Theories and Techniques of

Counselling
 Class Activity
Psychoanalytic Thought Experiment
psychoanalysis explores the unconscious mind and its impact on behavior, thoughts, and
emotions

"Imagine a person named Alex who is experiencing unexplained anxiety and recurring nightmares. Alex is often unsure why certain
emotions or thoughts arise. Your task is to explore what might be happening in Alex's unconscious mind."

Jot down your interpretations of what could be happening in Alex's unconscious mind. I encourage creative and speculative thinking.
Psychoanalytic Therapy: Introduction
Chapter: 4
Sigmund Key Concepts
Freud View of Human Nature
Psychoanalytic therapy,
founded by Freud (1856– Structure of Personality
1939)

Human Consciousness

Anxiety

Ego-Defense Mechanisms

Development of Personality
 View of Human Nature
Life Instincts : EROS
These instincts serve the purpose of the survival
of the individual and the human race; they are
oriented toward growth, development, and
creativity.

The energy created by life instinct is known as

'Libido' the latin word for 'I desire'.

Death Instincts (THANATOS)

Human tendency to be destructive, risky or
otherwise negative behaviour. Thanatos which is
in opposition and balance with Eros is linked to
negative emotions such as fear, hate and anger.
 Structure of Personality
ID
Id is present at birth and is part of the unconscious. The
id is the site of the pleasure principle, the tendency of
an individual to move toward pleasure and away from
pain. Because it is present at birth, the id does not have
a sense of right or wrong, is impulsive, and is not
rational.
EGO
The ego is the second system to develop, and it
functions primarily in the conscious mind and in the
preconscious mind. It serves as a mediator between
the id and the superego, controlling wishes and
desires. The ego is the site of the reality principle.
Superego
The superego sets the ideal standards and
morals for the individual. The superego operates
on the moral principle which rewards the
individual for following parental and societal
dictates
Human Consciousness
Conscious Mind
The conscious mind has knowledge of what is happening in the
present

Preconscious Mind
The preconscious mind contains information from both the
unconscious and the conscious mind

Unconscious Mind
The unconscious mind contains hidden or forgotten memories
or experiences. The unconscious cannot be studied directly
but is inferred from behaviour. Clinical evidence for postulating
the unconscious includes the following: (1) dreams, which are
symbolic representations of unconscious needs, wishes, and
conflicts; (2) slips of the tongue and forgetting, for example, a
familiar name; (3) posthypnotic suggestions; (4) material
derived from free-association techniques; (5) material derived
from projective techniques
⮚ For Freud, consciousness is a thin slice of the total mind. Like the greater part of the iceberg that lies
below the surface of the water, the larger part of the mind exists below the surface of awareness. The
unconscious stores all experiences, memories, and repressed material.
⮚ Needs and motivations that are inaccessible—that is, out of awareness—are also outside the sphere of
conscious control. Most psychological functioning exists in the out-of-awareness realm.
⮚ The aim of psychoanalytic therapy is to make the unconscious motives conscious, for only then can an
individual exercise choice.
⮚ Understanding the role of the unconscious is central to grasping the essence of the psychoanalytic
model of behaviour.
⮚ Unconscious processes are at the root of all forms of neurotic symptoms and behaviours.
⮚ From this perspective, a “cure” is based on uncovering the meaning of symptoms, the causes of
behaviour, and the repressed materials that interfere with healthy functioning.
 Anxiety
Anxiety is a feeling of dread that results from repressed feelings, memories, desires,
and experiences that emerge to the surface of awareness. It can be considered as a
state of tension that motivates us to do something. It develops out of a conflict among
the id, ego, and superego

Reality anxiety
It is the fear of danger from the external 01
world, and the level of such anxiety is
proportionate to the degree of real threat.

Moral anxiety

Neurotic anxiety 03 It is the fear of one’s own conscience. Moral

anxiety is based on a feeling that one's
Neurotic anxiety is a term used to describe anxious internalized values are about to be
and uncomfortable feelings that arise when a person compromised. There is a fear of self-
does not feel in control of themselves or their punishment (e.g., guilt) for acting contrary to
circumstances, is caused by the unconscious fear one's values. Moral anxiety is a function of
that the Id, the instinctual part of the mind, will take
over. During this state, the individual is experiencing 02 the development of the superego. Whatever
the anxiety, the ego seeks to reduce it.
apprehension due to the perceived threat of loss of
control over the more impulsive, aggressive, and
selfish province of the mind. Hence, anxious feelings
arise due to the imminent punishment..
 Defense Mechanism

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 Defense Mechanism Brief Description Example
Displacement Taking feelings out on others (less threatening places) Being angry at your boss but taking it out on your spouse
instead

Denial Denying that something exists Being the victim of a violent crime, yet denying that the incident
occurred

Repression Unconsciously keeping unpleasant information from your Being abused as a child but not remembering the abuse details
conscious mind

Sublimation Converting unacceptable impulses into more acceptable a woman who recently went through a breakup may channel
outlets her emotions into a home improvement project.

Projection Assigning your own unacceptable feelings or qualities to A wife is attracted to a male co-worker but can't admit her
others feelings, so when her husband talks about a female co-worker,
she becomes jealous and accuses him of being attracted to the
other woman.
Intellectualization Thinking about stressful things in a logical way Losing a close family member and staying busy with making
the necessary arrangements instead of feeling sad

Rationalization Justifying an unacceptable feeling or behaviour with Being denied a loan for your dream house, then saying it's a
logic good thing because the house was too big anyway

Regression Reverting to earlier behaviors Hugging a teddy bear when you're stressed, like you did when
you were a child

Reaction Formation Replacing an unwanted impulse with its opposite A mother who bears an unwanted child, for example, may react
to her feelings of guilt for not wanting the child by becoming
extremely caring and overprotective to convince both the child
and herself that she is a good mother.
 Development of Personality
The psychosexual stages refer to the Freudian
chronological phases of development, beginning in 05
infancy. Freud believed that people develop according
to predictable stages, with those occurring during the
first 5 years of life being the most important
04 Genital Stage
Oral Stage: The onset of puberty causes the libido to
During the oral stage, the become active once again. During the final
infant's primary source of stage of psychosexual development, the
interaction occurs through 03 individual develops a strong sexual interest
the mouth, so the rooting Latency Stage in the opposite sex.
and sucking reflex is During this stage, the superego continues to develop while
especially important. The the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social
mouth is vital for eating, 02 skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside
and the infant derives of the family.
Phallic Stage
pleasure from oral Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido
stimulation through
gratifying activities such as
01 is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences
between males and females.​
tasting and sucking. Anal Stage
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and
bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to control their
bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
 Therapeutic Process
Therapeutic Goals
Clients Experience in Therapy
The ultimate goal of psychoanalytic
. Clients in psychoanalytic therapy make a
treatment is to increase adaptive
commitment with the therapist to stick with
functioning, which involves the reduction of
the procedures of an intensive therapeutic
symptoms and the resolution of conflicts
process. They agree to talk because their
verbal productions are the heart of
psychoanalytic therapy

Therapy

Therapist’s Function and Role

The psychoanalytic therapist pays attention
to both what is spoken and what is
unspoken, listens for gaps and
inconsistencies in the client’s story, infers
the meaning of reported dreams and free
associations, and remains sensitive to clues
concerning the client’s feelings toward the
therapist.
Relationship between Therapist and Client
Through the client–therapist relationship, clients
acquire insights into the workings of their
unconscious processes. Awareness of and insights
into repressed material are the bases of the analytic
growth process.
 Therapeutic Goals

Make the unconscious conscious

Therapeutic methods are used to bring out unconscious Strengthen the ego
material. Then childhood experiences are behaviour is based more on reality and
reconstructed, discussed, interpreted, and analysed. It less on instinctual cravings or irrational
is clear that the process is not limited to solving guilt.
problems and learning new behaviours. Rather, there is
a deeper probing into the past to develop the level of
self-understanding that is assumed to be necessary for
a change in character.

Successful analysis is believed to result in significant modification of

the individual’s personality and character structure. Psychoanalytic
therapy is oriented toward achieving insight, but not just an
intellectual understanding; it is essential that the feelings and
memories associated with this self-understanding be experienced
 Therapist’s Function and Role
In classical psychoanalysis,
analysts typically assume an
anonymous non-judgmental
stance, which is sometimes
called the “blank-screen”
approach. They avoid self-
disclosure and maintain a
sense of neutrality to foster a
transference relationship, in
which their clients will make
projections onto them.
This transference relationship is a cornerstone of psychoanalysis and
“refers to the transfer of feelings originally experienced in an early
relationship to other important people in a person’s present
environment” (Luborsky, O’Reilly-Landry, & Arlow, 2011, p. 18).
If therapists say little about themselves and rarely share their personal
reactions, the assumption is that whatever the client feels toward
them will largely be the product of feelings associated with other
significant figures from the past.
These projections, which have their origins in unfinished and
repressed situations, are considered “grist for the mill,” and their
analysis is the very essence of therapeutic work.

One of the central functions of analysis is to help clients acquire the freedom to love, work, and play. Other functions include
assisting clients in achieving self-awareness, honesty, and more effective personal relationships; in dealing with anxiety in a
realistic way; and in gaining control over impulsive and irrational behaviour.

Establishing a therapeutic alliance is a primary treatment goal, and repairing any damaged alliance is essential if therapy is to
progress. The empathic attunement to the client facilitates the analyst’s appreciation of the client’s intra-psychic world.
Particular attention is given to the client’s resistances. The analyst listens in a respectful, open-minded way and decides when to
make appropriate interpretations; tact and timing are essential for effective interpretations.
One of the central functions of the analyst is to teach clients the meaning of these processes (through interpretation) so that they
are able to achieve insight into their problems, increase their awareness of ways to change, and thus gain more control over their
lives. A primary aim of psychodynamic approaches is to foster the capacity of clients to solve their own problems
 Clients Experience in Therapy
• Infographic Style

Classical Psychoanalysis Psychodynamic

Clients interested in classical psychoanalysis must be Psychodynamic therapy emerged as a way of shortening
willing to commit themselves to an intensive, long-term and simplifying the lengthy process of classical
therapy process. psychoanalysis.

After some face-to-face sessions with the analyst,
clients lie on a couch and engage in free
association; that is, they try to say whatever comes
to mind without self-censorship.
psychodynamic therapists do remain alert to transference
manifestations, explore the meaning of clients’ dreams,
explore both the past and the present, offer
interpretations for defences and resistance, and are
concerned with unconscious material.

This process of free association is known as the Psychodynamic analyst give less frequent interpretations than a
“fundamental rule.” Clients report their feelings, experiences, classical psychoanalyst.
associations, memories, and fantasies to the analyst.

Lying on the couch encourages deep, uncensored reflections

and reduces the stimuli that might interfere with getting in touch
with internal conflicts and production.

The client is free to express any idea or feeling, no matter how

irresponsible, scandalous, politically incorrect, selfish, or
infantile. The analyst remains non-judgmental, listening carefully
and asking questions and making interpretations as the analysis
progresses.
Relationship Between Therapist & Client
There are some differences between how the
therapeutic relationship is conceptualized by
classical analysis and contemporary relational
analysis

Classical Analyst Psychodynamic therapist

• Contemporary psychodynamic
• The classical analyst stands outside therapists focus as much on here-
the relationship, comments on it, and and-now transference as on earlier
offers insight-producing re-enactment. By bringing the past
interpretations. . into the present relationship, a new
understanding of the past can unfold
• Contemporary psychodynamic
therapists view their emotional
communication with clients as a
useful way to gain information and
create connection. Analytic therapy
focuses on feelings, perceptions, and
action that are happening in the
moment in the therapy sessions
• Transference and
countertransference are central to
understanding psychodynamic
therapy.
 Transference
It is the client’s unconscious shifting to the analyst of
feelings, attitudes, and fantasies (both positive and
negative) that are reactions to significant others in the
client’s past
Countertransference
Countertransference consists of a therapist’s unconscious
emotional responses to a client based on the therapist’s
own past, resulting in a distorted perception of the client’s
behaviour

countertransference involves the therapist’s total emotional

As therapy progresses, childhood feelings and conflicts
response to a client and may include withdrawal, anger,
begin to surface from the depths of the unconscious, and
love, annoyance, powerlessness, avoidance, over-
clients regress emotionally.
identification, control, or sadness.

Transference takes place when clients resurrect these

early intense conflicts relating to love, sexuality, hostility, To avoid misunderstanding and over-identification with
anxiety, and resentment; bring them into the present; re- clients, the analytic approach requires therapists to
experience them; and attach them to the therapist. undergo their own analytic psychotherapy.

working-through process consists of repetitive and

elaborate explorations of unconscious material and
defences, most of which originated in early childhood.
Clients learn to accept their defensive structures and
recognize how they may have served a purpose in the past.
This results in a resolution of old patterns and enables
clients to make new choices.
Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures

Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic
therapy differs from traditional
psychoanalysis in these ways:

The therapy has more to

The therapist is less likely limited objectives than
to use the couch. restructuring one’s personality

The focus is more on

There are fewer sessions pressing practical concerns
each week. than on working with fantasy
material

There is more frequent use of supportive There is more latitude for therapist
interventions such as reassurance, There is more emphasis on the self-disclosure without “polluting the
expressions of empathy and support, and here-and-now relationship transference.”
suggestions between therapist and client
 Six Basic Techniques of Psychoanalytic Therapy
Maintaining the Analytic Framework
whole range of procedural and stylistic
factors, such as the analyst’s relative
anonymity, maintaining neutrality and
objectivity, the regularity and consistency of
meetings, starting and ending the sessions
on time, clarity on fees, and basic boundary
issues such as the avoidance of advice
giving or imposition of the therapist’s values
Dream Analysis
Dream analysis is an important procedure for
uncovering unconscious material and giving the
client insight into some areas of unresolved
problems.
Latent content consists of hidden, symbolic, and
unconscious motives, wishes, and fears. Because
they are so painful and threatening, the unconscious
sexual and aggressive impulses that make up latent
content are transformed into the more acceptable
manifest content, which is the dream as it appears
to the dreamer. The process by which the latent
content of a dream is transformed into the less
threatening manifest content is called dream work.
The therapist’s task is to uncover disguised
meanings by studying the symbols in the manifest
content of the dream
Free Association
clients are encouraged to say whatever
comes to mind, regardless of how painful,
silly, trivial, illogical, or irrelevant it may
seem. In essence, clients try to flow with
any feelings or thoughts by reporting them
immediately without censorship.
This technique often leads to some
recollection of past experiences and, at
times, a catharsis or release of intense
feelings that have been blocked.
Analysis and Interpretation of Resistance
Resistance, a concept fundamental to the
practice of psychoanalysis, is anything that
works against the progress of therapy and
prevents the client from producing previously
unconscious material.
Freud viewed resistance as an unconscious
dynamic that people use to defend against the
intolerable anxiety and pain that would arise if
they were to become aware of their repressed
impulses and feelings.
Resistances are not just something to be
overcome, they need to be recognized as
devices that interfere with the ability to accept
change that could lead to experiencing a more
gratifying life
Interpretation
consists of the analyst’s pointing out,
explaining, and even teaching the client the
meanings of behaviour that is manifested in
dreams, free association, resistances,
defences, and the therapeutic relationship
itself.
Relational psychoanalytic therapists present
possible meanings associated with a client’s
thoughts, feelings, or events as a hypothesis
rather than a truth about a client’s inner world.
Analysis and Interpretation of
Transference
Analytically oriented therapists consider the
process of exploring and interpreting
transference feelings as the core of the
therapeutic process because it is aimed at
achieving increased awareness and personality
change.
It allows clients to achieve here-and-now
insight into the influence of the past on their
present functioning
 Attachment Theory
Attachment theory focuses on relationships and
bonds (particularly long-term) between people,
including those between a parent and child and
between romantic partners.
The central theme of attachment
John Bowlby described attachment as a "lasting theory is that primary caregivers
psychological connectedness between human who are available and responsive to
beings.“ He was interested in understanding the an infant's needs allow the child to
anxiety and distress that children experience develop a sense of security. The
when separated from their primary caregivers. infant learns that the caregiver is
dependable, which creates a secure
Attachment is an emotional bond with another base for the child to then explore the
person. Bowlby believed that the earliest bonds world.
formed by children with their caregivers have a
tremendous impact that continues throughout
Portfolio Presentation
life.
Attachment styles refer to the particular way in
which an individual relates to other people.
 Attachment Styles
01 02 03 05
Avoidant Attachment
Anxious (Ambivalent) Attachment
Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid parents
These children become very distressed when a parent or caregivers, showing no preference between a caregiver
leaves. As a result of poor parental availability, these and a complete stranger. This attachment style might be a
children cannot depend on their primary caregiver to be result of abusive or neglectful caregivers.
there when they need them.
Disorganized
These children display a
Secure Attachment confusing mix of behaviour,
seeming disoriented, dazed,
Children who can or confused. They may avoid
depend on their or resist the parent. Lack of
caregivers show distress a clear attachment pattern is
when separated and joy likely linked to inconsistent
when reunited. Although caregiver behaviour. In such
the child may be upset, cases, parents may serve as
they feel assured that both a source of comfort and
the caregiver will return. fear, leading to disorganized
behaviour.