and 1000 nm in 1 µm.
a red blood cell compared
with a flu virus?

Index numbers
To measure areas we use square units, such as square metres (m2) or square millimetres (mm2). To measure
volumes we use cubic units, such as cubic centimetres (cm3). The small raised number is the index (or power).

width
B | index numbers in common units

height

width
length

length length

area = length × width volume = length × height × width

example mm mm × mm = mm2 mm × mm × mm = mm3
units cm cm × cm = cm2 cm × cm × cm = cm3
m m × m = m2 m × m × m = m3

Index numbers tell you how many times to multiply something.

For example, 52 means two 5s are multiplied together: 52 = 5 × 5
39 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
1011 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
There is an easier way to do this on a calculator rather than keying the numbers all those times!
Make sure you know how to use the ‘index’ or ‘power’ function on your calculator.

124
When you multiply a number by 10, the digits move one place
2 Write out these multiplications in full.
value to the left and you fill in the gaps with zeros:
a | 66 b | 103 c | 28
1
1 × 10 = 10 3 Write these multiplications using an
10 × 10 = 100 index number:
a| 4 × 4 × 4
In positive powers of 10, the index tells you how many place
values to move 1 to the left. b | 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
5 4 3 2 1
c| 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
105 = 1 0 0 0 0 0 d | 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
109 = 1 000 000 000 Write these as ‘ordinary’ numbers:
4
In negative powers of 10, the index tells you how many place a | 103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = …..
values to move 1 to the right. b | 104
1 c | 106
10-1 = 0.1 d | 10-2
10-5 = 0.000 01 e | 10-4

Standard form
We can write very large or very small numbers as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a
power of 10. This is called standard form:
A × 10n where A is between 1 and 10 and n is the power of 10.
Standard form is another way of writing numbers without having too many zeros to deal with.
For example, the beaker in photo C contains 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 copper atoms.
We can write this in standard form:
number between 1 and 10

602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 6.02 × 1023
power of 10

Very small numbers are shown using standard form with a negative index number.
For example, the width of a carbon atom is 0.000 000 000 07 m.
In standard form: C | This beaker contains
0.000 000 000 07 = 7 × 10-11 m 6 × 1023 atoms.

5 The Earth is about 4 600 000 000 years old. 9 Light takes about 3 × 10-9 s to travel 1 m.
Write the number of years in standard form. Write this time as an ordinary number.

6 The Moon has a diameter of 3.474 × 106 m. Use standard form to show the widths of
10
Write this distance as an ordinary number. each of the items in diagram A in metres.

7 An average human cell has a mass of

0.000 000 000 001 kg. Write this mass in
standard form. I can
Water has a density of 1 × 103 kg/m3. Write ■ recognise and use numbers and units with
8
this density as an ordinary number. indices
■ convert numbers to and from standard form.

125
 9He EQUILIBRIA
WHAT IS A DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM?

In a chemical reaction, reactants form products. We show

this using equations, with the reactants on the left of the
arrow and the products on the right.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

reactants products
Sometimes there is only one product and sometimes there
is only one reactant (such as in decomposition reactions).
The equation below shows the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2). A weak aqueous solution of hydrogen
peroxide is used to remove stains from paintings.
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) A | The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide has been speeded up
using a catalyst and detergent has been added to form a bubbly foam.
In some reactions, the products react together and form
the reactants again. For example, if ammonium chloride is
heated it will decompose to form ammonia and hydrogen
chloride. However, some of the ammonia and hydrogen State the names of the products
1
chloride will react together again to form ammonium and reactants when hydrogen
chloride. There are two reactions going on at the same time: peroxide decomposes.
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
A reaction that can go both backwards and forwards is called a reversible B | The decomposition
reaction. We show this in equations using half arrows that point in both of ammonium chloride
is reversible.
directions.
NH4Cl(s) s NH3(g) + HCl(g)
When we read an equation like this, we say that the reaction going from left
to right is the ‘forward reaction’, and the reaction going from right to left is the
‘backward reaction’. ammonium
chloride At the cooler
2 a | What is produced by the forward reaction when temperatures
ammonium chloride decomposes? further up the
test tube, the
b | What is produced by the backward reaction? ammonia and
hydrogen chloride
Nitrogen (N2) can be made to react with hydrogen (H2) to form react together
3 again, forming
ammonia in a reversible reaction. Write a balanced symbol
ammonium
equation, including state symbols, for this reaction. chloride.

4 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) can react with oxygen to form sulfur When heated, ammonium
trioxide (SO3) gas in a reversible reaction. Write a balanced chloride decomposes to
symbol equation, including state symbols, for this reaction. form two colourless gases
(ammonia and hydrogen
chloride).

126
Equilibrium How the percentages of reactants and products
change in a reversible reaction
100
In a reversible reaction the reactants are never totally converted
into products because some of the products will always react 90
equilibrium
to form the reactants again. 80

% reactants & products

products
70 P
As the rate of the forward reaction slows down, the backward
reaction speeds up. They then reach a point where the two 60
reactions are taking place at exactly the same rate. The 50
reaction has reached equilibrium. 40
reactants
Once equilibrium has been reached, the percentages of the 30 R
different substances in the reaction mixture do not change, as 20
shown on graph C. However, the reactions are still happening. 10
Something that is undergoing constant change is said to be 0
‘dynamic’ and so this is called a dynamic equilibrium. 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s)
If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it will be C
endothermic in the other. The same amount of energy will be
transferred in each direction.

The water level does not change

because there is a dynamic
equilibrium (the volume of water
entering is the same as the
volume of water leaving).

Some hand warmers

make use of reversible
changes. This hand
warmer gets warm when
you push the button
and energy is
transferred to the
surroundings.
To re-charge it,
you boil it in water
and energy is transferred
back into the hand
warmer, ready to be E
used again.
D | a model to help think about a dynamic equilibrium

5 Look at graph C. Describe what line P tells you about the forward
reaction.

6 a | State the percentage of reactants when equilibrium has been reached

in graph C.
b | Explain why this is a dynamic equilibrium.
I can
7 Hydrogen and iodine vapour (I2) can react to form hydrogen iodide gas (HI)
■ represent reversible
in a reversible reaction.
reactions using balanced
a | Write out a balanced symbol equation, including state symbols, for symbol equations
this reaction. ■ explain how a dynamic
b | Hydrogen iodide production is exothermic. Describe the energy equilibrium is formed in
transfer in the backward reaction. reversible reactions.
127
 9He FRESCOS
HOW IS CHEMISTRY USED TO MAKE AND RESTORE FRESCOS?
Frescos are wall decorations created by painting on wet
plaster. The plaster is made from calcium oxide mixed with
water, which forms calcium hydroxide in an exothermic
reaction. Once on the wall, the plaster is painted. The
calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide in the air to
form solid calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This reaction traps
the paint pigments.

Frescos, like all artworks, react slowly with substances

in the environment. Acidic gases, such as sulfur dioxide
(SO2), are a particular problem. Sulfur dioxide, formed by
the burning of sulfur impurities in fossil fuels, reacts with
oxygen in the air to form sulfur trioxide gas (SO3). This then
reacts with water vapour to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
The sulfuric acid can react with the calcium carbonate to
produce ‘gypsum’ (calcium sulfate), which forms big crystals
in a fresco. This causes the fresco to bubble and flake.
A | This fresco has been damaged by the formation of ‘gypsum’.
Restorers can remove ‘gypsum’ by cleaning a fresco with
ammonium carbonate:
CaSO4 + (NH4)2CO3 s (NH4)2SO4 + CaCO3 before after

Other substances are used to remove layers of soot and

grime from frescos, and faded areas can be restored by
repainting using the original pigments.

1 a | State the type of reaction used to remove

‘gypsum’.

b | Reactions like this form a ‘dynamic

equilibrium’. Give a definition for the term
‘dynamic equilibrium’.

2 Describe the direction of energy transfer when

calcium oxide reacts with water. B | The Sistine Chapel ceiling fresco in the Vatican was restored
between 1980 and 1999. Some people think that the restoration
3 State the ratio of the different elements in removed too much of Michelangelo’s original work.
‘gypsum’.

4 Write out balanced symbol equations for

the two reactions that produce sulfuric acid,
including state symbols.

5 Calcium oxide is an ionic compound. Should we restore art? Write an argument for
Describe the bonding in this compound.
or against.

128
9Ia MOVING THINGS
Photo A shows a lighthouse being moved in the United States.
Modern equipment and machinery are needed to move large
buildings like this. Smaller houses are sometimes moved
using lorries.
Machines such as those used to move the Cape Hatteras
lighthouse have only existed for a few centuries. Before then,
moving and lifting things had to be done using only human or
animal power, or by using energy from the wind or moving water.

A | The Cape Hatteras lighthouse in North

Carolina, USA, has a mass of almost 5000
B | Stonehenge was built over 4000 years ago. The largest stone has tonnes. It was moved 460 metres inland
a mass of 50 tonnes. because of coastal erosion.

C | We do not know how ancient peoples built
their large structures. This photo shows students
testing a possible way in which the 50 tonne
stones in Stonehenge might have been moved.
1 Look at photo A. Name the forces acting
on the building as it is being moved, and
describe what they are doing.
2 Look at photo C. The students are using
rollers beneath the stone they are pulling to
reduce friction.
a | How does friction affect the movement of
an object?
b | Describe two ways of reducing the friction
between two surfaces without using rollers
or wheels.

3 The students moving the stones are using energy.

a | Where do humans get their energy from?
b | Where does this energy originally come from?
c | Draw a diagram to show the energy
transfers between the original source of
energy and the students.

129
 FORCES AND
9Ia MOVEMENT
HOW DO FORCES AFFECT OBJECTS AND THE WAY THEY MOVE?

When an object is pulled along the ground, the

force of friction between the object and the
ground makes it difficult to move. Friction can
be reduced using rollers or wheels. In snowy
countries, sleds have been used for thousands
of years to move heavy loads.

1 Look at photo A. Suggest why sleds

are only used when there is snow on
the ground.

If the forwards force on a moving sled is the

same size as the force of friction, the forces on
the sled are balanced. The sled will continue A | This sled is being used to transport logs.
to move at a constant speed.
If the horses pull harder the forces on the sled will be
unbalanced. The difference between the forward and
backwards forces is the resultant force. In this case, the
resultant force will be acting in a forwards direction and the
sled will accelerate (get faster). As well as changing the
speed, unbalanced forces can also change the direction in
which something is moving and its shape.
In photo B, the shape of the metal horseshoe is being changed
using a force from the hammer. Some changes of shape are
not as obvious as this. For example, in photo A the leather in
the horse's harness will stretch as it pulls the sled. Even things
like metal wires stretch a little when they are pulled.

B | The shape of this horseshoe is being C | Forces on a moving boat. Longer arrows represent
changed so that it fits the horse's hoof. larger forces.

Some of the stones used in Stonehenge come

from Preseli, in South Wales, over 250 km away.
Many archaeologists think these stones were
transported using boats on rivers and the sea.
upthrust
Early boats were paddled using oars, but later force from wind
boats had sails to use the wind to move them. pushing on sails

A boat moving through the water has several

forces acting on it. water resistance

130 weight

Water resistance and air
resistance are forms of
drag. Drag forces act to
slow down objects moving
through fluids. The size of the
drag force increases as the
speed of the object increases,
because more of the fluid has
to be pushed out of the way
each second.
2 Look at photo C. Write down the force that:
a | is caused by gravity
b | is helping to make the boat go forwards
c | will increase if the speed of the boat increases.
The weight of the boat in photo C is 2000 N. How big is the
3
upthrust? Explain your answer.
4 Explain what will happen to the speed of the boat if the wind
gets stronger.
5 Explain why a sailing boat will slow down if the wind speed gets less.

Top speed
The top speed of a ship or other vehicle depends on the maximum force that
can move it forwards and on the friction or drag acting to slow it down. As a ship
gets faster, the water resistance increases. Eventually the water resistance is as
large as the force from the sails and this means that the ship cannot accelerate
any more. It is now at its top speed for that amount of wind.

force force
from sails from sails

water
water resistance
resistance

accelerating top speed

D | The top speed of the ship is when the water resistance is equal to the maximum force from the sails.

6 Look at diagram D. On a different day, the

E top speed of the ship is higher. Suggest
two ways that this could happen.

7 Explain how the forces on the Cutty Sark

(photo E) are different to the forces on the
ship in diagram D, and why the Cutty Sark
has a higher top speed.

I can …
The Cutty Sark was one of the fastest
■ recall the names of different types of force
sailing ships, with a maximum speed of
over 30 km/h. It brought cargoes of tea from ■ explain the effects of balanced and unbalanced
China, and the first tea to arrive in England forces
each year sold for the highest prices. ■ explain why moving objects have a top speed.
131
 ENERGY FOR
9Ib MOVEMENT
WHICH ENERGY RESOURCES CAN BE USED TO MOVE THINGS?

The earliest forms of transport often used animals to carry things, or to pull sleds
or carts with wheels. The energy needed by humans and animals comes from their
food. The energy in the food originally came from the Sun. Today we also directly
use energy from the Sun (solar energy) to heat water and to produce electricity.

energy transferred
from the Sun by light

energy stored in plants energy stored

A
(chemical energy) in animals

Ships were moved using oars, or using energy from the

wind. Anything that is moving contains a store of kinetic
energy.

1 Write down three examples of substances or

objects that are stores of chemical energy.

2 Explain how the galley in photo B could be said

to be using solar power.

3 Write down one factor that affects the amount

of kinetic energy stored in an object.

B | Galleys were ships with oars and sails.

Just over 200 years ago, some forms of transport
started to use energy stored in coal. Coal is a fossil
fuel, formed underground over millions of years from C | The Puffing Devil was built by Richard
the remains of plants. Fossil fuels are a very convenient Trevithick in 1801. It used the energy stored
way of storing large amounts of energy, but they are a in coal. This is a modern replica.
non-renewable resource because they will run out one
day. Today we also use energy stored in oil and natural
gas for transport. Energy released by burning fuels can
be transferred by heating to be used for cooking or
keeping our homes warm.

4 Explain how energy stored in coal originally

came from the Sun.

132
Other energy stores
Smaller amounts of energy can be stored using weights and springs.
The clock in photo D uses weights to keep it going. A weight on a chain
gradually falls and transfers energy to the clock. Energy stored in raised
objects is called gravitational potential energy. Some clocks use elastic
potential energy (or strain energy) stored in a wound-up spring. Elastic
materials can store energy when they are deformed (change shape).
Internal (or thermal) energy is the energy stored in the movement of
particles. There is more of this energy in things that are hot. Energy is
transferred from hot objects to cooler objects by heating. pendulum

5 An archer uses a bow to shoot an arrow.

a | How is energy stored just before she shoots?
b | What happens to this energy as she shoots?
weights
6 a | Give two examples of objects or substances that store
gravitational potential energy.
b | Describe two factors that affect the amount of gravitational
potential energy stored in an object.
D | a pendulum clock

Transferring energy
Many modern devices use energy transferred by electricity. Electricity
cannot be stored, but has to be generated using renewable resources
such as wind, moving water or solar energy, or from non-renewable Uranium nuclear
resources such as fossil fuels or nuclear energy. fuel can release over
80 million million
Energy is never created or destroyed, but only transferred. This is the law of joules of energy
conservation of energy. However energy is not always transferred usefully. per kilogram. Petrol
The efficiency of an energy transfer compares the useful energy transferred only releases about
to the total energy transferred. Wasted energy is usually transferred to 46 million joules per
the surroundings by heating, and often by sound as well. This energy is kilogram when it
dissipated (spread out). The greater the efficiency, the less energy is wasted. burns.

7 Write down three energy resources that are:

a | renewable b | non-renewable.

8 Early steam engines had efficiencies of only a few per cent.

a | What energy store did steam engines use?
b | Was most of this energy transferred as wasted or useful energy?
Explain your answer. I can …
c | Suggest two ways in which energy might have been wasted. ■ recall ways in which
energy can be stored
9 A man pushes his daughter on a swing to make her start moving. and transferred
a | Draw an energy transfer diagram (similar to diagram A) to show ■ recall the law of
the energy transfers. conservation of energy
b | Explain why the swing eventually stops moving after the man ■ state the meaning of
stops pushing it. efficiency.
133
 PURPOSE AND
9Ib AUDIENCE
HOW IS WRITING SUITED TO ITS PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE?
Settling the Pacific
Thor Heyerdahl (1914-2002) was a Norwegian scientist.
One of his interests was working out where the people
who lived on islands in the Pacific Ocean had come from.
Most scientists at the time thought that the Polynesian
islanders had originally come from Asia, but Heyerdahl
thought they could have sailed from South America.
To show that this was possible, he built a raft using
the materials and technologies available in ancient
times. The raft, called Kon-Tiki, was made from tree
trunks held together with rope. In 1947 Heyerdahl
and his crew sailed it from the coast of South A | The Kon-Tiki raft took 101 days to reach Raroia
America to Raroia atoll in the Pacific Ocean. atoll, 6980 km from its starting point.

Choosing a format
Heyerdahl made other expeditions. He had to B | One of Heyerdahl's other expeditions was to
write for many different audiences and purposes Easter Island, to try to work out how the huge
connected with his voyages of exploration. statues had been erected.

C | Heyerdahl chose a suitable format for each piece

of writing.

Purpose Audience Format

to ask for wealthy people letters explaining
money who might donate his ideas and what
to the project he would do with
the money
to ask for US Army letters explaining
equipment what equipment he
needed and what
he would do with it
to tell other scientists scientific papers
scientists
about his
findings
to tell people interested book
people in history and
about the exploration in many
expedition different countries
to tell people TV and cinema documentary film
about the audiences script
expedition

134
 Writing for different purposes and audiences
The same information can be written in different ways depending on the purpose and audience.
You need to think about:
■ what information to include and what to miss out
■ the order in which your material should be presented
■ whether or not you need illustrations
■ the kind of vocabulary to use
■ the best format to present the information.

The extracts below show some different styles of writing.

D
■ pre-packed combat ration packs for a crew of six E but however much you can
for 3 months contribute to the total required
■ survival equipment for emergency use, to include will be gratefully received.
By contributing to this expedition
you will be participating in the
development of archaeological
F We were now a month into the voyage and we
knowledge. Full recognition for all
had got used to sleeping with the creaking of
our contributors will be given in
the vessel in our ears, but we were ever mindful
of the need to remain alert for changes in the
weather. There was always someone keeping
watch, but sudden squalls such as the one
G Pollen was extracted from
sediment cores in the
Look at extracts D to G. Which extract(s): crater lakes and analysed.
1
This showed that the island
a | is asking for something was originally covered in a
b | presents information in a list rich variety of vegetation
c | is written in scientific language?

2 Suggest a purpose and audience for each extract. Use the

information in table C to help you.

3 Describe one feature of extract D that makes it suitable for

its purpose.

4 a | Describe two differences in the language used in

extracts F and G.
I can …
b | Explain why the language used in G would not be
suitable for the audience of F. ■ identify features of writing
produced for different purposes
5 Think of the last experiment you carried out. Write two and audiences
sentences to describe part of this experiment in the style of: ■ write material in different styles
a | a scientific report b | notes for your own revision. depending on the purpose,
audience and format.
135
 9Ic SPEED
HOW DO WE CALCULATE SPEED?

Speed is a way of saying how far

Spacecraft (Apollo) 38 986 km/h
you can travel in a certain time.
This time can be a second (s), Aeroplane 3530 km/h
a minute (m), an hour (h), or even
longer. Land speed record 1223 km/h
To work out a speed, you have
Maglev train 430 km/h
to measure a distance and a
time. The units you use for speed Steam train 202 km/h
depend on the measurements
you take. For example, if a car Horse galloping 70 km/h
travels 200 miles in 4 hours, its
speed would be in miles per hour Human running 44 km/h
(mph). Other units for speed that
are often used are kilometres
A | The highest speeds that humans can travel are getting faster all the time.
per hour (km/h) and metres per
second (m/s).
distance
speed =
time Example
etres in 20.6 second s.
Many moving objects do not travel at a constant A racehorse runs 402 m
speed. For example, cars can travel faster on What was its speed?
motorways than in town, and may have to stop 402 m
speed =
at junctions. The mean (average) speed for a 20.6 s
journey is the total distance travelled, divided by = 19.5 m/s
the total time taken.

1 You are growing a little taller each year. Distance–time

What units could you use to measure
how fast you are growing?
2 A horse and rider cover 54 km in 9 hours.
a | Calculate the mean speed.
b | Explain why the fastest speed during
the journey was higher than your
answer to part a.
3 Look at photo A on page 134. What
was the mean speed of the Kon-Tiki raft
during its journey? Give your answer in
km/day.
136
graphs
You can show how fast someone travelled during
a journey using a distance–time graph. This is
sometimes called a displacement–time graph.
Displacement is the distance in a straight line
between an object and its starting point. Graph B
(opposite) shows a journey by coach and horses.
A steep line on a distance–time graph shows
that something is moving quickly. A shallow line
shows it is moving slowly. If the line is horizontal
the object is not moving at all.
 Distance-time graph for a coach journey
4 Look at graph B.
a | How far did the coach travel?
uphill, and the
100 horses are tired b | How long did it stop when they changed
the horses?

80
c | During which part of the journey was the
coach moving fastest?
Distance (km)

coach stops to
60 change horses mostly downhill 5 Calculate the speed of the coach for the first
on a good road 4 hours of the journey.

40 6 Sketch a distance–time graph to show your

journey to school.
20 coach travels
on flat roads
Relative speeds
0 When you talk about how fast you can walk or run, you
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B are measuring your speed over the ground. However
Time (h)
you can also walk along a train while it is moving. If
you walk at 2 m/s towards the front of the train and the
train is travelling at 50 m/s, your speed relative to the
ground outside is 52 m/s. If you walk towards the back
of the train, your speed relative to the ground is 48 m/s.
If two trains are travelling towards each other, and
both are moving at 100 mph, they are moving at
200 mph relative to each other.
Sailors and pilots have to think about relative motion
C | The actors in this film scene are only moving all the time, because water and air are usually moving.
slowly relative to the train, but they could be
moving at up to 50 m/s relative to the ground.
If you are sitting down reading this you
are not moving relative to the ground.
D | The speed of a boat depends on its speed But you are moving at a speed of about
through the water and on how fast the water itself 108 000 km/h relative to the Sun!
is moving.

7 Look at photo D.
a | How fast is the boat moving relative to
the riverbank?
b | If the river was flowing in the opposite
direction to that shown, how fast would the
boat moving at
boat be moving relative to the riverbank?
5 m/s through
the water

I can …
■ describe the meanings of speed and mean (average)
speed
■ use the formula relating speed, distance and time
river flowing at 2 m/s ■ represent simple journeys on a distance–time graph.
137
 EQUATIONS
9Ic AND GRAPHS
HOW DO WE DRAW AND INTERPRET DISTANCE–TIME GRAPHS?

Calculating distances and times A

The text in the box describes Sam's cycle ride. We can
use this description to construct a distance–time graph
to show his ride.

hour,
Sam cycled at 16 km/h for half an
r.
then at 8 km/h for the next half hou
/h.
He covered the last 6 km at 24 km

We need to know the distance and time for each

part of the journey.
The formula for calculating speed is
distance
speed =
time
d
This can be written in symbols as s =
t
Sometimes you may need to calculate a distance if you know the Example
speed and time, or calculate a time from a distance and speed. How far does Sam travel during
The formula can be rearranged: the first half hour?
distance distance = speed × time
distance = speed × time time =
speed
= 16 km/h × 0.5 hours
= 8 km
1 Calculate how far Sam travels in the second half hour of his ride.

2 Calculate how long Sam took to complete the last part of

his ride.

Use your answers to questions 1 and 2 to draw a distance–

d
3
time graph to show Sam's ride. Your vertical axis should
go up to 20 km and your horizontal axis should go up to
1.5 hours. Remember to give your graph a title. s × t
B | This triangle can
Calculating a gradient help you to work out
You can use a distance–time graph to compare the speeds at different the different versions
points in a journey. A steeper line shows that a larger distance has been of the formula. Cover
travelled in a given time than a shallower line. So, the steeper the line, up the quantity you
the faster the speed. want to calculate, and
what you can see is
the formula you need.
138
You can also use information from a distance–time graph to calculate speeds.
The gradient of a line is a way of describing how steep it is in numbers.
The larger the value of the gradient, the steeper the line.
For distance–time graphs, the gradient of a line represents the speed.
On graph C, the gradient will be how far the object travels in 1 second.

this represents the distance so the equation is

vertical change calculating the
gradient =
horizontal change distance travelled
this represents the time per second

Distance-time graph for a toy car

horizontal change (time taken) Example
100 Graph C shows how a radio-controlled car moves.
E Calculate the speed of the car between points B
80
and C by working out the gradient of the line.
Distance (m)

C D
60 Vertical difference (distance) = 60 m – 20 m
vertical
change = 40 m
40 (distance
moved) Start with the end of the section of the line you are
B interested in and read its value from the vertical
20
scale, then subtract the value for the beginning of
A that section of line.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
C
Time (s)
Horizontal difference (time) = 6 s – 4 s
=2s
Find the value on the horizontal axis for the end
of the section you are looking at, and subtract the
value for the beginning of that section of the line.

40 m
gradient = Remember that the units
D | These radio-controlled cars can cover 100 metres 2s
in around 5 seconds. for speed depend on the
= 20 m/s units used to measure the
distance and the time.
4 Calculate the gradient of the following lines
on graph C:
a | A–B b | D–E.
I can …
5 Look at graph B on page 137. Calculate the
■ use the formula relating speed, distance and time
speed of the coach during the following
parts of the journey: ■ draw and interpret distance–time graphs
■ calculate the gradient of a line on a graph.
a | the downhill section starting at 5 hours
b | the uphill section starting at 7 hours. 139
 TURNING
9Id FORCES
HOW CAN YOU INCREASE THE SIZE OF A FORCE?

You can move heavy objects using a lever. A lever is a long bar
that turns around a pivot or fulcrum. When you push down on 1 What is a lever?
one side you are applying an effort and the object on the other
end moves up. This object is called the load. The longer the 2 Explain what a fulcrum is.
lever, the easier it is to move the load.

effort

effort pivot load load

(man pushes (weight of effort load
on lever) barrel) distance distance

A | The effort force moves further than the load. B | The effort is smaller than the force needed to lift the
weight of the load directly.

There are many simple levers in the home. Most levers work by changing
3 Suggest one other
a smaller force into a larger one. The lever acts as a force multiplier if object that has a
the effort distance is greater than the load distance. When the load is lever as a:
lifted, the effort force is smaller than the force at the other end of the lever
a | force multiplier
pushing up on the load. The force has been multiplied. However, the effort
b | distance multiplier.
force has to move through a greater distance than the load.
Some levers can act as distance multipliers instead.
In this case a large effort force moves a small distance,
and the load you are moving moves a greater distance.

pivot

load effort load

effort

D | Your arm is a lever.

C | A bottle opener is a lever. It is a force multiplier. It is a distance multiplier. pivot

140
 distance force

Turning forces
The spanner in diagram E is being used to turn the nut.
The turning effect of a force is called a moment. The
size of the moment depends on the size of the force and
the distance between the force and the pivot. Moments pivot The distance is always
E measured at right angles
are measured in units called newton metres (N m). (perpendicular) to the force.

moment of the = force × perpendicular distance

force (N m) (N) from the pivot (m)

4 The spanner is 0.2 m long and the force is

20 N. Calculate the moment of the force.
220 N

We can use ideas about moments to explain how

levers work. Look at diagram F. If the moment due 400 N
2m 1m
to the effort is equal to the moment caused by the
load, the lever will not move. If the effort moment effort load
is greater than the load moment, the load will moment = 220 N × 2 m moment = 400 N × 1 m
= 440 N m = 400 N m
move in the direction shown.
F | The barrel will move up because the moment from
5 Look at photos C and D. Explain why: the effort is bigger than the moment from the load.
a | the bottle opener is a force multiplier
b | an arm is a distance multiplier.

Look at diagram G. Which force is the load

In equilibrium 6
and which is the effort?
The crane in diagram G is acting as a lever. Look at diagram G. The rope holding the
7
The crane is balanced, because the clockwise barrel is moved so that it is only 0.5 m from
moment is balancing the anticlockwise moment. the pivot.
We say it is in equilibrium. If the man in a | Will the anticlockwise moment be larger
diagram G pulls a little harder, the forces will not or smaller than before? Explain your
be balanced and the barrel will rise. answer.
b | Calculate the new anticlockwise
1m 3m
G moment. Show your working.

pivot 600 N

I can …
■ describe how a simple lever can multiply
forces or distances
■ identify the load, effort and pivot on a
diagram of a lever
■ describe the factors that affect the size of
1800 N
a moment
anticlockwise moment clockwise moment
= 1800 N × 1 m = 600 N × 3 m
■ explain why something will balance if the
= 1800 N m = 1800 N m moments are equal and opposite.
141
 9Ie MORE MACHINES
WHAT OTHER SIMPLE MACHINES MAKE IT EASIER TO MOVE THINGS?

A machine is anything that can help us to work

with forces. Most machines help by allowing us
to use a smaller force to move an object. Levers
are simple machines. Another type of simple
machine is a ramp. It needs less force to push
an object up a slope than it does to lift it directly.
The shallower the slope, the less force is needed.
Force needed
Force needed to push block
to lift block = 500 N
= 1000 N

2m 4m
Weight
1000 N A | No-one knows how the Ancient Egyptians
built the pyramids. Some archaeologists think
Weight that ramps were used to help move the huge
1000 N blocks of stone up to the top.

B | A ramp reduces the force needed to lift an object, but

the object has to be moved further.
1 Write down two more examples of where ramps
are used.
It is estimated that over 2 million blocks
of stone were used to build the Great
Pyramid at Giza, in Egypt. Most of the
stones had a mass of 2500 kg or more.

Pulleys can also be used to help us to move things.

In diagram D, pulley X makes lifting the load easier C | Pulleys and levers make it easier to control
because we can pull down on the rope instead of lifting the sail and to steer.
the object directly, but it does not change the force
needed. Pulley Y halves the force needed to pull the
object, but the rope has to be pulled twice as far as for
pulley X. Pulley Z reduces the force needed even further.

2 Suggest two other uses of pulleys.

3 Look at the pulley in photo C. The woman would

need less force to control the sail if the rope went
round more pulleys. Suggest why this is not done. pulleys

rudder

142 tiller (a lever)

 X Y Z

Work
In physics, work means the amount of 25 N
energy transferred when a force moves 50 N
something. Work is measured in joules (J).
The formula for calculating work done is: 100 N

work done = force × distance moved in the

(J) (N) direction of the force (m)

Example
Look at pulley Y in diagram D. The force on the rope is
50 N, and the rope is pulled through a distance of 2 m.
How much work is done? 100 N 100 N 100 N

work = 50 N × 2 m D | If the rope is pulled for 1 m through pulley

= 100 J X, the weight will be lifted by 1 m and will
gain 100 J of gravitational potential energy.

In pulley Y, the force from the rope lifts the weight upwards, and the weight moves up by
1 m. The energy transferred (work done) by pulling on the rope is all transferred to the
weight. The weight has 100 J more gravitational potential energy than before it was lifted.
In a similar way, energy is transferred (work is done) when a force is used to stretch a
spring. This energy is stored as elastic potential energy in the stretched spring.

Conservation of energy
In diagram D, pulley Z allows the weight to be lifted using a force of 25 N, but the rope
has to be pulled for 4 m to lift the weight by 1 m. The same is true of all machines – if
a smaller force is needed to move something, the force has to move through a greater
distance.
You would expect that the same work is done to lift the weight even when the pulley
allows you to use a smaller force. However, friction causes a little more work to be done
when smaller forces are used.

4 Look at diagram B. Calculate the work done to

a | lift the block directly upwards
b | push the block up the ramp.
c | Comment on your answers to parts a and b.

5 Look at diagram B. Explain why it will actually need I can …

more energy to lift the block using the ramp than it will
■ describe how simple machines
to pull it directly upwards.
can magnify forces
6 A heavy box is pulled along the floor. The work done is ■ describe the factors that affect
200 J. Explain the final form of this energy store. the total work done.
143
 SUPPLYING
9Ie THE ENERGY
WHAT TRANSPORT IDEAS DID NOT LAST?
Steam engines had to carry a supply of coal with them. In the 1840s several engineers built railways
where the engines were beside the track instead of part of the train. This meant the trains did not
have to carry fuel. These 'atmospheric' railways had a long tube laid along the track with a slot.
Air pumped into the tube from pumping stations along the track pushed on a piston attached to the
train. Unfortunately the atmospheric railways had problems with air leaking out of the pipe, and they
turned out to be more expensive to run than steam locomotives. They only ran for a few years.

A | A train on the 'atmospheric railway' in Devon.

Although diesel-powered trains still have to carry

their energy store with them, many modern trains
use energy transferred to them by electricity.
The train does not emit any polluting gases.

1 Suggest some advantages and

disadvantages of an atmospheric railway
compared to a steam-powered railway.

2 Suggest some advantages and

disadvantages of modern electric trains
compared to diesel-powered trains.

3 Mr Smith travels 90 miles from Bristol to

Birmingham. The journey takes 1.5 hours
by train. The train stops for 10 minutes in B | Electric trains can only run on tracks where overhead
the middle of the journey. Draw a labelled wires or an extra 'live' rail have been installed.
distance–time graph to show this journey.

4 Engines are machines. Simple machines

include levers, pulleys and ramps.
a | Write a sentence or two for each of
these simple machines to explain how It is expensive to install overhead
they can help us to move things.
electricity wires along railway lines,
b | Explain why a machine that magnifies so only busy main lines are electrified.
a force needs as much energy as doing
Should the government invest money
the same task without the machine.
in electrifying all the railway lines in
Britain?
144
 MISSION TO
9Ja MARS
The Moon is the most distant body that has been
explored by humans. Sending humans to Mars or
beyond is more complicated than sending them
to the Moon. The distance is much greater, and
astronauts would have to live in space for many
months or even years.

It takes a large force to move spacecraft from the

surface of the Earth into space. All the equipment,
food and fuel for the whole mission has to be
lifted. Rockets burn fuel such as hydrogen or
kerosene, but in the future there may be other
ways of launching astronauts and equipment into
space, such as using giant magnetic ‘guns’.
A | The Curiosity rover has been exploring Mars since
2012. It receives instructions from engineers and
scientists on Earth, but it also has computers that help
to control its wheels and instruments.

1 a | What is the force that pulls objects

towards the Earth?

b | Name two factors that affect the size

of this force, and describe how they
affect it.
B | Buzz Aldrin doing an experiment on the Moon in 1969.
2 a | What are the two ends of a magnet
called?

b | What is a magnetic field?

c | Explain why compass needles point

north.

3 Electronic devices (such as computers on

the Curiosity rover) use electric currents.

a | Describe the apparatus you need to

make an electric current flow.

b | Describe how to measure an electric

current.
C | This artist’s impression shows a possible
c | What does voltage mean?
magnetic launcher for spacecraft. This uses electrical
and magnetic effects to produce large forces. d | Describe how to measure a voltage.

145
 9Ja FORCE FIELDS
WHAT KINDS OF FORCE FIELD ARE THERE?

In science fiction films, a force field is often shown

as a kind of invisible wall. The meaning of force field
in physics is a space where a non-contact force
has an effect.

Magnetic fields
The space around a magnet where it can attract
magnetic materials is called a magnetic field. A bar
magnet has two ends, called the north pole and the
south pole. Two north poles or two south poles will
repel each other. A north pole and a south pole will
attract each other. A | This imaginary ‘force field’ is protecting the
woman from attack.
1 Draw two bar magnets in an arrangement
where they will:
B
a | attract each other

b | repel each other.

N S
You can find the shape of a magnetic field using
iron filings or small compasses. The arrows show
the direction a north pole would move. The field is
strongest where the lines are closest together.

2 State where the magnetic field of a bar C | The shape of the Earth’s magnetic field is
magnet is: distorted by the charged particles coming from the
a | strongest Sun. Astronauts travelling to Mars or beyond will
need to be protected against these particles.
b | weakest.
not to scale
The Earth’s magnetic field helps to protect it from
charged particles emitted by the Sun. However,
the shape of this field is altered by the Sun.

3 Explain why the full name of the north

end of a magnet is the ‘north-seeking
pole’.

146
Gravitational fields All objects attract
each other.
Any object that has mass has a gravitational field around it. If one or both of the
When two objects are in each other’s gravitational field, they objects has more mass,
the force is bigger.
attract each other.
If the objects are
The gravitational field strength ( g) of the Earth is further apart, the
force is smaller.
approximately 10 N/kg. This means that the force of attraction
between the Earth and a 1 kg mass is 10 N. We call this force D | The force of gravity between two masses
the weight of the object: depends on the strength of their gravitational
fields, and on how far apart they are.
weight (N) = mass (kg) x g (N/kg)

4 The Curiosity rover is exploring Mars. It has a mass of 900 kg.

a | Calculate its weight on Earth.
b | The gravitational field strength of Mars is 3.7 N/kg. What is the rover’s weight
on Mars?

5 Rhea is a moon of Saturn and Oberon is a moon of Uranus. They have similar
diameters, but the mass of Oberon is approximately 1.3 times the mass of Rhea.
a | Explain which moon will have the greater force of gravity on its surface.
b | Suggest why two moons of similar diameter were chosen for this question.

Storing energy
It takes energy to move an object away from the Earth, because of the The idea of a space
forces of attraction between the two objects. The energy needed to move elevator was first
the object is stored in its mass as gravitational potential energy (GPE). suggested in 1895.
The greater the mass, or the higher it is moved, the more gravitational We do not yet have the
potential energy it stores. technology to build one.

E | A ‘space elevator’ could be an 6 Describe two

alternative way of putting objects different ways
into orbit around the Earth. The of increasing
‘climbers’ going up the cable would the amount of
gain GPE as they moved upwards.
gravitational
potential energy
stored in a bucket.

I can …
■ state what is meant by a force field
■ describe the shape of a magnetic field
■ recall the factors that affect the strength of gravity
■ calculate the weight of a mass.
147
 COHESION IN
9Ja WRITING
HOW CAN WE WRITE COHESIVE TEXT?
Cohesion in writing refers to how well ideas are linked together so we can understand them clearly.
Cohesive devices are words and phrases that provide these links.

Cohesive devices include pronouns, determiners and conjunctions:

■ Pronouns (it, these, they, etc.) are used in place of nouns to prevent unnecessary repetition.
■ Determiners (the, its, their, an, some, etc.) are placed before a noun to specify what is being
referred to. They include possessive determiners (the Earth’s atmosphere, the Moon’s gravity, etc.).
■ Conjunctions (so, so that, and, but, which, when, because, etc.) link words, phrases and clauses
together.
In Extract 1 too many nouns are repeated. Extract 2 uses cohesive devices to make the text shorter
and easier to read.

Extract 1
The Sun emits streams of charged particles all the
time. The charged particles can harm humans by
damaging their DNA. The DNA damage can lead to
cancer and other illnesses. The magnetic field of the
Earth changes the path of the charged particles from
the Sun so that the particles only enter the Earth’s
atmosphere at the poles. Most people living on the
Earth are protected from the charged particles.

‘These’ is a pronoun. ‘Which’ joins the two

It refers to the sentences. Here it is
charged particles referring back to the idea
from the Sun. of damaging DNA.

Extract 2 A The Northern Lights are caused by charged

The Sun emits streams of charged particles all particles entering the atmosphere.
the time. These can harm humans by damaging
their DNA, which can lead to cancer and other
illnesses. The Earth’s magnetic field changes their 1 Look at Extracts 1 and 2.
path so that they only enter the atmosphere at the
a | What does the determiner ‘their’
poles and so most people are protected from them . refer to in ‘their path’?

b | What does the pronoun ‘them’

‘The Earth’s’ is a possessive determiner – it shows refer to in ‘most people are
the magnetic field belongs to the Earth. protected from them’?

148
Other cohesive devices
Synonyms are words that have
the same meaning, or very similar
meanings. Use synonyms to avoid
repeating words or phrases too
many times in the same paragraph.
For instance ‘harm’ and ‘damage’
have similar meanings.
Ellipsis: You can miss out words
to avoid repetition as long as the
meaning is clear. In Extract 2 we
know that ‘the atmosphere’ refers
to ‘the Earth’s atmosphere’.
Extract 3
The gravitational field strength on Mars is about a third of the
gravitational field strength on Earth. The weaker gravitational
field is one reason why the atmosphere of Mars is thinner
than the atmosphere of Earth. Astronauts will need to live in
pressurised domes. The pressurised domes will allow the
astronauts to breathe without needing to wear face masks.
The magnetic field of Mars is much weaker than the magnetic
field of the Earth. The material of the domes must help to protect
the astronauts against charged particles coming from the Sun,
as the magnetic field of Mars is not strong enough to deflect
the charged particles in the way that the Earth's magnetic field
deflects charged particles from the Sun that reach the Earth.

B | A Mars base
might look like this.

2 Look at Extract 3. A student has been asked to summarise this extract,

getting rid of unnecessary repetition. This is what the student has
written so far:
“The gravitational field strength on Mars is about a third of Earth’s. The
weaker field is one reason why the atmosphere of Mars is thinner than
Earth’s. Astronauts will need to live in pressurised domes that will allow
them to breathe without needing face masks…”
I can …
a | Identify three changes the student has made in order to shorten the
text and make its meaning clearer. ■ use cohesive
devices to make
b | Write a shorter, clearer version of the rest of the extract, using some text clearer and
of the cohesive devices described on these pages. easier to read.
149
 STATIC
9Jb ELECTRICITY
WHAT CAUSES STATIC ELECTRICITY?

People sometimes get small shocks when touching metal

railings, doorknobs or car doors. Shocks like this are caused by
static electricity. A charge of static electricity can build up when
two different materials rub together. Sparks caused by static
electricity can cause fires or damage electronic equipment.

Separating charges
Atoms consist of a central electrons
nucleus with small particles
called electrons moving –
– –
around it. The nucleus has + nucleus
a positive charge and each + +
electron has a negative + +
charge. The total positive and
negative charges in an atom –
–
are usually the same, so they
balance each other and the B | a model of an atom
atom has no overall charge.
A | Artist's impression of a dust storm
on Mars. These can last for months, and
1 Where are electrons found in an atom? can generate a lot of static electricity
that could interfere with electronic
2 Why do most atoms have no overall charge? systems in spacecraft.

When you rub two insulating materials together some electrons may be transferred
from one object to the other. The positive charges cannot be transferred because
they are fixed in the nuclei of the atoms. The object that ends up with more electrons
has an overall negative charge. The object that has lost electrons has an overall
positive charge.

When you rub an The acetate now

acetate rod with a has more positive
C | The effect piece of cloth, some than negative
of the electrons in charges, so it has
of rubbing two the acetate move an overall positive
different insulating onto the cloth. charge and the
materials with a cloth has an equal
cloth. The charges negative charge.
stay where they
are when they have When you rub a
polythene rod, some
been transferred. of the electrons in
the cloth move onto
onto the polythene.
150

3 Why are only the negative charges
transferred when you rub an
insulating material?
4 Look at diagram C.
a | Explain why the polythene rod
has an overall negative charge
after it has been rubbed.
b | Explain why the cloth will have
the same amount of positive
charge as the rod has negative
charge.
Positive and negative charges can become separated
when a conducting material (such as metal) is rubbed.
However, the charge spreads out over the whole of the
metal object, so we do not usually notice the charge.
Lightning happens when clouds build up a
very large charge of static electricity. The
potential difference (voltage) between the
cloud and the ground can be as high as
100 million volts.

Attract and repel D

Something with a charge of static electricity can
attract uncharged objects. The force is not very
strong, so you only notice this effect with small things
such as pieces of tissue paper or hair (see photo D).

Two charged objects can attract or repel each other.

If the charges are the same (two positively charged
objects, or two negatively charged ones) they will
repel each other. If the two objects have opposite
charges they will attract each other.

5 Look at diagram C. Explain what will

happen when two charged rods are
suspended close to each other if:
a | they are both acetate rods
b | one is acetate and one is polythene. E | This person has a charge of static electricity.

6 Look at photo E. The silver dome is part of a

machine that makes static electricity, which
has passed into the girl. Explain why her F | Electric field
hair is sticking out. around a negative
–
charge. The arrows
show the direction
Electric fields in which a positive
charge would move.
The space around a charged object where it has
an effect is an electric field. The field is strongest
close to the object. Diagram F shows one way of
representing the electric field around the end of a I can …
rod with a negative charge.
■ explain why an insulating material can be
given a charge by rubbing
7 Look at diagram F. Draw a similar diagram ■ describe how electrically charged objects
to show the electric field around a positive affect each other
charge. Explain your answer. ■ describe an electric field.
151
 CURRENT
9Jc ELECTRICITY
HOW CAN CURRENT ELECTRICITY BE CONTROLLED?

All spacecraft need computers. These control the engines

and all the instruments on board. For spacecraft that
carry astronauts, the computers also keep the air inside
breathable and at the correct temperature. Electric circuits
turn motors and fans on and off at the correct times.

An electric current is a flow of electrons, which are

negatively charged particles. An electric current only flows
when there is a complete circuit for the current. A circuit
also needs something to 'push' the current around the
circuit, such as a cell or power pack. A | Astronauts in a Soyuz spacecraft. This
is used to take astronauts to and from the
International Space Station.
1 The wires in a circuit are often made of copper.
Explain why this material is used.

2 We represent electric circuits using standard

symbols. Draw the symbols for: Astronauts in space cannot survive
a | a cell b | a bulb. without electricity. In the UK, if the
mains electricity supply failed, some
vulnerable people could potentially
start dying after only a few days from
B | Circuits can be series circuits or parallel circuits.
contaminated water, shortage of food
Series circuits Parallel circuits or cold.

3 A series circuit has two bulbs in it.

The current is the same
everywhere in the circuit.
All the bulbs go off when the
switch is opened.
If you add more bulbs in
series, the current in the
circuit is reduced and the
bulbs are dimmer.
The current through the cell
splits up when it comes to a
junction.
Each bulb can be controlled
individually.
If you add more bulbs in
parallel, the bulbs all stay at
the original brightness. The
current through each bulb
stays the same.
One bulb is removed and the gap
in the circuit is joined up. Explain
what will happen:
a | to the current in the circuit
b | to the brightness of the
remaining bulb.
4 A parallel circuit like the one in
table B has one of the switches
closed. Explain how the current
in different parts of the circuit will
change if the other two switches
are also closed.
5 Copy the parallel circuit in table B
and add one switch to it that will
turn all the bulbs on and off at once.

152
Measuring electricity 6V
V
We use an ammeter connected in series to measure the current flowing
through a circuit. The units for current are amperes (A).
The voltage across a cell is a measure of the energy provided by the
cell. We measure voltage using a voltmeter connected in parallel to a
component; we say that a voltmeter is connected across a component.
The units for voltage are volts (V).
A

V V
4V 2V

D | A ‘multimeter’ can be used to measure different quantities. Here it is

being used as a voltmeter. The probes are being used to measure the
voltage across a component on the circuit board.
3V

The voltage across a component is a measure of the energy transferred

by that component. In circuit C the bulb is transferring more energy
than the motor, because the voltage across it is higher. The voltages
across all the components add up to the voltage across the cell.
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each branch of the circuit is the
same as the voltage provided by the cell. In circuit E both bulbs have a E
voltage of 3 V across them.

6 Look at circuit C. The voltage of the

cell is increased to 12 V. I can …
■ explain how switches can be used to control
a | What will happen to the current in different parts of a circuit
the circuit?
■ recall how current behaves in series and parallel
b | Explain how the voltages across the circuits
bulb and motor will change. ■ describe how voltage behaves in series and parallel
circuits.
153
 9Jd RESISTANCE
HOW CAN WE CALCULATE THE RESISTANCE OF A COMPONENT?

Spacecraft are controlled by computers

and other electronic systems. The currents
in the components inside a computer are
very small, only tiny fractions of an amp.
But the current inside a heater can be
over 10 amps.
The size of the current flowing in a circuit
depends on the voltage of the cell or
power pack, and on how easy it is for
current to flow through the components in
the circuit.

1 What are the units for measuring: A | Hot food in the International Space Station is prepared
a | current b | voltage? using an electrical food warmer.

The resistance of a component is a way of saying how easy or difficult it is for current to
flow through it. The current in a circuit can be controlled by changing the resistance of the
components. Resistance can be added to a circuit using components called resistors.

Factors affecting
resistance
The resistance of a wire depends on how long it
is, how thick it is and on the metal it is made from.
■ Longer wires have a higher resistance than
shorter wires.
■ Thin wires have a higher resistance than thick B | This electric fence will give a small shock to
wires. anyone touching the wire.

All metals conduct electricity, but

some metals conduct it better
than others. Copper, silver, gold
2 Name three different materials that have a high resistance.
and aluminium are the best
3 Look at photo B.
conductors.
a | Explain why the plastic handle is needed to allow walkers to
Insulating materials have very move the wire.
high resistances. b | What can you say about the resistance of plastic materials?

154
Calculating resistance
The units for measuring resistance are ohms, and the symbol is Some materials become
the Greek letter omega (Ω). superconductors when they
are very cold, effectively
Voltage, resistance and current are related by this formula:
having zero resistance at these
voltage (V) = current (A) × resistance (Ω) temperatures. The photo shows
an MRI scan of a head. MRI
The voltage of a cell is what helps to 'push' scanners need superconducting
charges around a circuit. This formula shows materials to work, which have to
that the voltage you need to supply to a circuit
increases if you need a large current or if the
V be cooled to nearly −270 °C.

circuit has a high resistance.

C
Example I × R
ke a
What voltage do you need to ma
with
2 A current flow around a circuit D | The formula
a resistance of 5 Ω? can be rearranged
using this triangle.
voltage = current × resistance
V represents voltage,
V =I×R I represents current
=2A×5Ω and R represents
resistance.
= 10 V

4 Calculate the voltage needed to make a 5 A current flow

through a circuit with a resistance of 20 Ω.

The formula can be rearranged to work out the resistance of a

component from a current and a voltage.
Example
What is the resistance of a bulb
when the voltage across it is 10
V
and the current is 0.5 A?
(
resistance = voltage R = V
) V
The resistance of a component is the
ratio of the voltage (potential difference)
across it to the current flowing
R=? 0.5 A through it. A graph of current against
A voltage is a straight line.
A
F | Current−voltage
current

current I graph for two

10 V B
10 V resistors. The graph
= shows that current is
0.5 A E
0 directly proportional
= 20 Ω 0 to voltage.
voltage

5 What is the resistance of a component that has a current

of 3 A through it when the voltage is 18 V? I can …
■ describe some factors that
6 Describe how you could show that the resistance of a affect resistance
wire depends on its length.
■ use the formula relating voltage,
7 Look at Graph F. Which resistor has the higher resistance? current and resistance.
Explain your answer.
155
 ROUNDING
9Jd NUMBERS
HOW AND WHY DO WE ROUND NUMBERS IN SCIENCE?
We round numbers to make estimates or to
make calculations simpler. For example, on A | In 2014 the Philae
page 147 the gravitational field strength of the spacecraft landed
on a comet. Gravity
Earth was given as 10 N/kg. A more accurate
on the comet is only
value for the average gravitational field about 0.0007 N/kg.
strength is 9.80665 N/kg.
We use a value of 10 N/kg in Exploring Science
because this is accurate enough to explain
ideas about mass and weight. This is the value
rounded to the nearest whole number.

Decimal places
The gravitational field strength can be rounded
to different numbers of decimal places.
When you have rounded a number, it is useful to
show how many decimal places it is rounded to.
Otherwise someone reading it does not know if
9.8 is the exact value, or if it was rounded from
a higher or lower number, such as 9.84 or 9.75.

1 The mass of an apple is 0.25834 kg. Write its mass:

a | to 1 decimal place b | to 3 decimal places.

2 Look at photo A. Suggest why engineers did not

round the value of gravity on the comet to 1 d.p. B

Rounding in calculations The numbers used to calculate

The box below shows an answer to an exam this answer are both given to one
question. decimal place. This means that the
actual voltage could really have been
Exam question: A current of 0.7 A flows through anything between 1.45 V and 1.54 V.
a component when the voltage is 1.5 V. What is
its resistance?
3 Suggest two different
Answer: resistance = voltage/current values for current that could
= 1.5 V/0.7 A be rounded to give 0.7 A to
= 2.142857143 one decimal place.

156
The number of digits after the decimal point in the
exam answer makes it appear that the value for
the resistance is far more accurate than it really is.
The answer to a calculation should always be
rounded to an appropriate number of decimal
places. This is usually the same number of decimal
places as the numbers given in the question.
4 The answer to the exam calculation
should be rounded to one decimal
place. What should the answer be?
5 In a different version of the exam paper
the voltage and current were given as
1.50 V and 0.70 A. Explain what the
answer should be in this case.

Significant figures C
Small numbers Large numbers

Rounding numbers to a certain number of 0.000 483 5 183 760 000

decimal places does not work very well when the
numbers are very large or very small.
For example, the current through an electronic
component could be 0.000 483 A. If you round Round to 2 significant figures (2 s.f.):
this to two or even three decimal places, you get
a value of zero. For large or small numbers, what
matters is the number of significant figures. The
first significant figure is the digit with the highest
place value. The second significant figure has the
next highest place value, and so on.

D | a Falcon 9
rocket taking off
6 A Falcon 9 rocket had a launch mass of 505 846 kg.
a | What is the mass to 1 s.f.?
b | What is the mass to 2 s.f.?
c | Suggest who would use the accurate value in the
question, and who might use one of the rounded
values you worked out in your answers.

7 The speed of light in deep space is 299 792 458 m/s.

This value is often quoted as 300 000 000 m/s.
a | Round this number to 1 s.f., 2 s.f, 3 s.f. and 4 s.f.
b | Explain why you cannot say to how many
significant figures the value of 300 000 000 m/s
is given.

I can …
■ round numbers to a given number of decimal places
■ round numbers to a given number of significant figures.
157
 ELECTRO-
9Je MAGNETS
HOW CAN ELECTRICITY PRODUCE MAGNETISM?

Apollo astronauts used lunar rovers to help them to

explore the Moon. The rovers were powered by electric
motors that used energy stored in batteries. Electric
motors use electromagnets to make them spin.

Electromagnets
A wire with an electric current flowing through it has
a magnetic field around it. The strength of the field
increases if the current increases. The direction of the
field changes if the direction of the current changes.
When the wire is wrapped into a coil, the magnetic
field is a similar shape to the magnetic field of a
bar magnet. The directions of the north and south
poles of an electromagnet depend on which way the
current is flowing through the wires.
You can increase the strength of an electromagnet by:
A | Only six people have driven a vehicle on the Moon.
■ increasing the number of coils of wire
■ increasing the current in the wire Key
■ using a magnetic material as a ‘core’ inside the electric current
coil of wire. magnetic field

1 a | What happens to an electromagnet if you

switch the current off?

b | How is this different to a bar magnet?

2 Describe three ways of reducing the strength

of an electromagnet.

3 Describe how you could show that the

strength of an electromagnet depends on the
current in the coil.

Electromagnets have many uses. Relays (as shown

in diagram C) can improve safety by using a small straight wire electromagnet
current to switch on a circuit that carries a much
bigger current. This means that people do not have to B | The magnetic field around a wire and an
touch any part of the circuit carrying the large current. electromagnet. There is only a magnetic field
while the current is flowing.

158
 low-current
circuit
contacts spring

4 Look at diagram C. Explain what happens

when a current flows in the low-current circuit.
high-current
circuit

Electric motors
A current flowing through a wire creates a magnetic field metal bar attached coil of wire iron block
to iron block that can slide
around it. If the wire carrying the current is placed in
the magnetic field of a magnet, the two magnetic fields C | an electromagnetic relay
affect each other and the wire experiences a force.
This is known as the motor effect. The direction of the wire moves
force depends on the directions of the current and the upwards
magnetic field. This only happens when the wire cuts magnetic
field
across the magnetic field.

Suggest two ways in which the force shown in S

5 current N
diagram D could be made bigger.

An electric motor consists of a coil of wire in a

magnetic field. The magnetic field can be produced
by permanent magnets (as shown in diagram E), or by
electromagnets. When a current flows through the coil
of wire, the combination of the magnetic field from the D | the motor effect
magnets and from the coil makes the coil spin.

This side of the motor This side is

is pushed upwards. pushed downwards. 6 Explain what effect you think the following
pivot factors will have on the motor in diagram E:
magnet magnet a | increasing the current in the coil
b | making the magnetic field weaker

N S c | changing the direction in which the

current flows.

Some motors are small enough to fit inside

human cells. However, these nanomotors use
electrostatic effects, not electromagnets.

Carbon brushes make The metal ring is split

electrical contacts so that the current I can …
between the circuit changes direction
and the motor. every half turn. ■ describe an electromagnet and its magnetic field
E | This is a simplified diagram of an electric motor,
■ describe how the strength of an electromagnet
as a real motor would have a lot more turns of wire can be changed
on the coil. ■ describe some applications of electromagnets.
159
 HUMANS
9Je IN SPACE
WHAT ARE THE RISKS OF SPACE FLIGHT?
Since humans first started travelling into space,
18 astronauts have died in space, and 11 more
have died during training accidents on the
ground. In addition there have been accidents
during test flights of rockets.
But accidents are not the only risks. Astronauts
do not feel weight in space, and this leads to
their muscles wasting away and their bones
becoming thinner.

In 2012, a Dutch company called Mars One

announced plans to send four astronauts on a
one-way trip to Mars. More astronauts would
join them later. Their journey would be made into
A | Astronauts on the space station have to exercise
a reality TV show. Thousands of people applied
for around 2 hours every day to try to keep their
to go to Mars, even though they would not be bones and muscles healthy.
coming back.

1 Gravitational field strength on Mars is

3.7 N/kg. Suggest what will happen to
astronauts’ bones and muscles if they live
on Mars for a year. Explain your answer.

2 a | Describe the three types of force field

you have studied in this unit.

b | Write down two similarities and one

difference between them.

3 The air and temperature inside the Mars

One base will be controlled by electric
heaters and fans.
B | These tubes are living modules from a 520 day experiment
a | Describe what resistors are used for in to see how people might cope with living on Mars.
electric circuits.
b | Describe how to find the resistance of a
component.

4 Fans are moved by electric motors.

a | Describe the components of an electric Should humans be allowed to take
motor. the risk of travelling to Mars to
b | Describe two ways to make an electric explore the planet? Should 'space
motor spin faster. tourists' be allowed to go to Mars?

160
 REVISING KS3
9Ka PHYSICS
Scientists gather information to test hypotheses.
In 1827 Georg Ohm (1789−1854) published
They do this by making observations (such as the results of his experiments measuring
the positions of the planets in the sky) or from voltage and current in wires of different
experiments. The data are presented in scientific lengths and diameters.
papers for peer review. Data are usually presented
in tables to be easier to understand. How current depends on voltage
0.7
The data need to be interpreted to find
out the meaning. Sometimes calculations 0.6
must be performed before the data can
be interpreted. For example, if you were 0.5

Current (A)
investigating factors affecting speed,
0.4
you might need to calculate speeds from
measurements of distances and times. 0.3
Interpreting data is often easier to do
if the data are presented in a chart or 0.2
graph. For example, scatter graphs are
0.1
used to try to find relationships between
two variables (particularly continuous 0
variables). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Voltage (V)
Patterns in the data can be used to draw
conclusions. A conclusion may describe A | A scatter graph (with a line of best fit) produced by
the relationship between two factors. someone repeating Ohm’s measurements on a single wire.
This can be in the form of an equation. This graph shows a linear relationship in which the current
is directly proportional to the voltage.

Georg Ohm used his results to work out a formula linking voltage and
current to the resistance of a wire. The version of the equation we use
today is voltage = current × resistance.

Scientists also need to evaluate their data, to check the accuracy and
precision. They can do this by repeating measurements. Graphs can
also be used to evaluate data. Graph A shows that the measurement
at 2 volts might be caused by a random error. The data in the graph
is generally of good quality because most of the points lie very close to
the line of best fit.

161
 MODELS IN
9Ka SCIENCE
HOW ARE MODELS USED IN SCIENCE?

We use models to help us to explain observations of many kinds.

8L Earth, Moon and Sun

We use models to help us to explain observations about the Earth, Moon and Sun.

When the northern hemisphere is tilted When the northern hemisphere is tilted
towards the Sun it is summer in Europe. away from the Sun it is winter in Europe.
The Earth
spins on
its axis A | This is the
summer winter once every model we use
Sun 24 hours.
in UK in UK to explain the
seasons.

It is night on the
side of the Earth facing
away from the Sun. It is day on the side of the Earth facing the Sun. not to scale

The Sun’s rays are concentrated in the summer. The Sun’s rays are spread out in the winter.
N
UK UK N
Sun’s Sun’s
rays rays

B | summer
and winter in
the Northern
Hemisphere
Equator Equator

S
S
days are longer than nights nights are longer than days

7L The Solar System and beyond

The Earth is just one of eight planets that orbit the Sun in our Solar System. Many of
the planets have natural satellites, called moons, orbiting them. Planets and moons are
held in their orbits by gravity.
The Sun is just one of billions of stars in our galaxy. There are billions of galaxies in the
Universe. The distances between stars are so large that we use a unit called a light year
to measure them.

162
8I The particle model
The particle model helps us to explain why solids, liquids and gases have
different properties. It also allows us to explain what happens when matter
changes from one state to another.
In solids, particles are held In liquids, particles are held close In gases, particles are far apart with
close together by strong bonds together by fairly strong bonds. only weak bonds between them.
and vibrate in fixed positions. The particles can move around. They move about in all directions.
This explains why solids keep This explains why liquids This explains why gases can flow
their shape and volume (they can flow but are difficult to and expand to fill their containers,
are difficult to compress). compress. and why they are easy to compress.

When a solid is heated the particles move around faster and the solid expands.
It becomes less dense because the same mass now occupies a greater volume.
If heating continues, the particles eventually get enough energy to break apart
and form a liquid. The temperature stops rising while the solid is melting. This a
physical change, because no new chemical substances are formed.
The units for density are g/cm3 or kg/m3. Density is worked out using this formula:
mass
density =
volume
The air pressure here is less than at sea level,
8I Moving particles because there is less air above pressing down.

The particles in fluids (liquids and gases)

move faster when energy is transferred to
them. A fluid expands when heated (because
Particles in fluids are moving around
the particles need more space to move about) in all directions. The force of the
and the fluid becomes less dense. particles hitting things causes pressure.
The pressure is equal in all directions.
The movement of particles causes:
■ pressure in liquids and gases
■ diffusion, an overall movement of particles
The pressure in fluids
from a place where there are more of them
increases with depth.
to a place where there are fewer of them
■ Brownian motion, when tiny specks of dust D | pressure in fluids
in air or water can be seen jiggling around as
they are hit by moving particles.
163
 9Kb ENERGY
HOW IS ENERGY STORED AND TRANSFERRED?

7I Energy resources

A | There is a group
of scientific research
The wind turbine stations on the Arctic
generates electricity island of Spitsbergen.
when it is windy.
Solar cells produce
electricity when it is
light.
A diesel generator
provides electricity when
the renewable resources
are not available.

In a research station several different energy resources are used to generate electricity.
Diesel is made from crude oil, which is a fossil fuel. Coal and natural gas are also fossil
fuels. Most electricity that people use is generated in power stations. Power stations burn
fossil fuels such as coal or natural gas. All fossil fuels release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere when they burn. Most scientists now agree that carbon dioxide added to the
atmosphere is causing climate change.
We must try to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide we put into the atmosphere. One way
this can be done is to use renewable resources such as hydroelectricity, tides or waves
to generate electricity.

7I Energy stores and transfers

When we use energy resources we transfer the energy stored in them to other places or
other energy stores.
■ Energy can be transferred by light, sound, electricity, forces and heating.
■ Energy stores include internal energy (also called thermal energy − the energy stored
in the movements of the particles within a substance), chemical energy (energy
stored in fuels, food and cells), kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy,
elastic potential energy (also called strain energy) and nuclear (or atomic) energy.
For example, when a light is used in a research station, energy stored in the chemicals in
the diesel fuel is transferred by electricity and by light. The energy eventually ends up
stored as thermal (internal) energy in the surroundings.

164
8I Transferring energy by heating
The higher the temperature of an object, the more thermal (internal) energy
it stores. An object with a large mass can store more thermal energy than an
object with a smaller mass.

The walls are lined with insulating
material. This reduces the amount
of energy transferred
through the walls.
Energy from the radiator warms the air
near it.The warmer air has a lower
density so it rises and forms a
convection current.
Convection happens
in liquids and
gases.

Hot water is pumped

through the metal
radiator. Energy is
transferred through
the metal by
conduction.
Particles vibrate
more at higher
temperatures,
and these vibrations
are passed on.
Metals are good
conductors of
thermal energy.

Energy can also be transferred by infrared radiation.

Infrared radiation is similar to light. We can detect it
with our skin but not our eyes.

B | Energy is transferred from warmer materials to cooler ones. We can use the particle model of matter to
help us to think about some of the ways in which energy can be transferred by heating.

8K Paying for energy

The energy we use has to be paid for. energy
More efficient machines waste less transferred The total energy
by heating transferred is the
energy and so cost less to run. 75%
(wasted energy) same as the
energy
energy that was
Energy is measured in joules (J). stored in
stored in the fuel
the fuel energy
The energy used by an electrical that burnt. Energy
transferred cannot be created
appliance depends on its power rating by electricity
25% or destroyed.
(measured in watts or kilowatts) and (useful energy)
on how long it is used for. A power
rating of 1 watt means 1 joule of energy C | This is a Sankey diagram for a generator. Its efficiency is 25%.
is transferred each second. Energy
transferred by electricity is measured
in units called kilowatt-hours.
165
 9Kc FORCES
WHAT CAN FORCES DO?

7K Forces around us
Forces act on everything around us. Forces can change the shape of things and
the speed or direction they are moving. Forces are measured in newtons (N).

A The people feel
weightless as the
carriages start to fall.
They do have weight,
but they cannot feel it
because they are falling.
Upthrust keeps the boat
floating on the water.
Upthrust keeps the Forces of friction and air
balloon floating in the air. resistance are slowing
the carriages down.
These are contact forces.
The weight of the
balloon is the force
of gravity pulling on it.
Its mass is the amount
of matter in it, and is
measured in kilograms (kg).

Springs can be stretched or compressed.

The extension of a spring is proportional
to the force on it, until the spring reaches
its limit of proportionality.

Gravity pulls
everything towards
the centre of the
Earth. Gravity is a
non-contact force.

7K Balanced and unbalanced forces

We can use arrows to show the sizes of forces. The longer the arrow, the bigger the force.

force from friction force from force from friction force from
and air resistance engine and air resistance engine
The snowmobile is moving at a constant speed because The snowmobile is accelerating because the forwards force is
the forward and backward forces on it are balanced. bigger than the backward force. The forces are unbalanced.

166
7K Controlling
forces
Forces affect us all the time.
Sometimes we need to change
the size of a force, or change the
effect a force has on things.
In science, pressure is a way
of describing how spread out or
concentrated a force is.
You can calculate the pressure
using this formula:
force (N)
pressure (N/m2) =
area (m2)
The units for pressure are N/m2
or pascals (Pa).
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
C
The area of the bottom of the pole is small.
The force under it is concentrated, so it does
not need a very big force to push it into the snow.
The skier is bending down to
make his air resistance smaller.
This allows him to go faster.
The large area of the skis
spreads out the weight of
the skier so he does not
sink into the snow. There
is low pressure under
the skis.
The skis are very smooth
underneath, to reduce friction.
The bulldozer has
caterpillar tracks,
so its weight is
spread out.
There is a thin layer of water on top of the ice.
This acts as a lubricant, and makes the ice
very slippery. There is not much friction
between the ice and the skates.

9I Speed
Distance–time graph for a ski run
The units for speed are metres per second, miles
per hour or kilometres per hour. The speed is going fast downhill
worked out using this formula:
distance
speed =
time
Distance

Journeys can be shown on a distance–time graph.

A steep line on a distance–time graph shows that
waiting at
something is moving quickly. A shallow line shows walking the top
it is moving slowly. uphill
slowly
Two moving objects have a speed relative to each
other. Al is skiing at 30 mph and passes Bill, who
is skiing at 20 mph in the same direction as Al. Time
Al’s relative speed compared to Bill is 10 mph. D

167
 WAVES AND
9Kd FIELDS
WHAT ARE WAVES AND FORCE FIELDS?

7L Describing waves
Waves are a way of transferring energy. Waves on water are transverse waves.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves, where the particles The particles move at right angles to
vibrate in the same direction as the wave is travelling. the direction the wave is travelling.
The number of waves
passing each second is
Each particle moves this far as the wave passes. the frequency, and is
particle crest measured in hertz (Hz).
movement

The amplitude is the maximum change in the

position of a particle from its starting position.
trough
amplitude
direction of travel

A | a longitudinal wave B | a transverse wave

All waves can be reflected and When two crests or

refracted. Waves travelling in different two troughs meet
directions can pass through each other. they add together + =
to make a bigger
Their effects can add together or cancel wave.
out. This is called superposition.

When a crest meets

a trough they cancel + =
each other out.

C | superposition in waves travelling in opposite directions

7L Sound
Sound is caused by vibrations. Sound travels fastest through solids and
slowest through gases. It cannot travel in a vacuum.
Sound waves are detected by microphones and ears. The auditory range
of humans is approximately 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Sounds with higher
frequencies than this are called ultrasounds. These can be used for
cleaning and physiotherapy.

168
 Light rays are reflected
8J Light by the mirror. image of
candle
Light waves can travel through a vacuum
and through transparent materials. When it
meets a surface, light can be transmitted,
absorbed or reflected. The angle of
reflection of each reflected light ray is The rays seem to
come from a position
equal to the angle of incidence. Rough behind the mirror.
surfaces produce diffuse reflection, where
D | This ray diagram helps us to understand how we can
the reflected rays are scattered. Mirrors see images in mirrors.
produce specular reflection.
Refraction happens when a wave changes speed as it goes from one material to another. Light
travels more slowly in glass than in air, so light rays bend towards the normal when they go into glass
from air. A lens can make light rays converge because light refracts as it enters and leaves the lens.
White light can be split up into different frequencies using a prism. We see the different frequencies
as different colours. We can make coloured light using filters, which let some frequencies through
and absorb the rest. Coloured objects appear coloured because they only reflect some frequencies
and absorb the rest.

8L Gravitational Magnetic fields

9J fields Magnets have a magnetic field around them.
Magnets can attract objects made of magnetic
Any object with mass has a gravitational field
materials, and they can attract and repel each
around it, where its gravity can affect other
other. A north pole will attract a south pole, but
objects.
two north poles or two south poles will repel each
There is a force of gravity between any two other. The Earth has a magnetic field, which is
objects with mass. The greater their masses why one end of a compass needle points north.
and the closer they are together, the greater the
force. The Sun’s gravity keeps the planets of
the Solar System in their orbits.
The attraction between the Earth and a mass N S
causes a force that we call the weight of the
object. Weight can be calculated using this formula:
weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field E | The shape of a magnetic field can be modelled
strength (N/kg) by drawing lines.

9J Electric fields
There is an electric field around objects charged with static electricity.
Atoms consist of a central, positively charged nucleus, surrounded by
negatively charged electrons. When objects are rubbed together, electrons
can be transferred from one to the other. If the objects are made of insulating
materials, they will then have a charge of static electricity.
Objects with the same charge (both positive or both negative) will repel each
other. Objects with opposite charges will attract each other. 169
 9Ke MACHINES
HOW CAN MACHINES MAKE IT EASIER TO MOVE THINGS?

9I Work
Work is the amount of energy transferred
when a force moves something. Work is
calculated using this formula:
work done = force × distance moved in
(J) (N) the direction of the
force (m)
Pulleys act as force multipliers.

9I Levers, ramps The more times the rope

goes between the two
sets of pulleys, the more
and pulleys the effort force is multiplied.

A machine is anything that can help us to

do work.
Energy is never created or destroyed, so
machines do not allow you to use less
energy to move something. A pulley or a
ramp allows a smaller force to be used, but
It is easier to push an object up
a ramp than to lift it directly.
A lever is a long bar with a pivot or fulcrum.
The force you put on a lever is the effort.
The weight you are trying to move is the load.
This lever is acting as a force mulitplier.

the force must move further. A | Simple machines allow us to use a smaller force to move an object.

9I Moments
The turning effect of a force is called 2.5 m 0.25 m
the moment. The units used are pivot
newton metres (N m). We use this
formula to calculate moments:
200 N counter-
moment of = force × perpendicular weight
the force (N) distance from
(N m) the pivot (m)
1920 N

B | If a person pushes on the counter-

weight of this road barrier with a force
of 80 N, the moments will balance. If the
person pushes just a little harder, that
side will go down and the barrier will rise.
Weight of this side of barrier = 200 N Moment of this
Distance from pivot = 2.5 m
side of barrier =
1920 N x 0.25 m =
Moment = 200 N x 2.5 m = 500 N m 480 N m
The anticlockwise moment is greater than the
clockwise one, so the barrier will stay closed.

170
7J Electricity
Many machines use energy transferred to them by electricity. Electricity is also used
to control many machines. An electric current is a flow of charges called electrons.
The units for current are amperes (A). The potential difference (or voltage) is a
measure of the energy given to the electrons. It is measured in volts (V).

In a series circuit all the In a parallel circuit the

components are in a single loop. current splits up when it
The current is the same throughout comes to a branch. The
the circuit, and all components M current in all the branches
are on or off together. The voltage adds up to the current
C
supplied by the cell is divided through the cell. The
between the components according voltage is the same across
to their resistances. each branch of the circuit.
D
The resistance of a component is a measure of how hard it is for electricity to flow
through it. The higher the resistance, the smaller the current for a particular voltage.

9J Electromagnets and motors

Magnets can be made using electricity. An electromagnet is a magnet made
using an electric current. The strength of an electromagnet increases if:
■ the current increases core

■ there are more coils of wire

■ the core is made from a magnetic material.
coil of
Electromagnets are used for many things. Relays are used to wire
switch on a machine that uses a high current (such as a car
starter motor) without having to touch any part of the high-
current circuit. Magnets are also used in electric motors.

E | The magnetic field of an

This side of the motor This side is
electromagnet is similar to the magnetic
is pushed upwards. pushed downwards.
field of a bar magnet.
pivot
magnet magnet

N S F | A wire carrying a current

experiences a force when the
wire crosses a magnetic field.
This is called the motor effect.

171
 9K1 EARS AND EYES
Bionic ears and eyes
Today hundreds of thousands of people have
cochlear implants. A tiny microphone in the patient’s
ear transmits signals to a receiver implanted in their
head. The receiver converts the signals to impulses
in the patient’s auditory nerve. A cochlear implant
can give some completely deaf patients the ability
to hear.

A | A person with a ‘bionic eye’

might see a face like this.

Eyes are more difficult, though.

A microphone can be hidden
inside or behind the ear, but the
cameras needed for a bionic
eye must be built into a pair of
glasses. The patient has to have
a receiver implanted into their
B skull, with a tiny wire leading to
an implant in their retina.

1 The story above is from an online news site. The editor wants Think about how you
readers’ questions to be answered, explaining the science. Here are are going to structure
two of the questions: your answer before you
a | Do microphones and ears hear sounds in the same way? start to write. You could
b | Are eyes and cameras the same thing but just one is electronic? describe how each
one works and then
2 There are many different ways in which eyes can fail or be point out similarities
damaged. Sometimes people cannot see clearly because they
and differences, or you
cannot focus on objects at different distances. Find out how ‘short
could make a table to
sight’ and ‘long sight’ are caused, how they affect people, and how
lenses can be used to help people with these conditions to see help you to compare
clearly. Present your findings in two concise paragraphs. the two.

3 Find out more about cochlear implants. Write a story of 350 words
for an online newspaper, describing what cochlear implants are,
how they work and the kinds of people who can be helped by them.
Make a list that records all the sources of information you used.

172
9K2 GOING FASTER
INVESTIGATION
Unbalanced forces on an object
can make it change speed.
Acceleration is the change in
speed over a particular time.

Acceleration is important
for animals as well. The
cheetah is the world’s
fastest accelerating
animal. This helps it to
catch its prey.

A | This ski jumper is accelerating down a ramp. Does the steepness of

the ramp affect their acceleration? What other variables might affect their
acceleration?

Planning
You are going to plan and carry out
an investigation of your choice to find
out how different variables affect the
acceleration of an object. Here are some
questions you could investigate.
■ How does the steepness of a ramp affect
the time it takes for a trolley to run down it?
■ Does the mass of a trolley affect how
long it takes to run down a ramp?
■ You can pull a trolley along a flat
surface. Does the mass of the trolley
affect how fast it accelerates?
■ How does the size of the force affect the
acceleration of a trolley?
■ The force of gravity accelerates objects
B | Drag racers use a short, straight track. The winning car downwards. Does the acceleration
is usually the one with the best acceleration. What variables caused by gravity depend on the mass of
affect the acceleration of the car? the object? Does it depend on its size?

173
 9K3 SPEED LIMITS
COMMUNICATING WITH THE PUBLIC
Speed limits are lower in towns than on open roads or A | some speed limits in the UK
motorways because vehicles are more likely to need to stop Type of road Speed limit (mph)
quickly in towns, to avoid hitting other traffic or pedestrians.
Motorways, dual 70
Also, if a car does hit someone, the person’s injuries are usually carriageways
not as severe if the car is going more slowly. Roads in the 60
countryside
The distance a car travels from the time the driver notices
Roads in towns 30
an obstacle to when they press the brakes is the thinking
Some roads near 20
distance. The distance the car travels while the brakes are
schools or in
slowing it to a stop is the braking distance. The stopping housing estates
distance is the sum of these two distances.

The distances in the chart are typical distances. Typical stopping distances
The thinking distances will be longer if the driver 20
is tired or has been drinking. The stopping mph
6 metres 6 metres = 12 metres or 3 car lengths
distances will be longer if the road is wet, or the
30
car’s tyres or brakes are not in good condition. mph
9 metres 14 metres = 23 metres or 6 car lengths
A road safety organisation wants 40
1
leaflets to be given out with new mph
cars, to encourage drivers to stick 12 metres 24 metres = 36 metres or 9 car lengths
to the speed limits. Design and write 50
a leaflet, using information from this mph
page and from further research. You 15 metres 38 metres = 53 metres or 13 car lengths
need to include: 60
mph
■ what the speed limits are 18 metres 55 metres = 73 metres or 18 car lengths
■ why the speed limits are different 70
on different roads mph
21 metres 75 metres = 96 metres or 24 car lengths
■ when drivers should stick to
speeds below the speed limits. Thinking distance
Braking distance average car length = 4 metres
2 The thinking distance depends on
the driver’s reaction time. Find out B | typical stopping distances from the Highway Code
how reaction times are measured and
what typical reaction times are. You
could also find out how much longer
reaction times are when people are
tired or have been drinking alcohol.
Use the information you find to write a A road safety organisation is campaigning
script for a one minute TV advert with to have the speed limit set at 20 mph in all
the slogan ‘Think before you drive’. towns. Research and prepare an argument
either in favour of this change, or against it.

174
9La PHYSICISTS
WHAT DO PHYSICISTS DO?
A physicist is a scientist who researches questions
connected with the properties of matter and energy.
Questions vary from what is inside atoms to working
out what happened when the Universe began.
Like all scientists, physicists make observations that
lead to asking questions. Then they make a hypothesis
and use it to make a prediction. The ways they gather
data to test their predictions can be very different.

A | The Large Hadron Collider is a 27 kilometre long ‘accelerator’. Tiny

B | Astronomers cannot carry out experiments with
stars. They make hypotheses using observations, but
they can only test these by making more observations.
particles are accelerated to nearly the speed of light and smash into each
other. What happens next can tell particle physicists about what atoms
are made from.

1 a | Draw a flow chart to show the scientific

method used by most scientists.
b | Which of these steps may be done
differently by astronomers compared
to particle physicists?

2 Write down two scientific questions that:

a | can be investigated by experiments
in a laboratory
b | can only be investigated by making
more observations.

3 a | Write down two differences between

the weather in the summer and in
the winter in the UK. C | Meteorologists study the weather. They can carry out some
b | Explain why one of these differences experiments, such as on the properties of air, but many hypotheses can
occurs. only be tested by making more observations.

175
 9La DIFFERENCES
HOW DO DIFFERENCES MAKE THINGS HAPPEN?

Potential difference
Lightning can strike between a cloud and the Earth or between
two clouds. Clouds become charged with static electricity because
hailstones and ice crystals rub against each other as they move inside
the cloud. If the difference in the charges (the potential difference)
between two places is large enough, the air between them can conduct
electricity and we see a lightning strike.

1 Potential differences are also needed to make electrical

circuits work.
a | What supplies the potential difference in a circuit?
b | What does the potential difference across a
component show? A

Temperature differences
Temperature differences cause energy transfers by heating, such as when
2 Explain why a cold drink taken
a hot drink cools down because it is warmer than the surrounding air.
from the fridge will warm up.
Temperature changes can cause substances to change state. An ice cube
taken out of a freezer is at a temperature below its melting point. As energy
How the temperature of water
is transferred to it from its surroundings its temperature will rise until it changes as it cools down
reaches 0 °C. Its temperature will remain at 0 °C while it is melting.
Energy is still being transferred to the ice cube while it is melting, but
Temperature

does not cause a temperature rise. Instead, this energy breaks the bonds
between the particles in the solid. This bond-breaking energy is called the
latent heat. When water freezes, the latent heat is given out again. There
are also transfers of latent heat during evaporation and condensation.
0 °C

3 Graph B shows the temperature of water in a puddle as the

water cools on a freezing cold night. Explain the shape of the Time
graph. Include the words ‘latent heat’ in your answer. B

C | Hurricanes are huge storms, but they die

out quickly once they are over land. The energy
to keep them going comes from the latent heat
that is released as water vapour from the sea
condenses again to form clouds.

176
Density and pressure differences
Changes in temperature cause materials to
expand or contract. When fluids (liquids or gases) The air above the sea is The air above the land
warm up they expand and become less dense. cooler and so more dense warms up more than
than the air above the land. the air above the sea.
If parts of a fluid have different densities, the less It becomes less dense
dense part will rise. These density changes can and rises. The air
The air pressure is higher pressure drops where
cause convection currents to form. than the air above the land, the air is rising.
so a breeze blows from
The Earth is warmed by energy from the Sun the sea to the land.
during the day, and cools down at night. But
the temperature of the land increases more than The sea has a higher specific
heat capacity than the land,so Land has a lower specific
the temperature of the sea for the same amount heat capacity than the sea,
it does not warm up as much.
of energy transferred. The energy needed to so it gets hotter more
raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by quickly than the sea.
1 °C is its specific heat capacity. Water has a
higher specific heat capacity than soil or rock. D | ‘Sea breezes’ occur during the day because differences in temperature
The resulting difference in temperature causes cause differences in density. The density differences cause convection currents.
breezes that flow from the sea towards the land
during the day.

Substances with high specific heat capacities

also cool down more slowly than substances
The highest wind speeds occur in tornados, but are very
with low specific heat capacities. This can cause
difficult to measure accurately. The official record for wind
‘land breezes’ during the night.
speed is 113 m/s (over 400 km/h), recorded in Australia
in 1996.
4 Jenna heats up some water in a
beaker, and heats the same mass
E
of soil in another beaker.

a | Which one will be the hotter

after 10 minutes? Explain your
answer.

b | If she also heated up the

same mass of wet soil in the
same way, what would its
temperature be compared to
the other two substances?
Explain your answer.

5 Explain how land breezes occur,

in as much detail as you can.

6 Explain the difference between

‘latent heat’ and ‘specific heat
capacity’.

I can …
■ describe how temperature differences can cause convection
currents
■ state the meanings of latent heat and specific heat capacity.
177
 9Lb FIELDS
HOW IS THE IDEA OF A FIELD USED IN PHYSICS?

In physics, a force field is a volume where a non-contact force

has an effect. The three non-contact forces that produce fields are
magnetism, static electricity and gravity.

Storing energy in
fields
Gravitational potential energy is the name for energy stored
because of an object’s position in a gravitational field. If an object
is moved away from the Earth it stores energy. The raised object can
transfer this energy when it is allowed to fall.
Hailstones are small lumps of ice that form inside large clouds. As they
fall, their gravitational potential energy is transferred to kinetic energy.

A | The energy transferred by falling hailstones can

damage cars, buildings and crops.

The largest hailstone recorded had a

mass of nearly 1 kg. This would store
10 kJ of gravitational potential energy
if it were 1000 m above the ground.

1 Look at photo B.
a | How did the gravitational
potential energy become stored
in the skydiver?
b | How will this store of energy be
B | The skydiver has a store of gravitational potential energy. transferred as he falls?

178
The amount of gravitational potential energy stored in an object depends
2 a | Calculate the energy stored in a
on its mass, how high it has been raised, and on the gravitational field
skydiver with a mass of 80 kg at a
strength (approximately 10 N/kg on Earth). The formula is:
height of 1500 m.
gravitational = mass × height × gravitational
potential energy (kg) (m) field strength b | Explain how your answer to part
(J) (N/kg) a will compare to the energy of an
astronaut with a mass of 80 kg at a
height of 1500 m above the Moon.
Example
2000 m. How much
A 65 kg skydiver is at a height of
s the skydiver store?
gravitational potential energy doe
kg × 2000 m × 10 N/kg
gravitational potential energy = 65
= 1 300 000 J

Energy can also be stored in electric fields and magnetic fields. You need to use
a force to pull two magnets apart. The work done by moving the magnets stores
the same amount of energy in the separated magnets. If you let them go, the
stored energy is released as they move back together.

Modelling fields
Diagram C shows how the gravitational field of the Earth can be represented.
It shows the direction in which a small mass will move if it is released in the
Earth’s gravitational field. C | A model of the Earth’s gravitational field.

All the lines in diagram C point towards the centre of the Earth. The Earth’s
gravitational field is strongest close to the Earth, and this is where the lines are Look at diagram C. Write down:
3
closer together.
a | two things that the diagram
Field diagrams such as this: field lines tells you about the Earth’s
gravitational field
■ are two-dimensional representations of
three-dimensional fields b | one thing that it does not
tell you.
■ indicate (by the closeness of the lines)
+
qualitatively where the field is strongest
■ have lines that do not cross.

We can draw similar diagrams for electric fields

and magnetic fields. The arrows on these fields
D | the electric field
show which way a positive charge or a north
around a positive charge
pole would move.

4 Explain why diagram D above is different to

diagram F on page 151.
E | Iron filings show the shape of the
5 a | Sketch the magnetic field of a bar magnet. magnetic field between the north poles of
(Hint: page 146, diagram B may help.) two bar magnets.

b | Describe two differences between your

sketch and diagram D.

Use photo E to help you to describe how a

I can …
6
north pole would move if it was placed in ■ use the formula for gravitational potential energy
position X. ■ model force fields using diagrams and interpret them.

179
 LONG
9Lb ANSWERS
HOW DO YOU WRITE ‘LONG ANSWERS’ TO EXAM QUESTIONS?

GCSE question papers all include at least one question that asks you to write a paragraph of text in answer to a question.
Each of these ‘long answer’ questions is worth many marks.
To get full marks on these questions you need to:
■ include the scientific information the question asks for
■ write your answer clearly and concisely
■ use correct scientific words
■ use correct spelling, punctuation and grammar (correct spelling of scientific words is particularly important).
Extract A is a real question from a GCSE exam paper:

Start by jotting down some of the scientific words and

Extract A ideas you need to use in your answer. You can make
The diagrams show a block of solid copper and some rough notes on the exam paper, just remember to cross
oxygen gas in two closed containers. them out when you have finished with them.

lid lid
Extract B
These are some of the scientific ideas
oxygen gas you need to include in your answer.
solid
copper Particles in a gas:
move rapidly
The oxygen exerts a pressure on the lid of its container.
throughout the container
The copper does not exert a pressure on the lid of its collide with each other
container.
collide with walls/lid of container
Explain, using particle theory, why the oxygen exerts a
pressure on the lid but the copper does not. exert a force

Think about a sensible order for your ideas and think about words that you can use to signify time or location
(for example: at first, eventually, inside). This will help you to write a coherent paragraph. As you are comparing
two situations, try to use some words that signal a comparison (for example: whereas, while, but).

1 The answer to the exam question needs to say how the particles in
a solid behave compared to the particles in a gas. Make notes like
the ones in extract B to describe how particles behave in a solid.

180
Examiners use a ‘mark scheme’ to make sure that all answers to the question are
marked in the same way. Extract C shows the mark scheme for this question.

Extract C
An answer that only just
met these requirements
would get 5 marks.
An answer that met
them all easily would
get 6 marks.
Marks Content
1 or 2 marks ■ a limited explanation e.g. particles in the copper do not touch the
lid / particles in the oxygen do touch the lid
■ simple language without many scientific words
■ poor spelling and grammar
3 or 4 marks ■ a simple explanation e.g. particles in a gas can move freely and
collide with the lid
■ clear explanation with some appropriate scientific words
■ spelling and grammar mostly correct but there are some mistakes
5 or 6 marks ■ a detailed explanation e.g. particles in a gas can move freely
and collide with the lid but particles in a solid vibrate about fixed
positions so cannot reach the lid
■ clearly written with good use of scientific terminology
■ excellent spelling, punctuation and grammar

Extract D

2 Extract D shows one student’s answer to this question. Explain which row of
the mark scheme applies to this answer for:
a | the scientific content of their answer
b | their use of scientific words and their spelling and grammar.

3 Look at extract D again.

a | Is the first sentence in their answer scientifically correct? If not, why not?
b | Is the second sentence in the answer scientifically correct? If not, why not?
c | Rewrite the answer so that it will gain 5 or 6 marks.

I can …
■ write clear and concise answers to ‘long answer’ exam questions.

181
 CAUSE AND
9Lc EFFECT
HOW ARE CAUSES LINKED TO EFFECTS?

Many people ask themselves what causes the changes they observe around
them. Many myths and legends are about explaining things around us. A | Some cultures explained that winds were
caused when the gods blew. Our modern
Scientists also think up explanations (causes) for the changes (effects) they explanation is that winds are caused by
see around them, but then they test the explanations. In this way, science temperature differences between different
places on the Earth.
tries to find the best explanations for why things happen.

B My experiments
show that lighter and
heavier objects of
the same size and shape
Stones fall because their
fall at the same speed.
natural place is in the Earth.
Light objects fall slower than There is a force
heavy ones because their between masses that
natural place is above acts to pull them
the heavy ones. together.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE) Galileo Galilei Sir Isaac Newton

was a Greek thinker. He
made many observations
and explained them, but
he did not carry out
experiments to test his
ideas.
Correlation and
(1564–1642) was an (1642–1726) was an
Italian scientist who English scientist and
carried out experiments mathematician who used
in many different areas experimental evidence to
of physics. suggest laws and
equations that described
how objects move and fall.
1 a | Aristotle is sometimes
called a scientist. Explain
whether or not this is a
good description of him.

causation b | Explain why Galileo and

Newton can be described
A correlation is when two things happen together, or when two sets of as scientists.
data appear to be linked. Sometimes this shows that a change in one factor
causes the other, such as the length of a spring increasing when you pull it 2 Newton described how forces
harder. But the fact that things happen together does not necessarily mean affect the motion of objects.
Describe what causes a car to:
that one thing causes the other. Sometimes there may be a third factor that
affects both, or there may be no connection between them at all. a | accelerate (speed up)
b | change direction.

182
 How world temperature and the number Correlation between ice cream sales
of pirates have changed over time and deaths by drowning

Deaths by drowning
Mean temperature
Number of pirates

each month
Time Ice cream sales each month

C | The average world temperature has increased as the D | The number of deaths by drowning
number of pirates has gone down. increases when sales of ice cream increase.

If scientists think that changes in one

3 Look at graph C. Do you think that the change in one of the
variable cause changes in another, they try
variables causes the change in the other? Explain your answer.
to find out how this happens. It is only once
they have found out why one thing affects Look at graph D. Suggest why there is a correlation between
4
the other that they accept that the cause the two variables. (Hint: there is another factor that affects both
and effect go together. variables.)

Spotting the effects

Many causes and effects are obvious, but some are not so
clear. For example, you know that when you drop a ball the E | The parkour
athelete attracts
force of gravity makes it accelerate downwards. But there
the Earth with the
is also a force from the ball that pulls the Earth upwards, same force as the
towards the ball. Earth attracts him.

5 Diagram F shows a mass attached to a

spring. The spring has stretched and the
mass is now not moving.

a | How has putting the mass on the spring The Earth’s gravity keeps the Moon in its orbit. The
made it stretch? Moon’s gravity also affects the Earth, causing the tides.
b | How do you know there must be a force
from the spring on the mass?
c | Sketch a diagram of the mass attached to
the spring. Use arrows to show the force I can …
from the mass on the spring, and the force ■ describe some examples of cause and effect in science
from the spring on the mass. ■ describe the difference between correlation and cause.
183
 LINKS BETWEEN
9Ld VARIABLES
HOW CAN VARIABLES BE RELATED MATHEMATICALLY?

When a change in one variable causes a change in another

variable, we say there is a causal link between the variables.
Sometimes the link can be described using a mathematical
formula.
Graph B shows how the temperature and pressure of the
air change with height. There are causal links, because air
pressure depends on the height of air above a particular
point, and temperature depends on several different variables,
including height. However, the relationship between height
and temperature or pressure cannot be described using a
A | A change in the altitude of the volcano plume causes a
simple formula.
change in temperature, which causes water vapour in the
Pressure (Pa) plume to condense.
0 25 000 50 000 75 000 100 000
100

75 air temperature
The boiling point of water gets lower as air
Altitude (km)

pressure gets less. At an altitude of about

50 19 000 metres the boiling point of water is
about the same as the temperature of the
air pressure
human body. At this height, tears, saliva and
25 the liquid inside the lungs will boil. Humans
cannot survive more than a few minutes at
this altitude without a pressure suit.
0
–80 –60 –40 –20 0 +20
B
Temperature (ºC)
How length of stretched
spring depends on force
1 Look at graph B. Describe in words how:
a | air pressure changes with height
b | air temperature changes with height.
Length

Proportional and
linear relationships 0
0 Force
Graph C shows how the length of a spring changes when the
force on it changes. This is a linear relationship, because the
points on the graph fall on a straight line, but the line does not C | The stretched length of the spring can be worked out
using this formula:
go through the (0,0) point on the graph.
stretched length = original length
+ (spring factor (a constant) × force)

184
Graph D shows how water pressure changes with Pressure (kPa)
depth. The graph is a straight line that goes through
0 50 000 100 000
the origin (0,0). This shows that the pressure is directly
0
proportional to depth, and the relationship can be
described by the equation shown in the caption. 1

For two variables in direct proportion: 2

■ if one variable is zero the other is also zero 3

Depth (km)
■ if the value of one variable doubles, the other also 4
doubles. 5
6
2 Explain why the relationship shown in
graph C is not showing direct proportion. 7
8 D | the relationship between pressure
3 The weight of an object is directly
and depth can be described by:
proportional to its mass. Sketch a graph 9 pressure = depth × density of fluid × g
of weight against mass that shows this.
10

Inverse proportion
The resistance of a wire depends on the material it is made from, its length and its cross-sectional
area. If the cross-sectional area of the wire is doubled, its resistance halves. This is an inversely
proportional relationship. Graph E shows an example of an inversely proportional relationship.

4 Look at graphs B and E. How resistance changes

a | Compare the shape of the graph for air pressure to with wire thickness
the graph for resistance.
b | Air pressure is not inversely proportional to height.
Suggest why it is easier to spot a directly proportional
relationship using a graph than to spot an inversely
Resistance

proportional one.

5 Class 11 measured the amount of rain that fell in one

day. Each student used a container of a different size.
Table F shows their results.
Cross-sectional area of Volume of water
container opening (cm2) collected (cm3)
10 90
30 270
80 720
150 1350 Area
300 2700 E

a | Plot a graph of these results on graph paper. Cross-

sectional area of the container should be on the
horizontal axis. I can …
b | Explain what kind of relationship is shown on your graph. ■ identify linear and proportional
relationships from graphs.
185
 INFORMATION
9Ld FROM GRAPHS
WHAT KIND OF INFORMATION CAN WE OBTAIN FROM GRAPHS?
Equations for graphs
Lines on graphs can often be described using an equation.
Straight lines on graphs can be described using equations
of the form:

y = mx + c
Using a graph to work out the values of m and c can tell us
about the relationship shown by the graph.
When a gas is heated the particles move faster. If the gas is
inside a sealed container the particles hit the walls harder
and more often, so the pressure increases. If the pressure
increases enough it can cause an explosion.
A | This gas cylinder exploded because the gas pressure inside
Graph B shows that there is a linear relationship between it increased as it was heated.
the pressure inside a container of gas and its temperature.

How pressure in a container depends on temperature For graph B:

B y
m is the gradient of the line,
Pressure

so it tells you how much the

m = gradient
pressure increases for each
of the slope y is the pressure
1 °C increase in temperature
c

0 °C Temperature
x y = mx + c

Look at graph C on page 184. x is the temperature c is the point at which the
1
line crosses the vertical
a | What kind of relationship is shown in this graph?
axis, so it tells you what
b | The line on the graph can be described in the the pressure is at 0 °C
form y = mx + c. Explain what the values of m
and c in this equation tell us about the spring.

Graphs for motion Distance–time graph for a car journey

Graph C is a distance–time graph for a journey. The gradient 150 The car covers
Distance (km)

125 50 km in
of each part of the line shows how fast the car was going for 0.5 hours.
100
each part of its journey – the steeper the line, the faster the It is travelling
75 at 100 km/h.
speed. A horizontal line shows the car was stationary.
50 The gradient
25 tells you
the speed.
2 Look at graph C. At what speed is the car 0
C 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
travelling for the first hour of its journey?
Time (hours)

186
A journey can also be shown on a speed–time graph. Graph D Speed–time graph for a new car journey
shows a different car journey. Horizontal lines show the car 60
travelling at constant speeds, and sloping lines show when the
50

Speed (km/h)
car is accelerating.
40
Acceleration is a way of saying how quickly a moving object is
30
speeding up or slowing down. The units for acceleration are
20
metres per second per second (m/s2). An acceleration of 5 m/s2
means that the object is going 5 m/s faster every second. The 10
steeper the line on a speed–time graph, the faster the car 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
is accelerating.
Time (minutes)
D
3 Look at graph D.
a | What was the top speed of the car during this
journey?
b | When was the car slowing down fastest?
c | Sketch a speed–time graph that shows a car
accelerating for 1 minute to 90 km/h, travelling
at a constant speed for 5 minutes, then
accelerating for 1 minute to 110 km/h.

The formula relating speed, distance and time can be

used to work out how far a vehicle has travelled: Speed–time graph
25
distance = speed × time
20
Speed (m/s)

Look at graph E. Between 10 and 20 seconds the vehicle

15
was travelling at 15 m/s.
10
distance = 15 m/s × 10 s
= 150 m 5

This is the same value you would get from working out 0
the area of the orange rectangle on the graph. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
For the first 10 seconds of the journey the vehicle is E
accelerating. The distance it covers during this time is
the area of the yellow triangle on the graph.

area of triangle = ½ × base × height

= ½ × 10 s × 15 m/s
= 75 m I can …
■ use the formula for a straight line to help
4 Calculate how far the vehicle in graph E travelled
interpret graphs
between 25 seconds and 30 seconds.
■ use gradients to interpret distance–time and
5 The distance travelled between 20 and 25 seconds speed–time graphs
can be calculated by splitting the area under the ■ calculate distances from the area under a
graph into a rectangle and a triangle. How far did speed–time graph.
the vehicle travel in this time?
187
 9Le MODELS
HOW ARE MODELS USED IN SCIENCE?

A model is a way of representing something. In

science, models can be used to help us to describe
things more easily or understand how they work.
Some models can be used to test new technology,
or to help scientists to discover how things work.

The wind tunnel in photo A is a physical model.

Other physical models include balls and sticks
used to represent molecules of elements and
compounds, or a model of the Earth that you
might use to help you to learn about the seasons.

1 Describe one other physical model

that you have used in lessons.

Abstract models are models that exist in

computers or in your imagination. Mathematical
formulae, graphs and chemical equations are
A | Cold weather can cause ice to form on aeroplanes and inside their
also abstract models. Computer models must be
engines. This wind tunnel is modelling the conditions that the engine might
checked by using them to make predictions and encounter during flight, to check that the engine continues to work properly.
then testing the predictions.

The particle theory of matter is an abstract model. It is

also an analogy, because it is comparing the particles
that make up everything to small balls that are stuck to
each other or moving around and bouncing off things.

2 Describe one other analogy you have

used in lessons. (Hint: analogies are
often used to describe how electrical
circuits work.)

3 Describe four different kinds of model

mentioned in this Unit and say whether
each is a physical or abstract model.

It is important to remember that a model is usually

B | This computer model of a hurricane helps meteorologists to
understand how they work, and to make more accurate predictions.
simpler than the thing it is describing. Sometimes
scientists use different models for the same thing,
depending on what they are trying to understand.
Diagram C shows some different models that scientists
use to represent atoms.

188
 electrons

nucleus
solid ball
(particle theory)
nucleus surrounded by
electrons (used when
learning about static
electricity)
d d
u u u u
protons and neutrons
made of even smaller
nucleus contains protons and neutrons, particles (used when
with electrons at different distances from explaining radioactivity)
the nucleus (used when learning how
chemical bonds form)

C | how the abstract model of an atom changes as you learn more science

Wave models
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. We can see
waves on the surface of water, and we can see how they are
reflected and refracted.
We cannot see sound being reflected, but we can hear echoes.
We can carry out experiments to show that sound is also
refracted. We use a wave model to help us to think about how
sound travels. Light can also be reflected and refracted. We can
explain many of the properties of light by thinking of it travelling
as a wave, but the wave model does not explain all of the D | When water is disturbed, waves transfer energy outwards.
properties of light.

4 a | Describe what happens to the particles

in air as a sound wave passes through.
The largest wave ever recorded was a local tsunami
(Hint: diagram A on page 168 may
wave that caused damage over 500 metres above
help.)
sea level in Lituya Bay in Alaska, in 1958.
b | Describe two differences between a
E sound wave and the water waves shown
in photo D.

5 Describe two differences between the wave

model of sound and the wave model of light.

6 Why is it not correct to say that light is a

wave?

I can …
The tsunami stripped all the
trees and soil off this land. ■ explain the difference between physical and
abstract models
■ describe some ways in which models are used
in science.
189
 PHYSICS
9Le RESEARCH
WHAT IS BEING RESEARCHED IN PHYSICS?
Research in physics can be classified into different types:
■ applied research is often aimed at improving a particular technology,
such as designing materials that are more efficient at converting
sunlight into electricity
■ basic research is investigating things that may not have an application,
but that scientists are curious about.
All scientific research needs money to pay for equipment and to pay the
scientists. Applied research is often funded by technology companies. Basic
research is usually funded by the government.

A | When lasers were invented, the scientists

did not have any applications in mind. But this
‘basic research’ turned out to have many different
applications, from welding and surgery to
communications.

1 Once the first laser had been

invented, many scientists
investigated ways of making
B | This map of the sky was made using a satellite. The pattern of radiation coming more powerful lasers.
from the sky can help scientists to work out what happened just after the beginning
of the Universe. a | Explain what kind of
research this is.

NASA scientists studying hurricanes fly b | How is this kind of

2 research different to the
aeroplanes through them to gather information,
including how much rain there is inside the clouds. kind of research illustrated
by photo B?
a | Why do scientists need to collect data in real
hurricanes when they have computer models?
b | The scientists hypothesise that the more rain
there is, the more energy is being transferred
to the hurricane. Why does the formation of
rain drops release energy?
c | The lift provided by an aeroplane’s wing is Do you think it is right that taxpayers’
proportional to the density of the air through which money is spent on research that may
it is flying. Explain what proportional means. never be useful?

190
GLOSSARY
Pronunciation note: A capital ‘O’ is said as in ‘so’

absorbed ’Soaked up’ or ‘taken in’. angle of reflection The angle between the normal and the ray of light leaving a
mirror.
abstract model A model that only exists in your thoughts or as a computer
program, formula or diagrams (such as ray diagrams). anther A male reproductive organ in plants that produces pollen grains.

abundance The number of organisms in an area. Also called ‘population size’. antibiotic Medicine that helps people recover from bacterial infection by
killing the pathogen.
accelerate To change speed.
antiviral A medicine given to people with viral diseases to help them get
accuracy A measure of how close a value is to its real value. better.
(ack-U-rass-ee)
asexual Producing new organisms from one parent only.
acid A substance that reacts with alkalis, turns litmus red and has a reproduction
pH of less than 7 is acidic.
atmosphere The mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth.
acid rain Rainwater that is more acidic than usual due to air pollution,
usually caused by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides dissolved atmospheric Pressure of the atmosphere.
in it. pressure

active voice When a verb is in the active voice, the subject is doing atomic energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored inside
something. materials. Another name for ‘nuclear energy’.

adaptation The features that something has to enable it to do a certain job auditory range The range of frequencies that an animal can hear.
(add-app-tay-shun) or survive in a particular place. (ord-it-orry)

addictive If something makes you feel that you need to have more of it, it backbone A series of small bones (vertebrae) that form a chain to support
is said to be addictive. the main part of some animals’ bodies.

aerobic respiration A type of respiration in which oxygen is used to release energy balanced equation A symbol equation in which the numbers of atoms or ions of
(air-O-bick) from substances, such as glucose. (eck-way-shun) different types are the same on both sides of the arrow.

aggregate Gravel, small stones or pieces of crushed rocks used in building. balanced (force) When two forces on an object are the same strength but in
opposite directions.
aim What you are trying to find out or do.
base Any substance, soluble or insoluble, that neutralises an acid
air resistance A force that tries to slow things down that are moving through forming a salt and water only.
air. It is caused by friction and by the object pushing the air out
of the way. bias (bye-as) A shift away from a correct meaning or value.

algae Types of protoctists that can photosynthesise. biodegradable Capable of being decomposed (broken down) by organisms in
the soil.
alkali A substance that reacts with acids, turns litmus blue and has a
pH of more than 7 is alkaline. biodiversity The range of different species of organisms in an area.
(bI-O-die-ver-sit-ee)
amino acid Substance used to make proteins.
biomechanics The study of how muscles and bones work together.
ammeter A piece of equipment that measures how much electricity is
flowing around a circuit. bladder The organ that stores urine.

amnion (am-nee-on) A bag containing amniotic fluid. blood Organ consisting of a liquid plasma and cells, including red
blood cells (that carry oxygen) and white blood cells (that fight
amniotic fluid The liquid surrounding the growing embryo and protecting it. infections).
(am-nee-ot-ick)
(floo-id) bond A force that holds some atoms tightly together.

ampere (A) The unit for measuring current. brain The organ of the nervous system that controls the body and
coordinates responses to changes inside and outside the body.
amplitude The size of vibrations or the distance a particle vibrates when a
wave passes. breathing The movement of muscles that make the lungs expand and
contract.
analogy A model that compares something complicated to something
(an-al-O-jee) that is easier to understand. brittle Hard but easily broken or cracked.

angle of incidence The angle between an incoming light ray and the normal. Brownian motion An erratic movement of small specks of matter caused by being
(in-sid-dense) (mO-shun) hit by the moving particles that make up liquids or gases.

191
 carbon capture Technology that can be used to remove carbon dioxide from component Something in a circuit, such as a bulb, switch or motor.
technology the waste gases produced by power stations and industrial (com-po-nent)
processes preventing it from entering the atmosphere.
composite material A material made up of two or more other materials. The
carbon cycle A model used to show how carbon compounds are recycled in (kuh m-poz-it) separate materials do not react together.
an ecosystem.
compound A substance that can be split up into simpler substances, since it
carnivore Organism that only eats other animals. contains the atoms of two or more elements joined together.

causal link When a change in one variable causes a change in another (this compressed Squeezed into a smaller volume.
is not the same as correlation).
conclusion What the results of an investigation show.
cell division (sell) The splitting of a parent cell to form two identical daughter cells.
The daughter cells both contain the same genetic information concrete Artificial stone made from a mixture of sand, cement, water
as the parent cell. and larger pieces of material such as gravel or small stones
(aggregate).
cell wall The tough wall around some cells. It helps to support and
protect the cell. condense When a gas turns into a liquid.

cell surface The membrane that controls what goes into and out of a cell. conduction The way energy is transferred through solids by heating.
membrane (con-duck-shun)

cellulose A strong plant material used to make cell walls. conductor A substance that allows something to pass through it (e.g. heat,
(sell-you-IOhs) electricity).

cement A substance that binds materials together. In building it refers to
a mixture of clay and lime (calcium oxide).
ceramic A range of hard, durable, non-metallic materials, which are
(ser-am-ick) generally unaffected by heat. E.g. china and glass.
cervix (sir-vicks) The ring of muscle at the bottom of the uterus in females.
consumer Organism that eats other organisms.
contact force A force where there needs to be contact between objects
before the force can have an effect (e.g. friction).
continuous Continuous data can take any value between two limits.
Examples include length, mass, time.

characteristic A feature of an organism. continuous variation When the value of a variable, such as height, can take any value
(kar-ack-ter-iss-tick) and shows continuous variation.

contract To get smaller.

chemical energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored in chemicals.
Food, fuel and batteries all store chemical energy.
control group In testing medicines, the group of people that receives the
placebo or old treatment, against which the results of the new
chemical property How a substance reacts with other substances.
treatment will be compared.
(kem-ik-al)
control variable A variable other than the independent variable, which could
chemical reaction A change in which one or more new substances are formed.
affect the dependent variable and so needs to be controlled.
(kem-ik-al)
(re-ack-shun) convection The way energy is transferred by heating in fluids.
(con-veck-shun)
chemical weathering When rocks are broken up or worn away by chemical reactions,
(kem-ik-al) usually with rainwater. convection current A flow of liquid or gas caused by part of it being heated or
(con-veck-shun) cooled more than the rest.
chlorophyll The green substance found inside chloroplasts. It traps energy
(klor-O-fill) transferred by light. converge Come together.
chloroplast A green disc containing chlorophyll, found in plant cells. Where correlation When two things happen together, such as one variable
(klor-O-plast) the plant makes food, using photosynthesis. (cor-al-lay-shun) increasing (or decreasing) as another increases, or two variables
changing with the time in a similar way.
chromatography A method that separates out dissolved substances in a mixture,
(krome-a-tog-ra-fee) using a liquid or gas solvent. corrosive Substances that attack metals, stonework and skin are said to
(cor-row-sive) be corrosive.
chromosome (krow- A structure found in the nuclei of cells. Each chromosome
mO-sOwm) contains one enormously long DNA molecule. counter argument A reason against an idea developed in another argument.
circulatory system An organ system that carries oxygen and food around the body. Crick, Francis Scientist who, along with James Watson, worked out the
(sir-cu-late-or-ee) structure of DNA.
classification Sorting things into groups. criteria (cry-teer-ee-a) A set of standards by which to judge things.

clay Very fine particles of rock. cross-breeding When sexual reproduction occurs between different varieties
or breeds.
climate change Changes that will happen to the weather as a result of global
warming. crude oil A fossil fuel formed from the decay of sea creatures over millions
of years under the conditions of high heat and pressure and in
combustion Burning, usually in air. The reaction gives out energy, which is the absence of air.
transferred to the surroundings by heating or light.
crust The solid rocks at the surface of the Earth.
communicable A disease that can be passed from an infected person to an
disease uninfected person. Also called ‘infectious disease’. crystals Pieces of a mineral with sharp edges. A solid with a regular
(kris-tal) shape and flat surfaces which reflect light.
competition There is competition between organisms that need the same
(com-pet-ish-un) things as each other. We say that they ‘compete’ for those things. current The flow of electricity around a circuit.

192
cuticle (cyou-tick-ul) The waxy covering on the outside of many leaves. distribution How the organisms are spread throughout an area, such as
evenly, randomly or clumped.
cytoplasm The watery jelly inside a cell where the cell’s activities take place.
(site-O-plaz-m) DNA A substance that contains genetic information. Short for
deoxyribonucleic acid.
data Observations or measurements collected in investigations.
dose The amount of medicine in the pill or treatment given to a
deciduous Plants that lose their leaves in winter. patient.
(des-sid-yoo-us)
double helix Two helices joined so that they are in parallel.
decimal place The position of a digit to the right of the decimal point in a
number. The number of decimal places in a number is the drag Another name for air resistance or water resistance.
number of digits after the decimal point.
drug A substance that affects the way your body works.
decomposer An organism that feeds on dead organisms or animal wastes,
causing them to decay. dynamic equilibrium When there are constant changes going on but these changes
(dy-nam-ick) are equal and opposite and so do not effect the overall levels of
deform Change shape. (ek-will-ib-bree-um) something.

density A measure of a substance’s mass per unit volume (e.g. the mass ecosystem All the physical environmental factors and all the organisms that
of 1 cubic centimetre (cm3) of a substance measured in grams are found in a habitat.
per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)).
effectors Organs that bring about responses to changes inside the body
dependent variable The variable that is measured in an investigation. The values of and in the surroundings, such as muscles that cause movement
(dee-pend-ent) the dependent variable depend on those of the independent and glands that produce hormones.
(var-ee-able) variable.
efficiency A way of saying how much energy something wastes.
deposited When moving water, ice or wind drops rock fragments or grains. (e-fish-en-see)

depressant A drug that decreases the speed at which nerves carry impulses. effort The force put on something, especially a lever or other simple
machine.
diaphragm (biology) An organ containing a lot of muscle tissue, which contracts and
(dye-a-fram) moves downwards to increase the volume of the chest when egested (ee-jes-ted) When faeces are pushed out of the anus.
inhaling. This then causes the lungs to expand.
egg cell The female sex cell (gamete).
diet The food that you eat.
elastic Any substance that will return to its original shape and size after
diffusion When particles spread and mix with each other without it has been stretched or squashed.
(diff-you-zshun) anything moving them. Diffusion into and out of cells occurs for
elastic potential A name used to describe energy when it is stored in stretched or
particles that are small enough to pass through the cell surface
energy squashed things that can change back to their original shapes.
membrane.
(po-ten-shall) Another name for ‘strain energy’.
digested When food has been broken down it has been ‘digested’.
electric current A flow of electrons around a circuit.
direct proportion A relationship between two variables where one variable electric field The space around an object with a charge of static electricity
doubles when the other doubles. The graph is a straight line where it can affect other objects.
through (0,0). We say that one variable is directly proportional
to the other. electricity A way of transferring energy through wires.
discontinuous Data values that can only have one of a set number of options electric motor A machine consisting of a coil of wire in a magnetic field. The coil
are discontinuous. Examples include shoe sizes and blood spins when a current flows through it.
groups.
electrolysis Breaking down a substance using electricity.
discontinuous When the value of a variable is discontinuous, it shows (ell-ek-troll-e-sis)
variation ‘discontinuous variation’.
electromagnet A coil of wire with electricity flowing in it. An electromagnet has
disease Something that makes you ill, such as infection by a pathogen a magnetic field like a bar magnet.
or not having a healthy diet.
electron Tiny particle with a negative charge that is found within atoms.
displacement The distance in a straight line between an object and its starting
point. element A simple substance, made up of only one type of atom.
displacement A reaction where a more reactive element takes the place of a endangered When a type of organism is in danger of ceasing to exist.
reaction less reactive element in a compound. (en-dayn-jerd)

dissipate Spread out. endothermic A change or reaction that absorbs energy from the
(end-O-ther-mik) surroundings making the temperature of the surroundings fall.
dissolve When a substance breaks up into such tiny pieces in a liquid that
it can no longer be seen and forms a solution. energy resource A store of energy that we can use for heating, transport, and to
keep our bodies working.
distance multiplier A lever or other machine where the load moves further than
the effort. environment The conditions in a habitat caused by physical environmental
factors and living organisms.
distance-time graph A graph that shows how far and how fast something travels
during a journey. Steeper lines on the graph show faster speeds. environmental Anything that can change the conditions in a habitat or the
factor organisms that live there.
distillation The process of separating a liquid from a mixture by
(dis-till-ay-shun) evaporating the liquid and then condensing it (so that it can be environmental Differences between organisms caused by environmental
collected). variation factors.

193
 epidermis cell Cell that forms tissue covering the surface of an organ. force field The volume around something where a non-contact force can
affect things. Examples are electric, magnetic and gravitational
equilibrium When things are balanced and not changing they are ‘in fields.
(ek-will-ib-bree-um) equilibrium’.
force multiplier A lever or other machine where the load is bigger than the
estimate An approximate answer, often calculated from a sample or effort.
using rounded values.
formula (chemical) A combination of symbols and numbers that shows how
evidence Data used to support an idea or show that it is wrong. many atoms of different kinds are in a particular molecule. In
compounds that do not form molecules, it shows the ratio of
evolution A change in one or more characteristics of a population over a elements in the compound. Plural is formulae.
long period of time.
fossil fuel A fuel formed from the dead remains of organisms over millions
exhalation Breathing out. of years (e.g. coal, oil or natural gas).

exothermic A change or reaction that transfers energy into the surroundings Franklin, Rosalind Scientist whose experiments produced evidence that helped
(ex-O-therm-ic) making the temperature of the surroundings rise. Watson and Crick work out the structure of DNA.

expand To get bigger. friction A force between two objects that are touching. It usually acts to
slow things down or prevent movement.
explosive An explosive substance reacts very fast, releasing a lot of energy
(ex-plO-siv) and gas. fruit (froot) Something used to carry the seeds of flowering plants. Can be
fleshy or dry.
extension The amount by which a spring or other stretchy material has
(ex-ten-shun) stretched. It is the stretched length minus the original length. fulcrum A point about which something turns. Another name for a pivot.

extinct An organism that no longer exists is extinct. fungicide Pesticide that kills fungi.
(fung-giss-ide)
eyepiece lens The part of the microscope you look down.
fuse (fewz) When two things join together to become one.
faeces (fee-sees) Waste food material produced by the intestines.
galaxy Millions of stars grouped together.
fair test An experiment in which all the control variables are controlled
and only changes in the independent variable cause changes in gamete (gam-meet) A cell used for sexual reproduction.
the dependent variable.
gas exchange When one gas is swapped for another.
fat A substance that is often used to store energy.
gene (jeen) Section of the long strand of DNA found in a chromosome,
fermentation Anaerobic respiration occurring in microorganisms. which contains instructions for a characteristic.
(fer-ment-ay-shun)
gene bank Any facility that stores genetic material from different organisms
fertile Able to produce offspring. (e.g. seeds, gametes, tissue samples).

fertilisation Fusing of a male gamete with a female gamete. genetic information The inherited instructions that control your characteristics.
(fert-ill-I-zay-shun) (jen-et-tick)

fertilised egg cell What is produced when two gametes fuse. Another term for genetic variation Another term for ‘inherited variation’.
(fert-ill-I-zed) ‘zygote’.
genus (jeen-ous) A group of similar organisms. The genus name is the first word
fibre (fY-ber) A long thin continuous strand or thread. in the scientific name for a species (the second word is the
‘species name’). Different closely-related species belong to the
Filtration/filtering Passing a mixture through a filter to separate particles of same genus.
different sizes.
germination When a seed starts to grow.
finite Something that is a limited resource and will eventually run (jer-min-ay-shun)
out.
gland Tissue that makes and releases substances. Glands in the
flagellum A tail-like structure that rotates, allowing a unicellular organism hormonal system produce hormones that are released into the
to move. Plural is flagella. blood.

flammable A flammable substance catches fire easily. global warming Increased warming of the Earth’s surface as a result of increased
amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the
flower Part of the plant that contains sexual reproductive organs. air.

fluid A gas or a liquid. glucose An important sugar, which is used as a reactant in respiration. It
is also a product of photosynthesis.
focusing wheels Wheel on a microscope that moves parts of the microscope to
get the image into focus. gradient A way of describing the steepness of a line on a graph in
numbers. It is calculated by taking the vertical distance between
foetus (fee-tus) An embryo is known as a foetus once it has developed a full set two points and dividing by the horizontal distance between the
of organs. same two points.

food chain A way of showing what eats what in a habitat. gravitational field The space around any object with mass where its gravity
attracts other masses.
food web Many food chains linked together, showing the flow of energy
through organisms in a habitat. gravitational field The force with which a gravitational field pulls on each
strength kilogram of mass. The gravitational field strength (g) on Earth is
force A push, pull or twist. approximately 10 newtons per kilogram (N/kg).

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gravitational A name used to describe energy when it is stored in objects in independent The variable that you chose the values of in an investigation.
potential energy high places that can fall down. variable
(grav-it-ay-shon-al) (in-dee-pend-ent)
(po-ten-shall) (var-ee-able)

gravity The force of attraction between any two objects. The Earth is index A small raised number after a unit or another number to show
very big and so has strong gravity that pulls everything down you how many times to multiply it by itself. For example 103
towards it. means multiply 10 together 3 times (10 x 10 x 10).

greenhouse effect The warming effect on the Earth’s surface caused by indicator A substance that changes colour in solutions of different acidity
greenhouse gases absorbing energy emitted from the warm and alkalinity.
surface of the Earth and re-emitting it back to the surface.
infectious disease Another term for ‘communicable disease’.
greenhouse gas A gas, such as carbon dioxide, water vapour or methane, in the
Earth’s atmosphere, which absorbs energy emitted from the infrared radiation A way of transferring energy by heating that does not need
Earth’s surface and then emits it back to the surface. (ray-dee-ay-shun) a medium (material). Infrared radiation can travel through
transparent things and a vacuum (empty space).
guard cell One of a pair of cells that help to open and close a stoma.
inhalation Breathing in.
gullet Another term for ‘oesophagus’.
inherit A feature that an organism gets from a parent is inherited.
habitat The place where an organism lives (e.g. woodland).
inherited variation Differences between organisms passed on to offspring by their
halogen An element in group 7 of the periodic table: fluorine, chlorine. parents in reproduction.

heating A way of transferring energy from hot substances to cooler inner core The middle of the Earth.
ones.
insecticide Pesticide that kills insects.
heat resistant A substance that is not easily damaged by heat. (in-sect-iss-ide)

herbicide Pesticide that kills plants. Also called a ‘weedkiller’. insoluble Describes a substance that cannot be dissolved in a certain
(herb-iss-ide) (in-sol-you-bul) liquid.

herbivore Organism that only eats plants. insulator A material that does not allow something to pass through it (e.g.
heat, electricity).
heredity The passing on of genetic information from parents to offspring.
interdependent Organisms that depend on one another are said to be
hertz (Hz) (hurts) The unit for measuring frequency. interdependent.

hibernate When animals hide away during the winter and become very internal energy The energy stored in the movement of particles. Sometimes
(hy-ber-nate) inactive. called ‘thermal energy’.

hormone A chemical messenger that is released from a gland into the interquartile range The difference between the lower quartile and the upper
blood and carried around the body. quartile in a data set: interquartile range = upper quartile –
lower quartile.
hydrocarbon A compound containing hydrogen and carbon only.
(hi-drO-car-bon) inverse proportion A relationship between two variables where one variable
doubles when the other halves. We say that one variable is
hydroelectricity Electricity generated by moving water (usually falling from a inversely proportional to the other.
(hy-drO-el-eck-tri-city) reservoir) turning turbines and generators.
ion (i-on) An atom that has a tiny electrical charge.
hygiene Keeping things clean, and killing microorganisms to reduce risk
(hi-jean) of infection. ionic bond (i-on-ick) A strong force between oppositely-charged ions.

hypothesis An idea about how something works that can be tested using ionic compound A substance containing ions from two or more elements.
(hy-poth-uh-sis) experiments. Plural is hypotheses. (i-on-ick)

igneous rock A rock made from interlocking crystals that are not in layers. joint Place where two or more bones meet.
(igg-nee-us) Formed when magma or lava cooled down and solidified.
journal (scientific) A scientific magazine in which scientists publish their findings
immunisation Protecting a person from a particular disease by getting their by writing articles called scientific papers.
(imm-you-ny-say- body to recognise and attack the pathogen that causes the
shun) disease. kilometres per hour Unit for speed when the distance is measured in kilometres and
(km/h) the time is measured in hours.
implantation When an embryo sinks into the lining of the uterus.
(im-plant-ay-shun) kinetic energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored in moving
(kin-et-ick) things.
implosion An object is destroyed by collapsing in on itself.
(im-plo-shun) lactic acid Substance produced by anaerobic respiration in humans and
some bacteria.
impulse An electrical signal that travels in the nervous system along
nerve cells (neurons). landfill site Large area in which rubbish is left.

impurity An unwanted substance that is found mixed into a useful large intestine An organ in which water is removed from undigested food.
substance. (in-test-in)

incomplete When a substance reacts only partially with oxygen, such as latent heat The energy needed to break the bonds between particles in
combustion when carbon burns in air producing carbon dioxide, carbon melting or evaporating, or the energy released when these
monoxide and soot (unburnt carbon). bonds form in condensing or freezing.

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 lattice structure An arrangement of many atoms or other particles, which are menstrual cycle A series of events lasting about a month, happening in the
(latt-iss) bonded together in a fixed regular (grid-like) pattern. (men-strew-al) female reproductive system. The cycle causes ovulation and the
lining of the uterus is replaced.
lava (lar-va) Molten rock that runs out of volcanoes.
metal Any element that is shiny when polished, conducts heat and
law of conservation The idea that energy can never be created or destroyed. Only electricity well, is malleable and flexible and often has a high
of energy transferred from one store to another. melting point.

lever A simple machine that consists of a long bar and a pivot. It can metallic bonding The type of bonding found in metals. We can think if it as
increase the size of a force or increase the distance the force positively charged ions in a sea of negatively charged electrons.
moves.
metamorphic rock A rock formed from interlocking crystals that are often lined
ligament A band of tissue that connects bones together. up in layers. It is formed when existing rocks are heated or
compressed.
light A way of transferring energy waves. Light waves can travel
through transparent materials and through empty space. method A description of how an experiment is carried out, written in
simple, well-organised steps.
light ray A narrow beam of light, or an arrow on a diagram representing
the path of light and the direction in which it is travelling. microorganism An organism too small to be seen with the naked eye.
light year The distance that light travels in one year. microscope Piece of apparatus used to magnify very small specimens.
limiting factor A variable that prevents the rate (speed) of a process from microvillus A fold on the surface of a villus cell. These folds increase the
becoming any faster. surface area so that digested food is absorbed more quickly.
Plural is microvilli.
limit of The extension of a spring is proportional to the force on it, up
proportionality to a certain point called the limit of proportionality. If you apply migration When animals move to different areas depending on the
(prO-por-shun-al-it-ee) more force the extension is no longer proportional to the force. (my-gray-shun) season.
linear relationship A relationship between variables that produces a straight line mineral/mineral salt A compound containing an important element (e.g. calcium)
when plotted on a scatter graph. The line does not have to go that is needed in small quantities for health. Plants get their
through the (0,0) point. mineral salts from the soil, animals get them from food.
lipid Fats (and oils) are part of a large group of similar substances mixture Two or more substances jumbled together but not joined to
called lipids. each other. The substances in mixtures can often be separated
from each other.
litmus An indicator that is red in acids and blue in alkalis.
model A way of showing or representing something that helps you to
load The weight or force on something. For a machine, the load is the
think about it or to find out about it.
weight that is being moved.
moment The turning effect of a force. It is calculated by multiplying the
locomotor system An organ system that contains all your muscles and bones and
force by the perpendicular distance of the force from the pivot.
(low-cO-mow-ter) allows you to move.
monomer A small molecule that can join with other molecules like itself to
longitudinal wave A wave where the particles vibrate in the same direction as the
form a polymer.
(long-it-tyewd-in-al) wave is travelling.

lubricant A substance (usually a liquid) used to reduce friction. motor effect The force produced when a wire carrying a current is placed in a
(loo-brick-ant) magnetic field.

lung An organ used to take oxygen out of the air and into the blood. nanoparticle A particle of substance with a diameter of 1 - 100 nanometres.
Lungs also put waste carbon dioxide into the air.
native Naturally found in a certain area.
machine A device, such as a lever or ramp, which makes it easier to move
something by multiplying a force or a distance. native state When a metal is found in the Earth as an element.

magma Molten rock beneath the surface of the Earth. natural polymer A substance found in nature that is made up of very long
molecules containing repeating groups of atoms.
magnetic field The space around a magnet where it can affect magnetic
materials or other magnets. natural satellite A satellite that has not been made by humans. The Moon is a
natural satellite of the Earth.
magnification How much bigger something appears compared with its actual
(mag-nif-ick-ay-shun) size. natural selection A process in which an organism is more likely to survive and
reproduce than other members of the species because it
mammal Animal that has hair and produces milk to feed its offspring. possesses a certain inherited variation.

mantle (man-tel) The part of the Earth below the crust. nectar Sugary liquid produced by plant flowers to attract insects.

mass The amount of matter that something is made from. Mass is negative charge The type of electric charge on electrons.
measured in grams (g) and kilograms (kg). Your mass does not
change if you go into space or to another planet. nerve An organ that is made of nerve cells (neurons) that carry
impulses between the spinal cord and all other parts of the
mean speed The total distance something travels divided by the total time body (not the brain).
taken is the mean (or average) speed for a journey.
nervous system An organ system that contains the brain, spinal cord and nerves,
median The middle value in a set of numbers that has been written in and carries impulses around the body. This system helps us to
order. sense and respond quickly to changes inside and outside the
body.
medicine A drug that helps the body to ease the symptoms of a disease or
(med-iss-in) cure the disease. neutral (new-tral) A substance that is neither an acid nor an alkali. It has a pH of 7.

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neutralisation A reaction in which an acid reacts with an alkali or a base to oviduct A tube that carries egg cells from the ovaries to the uterus in
reaction produce a salt and water. females. Fertilisation happens here.

newton (N) The unit for force. ovulation Release of an egg cell from an ovary.

newton metre (N m) The unit for the moment of a force. ovule Container for an egg cell found inside plant ovaries.

nicotine An addictive drug found in tobacco smoke. oxidation Reaction in which a substance gains oxygen.
(ox-i-day-shun)
nitrate (ny-trait) Mineral salt needed by plants to make proteins.
oxidising agent A substance that provides oxygen to oxidise another substance.
nocturnal Organisms that are active at night are nocturnal. (ox-id-eyes-ing)
(nock-ter-nal)
oxygen debt An older term for ‘EPOC’.
non-biodegradable Not decomposed (broken down) by organisms in the soil.
palisade cell Tall cell found in leaves that contains many chloroplasts.
non-communicable A disease that cannot be passed by the person who has it to
disease other people around them, such as diseases caused by poor diet pandemic An infectious disease that spreads to many people in more than
or unhealthy lifestyle, or diseases that are inherited. one country in a short time.
non-contact force A force that can affect something from a distance. Examples are parallel circuit A circuit with branches that split apart and join up again.
static electricity, gravity and magnetism.
parent An organism that has produced offspring.
non-metal Any element that is not shiny, and does not conduct heat and
electricity well. partially permeable A membrane, such as the cell surface membrane, that lets some
membrane particles cross through it but not others.
non-renewable Any energy resource that will run out because we cannot renew
resource our supplies of it (e.g. oil). particle (part-ick-al) A tiny piece of matter that everything is made out of.
normal An imaginary line at right angles to the surface of a mirror or particle model Another term for particle theory.
other object where a ray of light hits it. (part-ick-al)
normal distribution When many individuals have a middle value for a feature, with particle theory A theory used to explain the different properties and
fewer things having greater or lesser values. This sort of data (part-ick-al) observations of solids, liquids and gases.
forms a bell shape on charts and graphs.
passive voice When a verb is in the passive voice, something is being done to
north pole The name for one end of a magnet – the north pole of a magnet the subject.
will point to the Earth’s north magnetic pole if the magnet is
allowed to swing freely. pathogen A microbe that causes disease, such as polio virus, cholera
(path-o-jen) bacterium, malaria protoctist, mould fungus.
nuclear energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored inside
materials. peer review An evaluation of the quality of a scientific paper carried out by
other scientists who work in the same area of science.
nucleus (new-clee-us) The central part of an atom. The nucleus has a positive charge.
persistent A chemical substance that does not get broken down in nature
nutrient A substance needed in the diet to provide raw materials for
very quickly is persistent. It stays around for a long time.
(new-tree-ent) making new substances and for energy release.
pest Any organism that damages a crop.
objective lens The part of the microscope that is closest to the specimen.

offspring The new organisms produced by reproduction. pesticide Chemical substance that kills pests.
(pest-iss-ide)
ohm (Ω) The unit for measuring resistance.
pH scale A numerical scale from 1 to 14 showing how acidic or alkaline a
oil (biology) A liquid fat. substance is. Acids have a pH below 7, neutral substances have a
pH of 7 and alkalis have a pH greater than 7.
orbit The path that one body in space takes around another.
phloem tissue/vessel Tube made of living phloem cells that transports dissolved
ore A rock that contains enough of a certain mineral to make it (flow-em) substances (e.g. sugars) around the plant.
worth mining.
photosynthesis A process that plants use to make their own food. It needs light
organ A large part of a plant or animal that does an important job. (fO-tow-sinth-e-sis) to work.
Organs are made of different tissues working together.
physical change A change in which no new substances are formed (e.g. changes
organic farming Producing foods without the use of lots of artificial chemical (fi-zi-kal) of state).
substances.
physical model A model that you can touch or a model that you could build.
organic molecule A molecule that is built using a chain of carbon atoms. (fi-zi-kal)

organism A living thing. physical property A description of how a material behaves and responds to forces
(fi-zi-kal) and energy. Hardness is a physical property.
organ system A collection of organs working together to do an important job.
physical weathering When rocks are worn away or broken up by physical processes
osmosis The type of diffusion that describes the overall movement of (fi-zi-kal) such as changes in temperature.
(os-mo-sis) solvent molecules in a solution across a partially permeable
membrane. pinhole camera A piece of apparatus that forms an image of an object on a
screen when light rays travel through a tiny hole in the front.
outer core The middle of the Earth.
pivot A point about which something turns. Another name for
ovary (O-very) A female reproductive organ. Produces egg cells. fulcrum.

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 placebo Something that looks like the real medicine but contains no ramp A sloping surface. A ramp is a force multiplier: it needs less force
(pla-see-bo) drug. to pull something up a ramp than it does to lift it directly.

placebo effect Natural changes in the body that help you recover from disease random When there is an equal chance for one event occurring as there
just because you believe you will get better. is for any other events in the same set.

placenta This is attached to the uterus wall. It transfers oxygen and food random error An error that can be different for every reading.
(plas-en-ta) out of the mother’s blood into the foetus and transfers waste
materials from the foetus into the mother’s blood. rate The rate at which something happens is its speed.
planet A large body in space that orbits a star. The Earth is a planet. rate of reaction How quickly a reaction occurs.
plant kingdom A group of organisms that have cells with cell walls made of raw material A substance used to make other substances.
cellulose and that are able to photosynthesise.
reactant (ree-act-ant) A substance that takes part in a chemical reaction. Reactants are
plastic A description of a substance that can be moulded into different written on the left side, before the arrow, in a word equation.
shapes.
reaction profile Graph showing the changes in energy of reactants and
pollen tube A tube that grows from a pollen grain down through the stigma products during a reaction.
and style and into the ovary.
reactive A substance that reacts with many other substances or reacts
pollination The transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma.
(ree-ak-tiv) very easily is reactive.
(poll-in-ay-shun)
reactivity series A list of metals that shows them in order of their reactivity, with
pollinator An animal that pollinates plants
the most reactive at the top.
polymer A substance made up of very long molecules containing
repeating groups of atoms. (Formed by joining monomer receptor cells Cells that detect stimuli, such as cells in the eye that detect
molecules together). (re-sep-tor) changes in light.

polymerisation The reaction that joins monomer molecules together to form a recreational drug A drug used for its mind-altering effect and not as a medicine.
polymer. (reck-ree-ay-shun-al)

population The number of a certain organism found in a certain area. rectum An organ that stores faeces before they are egested.
(pop-U-lay-shun)
recycling Using a material again, often by melting it and using it to
positive charge The type of electric charge on the nucleus of atoms. (ree-sy-cling) make new objects.

potential difference A way of saying how much energy is transferred by electricity. reduced If a substance has lost oxygen then it has been reduced.
(po-ten-shall) Energy will only be transferred if there is enough difference
between the charges in two places to make the charges move reducing agent A substance that removes oxygen from another substance.
from one place to the other as a current. Another term for
‘voltage’. references Acknowledgement of any outside sources of information used
when writing a scientific paper.
power rating The number of joules of energy an appliance uses every second.
reflect To bounce off a surface instead of passing through it or being
precise Measurements that are close to one another. absorbed.

precision A measure of how close measurements are to one another; the refracted A light ray that has changed direction as it passed from one
closer they are the more precision there is. medium to another.

predator (pred-att-er) An animal that catches and eats other animals. relationship A link between two variables, so that when one thing changes
so does the other. Best seen by using a scatter graph. Also called
premature When a baby is born much earlier than expected, it is premature. a ‘correlation’.
pressure The amount of force pushing on a certain area. It is a way of relative (speed) The speed of one object compared to another – both objects
saying how spread out a force is. could be moving.
prey (pray) An animal that is caught and eaten by another animal. relay A switch that is turned on and off without a person touching it.
One type of relay uses a small current to make an electromagnet
prism A block of clear, colourless glass or plastic. Usually triangular. close the contacts in a circuit that carries a much larger current.
probability The likelihood of something happening.
relax When a muscle relaxes it stops exerting a force and becomes
product A new substance made in a chemical reaction. In a word thinner and longer.
(prod-uct) equation, products are written on the right side, after the arrow.
reliable Results that are repeatable and reproducible.
property A description of how a material behaves and what it is like. (ri-lahy-uh-buh l)
Hardness is a property of some solids.
renewable resource An energy resource that will never run out (e.g. solar power).
puberty (pew-bert-ty) A time during which big physical changes happen in the body.
repeatable Results that are similar when repeated by the same
pulley A simple machine consisting of a wheel that can turn on an axis experimenter.
with a rope running around it. Using more than one pulley with
a rope allows a force to be multiplied. reproducible Results that are similar when repeated by different
experimenters.
pure A single substance that does not have anything else in it.
reproductive system All the reproductive organs.
quartile The values of one-quarter (lower quartile) and three-quarters
(upper quartile) through a set of values that have been resistance A way of saying how difficult it is for electricity to flow through
written in order. something.

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resistor A component that makes it difficult for electricity to flow. sexual reproduction Reproduction that needs two individuals to produce a new
Resistors are used to reduce the size of the current in a circuit. (ree-prod-uck-shun) organism of the same type.

resource Something needed by an organism. For example, plants need
(rez-ors) light as a resource and animals need food as a resource.
response A reaction to something (e.g. the release of hormone by a gland
is a response to another hormone in the blood).
side-effect Unintended effects of medicines that may be harmful.
significant figure The first significant figure in a number is the digit with the
highest place value, the second significant figure has the second
highest place value and so on.

resultant (force) The difference between forces in two opposite directions. skull A collection of bones that protects the brain.

reversible change A chemical reaction or physical change that can easily be slide A glass sheet that a specimen is put on.
reversed.
small intestine An organ in which most digestion happens. The soluble
rock cycle All the processes that form sedimentary igneous and (in-test-in) substances produced by digestion are absorbed into the body
metamorphic rocks linked together. here.

solar energy Energy from the Sun.

root hair cell Cell found in plant roots that has a large surface area to get
water out of the ground quickly. Solar System A solar system is a star and the bodies that orbit it. The Solar
System (with capital letters) refers to our Sun and the bodies
runner A stem that grows from certain plants (e.g. strawberry), from that orbit it.
which new plants grow using asexual reproduction.
soluble Describes a substance that can dissolve in a certain liquid.
rust A weak, brown, crumbly, solid, formed when iron corrodes.
(A mixture of oxides and hydroxides of iron including iron solution When a substance has dissolved in a liquid. Solutions are
hydroxide.) (sol-oo-shun) transparent.
sacrificial protection Using a more reactive metal to protect iron from rusting. solvent The liquid in which a substance dissolves to make a solution.

safety symbol Another term for ‘hazard symbol’. sound waves A wave is a way of transferring energy. A sound wave is
vibrations in particles of a solid, liquid or gas, which are detected
saliva A digestive juice. It contains an enzyme that breaks down starch by our ears and ‘heard’ as sounds.
(sall-eye-va) into sugar.
south pole The name for one end of a magnet.
salt An ionic compound produced in a neutralisation reaction.
species (spee-shees) A group of organisms that can reproduce with each other to
sample A small part of something that is being investigated. You use a or produce offspring that will also be able to reproduce.
sample to draw conclusions about what the larger whole is like. (spee-sees)

sand Fine particles of rocks, mainly made of quartz (silicon dioxide).
scatter graph A graph in which data for two variables is plotted at points. This
allows you to see whether there is a relationship between two
variables. Lines (or curves) of best fit are often drawn through
the points.
scientific paper An article written by scientists and published in a science
magazine called a journal. It is like an investigation report but
usually shows the results and conclusions drawn from many
experiments.
scrotum (scrow-tum) The bag of skin containing the testes in males.
seasonal change Change in the physical environment factors of an environment
that happens during the course of a year (e.g. it gets colder in
winter).
sedimentary (rock) Describes a rock formed from grains stuck together. The grains
are often rounded.
seed dispersal The spreading of seeds away from a parent plant.
seedling A newly germinated plant.
selective breeding When humans choose an organism that has a certain
characteristic and breed more of these organisms, often making
that chosen characteristic more and more obvious.
selective (herbicide) A herbicide that only kills certain types of plants.
specific heat The energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
capacity substance by 1 °C.
specimen The object you look at using a microscope.
(spess-im-men)
specular reflection When light is reflected evenly, so that all reflected light goes off
(speck-you-lar) in the same direction. Mirrors produce specular reflection.
speed How fast something is moving. Often measured in metres per
second (m/s), miles per hour (mph) or kilometres per hour
(km/h).
speed-time graph A graph that shows the speed at different times during a
journey. Horizontal lines show constant speeds, and sloping
lines show accelerations.
sperm duct The tube that carries sperm cells from the testes to the urethra.
spinal cord The large bundle of nerves that runs through the vertebrae
(backbone). Nerve cells in the spinal cord carry electrical
impulses to and from the brain to many other parts of the body.
stage Part of a microscope. You put a slide on it.
standard form A very large or very small number written as a number between
1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10. A x 10n where A is between
1 and 10 and n is the power of 10.
starch A type of insoluble carbohydrate found in plants. The glucose
made in photosynthesis is used to make starch.

sense organs Organs that contain receptor cells, such as the eye, ear, nose state of matter There are three different forms that a substance can be in: solid,
and skin. liquid or gas. These are the three states of matter.

series circuit A circuit in which there is only one loop of wire.
sex chromosome Chromosome that determines the sex of an organism. In
(krow-mO-sOwm) humans, males have one X sex chromosome and one Y sex
chromosome, while females have two Xs.
state symbol Letter or letters to show the physical state of a substance (e.g.
(g) for gas).
static electricity A positive or negative charge on an insulating material caused
when rubbing transfers electrons from one material to another.

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 stigma Female part of a flower that receives pollen. tuber The swollen part of an underground stem used as a storage
(tyew-ber) organ and as a method of asexual reproduction in some plants
stimulant A drug that increases the speed at which nerves carry messages (e.g. potato).
(stim-you-lant) (e.g. caffeine).
ultrasound Sound waves with frequencies above 20 000 Hz, the upper limit
stimuli Changes inside and outside the body that the body detects and of human hearing.
(stim-you-lie) responds to.
umbilical cord The tissue that carries food, oxygen and waste between the
stoma A tiny hole in a leaf through which gases can diffuse into and (um-bill-ick-al) placenta and the growing embryo or foetus.
(stO-ma) out of the leaf. Plural is stomata.
unbalanced (forces) When two forces acting in opposite directions on an object are
stomach An organ containing strong acid that mixes food up and digests not the same strength. Unbalanced forces change the motion
(stum-uck) proteins. of objects.

strain energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored in stretched or universal indicator An indicator that has a range of different colours and can be
squashed things that can change back to their original shapes. used to determine the pH of a liquid.
Another name for ‘elastic potential energy’.
Universe All the galaxies and the space between them.
stretch To pull something to make it longer.
unreactive A substance that reacts with few other substances, or reacts
style Female part of a flower down which a pollen tube grows. (un-ree-yak-tive) very slowly or not at all.

superposition When two waves meet and their effects add up or cancel out. upthrust A force that pushes things up in liquids and gases.
(soup-er-poz-ish-un)
urethra The tube that carries sperm cells from the testes and urine from
surface area The total area of all the surfaces of a three-dimensional object. (you-ree-thra) the bladder.

surface area:volume The surface area of a three-dimensional object (such as an uterus (you-ter-ous) The organ in females in which a baby develops.
ratio organism) divided by its volume. Also written as SA:V ratio.
vaccine A medicine used to immunise people before they get ill so that
symbol (chemistry) The letter or letters that represent an element. (vack-seen) they are protected from a particular pathogen.

symbol equation A way of writing out what happens in a chemical reaction using vagina The tube in females leading from the cervix to the outside. The
(eck-way-shun) symbols to represent the substances involved. (vaj-eye-na) penis is placed here during sexual intercourse.

valid Something is valid if it is doing what it is supposed to do. A

symptom Changes in the way the body works when it is affected by a
measurement is valid if it measures what it is supposed to
(simp-tom) disease, which help a doctor to work out what is wrong with
measure. A valid conclusion is drawn only from the data that the
you.
conclusion is supposed to be drawn from.
synthetic polymer A substance made by the chemical industry that is made up of
variation The differences between things.
very long molecules containing repeating groups of atoms.
(vair-ee-ay-shun)
systematic error An error that is the same for all readings, such as when
variety A group of plants that has different characteristics from other
(sis-tem-at-ick) forgetting to zero a balance before using it to measure a series
plants of the same species.
of masses.
villus A small finger-like part of the small intestine. These increase the
target cell/organ Cells or organs that respond to hormones by changing what surface area so that digested food is absorbed more quickly.
they are doing. Plural is villi.
temperature How hot something is, usually measured in degrees Celsius. virus A non-living particle that is formed from an outer protein coat
(vy-rus) surrounding genetic material. It can change how a living cell
tendon A cord of tissue that connects a muscle to a bone. functions when it enters a cell and causes the cell to make
copies of the virus.
testis A male reproductive organ. Produces sperm cells. Plural = testes.
volt (V) The unit for measuring voltage.
thermal Breaking down a compound into simpler substances using heat.
decomposition voltage A way of saying how much energy is transferred by electricity.
thermal energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored in hot objects. voltmeter A piece of equipment that measures how much energy is being
The hotter something is the more thermal energy it has. transferred by a current.
thermite reaction Highly exothermic displacement reaction between aluminium vulcanisation When rubber is heated with sulphur. The sulphur forms cross-
and iron oxide that produces molten iron. links between the rubber molecules, changing the material’s
properties.
tissue A part of an organ that does an important job. Each tissue is
(tish-you) made up of a group of the same type of cells all doing the same water A liquid at room temperature, with the molecular formula H2O.
job.
water resistance A force that slows things down that are moving through water.
top predator The last predator in a food chain. It is caused by friction and by the object pushing the water out
of the way.
transfer When energy moves from one place to another.
Watson, James Scientist, who along with Francis Crick, worked out the structure
transmit To pass through a substance. of DNA.

transported The movement of rock grains and fragments by wind, ice or weedkiller Another name for a ‘herbicide’.
water.
weight The amount of force with which gravity pulls things. It is
transverse wave A wave where the vibrations are at right angles to the direction measured in newtons (N). Your weight would change if you
the wave is travelling. went into space or to another planet.

200
Wilkins, Maurice Scientist whose experiments produced evidence to support our work The energy transferred when a force moves an object. It is
current understanding of the structure of DNA. calculated using the size of the force and the distance moved by
the force. The unit for work is the joule (J).
wilting When a plant droops because it has too little water.

word equation An equation in which the names of the reactant(s) are written xylem tissue/vessel Tube that carries water (and dissolved mineral salts) in plants. It
(eck-way-shun) on the left side, there is an arrow pointing from left to right, and (zy-lem) is found in stems and roots and is made of xylem cells.
the names of the product(s) are written on the right side:
yield The amount of useful product that is obtained from a crop.
reactant(s) → product(s)
A word equation is a type of model. zygote (zY-goat) Another term for ‘fertilised egg cell’.

201
 1 2
H He
hydrogen helium
3 4 metal 5 6 7 8 9 10
semi-metal
Li Be B C N O F Ne
non-metal
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium lanthanum hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
francium radium actinium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium ununtrium flerovium ununpentium livermorium ununseptium ununoctium
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium

202
206
INDEX
absorption of light 169 carbon dioxide 25 crystals 69, 101 energy 132–3, 164–5
absorption of nutrients 40 carbon monoxide 41 cuticle 25 from chemical reactions 90–1, 103
abundance 62 carnivores 45 cytoplasm 38 resources 164
acceleration 130 catalysts 40, 103 storage 147
accidental bias 35 causal link 184 data 161 supply 144
accuracy 37, 63, 99, 161 causation 182–3 deciduous plants 45 transfer in chemical reactions
acid rain 76 cause and effect 182–3 decimal places 156–7 118–19
acids 104 cell division 13, 42 decomposers 30 environment 46
active voice 86–7 cell surface membrane 38 deficiency diseases 40 environmental factors 6
adaptations of organisms 14, 16–17, cell walls 38 deformation 133 environmental variation 6–7, 46
44, 46 cells 38–9 demolition 83 enzymes 40, 49
addictive drugs 41 cellulose 26, 38 density 163, 177 equations 102, 122–3
aerobic respiration 23, 38, 44 cement 75 dependent variables 99 equilibria, chemical 126–7
aggregate 75 ceramics 68–9, 105 deposition of grains 109 equilibrium of forces 141
aims 72 characteristics of an organism 6, depressants 43 estimates 10, 37, 62
air resistance 131 46 determiners 148 evolution 17, 47
algae 38, 44 chemical energy 164 diaphragm 41 exothermic reaction 71, 75, 91, 103,
alkalis 104 chemical equations 122–3 diet 51 119
aluminium 97 chemical reactions 84, 100, 119 diffusion 25, 39, 64, 65, 101, 163 expansion 163
alveoli 41 chemical symbols 99 digestion 40 explosions 84–5
amino acids 44 chemical weathering 109 digestive juices 40 explosives 83, 98
ammeters 153 chlorophyll 22, 44 dinosaurs 5 extinction 5, 14–15, 47
amperes 153, 171 chloroplasts 22, 38 direct proportionality 185 restoring species 20
anaerobic respiration 44 chromatography 101 discontinuous variation 7, 9, 46 eyepiece lens 38
analogies 188 chromosomes 12, 38, 46 diseases 51, 54–5 eyes 172
angle of incidence 169 sex chromosomes 13 displacement 136
animal smuggling 48 cilia 38 displacement reactions 94–5, 103 faeces 40
anthers 43 circulatory system 39 dissolving 100 failure of materials 82
antibiotics 51, 58 classification of organisms 7 distance multipliers 140 fair tests 99
antiviral drugs 58 clear writing 28–9 distance–time graphs 136, 167, 186 farming 21, 32–3, 36
anus 40 climate change 76, 108, 164 distillation 101 fats 26, 40
arguments, scientific 18–19 cohesion in writing 148–9 distribution of organisms 63 fermentation 44
art and chemistry 113 combustion 102 DNA 12–13, 46 fertilisation 8, 42
arteries 41 command words 52–3 double helix structure 46 fertilisers 30, 32
asexual reproduction 43, 46 communicable diseases 54 drag 131 fibres 74
asthma 41 competition for resources 14–15, drugs 43, 58 filtration 101
atmosphere 108 30, 47 addictive 41 finite resources 76
atmospheric pressure 41 components, electrical 171 recreational 43 flagella 38
atoms 102 composite materials 74–5, 105 dynamic equilibrium 127 flammable substances 84
attraction 151 compounds 102 flowers 43
average, types of 10 compression 163 ears 172 fluids 131, 163
conclusions 72, 161 Earth 162 focusing wheels 38
backbone 39 concrete 75 structure of 108–9 food chains 45
balanced diet 40 condensing 101 ecology 62–3 food webs 15
balanced equations 123 conductors of heat and electricity ecosystem 14 force fields 146–7, 178–9
balanced forces 130, 166 106, 165 effectors 56 force multipliers 140
bases 105 conjunctions 148 efficiency 133, 165 forces 130–1, 164, 166–7
bias 34–5, 59 conservation of energy 133, 143 effort 140 formulae 122
biased language 78–9 consumers 45 egestion 40 fossil fuels 132, 164
biodegradability 77 contact forces 166 elastic materials 71 Franklin, Rosalind 46
biodiesel 29 continuous variation 7, 9, 46, 60 elastic potential energy 133, 164 frescos 128
biodiversity 15, 47 contraction of muscles 39, 41 electric currents 152–3, 171 friction 130, 166
bioethanol 29 control group 59 electric fields 151, 169 fruits 43
biofuels 28–9 control systems 56–7 electric motors 159, 171 fusing of gametes 8
biomechanics 39 control variables 99 electricity 132, 164, 171
blood 39 controlling forces 167 measuring 153 galaxy 162
red cells 39, 41 convection currents 177 electrolysis 97, 111 gametes 8, 42
bonds 69, 100 converging light rays 169 electromagnets 158–9, 171 gas exchange 25, 41
brain 56 correlation 10, 182–3 electrons 116, 150, 169, 171 gases 163
breathing 41 corrosive substances 104 elements 102 gene banks 15, 47
brittle materials 68, 105, 106 counter arguments 18 ellipsis 149 genes 13, 14–15
Brownian motion 163 Crick, Francis 46 embryo 42 genetic information 8, 46
criteria for farming 21 emphasis in writing 28 genetic variation 46
capillaries 41 crops 21, 30–1 emphysema 41 genetics 46–7
carbohydrates 26, 40 cross-breeding of crops 31 endangered species 14 genus 5
carbon capture technology 76, 110 crude oil 71 endothermic reactions 71, 75, 91, germination 27, 43
carbon cycle 33 crust of the Earth 108 103, 119 glands 57

203
 global warming 33, 76, 108 linear relationships 184–5 obesity 40 pure substances 100
glucose 22, 44 lipids 26, 40 objective lenses 38 purpose of writing 134–5
graphs 186–7 liquids 163 offspring 8, 46 pyramid of numbers 45
drawing 138–9 litmus indicator 104 ohms 155
gravitational fields 147, 169, 178–9 load 140 oils 26, 40 quartiles 60
strength of 147 locomotor system 39 orbits 162
gravitational potential energy (GPE) long answers 180–1 ores 96, 104 ramps 142, 170
133, 147, 164, 178–9 longitudinal waves 168 organ systems 39, 40–1 random error 161
gravity 162 lungs 41 organic farming 21, 36 random sampling 35
greenhouse effect 76, 108 organic molecules 44 rates of reactions 22, 120–1
greenhouse gases 108 machines 142–3, 170–1 organisms 38 reactants (raw materials) 22, 72, 102
guard cells 25, 41 magma 109 osmosis 65 reaction profile 119
gullet 40 magnetic fields 146, 169 oviduct 42 reactivity 88–9
gut 40 magnification of a lens 38 oxidation 89, 102 reactivity series 88, 104
malleable 106 oxidising agents 90 receptor cells 56
habitats 46 malnutrition 40 recreational drugs 43
haemoglobin 41 mammals 42 pallisade cells 25 rectum 40
health 43 Mars mission 145 pandemics 66 recycling 80–1
heat resistant 68, 105 mass 147 papers, scientific 5, 37, 72, 161 red blood cells 39, 41
heating 132, 164, 165 materials 67 parallel electric circuits 171 reducing agents 96
herbicides 30 failures of 82 parents 8 reduction 96
herbivores 45 problems with 76–7 partially permeable membranes 65 references 72
heredity 46 properties of 105 particle model of matter 100, 163 reflection 168, 169
hibernation 45 mean 10 particle theory 85, 188 refraction 168, 169
hormonal system 57 mean speed 136 passive voice 86–7 relationships 161
hormones 57 median 10, 60 pathogens 51 relative speeds 137, 167
humans in space 160 medicines, testing of 58–9 peer review 37, 72–3, 161 relaxation of muscles 39, 41
hydrocarbons 91 metals 106 percentage change 93 relays 158, 171
hygiene 51 bonding 116 percentage loss or gain 92 reliable data 99
hypothesis 37, 72, 161 conductivity 117 periodic table of elements 106–7 renewable resources 133
extraction 96–7, 104 permanent vacuole 38 repeatable experiments 99
igneous rocks 109 metamorphic rocks 109 persistent pesticides 32, 45 reproducible experiments 99
immunisation 51 method 72 pesticides 30, 32, 45 reproduction 42–3
implosions 83 metres per second 136 pests of crops 30 asexual 43, 46
impulses 56 microorganisms 44 pH scale 104 sexual 8, 42, 46
impurities 76 microscopes 38 phloem vessels 23, 26 repulsion 151
incomplete combustion 76 migration 45 photosynthesis 22, 38, 41, 44 resistance, electrical 154–5, 171
independent variables 99 miles per hour 136 physical changes 84, 100, 118–19, 163 resources 6, 47
index numbers 124–5 mineral salts 24, 41, 44 physical environmental factors 6, competition for 14–15
indicators 104 minerals 40, 109 45, 46 respiration 23
infectious diseases 54 mitochondria 38 physical models 188 aerobic 23, 38, 44
inhalation 41 mixtures 100 physical weathering 109 anaerobic 44
inheritance 46 mode 10 physicists 175 resultant force 130
insecticides 30 models 100, 162–3, 179, 188–9 physics research 190 results 72
insulators 68, 105, 165 moments 141, 170 placebo 59 reversible changes 100
intentional bias 34 monomers 71 planets 162 reversible reactions 126
interdependence 45 Moon 162 plants rock cycle 109
internal energy 133, 164 motor effect 159 adaptations 24–5, 44 root hair cells 24, 41
interquartile range 60–1 moving things 129 nutrition 41 rounding numbers 156–7
intestine, large 40 multicellular organisms 39 products 26–7 runners (of plants) 43
intestine, small 40 muscles 39 reactions 22–3 rusting of iron 89
inverse proportions 185 reproduction 43
ionic bonds 117 nanoparticles 112 plastic materials 71 sacrificial protection 89
ionic compounds 117 native species 14 pollen 45 safety symbols 99
ions 116–17 natural polymers 71 pollen tubes 43 salivary glands 40
natural selection 16–17, 47 pollination 43 samples 10, 37, 62
joints 39 nectar 45 pollinators 45 scatter graphs 161
joules 165 negative charges 150 polymerisation 71 scientific arguments 18–19
journals, scientific 5, 37, 72 nerves 56 polymers 26, 70–1, 105 scientific journals 5, 37, 72
nervous system 56, 57 positive charges 150 scientific method 37
kilojoules 40 neutral pH 104 potential difference 117, 171, 176 scientific papers 5, 37, 72, 161
kilometres per hour 136 neutralisation reactions 103, 105, precision 99, 161 scurvy 40
kilowatt hours 165 122 predators 45 seasonal changes 45
kilowatts 165 newton metres 141, 170 predictions 37 sedimentary rocks 109
kinetic energy 132, 164 newtons 166 premature birth 43 seedlings 43
kingdoms of organisms 38 nicotine 41 pressure 85, 100 seeds 27, 43
nitrates 27, 41, 44 pressure differences 177 dispersal of 43
lactic acid 44 Nobel, Alfred 98 prey species 45 selective breeding of crops 31
landfill sites 80, 109 nocturnal species 45 prisms 169 selective herbicides 30
language, biased 78–9 non-biodegradable materials 77 probability 10–11 sense organs 56
large intestine 40 non-communicable diseases 54 scale 11 separating charges 150
latent heat 176 non-contact forces 146 producers 45 series electric circuits 171
lattice structure 69 non-metals 106 products of a reaction 22, 102 sex chromosomes 13
levers 140, 170 non-renewable resources 132 pronouns 148 sexual reproduction 8, 42, 46
life expectancy 51 normal distribution curve 9, 10, 60 properties of materials 105 short answers 114–15
ligaments 39 north pole of a magnet 169 proportional relationships 184–5 side effects of medicines 58
light 164, 169 nuclear energy 133, 164 proteins 27, 40 significant figures 157
use by plants 25 nucleus (of an atom) 116, 150, 169 protocists 44 skeleton 39
light years 162 nucleus (of a cell) 8, 13, 38 pseudopods 38
limiting factor in a reaction 22 nutrients 40 pulleys 142, 170 Index continued: inside back cover

204
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INDEX continued
skull 39 stimuli 56 top predators 45 vitamins 40
small intestine 40 stomach 40 top speed 131 voltage 117, 153
smoking 41 stomata 25, 41 toxic substances 77 voltmeter 153
smuggling of animals 48 strain energy 133, 164 transmission of light 169 volts 153, 171
solar energy 132 sugars 40, 44 transportation of grains 109 vulcanisation of rubber 70
Solar System 162 Sun 162 transverse waves 168
solids 163 superposition 168 tubers 43 water 40
soluble substances 100 surface area 24, 40, 121 turning forces 140–1 use in plants 24
solutions 100 surface area:volume (SA:V) ratio 64–5, Watson, James 46
solvents 65, 101 121 ultrasound 168 watts 165
sound 133, 164, 168 symbol equations 102, 122 unbalanced forces 130, 166 wave models 189
sound waves 168 symbols 99 universal indicator 104 waves 168–9
south pole of a magnet 169 symptoms 54 Universe 162 weathering of rocks 109
species 5, 7, 46 synonyms 149 unreactive substances 68 weedkillers 30
specific heat capacity 177 synthetic polymers 71 weight 147, 169
specimen 38 systematic error 35 vaccines 58 Wilkins, Maurice 46
speed 136–7, 166, 167, 173 validity 35, 99 wilting of plants 24
speed limits 174 target cells 57 variables 184–5 word equations 22, 85, 102, 122
speed–time graphs 187 target organs 57 variation 46 work 143, 170
spinal cord 56 teeth 50 continuous 7, 9
standard form 124–5 temperature 165 discontinuous 7, 9 xylem vessel 24
starch 26, 40, 44 temperature difference 176 environmental 6–7
state symbols 122 tendons 39 in species 5 yield of crops 30
states of matter 100, 163 thermal decomposition 75, 103 inherited 8–9
static electricity 150–1, 169 thermal energy 133, 164 varieties of crops 31 zygote 8
statistics 10 thermite reaction 94 ventilation 41
stimulants 43 tissues 39 viruses 55
 Measurable progression in Key
Stage 3 for every student in every
EXPLORING
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WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
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Mark Levesley • Penny Johnson • Iain Brand • Sue Kearsey • Sue Robilliard
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Year 9
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9781447959656 9781447959441

Activity Pack
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Crocodile tears
People who fake being forced through holes prey (when of course,
sad are often said to be in their skulls and out they’re not). Crocodiles
‘crying crocodile tears’. through their eyes causing have their eyes, ears and
A scientific study recently them to weep. This nostrils on the tops of
discovered the reason makes the animals look their heads, so that they
for this metaphor. When as though they feel sorry can lie low in the water as
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ISBN 978-1-4479-5962-5 crocodiles eat, air is for killing and eating their they wait to attack.
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