PCT 211

PCT 211 - DRUG DISPENSING
DR. U.N. UBANI-UKOMA

Department of Pharm & Pharm Technology
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lecture, students are expected to know the
• Definition and terms associated with Drug Dispensing

• Significance of dispensing in Pharmacy
• Dispensing procedures
• Requirements of Pharmaceutical Dispensing -
Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

2
Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lagos, Nigeria
Drug Dispensing
Dispensing is the process of
preparing and giving medicine
to a person(or hospital ward)
based on a prescription
Or
The process of prescription
interpretation and supply of
drugs to a Patient by a
Pharmacist or Pharmacist aide
(under the supervision of a
Pharmacist).

3
Dispensing process
• Receive and validate prescription

• Understand and interpret the prescription
• Prepare and label items for issue
• Make a final check
• Record actions taken
• Issue medicine to the patient with clear instructions and advice

4
Significance of Dispensing
Good dispensing practice ensures that the correct

medicine is issued the right patient in the correct
dose and quantity with clear instructions for use
and in the appropriate packaging that will
maintain the integrity of the dispensed medicine

5
Types of Dispensing Errors
• Dispensing medicine for the wrong patient (or for the wrong ward)
• Dispensing the wrong medicine
• Dispensing the wrong drug strength
• Dispensing at the wrong time
• Dispensing the wrong quantity

6
Dispensing Errors cont’d
• Dispensing the wrong dosage form
• Dispensing an expired or almost expired medicine
• Omission (i.e. failure to dispense)
• Dispensing a medicine of inferior quality (pharmaceutical companies)
• Dispensing an incorrectly compounded medicine (compounding in
pharmacy)

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• Dispensing with the wrong information on the label
• Incorrect patient name
• Incorrect drug name
• Incorrect drug strength
• Incorrect instruction (including incorrect dosage

8
• Incorrect drug quantity
• Incorrect dosage form
• Incorrect expiry date
• Omission of additional warning(s)
• Incorrect pharmacy address

9
• Other labelling errors
• Dispensing with the wrong verbal information to the patient
or representative

10
Drug Dispensing Terms
• Drug dispensing or prescription terms are used in
prescription writing and dispensing to communicate
information between the prescriber and the pharmacist
• These are latin terms and are usually abbreviated in the
prescription
• Interpretation of these terms informs the type of drug,
dosage form, the mode, time and duration of administration
of a particular medicament
• Improper interpretation of these terms may lead to serious
medical errors Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,
11
Why use latin terms?
• It has always been this way … historically, latin terms were
used by prescribers to restrict some information to the
Pharmacists who are trusted to dispense and counsel the
patient appropriately
• These terms are also used in official compendia to direct the
formulation of medications

12
Requirements in Pharmaceutical Dispensing
• Clean environment for hygienic and uncontaminated
products
• Organized environment for accurate and efficient dispensing
• Good personal hygiene
• Dispensing area restricted to authorized personnel only

13
References
Ka-Chun C., Marcel L.B., Peter A.G.M.De Smet(2009) Medication errors:
the importance of safe dispensing. Br J of Clin Pharmacol. 67(6): 676 –
680. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2009.03428.x
Howard C. Ansel(2010): Pharmaceutical Calculations. 13th Edition.

Wolter Kluwer Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Marriot J.F., Wislon K.A., Langley C.A., Belcher D. (2012):

Pharmaceutical Compounding and Dispensing, second edition
Pharmaceutical Press, London, Uk.

14
PCT211
Weights and Measures
DR. U.N. UBANI-UKOMA
PHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACEUTICAL TECHNOLOGY
Outline
• Introduction
• Volume measurement
• Weight measurement
Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

2
Introduction
• Weighing and measuring are very important practical skills needed by
a formulation scientist
• The effectiveness and safety of the final pharmaceutical product is
dependent on the technique of the compounder
• The patients’ lives depend on the accurate weighing and measuring
skills of the compounder.

3
Volume measurement
Common instruments for measurement of volumes include -
• micropipettes,
• pipettes,
• burettes,
• beakers,
• conical flasks,
• round bottom flasks
• Measuring cylinders etc

4
For measurement of small volumes, the
Pharmacist uses a calibrated syringe,
micropipette or pipettes
Pasteur pipette
Pipette Micropipette
5
Accurate volume measurement
• For accurate measurement, select the graduate with a capacity equal
to or just exceeding the volume to be measured.
• Measurement of small volumes in large graduates tends to increase
the size of the error
• While taking the reading from a volume measure, the pharmacist
should carefully observe the bottom of the meniscus at eye level to
achieve the desired measurement.

6
Accurate reading of the meniscus
• While taking the reading
from a volume measure, the
pharmacist should carefully
observe the bottom of the
meniscus at eye level to
achieve the desired
measurement.

7
Volume Units
Table 1: Volume units, abbreviation and litre equivalent
UNIT ABBREVIATION LITRE EQUIVALENT

1 litre 1 L (or 1 litre) 1 litre
1 millilitre 1 mL 0.001 litre
1 microlitre 1 µL 0.000 001 litre

8
Exercises
1. Convert 94 litres to millilitres
Answer
To convert from litres to millilitres, multiply by 1000 –
94 x 1000 = 94 000 millilitres
2. Convert 3456 millilitres to litres
Answer
To convert millilitres to litres, divide by 1000 –
3456/1000 = 3.456 litres

9
Weight Measurement
• The system international (SI) unit based around the gram (g) is used
with pharmaceutical substances
• Variants on the base unit are formed by 1000 times increases or
divisions of the gram
• The weighing units used in pharmacy are the kilogram, gram,
milligram, microgram and nanogram (Table 1)

10
Weighing Units
TABLE 1: Weighing units, abbreviations and gram equivalent
UNIT ABBREVIATION GRAM EQUIVALENT

1 Kilogram 1 kg 1000 g
1 gram 1g 1g
1 milligram 1 mg 0.001 g
1 microgram 1 µg 0.000 001 g
1 nanogram 1 ng 0.000 000 001 g
Excerpt from Pharmaceutical Compounding and Dispensing. Chapter 4, page 49

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Conversion between base units
• To convert between base weight units, multiply or divide the figure by
1000
• For conversion between more than one base unit (e.g. nanograms to
grams), convert to an intermediate unit first before converting to the
desired base unit (e.g. micrograms and milligrams)

12
Exercises
1. Convert 4.5 g into milligrams
Answer
To convert from grams to milligrams, multiply by 1000 i.e.
4.5 x 1000 = 4500 mg
2. Convert 2345 milligrams to grams
Answer
To convert milligrams to grams, divide by 1000 i.e.
2345/1000 = 2.345 g

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Exercises cont’d
3. Convert 5.4 nanograms to milligrams
Answer
Attempt the calculation in stages i.e. convert to micrograms, then to
milligrams
5.4/1000 = 0.0054 micrograms
Then convert to milligrams –
0.0054/1000 = 0.000 005 4 milligrams

14
References
• Howard C. Ansel(2010): Pharmaceutical Calculations. 13th Edition.
• Marriott J.F., Wilson K.A., Langley C.A., Belcher D (2012).
Pharmaceutical Compounding and Dispensing. 2nd Edition,
Pharmaceutical Press . London, UK
• PCT 212 Practical Manual

15
PACKAGING, LABELLING &
STORAGE
DR. U. UBANI-UKOMA
PHARM & PHARM. TECHNOLOGY
OUTLINE
• Pharmaceutical Packaging
• Labelling of pharmaceutical products
• Storage

2
1. Pharmaceutical Packaging
• Pharmaceutical products are
dispensed to the patient in the
appropriate container
• The container should maintain
the quality, safety and stability of
its content

3
The Ideal Container
The ideal pharmaceutical container should be
• Robust enough to protect the contents against crushing during
handling and transport
• Easy to open and close
• Inert i.e. unreactive with the contents
• Sufficiently transparent to allow inspection of the content in the case
of liquid preparations
• Convenient to use to encourage patient adherence

4
Types of Containers
Containers can be classified according to
• Shape – glass/polyethylene bottles, dropper bottles, collapsible tubes,
ampoules, vials, polythene packets, aerosol containers
• Closure and Use – well closed containers, airtight containers,
hermetically sealed, light resistant containers, single dose containers,
multidose containers and aerosol
• Closure and closure liners – screw-on threaded, crimp-on, press-on
(snap), roll-on and friction

5
2. Labelling of Pharmaceutical Products
• All pharmaceutical products require a label to be attached before
dispensing or sold
• The label should contain essential information concerning the use of
the preparation
• The label should indicate the contents of the container

6
Function of a Label
The label should indicate
• the contents of the container
• How and when the medicinal product should be taken or used
• How the product should be stored and how long
• Any warnings or cautions that the patient needs

7
Information on the label
The information on the label

must be
• Legible
• Concise
• Adequate
• Intelligible
• Accurate

8
Appearance of the Label
• The label placed on a medicine bottle should be placed on the front
of the bottle about a third of the way down the container
• For cartons, the label should be placed on the large side of the carton
• For ointment jars, the label should be placed on the side of the jar,
ensuring the cover does not cover any part of the label
• The outside of the container must be cleaned before affixing the label
• Ensure the label is securely fastened to the container

9
Other labeling details
• Other labelling details can be found on pages 4, 12 – 17 of your
PCT212 Manual

10
3. Storage
• Medicinal products are to be stored in the appropriate containers and
area to ensure the shelf-life and efficacy is not compromised

11
Some storage requirements include
• Storing at specific temperatures

• Protection from light
• Proper packaging to discourage access to rodents
• Keep out of reach of children

12
References
• Howard C. Ansel(2010): Pharmaceutical Calculations. 13th Edition.
• Marriott J.F., Wilson K.A., Langley C.A., Belcher D (2012).
Pharmaceutical Compounding and Dispensing. 2nd Edition,
Pharmaceutical Press . London, UK
• PCT 212 Practical Manual

13
PCT211
Dosage Forms
BY
DR. ULOMA N. UBANI-UKOMA
OUTLINE
• Introduction to Dosage Forms
• Classification of Dosage Forms

2
Learning Objective
At the end of this lecture, students are expected to
• Classify medicaments into dosage forms
• Appreciate different routes of administration
• Understand the dosage form concept and why specific drugs are
made into specific dosage forms
• Identify the advantages and disadvantages of specific dosage forms

3
Introduction
• Dosage forms are pharmaceutical preparations containing active and
inactive ingredients presented in a specific form to ensure accurate
and easy administration of medicaments.
• Dosage forms can be classified based on route of administration or

physical form of the dosage form

4
Classification based on route of
administration
1. Oral dosage form e.g. solutions, syrups, tablets, capsules, powders
2. Rectal dosage form e.g. suppositories, solutions
3. Inhaled dosage form e.g. aerosols (i.e. nebulizers, inhalers)
4. Ophthalmic dosage form e.g. eye drops, ointments, ocular inserts,
contact lenses etc
5. Otic dosage form e.g. ear drops
6. Vaginal dosage form e.g. pessaries
7. Topical dosage form e.g. creams, pastes, ointments
8. Parenteral dosage form e.g. solutions, suspensions (i.e. injections,
infusions etc)
9. Nasal dosage form e.g. nasal drops
5
Classification based on Physical form
• Liquid dosage form
• Semi-solid dosage form
• Solid dosage form
• Gaseous dosage form

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Physical forms
• SOLUTIONS
• SUSPENSIONS
• EMULSIONS
• CREAMS & OINTMENTS
• PASTES
• GELS
• SUPPOSITORIES &
PESSARIES
• POWDERS
• CAPSULES & TABLETS
7
LIQUID DOSAGE
FORMS
8
SOLUTIONS
• Solutions are homogenous liquid preparations consisting of one or
more medicaments dissolved in a suitable vehicle
• The vehicle mostly used is water except in situations where the active
ingredient is insoluble in water or subject to hydrolysis
• Solutions are usually administered orally but are also administered
parenterally via injections, externally to the skin or topically to the
eye or ear

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Advantages of Solutions
• The drug is immediately available for absorption
• Flexible dosing is possible as a simple change in quantity is all that is
needed to alter the dose
• It can be used for oral, parenteral (injections), rectal (enemas) and
topical (eye) administration
• There is no need to shake the bottle because it is a homogenous
preparation
• Swallowing is easy with solutions

10
Disadvantages of Solutions
• Drug stability is often reduced with solvolysis, hydrolysis or oxidation
• Masking of unpleasant taste is difficult
• Solutions are difficult to transport because they are bulky
• Technical accuracy is needed during drug administration to ensure the
right dose is taken
• Poorly soluble drugs are challenging to make into solutions
• The patient needs a measuring device for drug administration

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Types of Solutions
• Elixirs – oral preparation containing potent or unpleasant-tasting
medicaments with a high quantity of sweeteners for taste masking
• Linctuses – oral preparation used as a demulcent, expectorant or sedative
in the treatment of cough
• Syrups – a concentrated, viscous oral preparation containing one or more
sugar components
• Mixtures –oral preparation containing dissolved medicaments. It can also
be a suspension
• Spirits – oral solutions containing one or more medicaments dissolved in
absolute or dilute alcohol
• Other solutions include pediatric drops, gargles and mouthwashes, enemas
and douches

12
Types of external solutions
• Lotions – these are solutions, suspensions or emulsions intended to
be applied to the skin without friction
• Liniments – these are liquid preparations intended to be applied to
the skin with friction and massaged onto the skin to obtain analgesic,
rubefacient or generally stimulation effect
• Collodions are solutions containing pyroxylin in a vehicle of ether and
alcohol that are intended to be painted onto the skin and left to dry

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Suspensions
• Pharmaceutical suspensions are preparations where at least one of
the medicaments is suspended throughout the vehicle.
• Suspensions may slowly separate on standing but can be easily
redispersed
• Pharmaceutical preparations that can come in the form of
suspensions are ear drops, enemas, inhalations, lotions and mixtures
for oral use

14
Advantages of Suspensions
• Insoluble drugs may be more palatable
• Insoluble drugs maybe more stable
• Suspended insoluble drugs are easier to swallow
• Easy to administer
• Faster absorption compared to solid dosage forms

15
Disadvantages of suspensions
• Preparations require shaking before use
• Dosing may not be as accurate as with solutions
• Storage conditions can affect disperse systems
• Suspensions are bulky and hence are difficult to transport and prone
to breakage as with solutions

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Emulsions
• Emulsions are pharmaceutical preparations

containing a mixture of oil and water made
homogenous by the addition of an emulsifying
agent

17
Advantages of Emulsions
• Unpalatable drugs can be administered in palatable form
• Unpalatable oil-soluble drugs can be administered in palatable form
• Aqueous phase can be easily flavored
• Oily sensation can be removed
• There is increased rate of absorption of medicaments
• It is possible to include two incompatible medicaments with each
dissolved in each of the phases i.e. one in the oil phase and the other
in the liquid (aqueous) phase

18
Disadvantages of Emulsions
• The preparation should be shaken well before administration
• A measuring device is needed for administration
• Technical accuracy needed to measure a dose
• Storage conditions may affect stability
• Liable to microbial contamination which may lead to instability
• Emulsions are bulky and like suspensions and solutions, are difficult
to transport and prone to breakage

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SEMI-SOLID
DOSAGE FORMS
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Creams & Ointments
Ointments are
preparations for external
Creams are viscous semi-
use containing one or
solid emulsions for
more medicaments
external use
dissolved or dispersed in a
greasy base.

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Pastes & Gels
• Pastes are semi-solid preparations for external use
• They consist of finely powdered medicaments combined with white
soft paraffin BP or liquid paraffin BP
• They are normally stiff because of their high powder content
• Because of their high powder content, they are often used to absorb
wound exudates and harmful chemicals such as ammonia (released
by bacterial action on urine)

22
Paste & Gels cont’d
• Gels are transparent semi-solid preparations used as pharmaceutical

topical formulations
• They are stable over a long period of time
• They are suitable vehicles for applying medicaments to the skin and
mucous membranes

23
SOLID DOSAGE
FORMS
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Suppositories & Pessaries
• Suppositories are solid unit dosage forms suitably shaped for insertion into
the rectum
• The bases used either melt when warmed to body temperature on
insertion or dissolve when in contact with body secretions
• They can be used to exert a local anaesthetic effect on the rectal mucosa
• They can be used to promote evacuation of the bowel
• Rectal administration of suppositories can be used in stead oral
administration of drugs that irritate the GIT
• They can be used for patients who are unconscious, fitting or vomitting

25
Suppositories & Pessaries cont’d
• Pessaries are a type of suppository intended for vaginal use
• They are often used to exert a local effect in the vagina except for
prostaglandin pessaries which exert systemic effect
• Labelling instructions for suppositories are “For rectal use only”.
• Labelling instruction for pessaries are “For vaginal use only”.
• “Store below 15o C “ warning must be added to the label for all
suppositories and pessaries.

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Powders
• These are dry, free-flowing solid dosage forms consisting of one or a
mixture of finely divided materials intended for both internal and
external use
• They can be classified into
1. Bulk powders for external use – dusting powders
2. Bulk powders for oral use
3. Individual unit dose powders
4. Unit dose capsules

27
Capsules
• Capsules are a further development
from unit dose powders in that each
dose of powder is enclosed in an
edible container which is swallowed
whole with a draught of water
• The powder is not released from the

capsule until it gets to the stomach

28
Types of Capsules
• Soft gelatin capsule – flexible capsules in spherical, ovoid or
cylindrical in shape. They are filled and sealed during manufacture
e.g.
• Hard capsules – Made of hard gelatin and formed into two halves e.g.
Ampiclox capsules. The medicament is inserted into the longer part
and the second half fitted.

29
Advantages of Capsules
• More stable than liquid dosage forms
• Accurate dosing
• Easy to administer
• Unpleasant tastes are easily masked
• Release characteristics can be controlled
• Can be light resistant
• Acceptable to patients
• Small particle size of drug

30
Disadvantages of Capsules
• Maybe difficult to swallow
• Unsuitable for children
• Possible problems with the use of animal gelatin used to make the
shell

31
Tablets
• Tablets are solid dosage forms containing medicinal substances with
or without suitable diluents
• They maybe classed according to method of manufacture, as
compressed or molded tablets
• Compressed tablets are prepared by application of high pressures,
utilizing steel punches and dies, to powders or granulations

32
GASEOUS
DOSAGE FORMS
33
Inhalers/Sprays/Aerosols
• Inhalers are medical devices used to deliver medications to the lungs
with the assistance of the patient’s breathing
• Inhalers are mostly used in asthma, COPD treatment
• Sprays are administered orally or nasally through respiration e.g.
nasal sprays
• Aerosols are fine liquid or solid particles suspended in air
• These terms can be used interchangeably

34
Nebulizers
Nebulizers are devices used to convert a liquid medicament to gas to facilitate
inhalation

35
PCT 211
INTRODUCTION TO
PHARMACEUTICAL DISPENSING
CHUKWUEMEKA P. AZUBUIKE
Associate Professor of Pharmaceutics and
Pharmaceutical Technology
Faculty of Pharmacy
University of Lagos
PCT 211 TEACHING WORKPLAN
Department: Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical
Technology
Session: 2023/2024
Semester: First
Course Code: PCT 211
Title of Course: Introduction to Pharmaceutical
Dispensing
Course Units: 2 units
Course Coordinator: Dr. C. P. Azubuike (CPA)
Other Course Lecturers: Dr. (Mrs.) B. A. Oseni (BAO)
Dr. (Mrs.) O. M. Kolawole (OMK)
Teaching Schedule: Tuesdays 2.00 – 3.00 pm
Thursdays 8.00 – 9.00 a.m.
Venue: Lecture Theatre 200 Level Class
Zoom
COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course will examine

➢the basic principles and requirements of dispensing in
Pharmacy
➢It will also give an overview of various types of pharmaceutical
dosage forms
➢ Pharmaceutical calculations needed for formulations,
preparations and dispensing.
LEARNING OUTCOMES AND COURSE RESOURCES
By the end of this course, students should:
• Understand the principles and requirements of dispensing in Pharmacy
• Know various types of pharmaceutical calculations needed for the formulation,
preparation and dispensing of any pharmaceutical dosage form.
• Show understanding of the fundamental concepts of statistics and analyse data from
scientific experiments in a statistically acceptable manner.
Required Textbooks (On Reserve at the Departmental Library)
• Pharmaceutical Calculations Howard C. Ansel
• Introduction to Pharmaceutical Calculations Judith A. Rees, Lan Smith and Brian Smith
Additional Textbooks/ Resources
• PCT 212 Dispensing workbook
TOPICS
• Definition and terms associated with Dispensing
• Significance of dispensing in Pharmacy
• Types of dispensing
• Requirements in pharmaceutical dispensing:
✓Appearance
✓Planning
✓Formulation ingredients
• Weights and Measures, Calculations, Preparations of dosage forms,
Packaging, Labeling and storage.
• Prescriptions: -parts and format.
• Introduction and classification of dosage forms
• Various systems of weights and measures.
Arithmetical methods of solving pharmaceutical
problems including weighing and measuring
• Percentage strength, alligation, ratio strength, stock
solution and trituration.
• Isotonicity, milliequivalents, concentration expressions
etc.
DISPENSING PHARMACY
Dispensing Pharmacy is one of the ancient branches of
pharmacy that deals with the principles of art, science, and
technology of converting drugs into dosage forms. While
dispensing to patients.
These days, most drugs are available in dosage forms,
however, students should learn the techniques and skills,
labeling instructions required, for different dosage forms.
Pharmaceutical Calculations
Pharmaceutical Calculations is the study area that applies the basic

principles of mathematics to prepare and safely and effectively use
pharmaceuticals.
STEP-WISE APPROACH TOWARD PHARMACEUTICAL
CALCULATIONS
• An understanding of the purpose or goal of the problem

• An assessment of the arithmetic process required to
reach the goal
• Implementation of the correct arithmetic manipulations
• Consider the reasonableness of the answer in terms of
the numerical value, including the proper position of a
decimal point, and the units of measure.
12
Various systems of weights and
measures
Systems and Units of Measurement
• International System of Units (SI)
• Common Systems of Units of Measurement.
13
Measurement of Weights
• The selection of implements from the wide range of
available weights, balances, and scales for
pharmaceutical measurements depends on the task at
hand, from highly sensitive electronic analytic
balances and prescription balances to large capacity
scales.
• Each instrument used must meet established
standards for sensitivity, accuracy and capacity.
14
Measurement of Volumes
• Common instruments for the pharmaceutical
measurement of volume range from micropipettes
and burettes used in analytic procedures to large,
industrial size calibrated vessels.
• As a general rule, it is best to select the graduate with
a capacity equal to or just exceeding the volume to be
measured.
15
Aliquot Method of Weighing and Measuring
• When a degree of precision in measurement that is
beyond the capacity of the instrument at hand is
required, the pharmacist may achieve the desired
precision by calculating and measuring in terms of
aliquot parts.
• An aliquot is a fraction, portion, or part that is
contained an exact number of times in number.
16
International System of Units (SI)
SI system, formerly called the metric

system, is the internationally recognized
decimal systems of weights and
measures.
17
Advantages of SI system
• the simplicity of the decimal system
• the clarity provided by the base units and prefixes of
the SI
• the ease of scientific and professional
communications through the use of a standardized
and internationally accepted system of weights and
measures.
18
SI units
The SI units for length, mass and volume are metre, kilogram
and litre
• The metre is the distance light travels in a vacuum in
1/299,792,458 of a second
• The mass (weight) of a kilogram is represented by a standard
mass of platinum-iridium preserved in a vault in France.
• One litre represents the volume of the cube of one-tenth of
a metre, that is, 1 dm3
19
SI units
• Other areas of measurement addressed by the SI include
force, viscosity, electricity, sound and more.
• SI contains a definitive or primary unit.
• The standard subdivisions and multiples of the primary
units are termed denominations, and the number used in
conjunction with a denomination is termed denominate
number. E.g., 5 mg, 5 is the denominate number and mg
is the denomination.
20
standard subdivisions and multiples
Subdivisions
atto- one quintillionth (10-18) of the base unit
femto- one quadrillionth (10-15) of the base unit
pico- one trillionth (10-12) of the base unit
nano- one billionth (10-9) of the base unit
micro- one millionth (10-6) of the base unit
milli- one thousandth (10-3) of the base unit
centi- one hundredth (10-2) of the base unit
deci- one tenth (10-1) of the base unit
21
SI units
An effervescent tablet has the following formula:
• Paracetamol 325 mg
• Calcium Carbonate 280 mg
• Citric Acid 900 mg
• Potassium Bicarbonate 300 mg
• Sodium Bicarbonate 465 mg
1. Calculate the total weight, in grams, of all the ingredients in each
tablet.
2. How many tablets could be made with a supply of 5 kg of
paracetamol?
22
• Covert 3.4 pints to litres. (1L =1.76 pints)
• Convert 106.4 kg to stones and pounds (1 pound
= 0.4536 kg and 14 pounds = 1 stone)
• Change 23 degrees to degrees Fahrenheit
• Change 145 kg to megagrams.
23
• A nurse telephones a pharmacy regarding the
proper quantity of an injection to administer to a
pediatric patient from a 1-mL vial containing 0.1
mg of digoxin. The attending physician had
prescribed a dose of 25 mcg. How many mL
should be the pharmacist's response?
24
PERCENTAGE STRENGTH (PS), RATIO STRENGTH (RS) & OTHER
CONCENTRATION EXPRESSIONS
Topics objectives
• Define expressions % w/v, %v/v, & %w/w
• Define expression ratio strength (RS)
• Convert PS to RS & RS to PS
• Calculate PS & RS of a pharmaceutical preparation
• Apply PS & RS to calculate the qty of an ingredient present in
a pharmaceutical preparation
• Apply PS & RS to calculate the qty of an ingredient to use in
compounding a pharmaceutical preparation
25
Common and Decimal Fractions
Common fractions are portions of a whole, expressed
as ¼, ½. etc.
They are used in pharmacy calculations.
E.g. If the adult dose of a medication is two
teaspoonful. Calculate the dose for a child if it is ¼ of
the adult dose.
¼ x 2 teaspoonful = ½ teaspoonful
26
A decimal fraction is a fraction with a denominator of 10 or any power
of 10 and is expressed decimally rather as a common fraction e.g. 1/10
is expressed as 0.10.
It is important to include the zero before the decimal point.
To convert a common fraction to a decimal, divide the denominator
into the numerator.
To convert a decimal fraction to a common fraction, express the
decimal fraction as a ratio and reduce
27
Percent
Percent means “by the hundred” or “in a

hundred”
Percentage means “rate per hundred”.
A percent may also be expressed as a ratio,
represented as a common or decimal fraction.
For example, 50% means 50 parts in 100 of the
same kind and may be expressed as 50/100 or
0.50.
28
Percentage strength (PS)
The pharmacist encounters Percentage frequently and uses it

as a convenient means of expressing the concentration of an
active or inactive material in a pharm. prep. s
• Percent weight-in-volume (w/v)
• Percent volume-in-volume (v/v)
• Percent weight-in-weight (w/w)
Note: Using this convention, the units are grams per 100 mL
and millilitres per 100 g. E.g, 5 % w/v, means 5 grams per
100 mL.
29
• Express 900 mg of NaCl made up to 100 mL with water as a
percentage.
To express the value as a percentage, we need to convert the
number of mg in 100 mL.
g = - mg
900 mg = 0.9 g
There is 0.9 g of NaCl in 100 mL of solution. % is 0.9% w/v
30
Percentage strength (PS) Exercise 1
R
Starch powder 750 g
Zinc oxide 200 g
Salicylic 50 g
Calculate the PS of each of the ingredient in the
above prescription
31
Percentage strength (PS) Exercise 2
R
Potassium citrate 300 g
Citric acid monohydrate 50 g
Lemon spirit 5 ml
Quillaia tincture 10 ml
Syrup 50 ml
Chloroform water D/S 300 ml
Water for preparation to 1000 ml
Calculate the PS of each of the ingredient in the above prescription
32
Ratio strength:-Introduction
Ratio is the relative magnitude of two quantities.

It resembles a common fraction except in the way in which it is
presented.
Fraction is presented as for example, ½, a ratio is presented as
1:2.
Concentrations of weak solutions are frequently expressed in
terms of RS
Because all %s are a ratio of parts per hundred, RS is merely
another way of expressing the PS of solutions or liquid prep
33
Agreed convection states that when RS represents a
solid in liquid involving units of weights and volume
then the weight is expressed in grams and the volume
in mL.
1 in 500 potassium permanganate in water is a solid in
liquid hence it is w/v.
It means that the solution contains 1 g of potassium
permanganate made up to 500 mL with water.
34
2 L of an aqueous solution contains 50 mL of ethanol. Express
this as a RS.
It is a volume in volume solution so we need to convert to the
same unit
2 L = - mL
2 L = 2000 mL
Let the volume of the product in mL containing 1 mL of the
ethanol be r
Ethanol (mL) 50 1
Product (mL) 2000 r
r = 40, hence RS is 1 in 40 v/v
35
Ratio strength :-Exercises
• A certain injectable contains 2 mg of a drug per

millilitre of solution. What is the RS (w/v) of the
solution?
• A sample of white petrolatum contains 10 mg of

tocopherol per kilogram as a preservative. Express the
amount of tocopherol as a RS.
36
Note:
• Other concentration expressions include parts
per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb),
amount strengths etc.
• The conc expressions can be converted from one
to another.
37
• A solution contains 20 mL of ethanol in 500 mL of the
product. Express concentration as a RS and PS.
• A solid ingredient mixed with a solid vehicle has RS of

1 in 40. Find PS and the amount strength expressed as
grams in grams,
Stock Solutions/ Dilutions
•Stock solutions are concentrated solutions

of active or inactive substances.
• They are used by pharmacists as a
convenience to prepare solutions of lesser
concentration.
39
• When a product is diluted there is a change in the
amount of product, while at the same time the amount
of ingredient apart from the vehicle remains the same.
• E.g. if a solution containing 5 g of an ingredient (NaCl) in
200 mL is diluted to 400 mL with vehicle, the final
product becomes 400 mL, containing 5 g ingredient. The
volume of product has changed and amount of NaCl is
still 5 g
• The amt strength changed from 5 g/200 mL to 5 g/400
mL.
40
100 mL of a 1 in 50 w/v solution is diluted to 1000 mL. Find the
concentration of the diluted product as PS, RS and AS expressed as
mg/mL.
By convection, 1 in 50 means 1 g in 50 mL.
Let the no of grams of ingredient in 100 mL of the product be g.
Ingredient (g) 1 g
Product (mL) 50 100
41
g=2
Therefore 100 mL of product contains 2 g of ingredient
After dilution, the amt of the ingredient remains 2g.
Total amt of the vehicle becomes 1000 mL
Amt PS RS AS
Ingredient (g) 2 p 1 a
Product (mL) 1000 100 r 1
42
P = 0.2, then PS = 0.2% w/v
r = 1000/2 = 500, RS = 1 in 500 w/v
a = 0.002 g
Converting 0.002 g to mg
0.002 g = 2 mg
AS = 2 mg/mL
43
Stock Solutions:-Exercises
• How many mL of water should be mixed with

1200 g of 65% w/w alcohol to make 45% w/w
alcohol?
• Show all the calculations that is required when
you want to prepare 50 mL of Potassium
permanganate solution such that 10 mL diluted
to 300 mL will produce a 1 in 2 solution.
44
Trituration:- Introduction
• Weighing of ingredients less than 100 mg with enough

accuracy is a big challenge.
• Pharmaceutical codex states that powders must weigh
a minimum of 120 mg. (no max weight is stated)
• If the amount of drug in the powder is less than 120
mg, it is necessary to include an inert powder up to
the minimum weight
45
• Triturations are dilutions of potent medicinal substances.
• They are prepared by diluting one part by weight of a drug with nine
parts of finely powdered lactose.
• They are, therefore, 10% or 1:10 w/w mixtures.
• They offer a means of obtaining conveniently and accurately small
quantities of potent drugs for compounding purposes.
Note: the term trituration as used in this context should not be
confused with the like term which is the pharmaceutical process of
reducing particle sizes by grinding using a mortar and pestle.
46
• Prepare five divided powders each containing 100 mg of
paracetamol (PCM).
We cannot weigh 100 mg of PCM, hence a diluent is needed.
Setting up proportional sets for 1 and 5 powders.
No of powders 1 5
PCM (mg) 100 a
Diluent (mg) y b
Total weight (mg) 120 c
47
y = amt of diluent required to increase the final weight of one
powder to 120 mg
y = 120 -100 = 20, hence b is 100
Since the ratio of the powders is 1 to 5, we can calculate
these values by multiplying by 5.
a = 500, y = 20, b = 100 and c = 600
To prepare five powders each containing 100 mg of PCM,
weigh 500 mg of PCM and add 100 mg of diluent and mix
using appropriate methods. Then divide into 5 powders each
containing 120 mg of the powder.
48
How many grams of a 1:10 trituration are required to obtain
25 mg of drug?
10 g of the triturate contains 1 g of the drug
25 mg = 0.025 g
drug (g) 0.025 x
product (g) 1 10
x = 0.25 g
49
Trituration:-Exercises
• How many mL of an injection prepared by dissolving 100 mg of a 1:10
trituration of mechlorethamine hydrochloride in sufficient water for
injection to prepare 10 mL of injection is required to obtain 5 mg of drug
•R
Atropine sulphate 0.0002 g
Carmine 0.001 g
If Atropine sulphate is supplied as a triturate with lactose (1 in
100) show detailed calculations to obtain the quantities of the ingredients
required to prepare 6 such divided powder.
50
ALLIGATION
Alligation is an arithmetical method of solving problems
that involve solutions or mixtures of solids possessing
different strengths.
There are two types of alligation:
• Alligation medial
• Alligation alternate
Alligation medial and Alligation alternate may be used as
options in solving a number of pharmaceutical calculations
problems
51
Alligation Medial
Alligation medial is a method by which
the weighted average percentage
strength of a mixture of two or more
substances of known quantity and
concentrations may be easily calculated.
52
Steps in the calculation
a. PS of each component, expressed as a decimal fraction is
multiplied by it corresponding quantity.
b. The sum of the products is divided by the total sum of the
mixture.
c. The resultant decimal fraction is multiplied by 100 to give
PS of the mixture.
The quantities must be expressed in a common
denominations
53
What is the PS (v/v) of alcohol in a mixture of 3000 mL of 40%
v/v alcohol, 1000 mL of 60% v/v alcohol and 1000 mL of 70%
v/v alcohol? Assume no contraction of volume after mixing.
0.4 x 3000 mL = 1200 mL
0.6 x 1000 mL = 600 mL
0.7 x 1000 mL = 700 mL
Total 5000 mL 2500 mL
2500 mL /5000 mL = 0.5 x 100 = 50% v/v
54
What is the % of zinc oxide in ointment prepared by
mixing 200 g of 10% ointment, 50 g of 20% ointment
and 100 g of 5% ointment?
0.1 x 200 g = 20 g
0.2 x 50 g = 10 g
0.05 x100 g = 5 g
Total 350 g 35 g
350 g /35 g= 0.1 x 100 = 10%
55
Alligation Alternate
Alligation alternate may be used to determine the
proportion or quantities of two or more components
to combine in other to prepare a mixture of desired
strength.
E.g. A pharmacist might need to prepare a solution of
a specified strength by combing two or more other
solutions of differing concentrations of the same
ingredient. The proportion of each solution to use may
be determined by alligation alternate.
56
In what proportion should alcohols of 95% and
50% strengths be mixed to make 70% alcohol?
• The difference between the strength of the
stronger component (95%) and the desired
strength (70%) is 25
• The difference between the desired strength
(70%) and the strength of the weaker
component (50%) is 20
57
95 (parts of 95% alcohol)
70
25 (parts of 50% alcohol)

50
Relative amounts: 20:25 = 4:5 , 4 parts of 95% alcohol plus 5 parts of
50% alcohol will give 70% alcohol

58
95% 20 parts of 95% alcohol
70%
50% 25 parts of 50% alcohol
That is 4 parts of 95% alcohol and 5 parts of 50%

alcohol
This is a convenient simplification of the preceding
diagram
59
A hospital pharmacist wants to use three lots of zinc
oxide ointments containing, respectively, 50%, 20%
and 5% zinc oxide. In what proportion should they be
mixed to prepare a 10%, zinc oxide ointment.
Note:- The two lots containing more (50% and 20%)
than the desired % (10%) may be separately linked to
the lot containing less (5%) than the desired %.
60
50% 5 parts of 50% ointment
20% 5 parts of 20% ointment
10%
5% 10 + 40 = 50 parts of 5% ointment
Relative amounts 5:5:50 or 1:1:10

61
Exercises on Alligation
• In what proportion should 20% benzocaine ointment be
mixed with an ointment base to produce 2.5% benzocaine
ointment?
• In what proportion should 30% and 1.5% hydrogen peroxide
solutions be mixed to prepare a 3% hydrogen peroxide
solution?
• The solvent fot the extraction of a vegetable drug is 70%
alcohol. In what proportion may 95%, 60% and 50% alcohol
be mixed to prepare a solvent of the desired concentration?
62
ISOTONICITY
• Solutions of drugs which are placed in contact
with mucous membranes may cause stinging,
irritation and cell destruction
• These effects can be minimized by making such
solutions isotonic with the mucous membrane.
63
• When a solvent passes through a semipermeable
membrane from a dilute solution into a more
concentrated one, the concentration becomes
equalized (osmosis).
• Osmotic pressure (OP) is the pressure responsible for
this phenomenon and it varies with the nature of the
solute.
64
• If the solute is a nonelectrolyte, its solution contains
only molecules and the OP varies with the conc of the
solute
• If the solute is an electrolyte, its solution contains ions
and the OP varies with both the conc of the solute and
its dissociation.
• Solutes that dissociate present a greater no of
particles in solution and exert a greater OP than
undissociated molecules.
65
• Hence, we can say that OP is a property of ions or molecules
dissolved in solvent (water).
• Other colligative properties of solutions, like freezing point,
vapour pressure and boiling point depend on the no of
particles in solution like OP.
• These properties are interrelated and a change in any one of
them will result in a corresponding change in others.
• The relationship between freezing point depression and OP
is used in the formulation of isotonic and iso-osmotic
solutions. 66
• Iso-osmotic:- two solutions that have the same OP
• Isotonic:- a solution having the same OP as a specific
body fluid
• Hypotonic:- a solution having lower OP than a specific
body fluid
• Hypertonic:- a solution having higher OP than a
specific body fluid.
67
• Pharmaceutical dosage forms intended to be added directly
to the blood or mixed with biological fluids of the eyes, nose
and bowel are of principal concern to the pharmacists in
their preparations and applications
• With the administration of an isotonic solution, there is a
homestasis with the body's intracellular fluids.
• However, there are exceptions, as in instances in which
hypertonic solutions are used to draw fluids out of
edematous tissues and into the administered solution.
68
• Calculations involved in preparing isotonic solutions may be
made in terms of data relating to the colligative properties.
• Practically and most conveniently, a comparison of freezing point
(FP) depression is used for this purpose.
• -0.52oC is the FP of both blood serum and lacrimal fluid.
• A 0.9% w/v solution of NaCl (Normal Saline) in water is iso-
osmotic with body fluids hence 0.9% w/v NaCl solution freezes at
0.52oC
• A solution of a small amount of a drug in water will probably have
an OP less than that of body fluids. In order to make the solution
isotonic, it is necessary to add another substance
• The usual adjusting substance is NaCl (it is found in body fluids
and is non toxic. 69
Calculate the amount of NaCl that should be added to the following
formulation of nasal drops in order to make the final solution isotonic
Ephedrine hydrochloride 0.5g
NaCl qs
Water to 100 mL
(A 1% w/v solution of ephedrine depresses the FP by 0.169oC while A
1% w/v solution of NaCl depresses the FP by 0.576oC)
70
Hence, ephedrine hydrochloride depresses the FP to
0.0845oC below 0oC that is to -0. 0845oC
NaCl will be required to depress the FP of the
ephedrine solution, that is further 0.4355oC.
Step 2 Calculate required amount of NaCl needed.
Let the FP depression caused by the added NaCl be z.
71
Sodium Chloride (% w/v) 1 z
FP depression (oC) 0.576 0.4355
𝑧 1
=
0.4355 0.576
0.4355
𝑧=
0.576
z = 0.756
Hence 0.756% w/v of NaCl should be added to the formula to ensure
the final solution is isotonic
72
Exercises on Isotonicity
1. Zinc sulphate 0.25 % eye drops are required to be made isotonic
with NaCl. What weight of NaCl is required in the preparation of 100
mL of eye-drop solution? (A 0.25% solution of zinc sulphate depresses
the FP of water by 0.022oC.)
2a. How much NaCl should be added in the preparation of 25 mL of
pilocarpine HCl 2% eye drops to render them isotonic? (A 2% solution
of pilocarpine HCl depresses the FP of water by 0. 262oC.)
2b. Using the information in question 2a, explain why it may not be
possible or necessary to make pilocarpine HCl 4% eye drops isotonic.
73
INTRODUCTION TO
(Elementary Statistics)
PCT 211
Dr (Mrs) Kolawole
Lecture 1 – 5/12/23
23/01/2024 Data compilation Data presentation Data analysis 1

CONTENT OUTLINE
• Elementary statistics –
➢Data compilation
➢Data presentation

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lecture, the students are
expected to:
• Understand the fundamental concepts of statistics.

• Know the factors to consider in order to choose the
appropriate mode of data presentation.

BASIC STATISTICAL TERMS
• Data: set of facts collected together for reference or
analysis or to form the basis of reasoning or
calculation.
• Statistics: science of collection, classification, and
interpretation of facts/data on the basis of
occurrence.
• Array: In statistics, it is a group of numbers in rows
and columns with the smallest at the beginning and
the rest in order of size up to the largest at the end.
INTRODUCTION
• Businesses including pharmaceutical organisations
generate large volumes of data in this information
age.
• Thus there is the need to use appropriate statistical
data analysis tool in order to correctly interpret the
implications of these data, on the organization’s
performance and growth.

INTRODUCTION CONTINUED
• Data are typically collected in a raw format and thus the
inherent information is challenging to understand.
Therefore, raw data need to be summarized
(compilation), processed (presentation), analysed
(analysis) and the data distribution pattern shown.
• The information derived from the raw data should be
presented in an effective format, otherwise, it would be
a great loss for both authors and readers.

TYPES OF DATA PROCESSED: PHARMACISTS
Types of data processed in pharmacies include
• Patient data.
• Prescription transaction data
• Supply chain data
• Therapeutic clinical data
• Insurance data
23/01/2024 Elementary Statistics Measurement of Variation 7

RAW DATA HANDLING
Raw data handling occurs in four steps
• Data compilation
• Data presentation
• Data analysis
• Data distribution

DATA COMPILATION
• This process involves gathering data and deriving
new information from the grouped data according to
a given set of rules, e.g. sorting out patients’
prescription data based on their ages.
• It also involves condensing information by classifying
and tabulating these data into various categories or
groups, according to a predetermined criteria.

DATA COMPILATION
Data compilation question: Prepare an array of body
temperatures (o F) of 20 individuals, presented from
lowest to largest number (Table 1 a).
Table 1a: Body temperature (o F) of 20 individuals (raw data)
98.3 98.6 98.6 98.8 98.5
98.6 98.7 98.4 98.5 98.6
98.7 98.4 98.6 98.7 98.6
98.5 99.0 98.9 98.6 98.9
ARRAY
Answer: data compilation question
Array of the body temperatures (o F) of
20 individuals.
Table 1a: Body temperature (o F) of 20 individuals
98.3 98.5 98.6 98.6 98.8

98.4 98.5 98.6 98.7 98.9
98.4 98.6 98.6 98.7 98.9
98.5 98.6 98.6 98.7 99.0
DATA PRESENTATION
• Method of data presentation is chosen based on:
➢Data format
➢Method of analysis to be used
➢Information to be emphasized
• The advantages and disadvantages of different
presentation methods should be carefully weighed
before choosing a method of data presentation.

STYLES OF DATA PRESENTATION
Data is usually presented in three ways:
• Text: to depict findings, trends, contextual
information
• Table: to show qualitative and quantitative
information
• Graph: reveals data at a glance, helps comparison,
shows trends and relationships within the data such
as changes in patient’s blood sugar level over time,
body weight frequency distribution, correlation of
frequency of bodily exercise to patients’ blood
pressure, etc.
TEXT: DATA PRESENTATION
• Data is typically presented in paragraphs or

sentences to interpret or emphasize certain data;
• It is used to express quantitative information that
contains one or two numbers.

TEXT: DATA PRESENTATION continued
• Example is “The incidence rate of delirium following
anaesthesia was 11 % in 2016 and 15 % in 2017; and
there was no significant difference in the incidence
rates reported between the two years”
• However, if one is interested in knowing additional
information about incidence of delirium during
particular months in 2016 or 2017, then a table or
graph would be more appropriate.

LIMITATIONS: DATA PRESENTATION AS TEXT
• Unnecessary large space will be occupied on the
page without improving the readers’ understanding
of the data.
• Data presented as text may take more time to
read.
• When the body of text includes a long list of
information, readers/reviewers may have
problems in understanding the information.

TABLES: DATA PRESENTATION
• There are two main methods of data presentation as
a table
➢Array: data arrangement in increasing or decreasing
order
➢Frequency distribution: arrangement according to
classes and their frequencies determined

TABLES: DATA PRESENTATION continued
• It is the most appropriate to present qualitative and
quantitative information.
• Example of qualitative information presented as table is
level of sedation (low, moderate and high level of
sedation), statistical methods (remarkable and
insignificant differences between data sets), and
homogeneity of formulations (homogenous versus non-
homogenous).
• Example of quantitative information presented as table
is the body temperatures of 20 persons (Table 1b).
ARRAY: TABULAR DATA PRESENTATION
• An array: data arrangement from smallest to largest
Table 1b: Array of body temperature ( o F) of 20 individuals
presented (ascending)
98.3 98.5 98.6 98.6 98.8

98.4 98.5 98.6 98.7 98.8
98.4 98.6 98.6 98.7 98.9
98.5 98.6 98.6 98.7 99.0

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION: TABULAR DATA PRESENTATION
• Frequency distribution: is a form of data
presentation where data are listed in the order of
magnitude from smallest to largest, and the given
data are arranged in terms of classes, and their
frequencies of occurrences are determined.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION: TABULAR DATA PRESENTATION
CONTD
➢Frequency distribution generally should have not
less than 5 classes and not more than 15.
➢The choice of the number of classes depends on
the nature of the data.
➢Unequal class interval should be avoided for ease
of understanding.

QUESTION ON FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
• Prepare a Frequency Distribution of the body
temperatures provided on slide 19.
• The frequency distribution table is prepared by
separating the values into classes and listing the
number of times a value appears in each class.

SOLUTION: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION QUESTION
Table 2: Frequency distribution of the body temperature (o F) of

20 persons

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE ANALYSIS
The table in previous slide shows a concentration
of values in the 98.55 to 98.75 class.
Also, 98.15 to 98.35 as well as the 98.95 to 99.15
temperature intervals were the least represented.

ADVANTAGES - TABLES FOR DATA PRESENTATION
• Presents information that cannot be presented with a
graph. e.g. a number such as “132.145852”.
• Information with different units can be presented
together. E.g. blood pressure, heart rate, and number
of drugs administered can be presented together in
one table.
• Tables are useful to summarize and compare
quantitative information of different variables.

LIMITATIONS - TABLES FOR DATA PRESENTATION
• Data interpretation is not easy with table, in

comparison to using graphs.
• Tables are not appropriate to study data trends.
• Since all data are of equal importance in a table, it
is difficult to know and select the information
required.

GRAPHS: DATA PRESENTATION
• Makes complex information simple by using images and
emphasizing data patterns/trends.
• Summarise, explain or explore quantitative data.
• The appropriate graph format should be chosen so that
readers and reviewers can easily understand the
information.

GRAPH FORMATS
Examples of graph formats are:
• Scatter plot.
• Bar chart and histogram.
• Pie charts

GRAPH: SCATTER PLOT
• Scatter plot: present data on the x and y axes, to
find out relationship between 2 variables.
➢Each individual or object is represented by a
point and an association between 2 variables can
be studied by analysing patterns across multiple
points.
➢Scatter plot could provide the relationship
between salt intake (x axis) and blood pressure of
individuals (y axis).
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT VERSUS REGRESSION LINE
➢Correlation coefficient: reflects how
similar the measurements of two or more
variables are across a dataset
➢Regression line: depicts the correlation
between two variables
➢These techniques are used to analyze the
relationship between two quantitative
variables.
➢While correlation coefficient measures the
strength of a linear relationship between
two variables, regression measures how
those variables affect each other using an
equation.
GRAPH: SCATTER PLOT CONTINUED
➢A regression line is added
to a graph to determine
whether the association
between 2 variables can
be explained or not.
➢If multiple points exist at
similar location (Fig. 1), the
correlation level may not
be clear, so correlation
coefficient or regression
line can be added to
further explain the Fig. 1: Influence of salt intake on the blood
correlation. pressure of individuals
GRAPH: HISTOGRAM
Histogram plots quantitative data with ranges of
the data grouped into intervals.
The data intervals
represented in the histogram
includes:
100-149.9; 150-199.9; 200-
249.9; 250-299.9; 300-350

GRAPH: BAR CHART
Bar charts plot categorical data; may be created vertically
or horizontally depending on the number of categories
and size/complexity of each category.

STACK VERTICAL BAR GRAPH
Stack vertical bar graph could be used to analyse parts of
a category as well as compare data across different
categories (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Compressed volume of each components from the three operations

(Pelviscopy, colon resection and total knee replacement arthroplasty [TKRA]);
RMW: regulated medical waste
PIE CHART
Pie Chart is used to depict data classified in different
categories; and to represent information grouped into a
small number of categories (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3: Pie Chart. Total weight of

each components from the three
operations (Pelviscopy, colon
resection and total knee
replacement arthroplasty [TKRA]);
RMW: regulated medical waste.

BENEFITS OF A WELL-PRESENTED DATA
• They make an article easy to understand.

• Attract and sustain the interest of readers.
• Present large amounts of complex information in an
efficient manner.
• It saves time in processing data implication.

REFERENCES
• Stoklosa MJ, Ansel HC [1996]. Pharmaceutical
Calculations, 10th edition: Basic Statistical Concepts,
259-262.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKxG-rEdAxU
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3AbpZAkvu-E

Data analysis /Data
distribution/Measures of central
tendency
PCT 211
Dr (Mrs) Kolawole
Lecture 2 – 6/12/23

CONTENT OUTLINE
• Data analysis
• Data distribution
• Measures of Central tendency: mean, median

LEARNING OUTCOMES
expected to:
• Identify the benefits of effective data analysis and know
the various data distribution pattern
• Identify the strengths and limitations of the different
measures of central tendency.

DATA ANALYSIS
• Data analysis is the process of inspecting,
transforming, and modelling data in order to
discover useful information, which will help to
draw conclusion and make decisions.

TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS
There are five types of data analysis
• Descriptive data analysis
• Exploratory data analysis
• Confirmatory data analysis
• Predictive analysis
• Text Analytics

TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS CONTD
• Descriptive data analysis: describes the data
➢Five out of 10 patients that visited the community
pharmacy are hypertensive
• Exploratory data analysis: discovers new feature in a
data. For example, the investigation of the type of anti-
hypertensive used to control blood pressure.
➢One out of the five hypertensive patients control their
blood pressure using calcium channel blockers
(amlodipine); three patients use Angiotensin Converting
Enzymes Inhibitors (Lisinopril) while one of them use
Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (Telmisartan).
TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS CONTINUED
• Confirmatory data analysis: confirming a data or

falsifying existing hypotheses
➢Two out of the five hypertensive patients have well
controlled blood pressure
• Predictive analytics: use of statistical models such as
logistic regression models to forecast data
➢These statistical models use earlier generated data to
forecast future consumer buying preferences.

DATA ANALYSIS: TEXT ANALYTICS
• Text analytics: use statistical and linguistic techniques
to extract and classify information from textual
source.
➢Email spam filters helps to exclude
promotional/unwanted materials

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE DATA ANALYSIS
• Confusing facts and opinions: it is good to create
opinions based on facts, but sometimes such facts are
biased, resulting in erroneous opinions.
• Cognitive biases: information interpreted in a way that
confirms one’s preconceptions. Also, some people may
discredit information that does not support their views.
• Innumeracy: when data analysts are not good with the
use of numerical techniques, they may mislead or
misinform the audiences.

DATA DISTRIBUTION
Data distribution is a listing that reveals all the possible
values of the data and tells you how often each value or
interval occurs.
➢Usually, these values are arranged from the smallest to
largest and graphs and charts allow you to easily see
both the values and the frequency with which they
appear.

TYPES OF DATA DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS
• Binomial distribution
• Uniform/rectangular distribution
• Skewed distribution
• Normal/Gaussian Distribution
• Poisson Distribution

BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
• Binomial distribution: distribution involving two
mutually exclusive categories (data obtained from one
group is independent of the other group).

UNIFORM/RECTANGULAR DISTRIBUTION
• Uniform/rectangular distribution: distribution in which
all events occur with equal frequency

SKEWED DISTRIBUTION
• Skewed distribution: distribution that is asymmetric.
➢Negatively skewed distribution
➢Positively skewed distribution

NEGATIVELY SKEWED DISTRIBUTION
Negatively skewed distribution occurs when the tail is
tailored to the lower values (left).

POSITIVELY SKEWED DISTRIBUTION
Positively skewed distribution occurs when the tail is
tailored to the higher values (right).

NORMAL/GAUSSIAN DISTRIBUTION
• Normal/Gaussian distribution: continuous,
symmetric, bell-shaped distribution, with a
comparable population of smaller and larger values.

LOG-NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
• Log-normal distribution: exhibits a positively skewed
distribution when data is plotted on a graph with an
arithmetic scale but the data exhibits normal
distribution when graphed using a logarithmic scale.

POISSON DISTRIBUTION
Poisson distribution is used to describe a rare
occurrence in a large population.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
• Arithmetic mean
• Median
• Mode
23/01/2024 Measures of central tendency Measurement of Variation 20

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY: ARITHMETIC MEAN
• Arithmetic mean/average: computed by adding the

values of all the items in a set of data and dividing by
the number of items. The formula is:
Ẍ = Sum of values [X] = ƩX
Number of values n
• The notation Ẍ = average and Ʃ (the greek capital letter
sigma) = summation of all the items of the variable X,
and n = number of values in the given set of data.

ARITHMETIC MEAN: STRENGTHS
• It is valuable to evaluate the overall trend of a data set
or provide a quick snapshot of your data
• It is very easy and quick to calculate

ARITHMETIC MEAN: LIMITATIONS
• The use of the “mean” value for decision making may
be misleading as this value may be similar to the mode
and median values of a dataset.
• When there is a high number of outliers or the
distribution pattern of a data set is skewed, the mean
value will not give the accuracy required to make an
objective decision.
*A distribution is said to be skewed when the data points cluster more toward one
side of the scale than the other, creating a curve that is not symmetrical.
Outlier: data point that differs significantly from other observations, which may occur
due to variability in the method of measurement or it may reveal experimental error.
APPLICATION QUESTION ON “ARITHMETIC MEAN”
Table 1: Body temperature (o F) of 20 individuals
98.3 98.5 98.6 98.6 98.8

98.4 98.5 98.6 98.7 98.8
98.4 98.6 98.6 98.7 98.9
98.5 98.6 98.6 98.7 99.0

SOLUTION: ARITHMETIC MEAN QUESTION
➢Find the arithmetic mean of the body temperature values on
slide 8.
Ẍ = ƩX
n
1(98.3) + 2(98.4) + 3(98.5) + 7(98.6) + 3(98.7) + 2(98.8) + 1(98.9)
+ 1(99.0)
20
=1972.4 = 98.6 o F
20

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY: MEDIAN
• Median: fiftieth percentile of a distribution. i.e., the
value below which 50% of the data are found.
➢Also referred to as the middle item given an odd
number of items or
➢Average of the two middle items for even number of
items or weighted average of the two middle items.

MEDIAN: STRENGTHS
• It is easy to compute and understand
• It is not distorted by outliers/skewed data
• It can be determined for ratio, interval and ordinal
scale

MEDIAN: LIMITATIONS
• It does not take into account the precise value of each
observation. Therefore, it does not use all information
available in the data.
• Unlike mean values, it is not open to further
mathematical calculations. Hence, it is not used in many
statistical tests.
• If we join the observation of 2 groups together and
determine the median of the mixture of pooled groups,
the resultant median cannot be expressed in terms of
the individual medians of the pooled groups.
MEDIAN: APPLICATION QUESTION
Find the median of the body temperature values on
slide 8.
Average of the two middle temperature values =
98.6 + 98.6 = 197.2 = 98.6
2 2
Weighted average of the two middle temperature
values =
7(98.6) + 3(98.7) = 986.3 = 98.63 or 98.6
10
23/01/2024
10
Measures of central tendency Measurement of Variation 29
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY: MODE
• Mode: item that appears most frequently in a set of values.
The mode in the array of the set of body temperatures
(slide 8) is 98.6 because that temperature appears the
greatest number of times in the dataset.
• Some data sets do not have a mode because each value
occurs only once. On the other hand, some data sets can
have more than one mode. This happens when the data set
has two or more values of equal frequency which is greater
than that of any other value.

STRENGTHS: MODE
• It is the only measure of central tendency that can
be used for data measured in a nominal scale
(non-numerical attributes).
• It can be calculated easily.

LIMITATIONS: MODE
• It is not used in statistical analysis as it is not
algebraically defined and
• There is more fluctuations in the frequency of
observation when the sample size is small.

REFERENCES
• Stoklosa MJ, Ansel HC [1996]. Pharmaceutical
Calculations, 10th edition: Basic Statistical Concepts,
259-262.
• Data distribution video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bPFNxD3Yg6U

MEASURES OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY/VARIATION/ERRORS
PCT 211
Dr (Mrs) Kolawole
Lecture 3 – 12/12/23

CONTENT OUTLINE
• Measure of central tendency continued

• Measurement of variation.
➢Standard Deviation
➢Standard Error
➢Limits of errors

LEARNING OUTCOMES
expected to:
• Identify the strengths and limitations of the

different measures of central tendency.
• Identify the various measures of variation.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
• Mode

• Mode: item that appears most frequently in a set of values.
The mode in the array of the set of body temperatures
(Table 1) is 98.6 because that temperature appears the
greatest number of times in the dataset.
Table 1: Body temperature (o F) of 20 individuals
98.3 98.6 98.6 98.8 98.5
98.6 98.7 98.4 98.5 98.6
98.7 98.4 98.6 98.7 98.6
98.5 99.0 98.9 98.6 98.9
• Some data sets do not have a mode because each value
occurs only once. On the other hand, some data sets can
have more than one mode. This happens when the data set
has two or more values of equal frequency which is greater
than that of any other value.

STRENGTHS: MODE
• It is the only measure of central tendency that can
be used for data measured in a nominal scale
(non-numerical attributes).
• It can be calculated easily.

LIMITATIONS: MODE
• It is not used in statistical analysis as it is not
algebraically defined and
• There is more fluctuations in the frequency of
observation when the sample size is small.

MEASURES OF VARIATION
• Range
• Deviation/ Average Deviation/ Standard Deviation

MEASURES OF VARIATION: RANGE
• Range [R]: simplest measure of variation,
obtained from the difference between
the largest and smallest item in a data
distribution. Based on the set of body
temperatures for 20 individuals (Slide 5),
R = 99.0 – 98.3 = 0.7.

STRENGTHS: RANGE
• Easier to compute.
• Can be used as a measure of variability
where precision is not required.

LIMITATIONS: RANGE
• The value of range is affected by only 2
extreme scores (lowest and highest values).
• It is not sensitive to the total conditions of the
data distribution.
• It is dependent on sample size – range values
will be greater when sample size is greater.

MEASURES OF VARIATION: DEVIATION
• Deviation: It is the amount by which a given single
item in a set of values differs from the mean of
those values.
➢Data value in question minus average data value
➢A deviation is positive if the item is larger than
the mean, and negative if it is smaller.

MEASURES OF VARIATION: AVERAGE DEVIATION
• Average deviation (A.D.): used to describe how
much, on average, an item deviates from the
mean.
➢It is obtained by summing all the deviations from
the mean without regard to algebraic sign and
dividing by the number of deviations.
• A.D. = Sum of absolute deviations = Ʃ[ X- Ẍ] = Ʃ d
Number of deviations n n
APPLICATION QUESTION ON AVERAGE DEVIATION.
Using a micrometer caliper, the diameter of a sample of
a nylon suture material at different points on the strand
was found to be 0.230 mm, 0.265 mm, 0.225 mm,
0.240 mm, 0.250 mm, 0.240 mm, 0.260 mm, 0.235
mm, 0.225 mm, and 0.270 mm. Calculate the mean and
the average deviation.

SOLUTION TO “AVERAGE DEVIATION” QUESTION:
Diameter Absolute
(mm) deviation
(mm)
Mean =
0.230 0.014
2.440/10 =
0.265 0.021
0.244 mm
0.225 0.019
A.D. = Ʃ[ X- Ẍ] =
0.240 0.004
n
0.250 0.006
0.138/10 =
0.240 0.004
0.0138 or 0.014
0.260 0.016
mm
0.235 0.009
0.225 0.019
0.270 0.026
STANDARD DEVIATION
• The standard deviation, often represented with the
Greek letter sigma, is the measure of a spread of data
around the mean value of a dataset or a measure of
precision of the mean value.
➢A high standard deviation signifies that data is spread
more widely away from the mean, while a low standard
deviation signals that more of the studied data is similar
to (align with) the mean value.

CALCULATION OF STANDARD DEVIATION
• Standard deviation is obtained by:
➢Squaring the deviations
➢Summing the squared deviations and dividing by the
number of deviations minus 1, and
➢Finding the square root of Σd2/n-1.

APPLICATION QUESTION ON STANDARD DEVIATION.
In checking the weights of a set of divided powders, the
following values were obtained: 304 mg, 295 mg, 310
mg, 305 mg, 290 mg, 306 mg, 298 mg, 293 mg, 302 mg,
and 297 mg, Calculate the mean and standard deviation.

SOLUTION: STANDARD DEVIATION QUESTION
Weight (mg) Deviation = (Deviation)2
x-ẍ (mg) Mean = 3000 = 300mg
10
304 +4 16
295 -5 25 S.D. = Ʃ d2 = 368
310 + 10 100 n-1 9
305 +5 25
290 - 10 100 40.9 = 6.4 mg
306 +6 36
298 -2 4
293 -7 49
302 +2 4
297 -3 9
STRENGTHS: STANDARD DEVIATION
• Standard deviation is used to determine the
dispersion of data points.
23/01/2024 Measures of central tendency / Measurement of Variation 21

STANDARD DEVIATION: LIMITATIONS
• The standard deviation
may be deceptive if
taken alone. If the
data exhibits non-
normal curve (skewed
distribution pattern)
or a large amount of
outliers, then the
standard deviation
values would not be Fig. 1: IQ versus MRI count, revealing outliers in
helpful for decision the dataset
making.
STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN (SE OR SEM)
• Sample mean is the arithmetic mean of random sample
values drawn from the population.
• Population mean represents the actual mean of the
whole population.
• Standard error/standard error of the mean (SE/SEM)
measures how much discrepancy there is likely to be in
a sample's mean compared to the population mean.
• When the sample size increases, standard error (SE)
decreases.
SE = SD/ sample size
QUESTION: STANDARD ERRORS
The mean masses of water measured using five-1 mL
pipettes to determine its accuracy are: 0.983 g,
1.022 g, 1.001 g, 0.993 g, 1.011 g.
Masses of Deviati (Deviation)
water on (x-ẍ ) 2
Mean = 5.010 = 1.002 g
0.983 g -0.019 0.000361 5
1.022 g -0.020 0.0004
1.001 g -0.001 0.000001 S.D. = Ʃ d2 = 0.000924
n-1 4
0.993 g -0.009 0.000081
1.011 g +0.009 0.000081 0.000231 = 0.015 g
SOLUTION: QUESTION ON STANDARD ERRORS contd
The mean masses of water measured using five-1
mL pipettes to determine its accuracy are: 0.983 g,
1.022 g, 1.001 g, 0.993 g, 1.011 g.
SD = 0.015 g
SE = 0.015 = 0.015 = 0.0067 g
√5 2.2361

LIMITS OF ERRORS
• Weighing and measuring activities during the
formulation of pharmaceutical products are
prone to errors due to the faulty balances,
improperly graduated cylinders and pipettes.
Moreover, these instruments vary in terms of
sensitivity and accuracy.
• Thus, there is a need to quantify the level of
errors incurred during pharmaceutical processes
to ensure that the extent of error is within the
limits set by the BP, USP, etc (2-10 %)
INCURRED ERRORS DURING PHARMACEUTICAL
PROCESSES
• Random/ non-sampling errors: due to human
error;
➢Examples are minor temperature changes, limits
in human vision, accidental vibrations.
• Systematic/sampling errors: due to taking
samples not perfectly representing the sample
population;
➢Examples are faulty equipment, poor material
handling, lack of instrument checks before use,
poor measurement techniques.
LIMITS OF ERRORS
Limits of error: maximum overestimate and the
maximum underestimate that results from the
combination of the sampling (systematic) and the
non-sampling (random) errors.
• Limits of error can be written in terms of:
➢Units of measurement: 40 g ± 4 g
➢Percentage of estimated value: 40 g ± 10 %,
which implies that the limit of error is 4 g (10 %
of 40 g), thus permissible amount of material to
be weighed should be between 36 g and 44 g.
PERCENT ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
% error in measurement = error of measurement x 100
target volume/ weight
Error of measurement and sensitivity of the weighing

balance are related, that is, the more sensitive a weighing
balance is, the lesser the degree of error that would be
incurred if such instrument is used to weigh materials.

LIMITS OF ERROR: PRESCRIPTION COMPOUNDING
• As a general rule, the maximum tolerable error in
weighing or measuring a sample for prescription
compounding is 5 %.
• Although greater accuracy may be required for
very potent drugs with greater toxicity potential.
This same degree of weighing or measuring
accuracy is expected during the formulation of all
extemporaneously compounded products.

QUESTION/ANSWER 1: LIMITS OF ERROR
If a prescription formula requires 0.5 g of
ammonium chloride, the pharmacist is expected
to weigh such that he/she incurs error that is no
more than 5 %, which translates to maximum
error of 0.025 g.
5/100 x 0.5 g = 0.025 g

Minimum quantity of ammonium chloride that
should be weighed = 0.475 g while maximum
quantity that should be weighed = 0.525 g
The volume of a sample of liquid is stated to
be 27.0 ± 0.5 mL. Between what limits does
the true volume fall?
Solution: 26.5 mL to 27.5 mL

A prescription requires 0.8 mL of glycerin and 30
mL of alcohol. What is the maximum error, in
millilitres, that is permissible in measuring each of
these liquids?
Glycerin: 5 % of 0.8 mL = 0.04 mL
Alcohol: 5 % of 30.0 mL = 1.5 mL

LIMITS OF ERROR: PHARMACEUTICAL MANUFACTURING
Tolerance in measurement in pharmaceutical
manufacturing is more stringent than in
prescription compounding, and maximum
error in weighing/measuring should be less
than 1 %.

The smallest quantity measurable using 10 mL

graduate: 20 % of 10 mL = 20/100 x 10 mL = 2 mL
(minimum volume measurable).
No graduated cylinder should be used to measure a

volume that is less than 20 % of its capacity. This is
because the volume in the cylinder becomes smaller
when the percent error increases.

LIMITS OF ERROR: LEAST WEIGHABLE QUANTITY
Least weighable quantity of a material can be
calculated as:
Sensitivity x 100 %
% error tolerated

What is the least weighable quantity that will
result in an error of ≤ 5 % on a class III
prescription balance
Sensitivity of Class III prescription balance = 6
mg
% error tolerated = 5 %
LWQ = 6 mg x 100 % = 120 mg
5%
REFERENCES
• Stoklosa MJ, Ansel HC [1996]. Pharmaceutical Calculations,
10th edition: Basic Statistical Concepts, 259-262.
• Zatz JL, Glaucia M. Pharmaceutical Calculations, 4th edition:
General Principles of Calculations (Chapter 1). Available
online at:
catalogimages.wiley.com/images/db/pdf/0471433535.01.pdf
• Manikandan S. Measures of central tendency: Median and
mode. J Pharmacol Pharmacother. 2011;2(3):214-215.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kn83BA7cRNM

Elementary Statistics
PCT 211
Dr (Mrs) Kolawole
lecture 4 – 14/12/23
23/01/2024
Test for Significances Regression analysis Dr. (Mrs.) Kolawole 1
CONTENT OUTLINE
• Tests for significance in statistical differences
• Measures of Variation: Coefficient of variation,
Variance ratio test, Analysis of variance
Test for Significances Regression analysis Dr. (Mrs.) Kolawole 23/01/2024 2

TEACHING OUTCOME
At the end of this teaching, the students are expected
to:
• Identify various tests for measuring statistical differences
between two or more data sets.
• know the measures of determining variations between
datasets.

INTRODUCTION: STATISTICAL
SIGNIFICANCE
• The term “statistical significance” was coined by Ronald
Fisher (1890-1962).
• “Test for significance” is a formal procedure that intend to
evaluate if the differences between two or more data sets
are statistically significant

APPLICATION:TEST FOR STATISTICAL
SIGNIFICANCE
• To compare two independent groups. e.g. is the
evaluation of the amount of active pharmaceutical
ingredient in generic and branded amlodipine tablets.
• To test the difference between paired observations. E.g.
is the evaluation of the difference between the blood
sugar level of patient before and after meals.

LEVELS OF DATA MEASUREMENT
Type of data Description Examples
Ratio Data Measures variables on a continuous Height, age, weight
scale, with equal distance between
adjacent values, quantifiable, values
never fall below zero
Interval Data Differences between measurements, Temperature
quantifiable, negative values measurable
Ordinal Data Ordered categories (ranking, order or Service quality rating,
scale) student letter grades
Nominal Data Categories without ordering or direction Marital status, gender
TESTS: SIGNIFICANCE IN STATISTICAL
DIFFERENCES
There are two main types of tests for evaluating
significance in the differences in statistical data.
• Parametric tests
• Non-parametric tests

CONDITIONS: PARAMETRIC TEST
Parametric test is suitable for statistical analysis if:
➢Random independent samples
➢Interval or ratio level of measurement (quantifiable data) –
negative, zero and positive values
➢“Normal distribution” profile and no outliers
➢Homogeneity of variance – equal variance between
independent groups
➢Large sample size
PARAMETRIC TESTS
Examples of parametric test
• Student t-test
• Z-test
• Anova F-test
• Pearson’s correlation coefficient

PARAMETRIC TEST 1: STUDENT’S T-TEST
• Student’s t-test – It is used when the number of samples is <
30. It could involve one sample, two samples and paired samples
➢One sample t-test –used when only one group is studied and an
externally determined claim is compared to the test sample.
➢Two sample t-test– used when data from two different groups
are to be compared
➢Paired sample t-test– used to evaluate whether there is any
significant difference between the mean values of two paired
observations such as the blood sugar of an individual before and
after meals.
PARAMETRIC TEST 2: Z TEST
• Z test: Used for large quantitative data (i.e. n > 30) and
the variance of the two sample population should be
known. The test is used to find out if two sample means
are different.

PARAMETRIC TEST 3: ANOVA F-TEST
• It is used when the number of groups compared are 3
or more, and when the objective of the study is to
compare the means of a quantitative variable
• The test is carried out in a paired set-up (e.g. degree of
tissue retention of drug at 10 min vs 20 min vs 50 min)
• In repeated measures, when the same subject is
evaluated at different time points, e.g. taking blood sugar
level after 5 min, 15 min, 30 min, 60 min of food intake,
etc
PARAMETRIC TEST 4: PEARSON’S
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
• Pearson correlation coefficient is a measure of linear
correlation between two sets of data.
• Conditions to use Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) for
your data analysis are:
➢Both variables should be on an interval or ratio level of
measurement
➢Data from both variables follow normal distributions
➢Data should have no outliers
NULL & ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
• Null hypothesis (H0): is the claim to be tested, which
is a statement of “no difference” between the sample
mean and population mean.
• Alternative hypothesis (HA): is contradictory to the
null hypothesis. It intends to evaluate if there is any
differences between the sample mean and the
population mean.

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
• Alternative hypothesis is one-sided if the value of
the parameter being tested is either larger or
smaller than the null hypothesis value.
• Alternative hypothesis is two-sided if the tested
parameter is simply not equal to the null hypothesis
value, without specifying whether the experimental
value is smaller or larger than the null hypothesis
value.
STEPS TO TEST HYPOTHESIS
• Collect data
• Take the average value
• Calculate test statistics: different equations
associated with various tests
• Decide whether you will reject the null hypothesis
or fail to reject the null hypothesis
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
• Shows how confident you are about your decision to
reject a null hypothesis or accept it.
• Confidence interval is expressed as 95% (0.95) or 99 %
(0.99) confidence interval
• Level of Significance (α) = 1- C = 1-0.95 = 0.05
• The level of significance is inversely related to the
confidence interval of the data being analysed.
TYPES OF STATISTICAL ERROR
• Type I error: rejecting null hypothesis that is
actually true
• Type II error: accepting null hypothesis that is
actually false

ADVANTAGES OF PARAMETRIC TEST
➢More likely to detect a difference that exists, which is
not detectable by non-parametric test.
➢Less likely to make a Type II statistical error whereas
type II error is possible with non-parametric test.

CONDITIONS: NON-PARAMETRIC TEST
Non-parametric test is suitable for statistical analysis
if:
➢Random independent samples
➢Two samples with similar shape and/or equal variance
➢Useful when there is few or no information is known
about the population parameters and distribution
pattern
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
Examples of non-parametric test
• Mann-Whitney Test: used for ordinal data
• Sign test or binomial test (for paired data)
• Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test for matched pair.: at least 16 samples will be studied
• Wilcoxon Rank Sum test (for unpaired data)
• Chi-square test
• Spearman’s Rank correlation (p)
• ANOCOVA
• Kruskal-Wallis test: 24 observations from 4 groups

ADVANTAGES OF NON-PARAMETRIC TEST
• This test is not based on any parameter such as mean
• It does not require that the sample means follow a
particular distribution pattern such as Gaussian/normal
distribution.
• It can be used when the underlying distribution pattern
is far from Gaussian (applicable to almost all levels of
distribution)
• Suitable when the sample size is small
LIMITATIONS: NON-PARAMETRIC TEST
➢More conservative
➢Less statistical power: It is more likely to make type 2
errors, where there is statistical differences between 2
datasets but test result shows otherwise.

BENEFITS OF STATISTICAL SOFTWARE
PACKAGES
• Calculations of the extent of statistical differences
between two or more groups of data is usually
cumbersome and lengthy using mathematical formula.
Thus faster statistical software packages such as SPSS,
GraphPad Prism. etc., are used to evaluate significance
in statistical differences between datasets.
MEASURES OF VARIATION
The various measures of variation are detailed below:
• Coefficient of variation
• Variance ratio test/F-test/F-ratio
• Analysis of variation

MEASURE OF VARIATION:
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
Coefficient of variation expresses the standard deviation
as a ratio of the mean. Its unit is either in fraction or
percentage.
CV% = Standard deviation x 100%
mean
If SD = 0.0136 and mean of the sample = 1.002,
CV% = 0.0136/1.002 x 100% = 1.36%
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION CONTD
The coefficient of variation of the mean drug content
of drug formulations obtained using analytical
methods such as HPLC is normally low but high
values may be recorded for drug content of biological
samples.

MEASURE OF VARIATION: VARIANCE RATIO
• F-test /Variance ratio test evaluates whether the variance of 2
populations from which the samples have been drawn is
equal or not.
• Variance = standard deviation2
• F is the ratio of variances from large sample size, n1
(numerator) to that of smaller sample size, n2 (denominator).

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TEST
This statistical technique evaluates the difference in
variance that exists amongst groups of samples (sample
groups ≥ 3).

References
• De Muth JE (2006). Basic Statistics and Pharmaceutical
Statistical Applications, 117-266.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VK-rnA3-
41c&t=135s
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Ump_ZsX3zw

Elementary Statistics
PCT 211
Dr (Mrs) Kolawole
lecture 5 – 19/12/23
23/01/2024
Regression analysis Statistical Quality Control Dr. (Mrs.) Kolawole 1
CONTENT OUTLINE
• Regression analysis
• Statistical quality control
Regression analysis Statistical Quality Control Dr. (Mrs.) Kolawole 23/01/2024 2

TEACHING OUTCOME
At the end of this teaching, the students are expected
to:
• Know the types of regression analysis
• Understand the importance of statistical quality control.

REGRESSION ANALYSIS
• Purpose of Regression Analysis 1:
➢To find out if a set of independent variables (drug

dose) effectively predict a dependent variable
(therapeutic effect), that is, does the therapeutic effect
derived from drug administration increases as drug
dose is increased?
Dependent variables: variables to be predicted
Independent/explanatory variables: variables used to predict the value of the
dependent variable
REGRESSION ANALYSIS
• Purpose of regression analysis 2
➢To find out which independent variables in particular are

significant predictors of the dependent variable, and
evaluate the magnitude of their impact on the dependent
variable? For example, is it the drug dose (IV)that
determines therapeutic effect (DV) more than the
duration of drug administration (IV)
REGRESSION EQUATION
• The simplest form of the regression equation with
one dependent and one independent variable is
defined by the formula y = c + bx,
where y is the estimated dependent variable score, c is
constant, b is regression coefficient, and x is the
independent variable score.

TYPES OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS
• Simple linear regression
• Multiple linear regression
• Logistics regression
➢Binary logistics regression
➢Ordinal/multinomial logistics regression
➢Nominal logistics regression
SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION
• Simple linear regression: This type of regression

evaluates one dependent variable and one independent
variable.

SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION
Time in weeks is the
independent variables while
the accumulated savings over
time is the dependent variables
This graph shows that the
amount of savings
accumulated increases over 10
weeks
The initial savings during the
first week was about $400.

MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION
• Multiple linear regression: It is used to predict the

outcome of a dependent variable based on the influence
of two or more independent variables.

MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION
The independent variables is the life styles
in terms of biking to work and smoking
while the dependent variable is the health
outcome (Heart diseases)
As the percentage of people that use bike
as their means of transportation increases,
the percentage of the population that have
heart diseases decreases.
On the other hand, as the percentage of
people that smoke increases, the amount of
people with heart problems increases
LOGISTICS REGRESSION
• It measures the relationship between a quantifiable
dependent variable and one or more independent,
continuous variables by plotting the dependent
variables' probability scores.
• There are three types of Logistics regression:
binary, multinomial, and nominal

BINARY REGRESSION
• Binary: It reflects the probability of a certain class
or event taking place (binary response): pass/fail,
win/lose, alive/dead or healthy/sick.

ORDINAL/MULTINOMIAL REGRESSION
• Ordinal regression: used to reflect an ordered response,

where dependent variables has more than 2 categories.

ORDINAL/MULTINOMIAL REGRESSION
Public 0 and Public 1 could depict
two different classes in a school that
was used for the study.
The dependent variables are the gpa
levels of students.
Particular gpa levels have low
probability while other gpa level
have high probability and the gpa
levels could also differ from one
class to the other.
Pared 0 and pared 1 signifies two
scenarios such as different terms in
Regression analysis Statistical Quality Control Dr. (Mrs.) Kolawole an academic session. 23/01/2024 15
LOGISTICS REGRESSION: NOMINAL
• Nominal regression: depicts multilevel response with

no ordering.

LOGISTICS REGRESSION: NOMINAL
The figure shows that weight of
vehicles based on their types defined as
sporty, small, compact, medium and
large.
It is possible that a vehicle that is
depicted as “compact” by a particular
manufacturer may weigh more than
another model that is defined as “large”
by a different manufacturer
There is no specific order in terms of
their weight versus vehicle model
USES OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS
• Determining the strength of predictors: For example,
how well does the drug dose determine therapeutic effect
• Forecasting an effect: For example, how much
additional sales income do I get for each additional
N100,000 spent on marketing pharmaceutical products.
• Trend forecasting: to get approximate values of some
parameters over time, e.g., what will be the price of
paracetamol API in 6 months time?
SOFTWARE: REGRESSION ANALYSIS
• Regression analysis can be conducted and interpreted
quickly using smart statistical software packages such as
Excel, GraphPad Prism, Intellectus; MedCalc®.

CHOICE OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS MODEL
• How do you decide which of the regression models to
analyse your data? By imputing your data into each model
and find out which of the models, the data fits perfectly
with.

CHOICE OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS MODEL
• Over fitting can occur by adding too many variables to the
model, which makes it difficult to be able to identify the
specific regression model that suits a data set.
• Thus a simple model is usually preferable to a more
complex model.

STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL
(SQC)
Statistical Quality Control is the use
of statistical methods in the monitoring and
maintaining of the quality of products and services
in industries such as food, pharmaceuticals and
many manufacturing environments.

STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL (SQC)
• Statistical Quality Control ensures that products and
services are of uniform quality, and process variation
is minimised for better quality.
• There are three main categories to achieve statistical
quality control, namely, descriptive statistics,
acceptance sampling, and statistical process control.

SQC: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
• It describes the quality characteristics of the products
and services
➢It also describes the relationships between various
quality attributes.
➢Relevant descriptive statistics include the mean,
standard deviation, range, and the distribution pattern
of the dataset.
SQC: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
➢Descriptive statistics is not enough to determine if
there is a problem with the quality of a product. Thus,
the other two categories of Statistical Quality Control
are explored.

SQC: ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
• It involves batch sampling and this category is used
when a decision must be made to accept or reject the
entire batch of a product based on the quality found in
a representative sample.
• Acceptance sampling procedure does not help to detect
a quality problem during the production process.

SQC: STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
• It is the most frequently used amongst the three
categories of statistical quality control because they
identify quality problems during the production process.
• It involves inspection of random sample for
predetermined characteristics during production.
• The commonest tools for monitoring the production
process are control charts.
STEPS: STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

CONTROL CHARTS/PROCESS CHARTS/QC
CHART
• Control charts reveals whether a sample of data falls
UCL &
within the acceptable range of variation. LCL:
upper and
Control chart for filling operations lower
control
limits; CL:
centre
limit
(mean)

STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL CONTD
• Control charts have upper and lower control limits. A
process is said to be out of control when a plot of data
reveals that one or more samples fall outside the control
limits.
• Controls charts monitor variations over time in terms
of variables (countable) and attributes (measurable,
requiring yes/no comment).
TYPES OF CONTROL CHARTS
• There are four types of control charts, namely:
➢mean X-bar charts,
➢R-charts,
➢P-charts and
➢C-charts
TYPES OF CONTROL CHARTS CONTD
• Mean X-bar charts: used to monitor changes in the
mean of a process. E.g. mean volume of bottles
filled.
• R-charts: used to monitor dispersion or variance of
a process. E.g. monitoring volume
dispersion/variability in the bottling process over a
period of time.
TYPES OF CONTROL CHARTS
• P-charts: measure the defective proportion in a
sample. E.g. proportion of chipped tablets in a batch.
The unit of values plotted on the chart could be in
percentage.
• C-charts: To monitor the number of defects per
unit. E.g. is the number of bacteria in a millilitre of
water. The unit of values represented on the chart
could be in CFU/mL.
COMPROMISE: SQC
Compromise of
SQC results from
chance causes
and assignable
causes.

References
• Langley C, Perrie Y. (2014). Maths Skills for Pharmacy:
Accuracy and precision, 81-98.
• Statistical Quality control for Beginners. Available online at
slideshare.net/shettyuc/basics-of-statistical-quality-control-
for-pharmaceuticals
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e5g2NmIUdck

PCT 211
INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACEUTICAL
DISPENSING
PHARMACEUTICAL CALCULATIONS
INVOLVING EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHM
2
❖ Learning Objectives
 Understand the rules of exponents and logarithms and their use in
pharmaceutical calculations
 Understand the application of logarithms in pharmaceutical processes.
❖ Recommended textbooks
 Pharmaceutical Calculation Howard C. Ansel
 Pharmaceutics: Basic Principles and Application to Pharmacy Practice.
Alekha K Dash; Somnath Singh and Justin Tolman.
 Introduction to Pharmaceutical Calculations. Judith A Rees, Ian Smith and
Brian Smith.
 Martin’s Physical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences.
Dept. of Pharm. & Pharm. Tech, University of Lagos January 2021

3 EXPONENTIAL NOTATION
 Pharmacists often deal with very large or small numbers in practice, e.g the
concentration of paracetamol in the blood 2 h post administration is
0.000000000 072 g/L; the number of skin cells in human is 110,000,000,000.
 These numbers are difficult to represent or handle especially when carrying

out simple arithmetic; such numbers are handled using exponential
notation.
 Exponential notation is a scientific notation which involves expressing

numbers to the power of 10.
Therefore, the paracetamol concentration in the blood will be represented
as: 7.2 x 10-11; the number of skin cells in human will be: 1.1 x 1011.

EXPONENTS MULTIPLICATION
4 - Coefficients are multiplied; exponents are added.
- Further manipulation may be required to ensure a

final answer with a coefficient between 1 and 10
OR rounded off to the number of significant figure
contained in the least precise component.
Example:
Find the product: (6.8 × 105) × (2.1 × 104)
(6.8 × 2.1) × 10(5 + 4)
= 14.28 × 109
= 1.428 × 1010
≈ 1.4 × 1010
DIVISION
- Coefficients are divided; exponents are
subtracted. Also, further manipulation of final
answer may be required.
Example:
Find the quotient: (9.7 × 1015) ÷ (4.3 × 104)
= (9.7 ÷ 4.3) × 10(15 – 4)
Dept. of Pharm. & Pharm. Tech, University of Lagos = 2.256 x 1011 January 2021
≈ 2.3 × 10 11
5
EXPONENTS
 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
❖ The exponential factors of the numbers to be added or subtracted must be the
same (can be adjusted by moving decimal places)
❖ The coefficients are then added or subtracted and the exponential factor is
retained.
❖ Further manipulation may be required as in multiplication and division.
Example 1: the concentration of ibuprofen excreted in the urine and sweat is 4.3 x 10-7
and 2.7 x 10-6g/L respectively. Determine the total concentration of ibuprofen excreted.
Answer : (4.3+10-7) + (2.7 x 10-6)
(4.3 x 10-6 x10-1)+ (2.7 x 10-6)
(0.43 x 10-6) + (2.7 x 10-6)
( 0.43 + 2.7) x 10-6
= 3.13 x 10-6 ≈ 3.1 x 10-6
EXPONENTS
6
 Example 2: Find the difference : (1.4 x 104) – (5.1 x 103)
Answer: (1.4 x 103 x 101) – (5.1 x 103)
14 x 103 – 5.1 x 103
(14 – 5.1) x 103
= 8.9 x 103
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Write the following in exponential form
1) 236 000 000 000
2) 0.0000000625
3) 815
4) 0.091
7 EXPONENTS
Determine the following:
1) (4.3 × 107) + (2.7 × 108)
2) (5.9 × 1012) − (9.9 × 1011)
3) (8.2 x 102) x (2.2 x 10-6)
4) How long does it take light to travel to the earth from the sun in seconds, given
that the earth is 1.5 X 108 km from the Sun and the speed of light is 3 X 105
km/s?
5) Two particles weigh 0.00000243 grams and 0.0000000304 grams. What is the
difference in their weight?
8 LOGARITHM
 Logarithm represents another way of expressing large numbers.
 It refers to the power to which a base must be raised to obtain a number.

if N = bx;
logbN = x -------Logarithmic notation
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑁
logb N=
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏
Where a represents any base, however, in practice, base 10 (known as common
logarithm, written without the notation of the base) and base e (known as the natural
logarithm, denoted as ‘ln’) are commonly used.
E.g: If 10x = 1000. find x
log 101000 3 ln 1000 3
x= log10 1000 = =1 OR 𝑥= =
log10 10 ln 10 1
x=3
9 LOGARITHMS
 Example:
If 4x = 64. find x
log 64 1.806
x = log4 64 = =
log 4 0.602
x=3
 RULES OF LOGARITHMS
1) loga(xy) = logax + logay 5) If ln x = z; then x = ez
2) log a(x/y) = loga x – logay 6) log10 = 1
3) loga xz = zlogax 7) ln e = 1 (Also, ln ez =z)
4) If logax = z; then x = az 8) ln x = 2.303logx
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑋
(log x = z, then x = 10z) 9) loga X=
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎
10) log 1 = 0
10 LOGARITHMS
Evaluate the following:
1) log5 + log8
2) log8 - log4
3) 2log42 – 2log2

11 APPLICATION OF LOGARITHM
 Kinetics study
 Kinetics involves the description of the rate of appearance or disappearance
of a substance.
 The first order kinetics is a common type of kinetics observed in

pharmaceutical processes.
 In first order processes, the rate is dependent on the concentration or amount

of only one component.
 Examples include:
o Radioactive decay or decomposition of medication upon storage
o Pharmacokinetics of medicines in which rate of elimination of drug at a
particular time is proportional to the concentration of drug remaining.
o Microorganism population growth or death in which the growth or death rate
is dependent on the concentration of the organism.
12 APPLICATION OF LOGARITHM IN PHARMACY
– FIRST ORDER KINETICS
 First order reaction is generally represented as:
 A = A0𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
where A : amount of radioactive substance/amount of
organism/concentration of drug remaining at time ‘t’
A0 : initial amount of substance/organism/drug concentration
k : rate of decay/rate of microorganism growth or death/rate of
elimination of the drug. ln A
Taking the natural log In A 0
In A = In A0 . In 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
In A = In A0 + In 𝑒 −(𝑘𝑡) k
In A = In A0 – kt In 𝑒 (ln = log 𝑒 ; ln 𝑒 = log 𝑒 𝑒 =1)
In A = In A0 – kt (equation of a straight line) t
y = c + mx
13 FIRST-ORDER KINETICS
 To determine k
In A = In A0 – kt
ln A – In A0 = -kt (multiple through by -)
ln A0 − ln 𝐴 A A
ln A0 – ln A = kt; k = OR ln ( 0) = kt ; k = ln ( 0)/t
𝑡 𝐴 𝐴
 Questions
❖ To determine rate of decomposition
 An extemporaneous preparation of amoxycillin contains 5 mg/mL upon preparation;
2 hours after preparation, it contained 2 mg/mL . Calculate the rate of
decomposition of amoxycillin assuming it undergoes a first order kinetic process.
ln A – In A0 = -kt where A : 2 mg/mL; A0 : 5mg/mL; t : 2 h
ln A0 – ln A = kt
A A
ln ( 0) = kt; k = ln ( 0)/t
𝐴 𝐴
5 ln 2.5
k = ln ( )/2; k = ; k = k = 0.46 ℎ−1
2 2
❖ To calculate concentration of a drug at a particular time
 A drug solution containing 500 units/mL has a half life of 10 days. What is its
concentration in 7 days?
Note: half life is the time taken for the initial concentration to be halfed.
A
ln ( 𝐴0) = kt ; A0 : 500 units/mL; A : 250 units/mL; t = 10; k = ?
500
ln250 = k x 10 ; k = 0.069/day
 To determine concentration in 7 days
A
ln ( 𝐴0) = kt ; A0 : 500 units/mL; t : 7 days; k = 0.069; A = ?
500 500
ln = 0.069 x 7 ; ln = 0.483 ( ln x = z; x = 𝑒 𝑧 )
𝐴 𝐴
500 500 500
= 𝑒 0.483 ; A = 0.483 ; A = = 308.6
𝐴 𝑒 1.62
A = 308 units/mL
❖ To calculate time required to attain a particular concentration.
 Metronidazole suspension has a decomposition rate of 0.033 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1. Estimate
the shelf life of the drug given that 90% of initial content is acceptable (that is,
how long will it take for the potency to decrease to 90%?).
A
ln ( 0) = kt A0: 100%; A: 90%; k = 0.033 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1 ; t =?
𝐴
100
ln ( 90 ) = 0.033 x t;
0.105
t = 0.033 ; t = 3.192 ~ 3 days
❖ Determination of population death rate in organisms

 The initial population of spores is 104 mL-1; following exposure to heat at 1200C
for 60 seconds, the population reduced to 10 mL-1. calculate the rate constant.
ln A0 – ln A = kt; A0 :104 mL-1; A :10 mL-1; t : 60 s, k = ?
ln A0 − ln 𝐴 ln104 – ln 10
k= 𝑡
;k= 60
k= 0.115 s-1 i.e 11.5% of the remaining spores is destroyed every second at 1200C.
❖ PRACTICE QUESTION
 Paracetamol (pcm) injection of 125 mg/mL strength was administered intravenously.
After 2 hours, its concentration in the plasma is 100 mg/mL. Determine the elimination
rate constant of pcm assuming it undergoes first order process. What is the half-life of
the drug?
( k = 0.1116 𝒉−𝟏 ; 𝒕𝟏/𝟐 = 6 h )
❖ Temperature and Stability Studies

 Temperature represents one of the factors that affects the stability of drug products.
 In accelerated stability studies, the decomposition of substances is expedited by
subjecting to stress conditions such as increase in temperature.
 Usually, the rate of decomposition at a number of elevated temperatures is
determined; the rate of decomposition at 250C is then extrapolated to determine its
shelf life.
17 TEMPERATURE AND STABILITY STUDIES
 The effect of temperature on the rate constant of drug decomposition is represented
by Arrhenius equation:
k = A𝑒 −Ea/𝑅𝑇 Where k : rate constant ( rate of decomposition);

Take Natural log A: frequency factor
ln k = ln (A . 𝑒 −Ea/𝑅𝑇 ) Ea: activation energy(J/mol)
ln k = ln A + ln 𝑒 −Ea/𝑅𝑇 R: energy/gas constant = 8.3145 J/mol.K
E
ln k = ln A - 𝑅𝑇a ln 𝑒 ( ln 𝑒 = 1) T: temperature in kelvin (K)
E
ln k = ln A - 𝑅𝑇a
ln k ln A
Ea 1
ln k = ln A – ( )
𝑅 𝑇
Ea
y = c + mx 𝑅
Dept. of Pharm. & Pharm. Tech, University of Lagos
1/T January 2021
 To determine k at two temperatures, i.e. k1 and k2
y –y
Slope, m = x2 – x1
2 1
E ln k2 – ln k1 𝐴
- 𝑅a = ( ln A – ln B = ln (𝐵) )
1/T2 – 1/T1
Ea ln(k2/k1)
- = )
𝑅 1/T2 – 1/T1
k
Make ln ( 2) the subject of formula
k1
k E 1 1
ln ( 2) = - 𝑅a (T - T ) ( ln x = z; x = 𝑒 𝑧 )
k1 2 1
𝐸𝑎 1 1
k2 − 𝑅 (𝑇2−𝑇1)
( )=𝑒
k1
𝐸𝑎 1 1
− ( − )
k2 = k1 𝑒 𝑅 𝑇2 𝑇1 ;
𝐸𝑎 1 1 𝐸𝑎 1 1
− ( − ) − ( − )
1 𝑒 𝑅 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑒 𝑅 𝑇2 𝑇1 −1
To find k1; = ; k1 = ( )
k1 k2 k2
 To determine temperatures, T1 and T2
k E 1 1
ln ( 2) = - 𝑅a (T - T )
k1 2 1
𝑅
Multiply both sides by - E
a
k
𝑅 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
- k1
=T -T
1 1
Ea 2 1
k
𝑅 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
k
𝑅 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
1
=
1
- k1 ; T = ( 1 − k1 ) −1
T2 T1 Ea 2 T1 Ea
k
𝑅 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
k
𝑅 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
To find T1 ;
1
=
1
+ k1 ; T1 = (
1
+ k1 ) −1
T1 T2 Ea T2 Ea

 To determine activation energy, Ea
k
𝑅 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
- k1 = 1 - 1
Ea T2 T 1
k 1 1
- 𝑅 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 ) = Ea ( - )
k1 T2 T1
− 𝑅 𝑙𝑛 (k2 )
Ea = 1 k11
−
T2 T1
 Question
 Vitamin c syrup is stored at 250C and 750C temperature respectively. The
rate constant of decomposition at 750C is 0.0708 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 . What is the value of
the rate constant at 250C given that the activation energy is 50 kJ/mol.

𝐸𝑎 1 1
− ( − )
𝑒 𝑅 𝑇2 𝑇1 −1
k1 = ( ) 𝐸𝑎 : 50 kJ/mol ≡ 50000 J/mol; R : 8.3145; k2 : 0.0708 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1
k2
50000 1 1
− ( − )
𝑒 8.3145 348 298
k1 = ( ) −1 T1 : 250C ≡ 25+273 = 298K; T2 : 750C ≡ 75+273=348K; k1 = ?
0.0708
k1 = 0.0039 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1
 The rate constant for decomposition of diphenhydramine when subjected to 300K

and 500K temperature is 0.018 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 and 0.25 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 respectively. What is the
activation energy required for initiation of the decomposition process.
− 𝑅 𝑙𝑛 (k2 )
Ea = 1 k11 k1 : 0.018 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 ; k2 : 0.25 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 ; T1 : 300K; T2 : 500K; R: 8.3145 J/mol.K
−
T2 T1
− 8 .3145 𝑙𝑛 ( 0.25 )
Ea = 1
0.018 = 16407 J/mol ≡ 16.4 kJ/mol
− 1
500 300
 The activation energy of the reaction involving the decomposition of metronidazole
in its formulation is 65 kJ/mol. The rate of decomposition at 250K is 0.0031 𝑠 −1 . At what
temperature will the decomposition rate be 0.054 𝑠 −1 .
𝑅 𝑙𝑛 (
k2 )
1
T2 = ( T − k1 ) −1 E : 65 kJ/mol ≡ 65000 J/mol; k : 0.0031 𝑠 −1
; k : 0.054 𝑠 −1
;
E a 1 2
1 a
0.054 )
8.3145 ln (
T2 = (
1
− 0.0031 ) −1 T1 : 250K; T2 = ?; R: 8.3145
250 65000
T2 = 275K
 The slope of a straight line graph ln k vs 1/T is -7500K and the intercept is 21.7.
(A). calculate the activation energy in KJ/mol.
(B). determine the frequency factor.
(C). calculate the rate constant at 300K.

Ea 1
(A) ln k = ln A – ( ) ------------ (1)
𝑅 𝑇
y = c + mx
Ea Ea
m=– ; - 7500 = – ; R = 8.3145 J/mol.K
𝑅 𝑅
Ea
-7500 = – 8.3145 ;
Ea = 7500 x 8.3145 = 623595 J/mol ≡ 62.4 kJ/mol

(B) Frequency factor is A
From equation 1: ln A = c; c is intercept
ln A = 21.7
A = 𝑒 21.7 ; A = 2.656 x 109
(C) k = A𝑒 −Ea/𝑅𝑇 ; T: 300K; Ea = 623595 J/mol ; A : 2.656 x 109 ; R : 8.3145 J/mol.K, k=?
623595
−8.3145 𝑥 300
k = 2.656 x 109 𝑒 ; k = 0.0369 per unit time
PCT 211
INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACEUTICAL
DISPENSING
Variation and Graphical Methods

2 ❖ Learning Objectives
 Understand the concept of variation and its application in
pharmaceutical calculations
 Know various types of graphical representation of data
Brian Smith.
Dept. of Pharm. & Pharm. Tech, University of Lagos January, 2022

3 VARIATION
 In practice, most pharmaceutical calculations deal with simple,
direct relationships. i.e. twice the cause, double the effect.
 For example: if 3 tablets contains 150 mg diclofenac, how many

tablets can be obtained from 4500 mg diclofenac
3 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 150 𝑚𝑔 4500 𝑥 3
= ; 𝑥= ; 𝑥 = 90 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠
𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 4500 𝑚𝑔 150
 However, in some instance, inverse relationships are applicable. i.e.

twice the cause, half the effect. This is known as VARIATION.
 E.g. dilution of a substance or a solution will cause a decrease in the

strength or concentration of the substance in a formulation.
4 VARIATION
❖ Question
 If 100 mL of a 5% sodium chloride solution is diluted to 400 mL. What is
the %strength of the resulting formulation.
100 𝑚𝐿 𝑥% 100 𝑥 5 You can use C1V1 =
= ,𝑥 = = 1.25%
400 𝑚𝐿 5% 400 C2V2
 If 0.5 mL of a rotavirus vaccine contains 5000 units of antigens, how

many units would be present in each milliliter (i.e. units/mL) if the 0.5 mL
of vaccine was diluted to 2 mL with water for injection?
0.5 𝑚𝐿 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 5000
= ; 𝑥= ; 𝑥 = 1250 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 , i.e. 1250 units will be in 2 mL
2 𝑚𝐿 5000 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2
1250 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 1 𝑚𝐿 1250 𝑥 2
= ; 𝑥 = ; 𝑥 = 2500 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑚𝐿
𝑥 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2 𝑚𝐿 1

5 GRAPHICAL METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION
 A graph is a visual presentation showing the relationship between 2 or more variables. It
shows how a variable (known as the dependent variable) changes with alteration in
another variable ( the independent variable).
 The graph consists of 4 quadrants of abscissa (x-axis) and ordinates (y- axis) in the
negative and positive direction. The independent variable is measured along the x-axis
while the dependent variable is measured along the y-axis.
 e.g. following the intravenous administration of paracetamol, its plasma concentration at
different times is represented in Figure 1.
120
❖ The graph shows that at initial
time of 2 h, the plasma
Plasma Concentration
100
80 concentration of paracetamol is
60
high.
(%)
40
20
0 ❖ This gradually falls to about 20%
0 0.5 1 2 3 4
Time (h)
5 6 8 12
in 6 h.
Figure 1: Graph of plasma concentration of ❖ A steady low concentration is

paracetamol over time maintained between 8 – 12 h.
6 GRAPHICAL METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION
❖ Types of Graph
 The type of graphical representation depends on the data type. i.e.
numerical or non numerical data.
Straight line graph (Linear graph)

 A graph is linear if the equation from which it is derived has the following
terms: y = mx + c.
Where y is dependent variable; x is independent variable, m is slope; c is
intercept
 In a straight line graph, the relationship between the variables can be

obtained from which an unknown variable can be determined.
 In addition, the extent of relationship between 2 variables can be

evaluated using the correlation coefficient (derived from coefficient of
determination - R2).
7 LINEAR GRAPH
 The coefficient of determination tells how much variability in
dependent variable, y is explained by the independent variable, x.
E.g. an R2 of 0.60 means 60 % of variability in y is explained by x while
40% could be due to other factors.
 Correlation coefficient (r) demonstrates the strength of the

relationship between x and y variables. It ranges from -1 to +1. a
value of 0 signifies no relationship; -1 or +1 value signifies a perfect
negative or positive linear correlation respectively.
r = R2
 Generally, an acceptable value of at least 0.70 is desired (values

below 0.70 reflects weak correlation). However, for majority of
analysis, an r value close to +1 or -1 is desired.
8 LINEAR GRAPH
Question
 Upon analysis, the milli absorbance unit (mAU) and concentration of nicotinamide
solution is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Analysis of nicotinamide solution a) Find the relationship between the
Concentration (µg/mL) Milli-absorbance unit concentration and mAU of
25 23.9
nicotinamide solution
50 48.2
75 71.9
b) What is the predicted concentration
100 93.2
when the mAU of the solution is 255mAU
125 122.5
150 143.7
c) Calculate the correlation coefficient
175 168.1
for the linear relationship between
200 191.2
concentration and mAU
225 215.2
250 231.1 Plotting a linear graph using Microsoft
275 262.9 excel: https://youtu.be/cRO9aqvGxpg
300 286.9
9 LINEAR GRAPH
 Plot a linear graph using Microsoft Excel

a) Linear relationship is:
350 y = 0.9483x + 0.8045
300 y = 0.9483x + 0.8045
milli-absorbance unit
R² = 0.9991
b) From the equation y = 0.9483x + 0.8045
250 y = 255;
255 = 0.9483x + 0.8045
(mAU)
200
255 −0.8045
150 x=
0.9483
100 x = 267.97 ≈ 268 µg/mL
50
Alternatively, x can be obtained from
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Microsoft Excel
concentration (µg/mL) (https://youtu.be/cRO9aqvGxpg)
Figure 2: Linear graph of nicotinamide solution
c) r = R2 ; R2 = 0.9991
r = (0.9991) ; r = 0.9996
10 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION GRAPH
 Frequency distribution graph presents numerical values along with their associated frequency.
E.g. particle size analysis of granules prior to tableting
 The types of frequency distribution are:

 Normal distribution
 Skewed distribution – positive or negative skewed distribution
 Bimodal and multimodal distribution
Figure 3 : types of frequency distribution graph (A)- positive skewness; (B) – normal distribution; (C)-
negative skewness
11 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION GRAPH
❖ Relative distribution graph of cumulative frequency distribution graph
 This presents the relative frequencies (expressed in %, fraction or decimal of expected
total) of the categories or numerical value.
E.g. time dependent in vitro release of drug in physiologic media and particle size distribution
of granules.
A B
Figure 4: cumulative in vitro release graph of dopamine (A) and cummulative % oversize and
undersize of particle size of granules (B) adapted from Gulati et al., 2012 and jude.edu.sy
12 BAR GRAPH
 Bar graphs are rectangular bars of equal width used to represent categories (i.e, non-
numerical data) type of data with the height corresponding to the frequency.
E.g. the drug loading of a drug such as paclitaxel in different nano-formulations prepared using
different organic solvent (Table 2) can be represented as a bar graph.
2.5
Table 2: paclitaxel nano-formulation drug loading

2
Solvent Drug loading
(%)
drug loading (%)

1.5
chloroform 1
1
dichloromethane 1.5
0.5
ethyl acetate 2
0
acetone 1.8 chloroform dichloromethane ethyl acetate acetone
organic solvent
Figure 5: bar chart of drug loading of paclitaxel in

formulation obtained from different organic solvents
13 HISTOGRAM
 Histogram presents frequencies of numerical data which have been organised
into intervals of equal length as continuous rectangular bar graphs ( with no
space in between the bars).
 Histogram can determine if a data is normally distributed, skewed or of
bimodal distribution.
Figure 6: Histogram showing a normal distribution

(adapted from Graphical Presentation 1 MA. Economics, Karachi University).
QUESTION: identify the differences between bar chart and histogram
14 PIE CHART
 Pie charts presents categories of data as segments/ sectors in a circle.
 Each sector is proportional to the percent of the whole that each category represents.
 It is used to represent data with a relatively small number of categories.
 E.g. occurrence of selected diseases in people living in Mushin LG of Lagos in Table 3.
Table 3: selected diseases in residence of Mushin LG, Lagos
Disease Number of
Patient
Hypertension 13500
Diabetes 6600
Peptic Ulcer 4500
Dermatitis 3600
Hypertension Diabetes
Open Angle Glaucoma 1800
Peptic Ulcer Dermatitis
Open Angle Glaucoma
Figure 7: Pie chart showing distribution of

selected diseases in Mushin LG, Lagos
15
BOX PLOT
 Box plot also known as box and whisker plot summarises data by showing the range
(minimum and maximum), median, 1st quartile (lower quartile) and 3rd quartile (upper
quartile) of the data.
 It can also show outliers present in the data.
Figure 8: box plot illustration adapted from the data visualization catalogue.

16 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
❖ Rules for Graphical representation
 Suitable title
 Measurement unit should be indicated
 Proper scale
 Index - for colours, shades, lines
 Keep it simple
 Neatness - choose appropriate size, lettering, colours such
that the graph is a visual aid for presentation of information.

PCT 211
INTRODUCTION TO
Significant Figures, Determination of

Errors: Accuracy and Precision,
Mass and Volume Equivalent
2 ❖ Learning Objectives
 Show understanding of the concept of significant figures, error
determination in weighing/measuring devices, mass and volume
equivalent and its application in pharmacy.
Brian Smith.

3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
 The number of significant figures (s.f) refer to the number of figures known with
some degrees of reliability following measurement determination.
 Significant figures contains number of digits known with certainty (absolute

values) with the last digit representing an approximate number (i.e an inexact
number showing some degree of uncertainty).
E.g. 475g – 470g is absolute while 5g is approximate, it can be 4.95g, 5.15g etc.
❖ Rules of Significant Figures

1. All non zero digits are significant e.g. 11.6912 contains 6 s.f
2. Zero digits flanked by non zero digits is significant e.g. 11.0691 contains 6 s.f
3. Initial zeroes to the left of the first digit are NOT significant as they only indicate
the location of the decimal, thus gives place value to the digit that follow.
E.g. 0.02g is 1 s.f; 0.0002g is 1 s.f
4. Zero after a decimal point if preceded by a non zero digit is significant.
e.g. 0.20 g - 2 s.f
5. Zero at the end of a number not preceded by a decimal point is not necessarily
significant. The number of significant figures will depend on the sensitivity of the instrument.
E.g. 120g can either be 2 or 3 s.f. If the sensitivity of the balance is 10g, the number of s.f is 2, if
the sensitivity is 1g, the number of s.f is 3.
❖ One of the factors determining the degree of approximation is the precision of instrument
used. It will be incorrect to claim that 6.57 mL has been measured in a cylinder graduated
in units of 0.1 mL OR that 2.562g was weighed on a balance sensitive to 0.01g.
❖ Therefore, one must clearly distinguish between s.f and decimal places.
❖ In a recorded measurement, the number of decimal places indicates the degree of

precision with which the measurement was made while the significant figure retained
indicates the degree of accuracy that is sufficient for a given purpose.
❖ Rules for Rounding/Determining Significant Figures in Mathematical Operation
1. Retain all the certain figures and one uncertain figure. E.g. measurement
obtained from a ruler graduated in cm will be recorded as 11.3 cm ( 0.3 being
the small graduation on the ruler indicating the uncertain digit).
2. While rounding to a decimal place, increase the last retained figure by 1 if the
last dropped figure is 5 or greater. E.g. 4.548 – 4.55 (3 s.f); 4.544 – 4.54 (3 s.f)
3. When adding or subtracting approximate numbers, retain the same number of

decimal places as the number with the least decimal place used in the
calculation. E.g. 0.489g + 0.1875g + 162.4g + 120.78 g = 283.8565 ≈ 283.9g
 However, when an instrument has the capability to weigh precisely all quantities,
rounding may be deemed inappropriate.

 For example, an assumption is made in pharmaceutical calculations that
all measurement in the filling of a prescription or compounding a
formulation are performed with equal precision by the pharmacist,
therefore in a formula, addition of quantities: 5.5g, 0.01g and 0.005g will
give 5.515g.
4. When multiplying or dividing approximate numbers, retain the same number

of s.f as the number having the least s.f in the calculation.
E.g. 0.00502 X 405.23 = 2.03 (3 s.f)
5. When multiplying or dividing an approximate number by an absolute

number; the rounding should be done based on the s.f of the measured
number. E.g. 1.54 mg x 96 = 243.84 mg ≈ 244 mg (3 s.f).

6. In logarithmic calculations, the same number of s.f is retained in the mantissa
as there are in the original number.
E.g. to determine the value of log 579 = 2 . 762678564 = 2.763 (3 s.f as it is in 579)
characteristics mantissa
 When taking antilogarithms, the resulting number should have as many s.f as
the mantissa in the logarithm.
 E.g. the antilog of 1.579 = 37.931 ≈ 37.9 (to 3 s.f because the mantissa of the
original number is 3 s.f)

8
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
 Practice Question
❖ State the number of s.f in the following
 1.05 pound
 0.001 mg
 1000 L
 0.006050
❖ Round each of the following to 3 s.f

 0.003629
 32.75
 200.39
 21.635
❖ Round each of the following to 3 d.p
 37.79502
 0.00494
 0.00083
 6.12063
❖ If a mixture of 7 ingredients contain the following approximate weights:

26.83g, 275.3g, 2.752g, 4.04g, 5.197g, 16.64g and 0.085g. What can you
record as the valid combined weight of the ingredient.
❖ Perform the following computation

 6.39 – 0.008
 24 x 0.25
 56.824 ÷ 0.0905
 log 34
 Antilog 3.5725
10 DETERMINATION OF ERRORS: ACCURACY AND PRECISION
 Accuracy refers to how close measured values agree with the correct value.
 Precision refers to how close an individual measurement agrees with another.
 Precision is an indication of reproducibility of a measurement demonstrated

by standard deviation (S.D) of multiple repeated measurements. A high S.D
indicates low precision and vice versa.
 If 100 g of a substance is weighed multiple times on a balance having 10%

error due to manufacture defect, the precision can be up to 99.99%.
However, the weight accuracy is 90% due to the systematic error inherent in
the instrument.
 Therefore, a measurement can be of high precision but of low accuracy.
11 ACCEPTABLE ERRORS/MEASUREMENT OF ACCURACY
❖ Assay of drug substance
 According to the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP), unless otherwise specified,
the weight of a substance for an assay should not deviate from expected value
by more than 0.1%. The uncertainty in the measurement should not exceed one-
third of 0.1% to ascertain the accuracy of the measurement.
 For reproducibility of measurement, the measurement of uncertainty is satisfactory

if 2 times the S.D of not less than 10 replicate weights divided by the desired
weight does not exceed 0.10%.
❖ Compounding prescriptions and industrial manufacturing

 According to USP, a maximum error of ±5% is acceptable in compounding
prescriptions unless otherwise stated e.g. higher accuracy is required for potent
substances.
 On the other hand, a maximum of ±1% is acceptable in industrial measurements.
12 ACCEPTABLE ERRORS/MEASUREMENT OF ACCURACY
 The sensitivity ( the lowest quantity detectable) of a balance is an important
parameter used to ensure accuracy in measurement. Therefore the pharmacist
need to decide which balance will fulfil the needed accuracy.
 For example, a powder weight of 19.2g was obtained using a balance having
0.1g sensitivity. This means the last digit is uncertain. It can be 19.1, 18.9, 19.3g
etc. Alternatively, a balance of 0.01g sensitivity can be used to weigh a powder
of 19.21, 19.22g etc. thereby improving the likelihood of obtaining 19.2g with
higher accuracy.
 A balance capable of detecting very small measurements, for example up to a

hundred-thousandth may be most preferred for potent drugs of narrow
therapeutic window such as digoxin and warfarin.
 The same principle applies to measurement of volumes.

13 MASS AND VOLUME EQUIVALENT
 In Pharmacy, weight of an ingredient or preparation is often converted to
volume or vice versa.
 The purpose of the conversion is either to measure the volume of a substance

when expressed in units of weight in the formula OR to weigh an equivalent
amount of a material when the formula is expressed in units of volume.
 The density or specific gravity is used in carrying out the required conversion.
 Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. It is expressed as grams per
cubic centimetre (g/cc or g/cm3).
 1 cm3 = 1 mL
9𝑔
 E.g. if 10 mL of arachis oil weighs 9g, its density is: 10 𝑚𝐿 = 0.9 g/mL

 Specific gravity (s. gr) is a ratio of the weight of a substance to the weight
of an equal volume of another substance chosen as standard at the same
temperature - usually 250C.
 Water is used as standard for specific gravity determination in both solids
and liquids .
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 specific gravity = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 Specific gravity is dimensionless and expressed in decimal.
 E.g. If 10 mL of arachis oil weighs 9g and 10 mL of water weighs 10g under

similar conditions. Determine the specific gravity of arachis oil.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 9𝑔
specific gravity = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 10 𝑔 = 0.9
 Substances with specific gravity lesser than 1 are lighter than water and
vice versa.

❖ Question
 If 54.96 mL of castor oil weigh 52.78g. What is its specific gravity?
 specific gravity =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 Determine the weight of equal volume of water, since the density of water is 1 g/cm3;
54.96 mL of water will weigh 54.96g
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 52.78 𝑔

 specific gravity = = 0.9603
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 54.96 𝑔
 Density and specific gravity are the same value.
 In contrast, density is a concrete number with units while specific gravity is a ratio of like
quantities, hence an abstract number having no units.
 Density can vary with the unit of measure. E.g. density of water can be expressed as 1
g/mL or 1000 g/L; whereas, specific gravity is a constant value for each substance since
it is dimensionless (s. gr of water is 1).

❖ Questions
 What is the weight in grams of 3620 mL of alcohol with a s.gr of 0.8207?
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙
specific gravity of alcohol =
Volume of substance is the same as volume of water in s.gr determination.
3620 mL water ≡ 3620 g water (density of water is 1 g/mL)
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑝. 𝑔𝑟 𝑥 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙 = 0.8207 𝑥 3620 = 2968 g
 What is the volume in mL of 20 g liquid paraffin with a s.gr of 0.890

specific gravity = ;
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛 20 𝑔
weight of equal volume of water = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 0.890 = 23 g
The volume of 23 g water is 23 mL (density of water is 1 g/mL)
Volume of liquid paraffin is the same as volume of water in s.gr determination,
therefore volume of liquid paraffin is 23 mL.
 Other applications of specific gravity include:
 Automated compounder used in the preparation of total parenteral
nutrition admixtures calculates the weight of components based on
specific gravity, volume and %concentration of the solution. The
compounder then uses the weight to make the mixture rather than
measuring the volume of the components.
 Specific gravity is used clinically in urinalysis test. S.gr of urine can be

indicator of different disease states, concentration of particles in urine or
a patients degree of dehydration.
 The s.gr of urine is between 1.010 and 1.025. higher values indicates the
urine is concentrated which may be due to presence of excess
electrolytes, presence of glucose or protein, excessive water loss,
reduced fluid intake or other factors.
 A low s.gr indicates a dilute urine which might be due to increased fluid
intake, diabetes insipidus, renal disease etc.
❖ Calculate the weight of liquefied phenol
Rx (density 1.07g/mL)and propylene glycol
Testosterone proprionate 2g (1.04 g/mL)needed to prepare twenty
four 15 mL bottles of the following
Mineral oil, light 10g
Formula for a cold sore
Polysorbate 80 1g Liquefied phenol 0.4 mL
Methyl cellulose 2%gel 87g Camphor 0.5 g
Benzocaine 2.2 g
s.gr of mineral oil and polysorbate 80 is 0.85 Ethanol 65 mL
and 1.08 respectively. Calculate the volume Propylene glycol 17 mL
of each needed to fill the prescription Purified water to 100 mL
❖ If 6 mL of camphor weighs 53.6 g, calculate its density
❖ If 500 mL of Ferric chloride solution weighs 650 g, what is its specific gravity.

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PCT 211 - DRUG DISPENSING

DR. U.N. UBANI-UKOMA

• Definition and terms associated with Drug Dispensing

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

• Receive and validate prescription

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Good dispensing practice ensures that the correct

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Howard C. Ansel(2010): Pharmaceutical Calculations. 13th Edition.

Marriot J.F., Wislon K.A., Langley C.A., Belcher D. (2012):

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

UNIT ABBREVIATION LITRE EQUIVALENT

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

UNIT ABBREVIATION GRAM EQUIVALENT

Excerpt from Pharmaceutical Compounding and Dispensing. Chapter 4, page 49

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

The information on the label

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Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

• Storing at specific temperatures

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Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

• Dosage forms can be classified based on route of administration or

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Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,

• Emulsions are pharmaceutical preparations

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Department of Pharmaceutics & Pharmaceutical Technology,