Week 7

Lipids II
Application in the Food Industry

Dr. Kay Oduse

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 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this class students should be able to;

1. List common fats and oils used in

food industry.
2. Describe the refining process of fats
and oils.
3. Describe various methods of
processing fat and oil.
4. Identify common sources of bakery
fats and oils.
5. List and describe major fats and oils
used in bakeries.

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Background
• Oils and fats form an important part of a healthy diet.
• Structurally they are esters of glycerol with three fatty acids (called either
triacylglycerols or triglycerides).
• It is these fatty acids that give the functionality to fats.
• Chemically, they can be divided into four main types
❖saturated,
❖cis-monounsaturated,
❖cis-polyunsaturated and
❖trans fatty acids.
• Although no naturally occurring fat is either 100% saturated or 100% unsaturated
(but is a mix of the two). See next slide.

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Background
• The choice of fat used is based on functionality.
• The main aspects of this functionality choice are
(a) melting point and melting profile (how the solid fat content changes with
temperature),
(b) crystallization characteristics,
(c) storage stability (particularly oxidative stability) and
(d) nutritional characteristics.

• Sources/Origin
(a) vegetable origin (e.g. palm oil, rapeseed oil, soyabean oil, olive oil, cocoa butter, etc) or
(b) animal origin (e.g. pork lard, beef tallow, fish oils) as well as from animal milk fats.

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Background
• From a product functionality point of view, different groups of food products will have different
requirements.
• Bakery products (e.g. pastry and biscuits) require a fat with a moderate amount (25-40%) of solid
fat to be present during dough preparation to give a light texture without undue oil exudation in
the final product.
• Chocolate needs to be based on cocoa butter from both a legislative and functionality point of
view and
• Any fats used to replace cocoa butter need also to conform to legislation and to melt and
crystallise in the same way as cocoa butter.
• In general, ice cream needs to be based on a fat which is at least 50% solid at 0°C and which melts
below mouth temperature.
• Frying oils need to have oxidative stability as possible to allow both an extended ‘fry life’ and also
good shelf stability in the end product.

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 Refining of Fats and Oils
The major steps in refining fats and oils are as follows:

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*This is done by a votator (a machine that cools and kneads liquid margarine)
 Oil and Fat Processing Methods
Hydrogenation
• In the presence of a catalyst (usually nickel) the
double bonds in a liquid oil can react with
hydrogen in two ways.
Unsaturated to saturated
1. Hydrogen molecule react with the C=C
2. cis double bond is transformed to
a trans double bonds.
• As trans fatty acids are higher melting than the
corresponding cis unsaturated acids the liquid oil
is again converted into a higher melting fat.
• Trans fatty acids are mostly produced by the
industrial process of hydrogenation.
Cis to trans

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 Oil and Fat Processing Methods
Hydrogenation
• Hydrogenation, converts liquid oils into potentially more functional solid
fats.
• There are considerable health and nutritional problems associated
with trans fatty acids and so the use of hydrogenation as an oil
modification technique has now been largely phased out in many
countries.

Hydrogenation Lab
Hydrogenation Application
Hydrogenation Chemistry

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Oil and Fat Processing Methods
Fractionation
• A process in which harder, higher melting fats can be produced.
• Fat is held at a temperature at which it is partially liquid and
partially solid.
• The solid crystals are separated by filtration to give a solid stearin
fraction which is higher melting than the starting oil and a liquid
olein fraction which is lower melting than the starting oil.
• The most commonly fractionated fats are
❖ palm oil,
❖ palm kernel oil,
❖ butterfat and
❖ shea butter, although coconut oil and cocoa butter are also
occasionally fractionated.
• In most cases, the oil is fractionated once to give the two
fractions mentioned – stearin and olein.

Palm oil Fractionation

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Oil and Fat Processing Methods
Fractionation

• ‘Dry’ fractionation involves holding the oil at the required temperature to obtain
both solid and liquid fractions.
• ‘Wet’ fractionation uses a solvent, usually acetone, to dissolve the whole of the
fat. This solution is then chilled to the point that the stearin fraction crystallises
out.
• The benefits of dry fractionation are that it is cheaper, and gives a very good
quality olein.
• Wet fractionation, used when the mid-fraction is of paramount importance. It is a
significantly more expensive process.
• Unlike hydrogenation, there are no chemical changes made to the fatty acids in
the oil.

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Oil and Fat Processing Methods
Interesterification
• Oil or a blend of oils is held at an elevated temperature in the presence of either a
chemical catalyst or an enzyme catalyst.
• The ester linkages between the glycerol and the fatty acids breaks and then re-form.
• Then the fatty acid groups can move around in the reaction mix so that they do not
necessarily re-form the linkage in the place where it was broken.
• Hence a randomisation of the positions of the fatty acids on the triacylglycerol molecules
occurs and a new product characteristic is generated.
• Because functionalities of fats are dependent on fatty acid position and type.
• Interesterification does not alter the overall fatty acid composition, only the positions of
the fatty acids on the glycerol backbone.
• This enables so-called structured triacylglycerols to be produced for specific properties
and functionalities.

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Functionality of Fats and Oils in Food Products.

• Different food products have different requirements based on

the functionality of the fat they contain is concerned.
• These requirements can often be condensed down to four basic
headings:
❖melting point and melting profile
❖crystallization characteristics
❖storage stability (oxidative and hydrolytic stability)
❖nutritional requirements.

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Roles of Fat and Oils in Selected Foods [Processing Industries] Products

1. Chocolate and Confectionery Coating

2. Ice Cream
3. Frying
4. Bakeries

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1. Chocolate and Confectionery Coatings

• Chocolate and chocolate like coatings need to be solid at ambient temperatures but then melt quickly at mouth
temperature.
• Cocoa butter does this and is obviously the gold standard as far as this is concerned.
• There are various limitations put on this both in terms of the amount that can be used and the types of fat that are
used.
• Cocoa butter is rich in what are called symmetrical monounsaturated triglycerides (mainly palmitic and stearic acids)
and they give it its sharp melting properties.
• As these triglycerides make up over 80% of the composition of cocoa butter
• Cocoa butter are also polymorphic (i.e. they crystallise in a number of different crystal forms – six to be
precise). These different crystal forms have different stabilities.
• Cocoa Butter Equivalents: These cannot legally be called chocolate.
• The best of these is called a super-coating and is essentially a cocoa butter equivalent.
• Cocoa butter replacers are based on fractions of palm oil that have a fairly limited compatibility with cocoa butter, thus
allowing low levels of cocoa butter to be present in the coating.

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2. Ice cream
• In general, fats for ice cream need to have at least 50% solid fat at
0°C.
• Should have a melting point below normal mouth temperature
because, during ice cream consumption, the mouth cools.
• Dairy ice cream must contain only dairy fat, i.e. normally cow’s milk
fat (unless labelled otherwise).
• Non-dairy ice cream can be based on vegetable fats. Because of
these melting requirements, palm kernel oil or coconut oil are
usually used as the base oil in non-dairy ice cream.
• Palm oil is occasionally used but this does retain some solid fat
above mouth temperature, which can change the texture of the ice
cream.
• Palm oil is sometimes used in soft-whip ice cream as it holds the
shape and texture of the ice cream longer than palm kernel oil.

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 3. Frying
• Frying oils need to have a high degree of oxidative stability because of the high
temperature of use.
• Saturated fatty acids and trans fatty acids have a much higher degree of
oxidative stability than cis unsaturated fatty acids.
• The use of saturated and trans fats are now discouraged in many applications.
• On top of all these functionality requirements in the different applications
described, the fats need to be nutritionally 'acceptable'.

Increasing Oxidative Stability (saturated)

High Oleic acid Sunflower (substitute frying oil)

High Linoleic acid Sunflower

Reducing Oxidative Stability (unsaturated)

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4. Baking Industry & Baked Products
• Fats used in bakery products, for example biscuits and pastry, need to have a
certain level of solid fat present at the temperature at which the dough is mixed
in order to
❖ give enough structure to hold a light aerated structure and
❖ stop more liquid triglycerides from separating from the baked end
product.
• Higher solid fat levels make the dough difficult to mix; lower solid fat levels risk
some of the liquid fat exuding and making it oily to the touch.
• Lard makes excellent pastry, largely because of the form in which it
crystallises.
• However, these were phased out partly for ethical and religious reasons and
partly because were considered to be ‘unhealthy’ due to high levels of saturated
fat.
• Factory produced bread, has a very specific requirement for a small a very high
melting fat in recipe.
• Because of the high melting point of the fat used and the way it crystalizes it
can retain its structure during the early stages of baking and so holds the
aerated structure of the bread.

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Major Fats and Oils Used in Bakeries
1. Lard
• Lard is obtained from the fatty tissues of pigs, with a water
content of 12% to 18%.
• Due to dietary concerns, lard has gradually lost much of its
former popularity. It is still extensively used, however, for:
❖ Yeast dough additions
❖ Pie pastry
❖ Pan greasing
• Lard has a good plastic range, which enables it to be worked in a
pie dough at fairly low temperatures.
• It has a distinctive flavor and fibrous texture, so it does not cream
well. It is therefore not suitable for cake making.

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 2. Butter

• In Canada, the following regulations apply to butter:

• Minimum 80% milk fat by weight
• Sweet (or unsalted) butter is made from a cream that has a very
low acid content and no salt is added to it.
• It is used in some baking products like French butter cream, where
butter should be the only fat used in the recipe.
• From the standpoint of flavor, butter is the most desirable fat used
in baking.
• Main drawback is its relatively high cost.
• When used in cake mixing, additional time, up to five minutes
more, should be allowed in the creaming stage to give maximum
volume.

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3. Margarine

• Margarine has a fat content ranging from 80% to 85%,

with the balance pretty much the same as butter.
• Margarines are made primarily from vegetable oils (to
some extent hydrogenated) with a small fraction of milk
powder and bacterial culture to give a butter-like flavor.
• General purpose margarine with a low melting point,
suitable for blending in dough and general baking.
• Roll-in margarine, which is plastic is very suitable for
Danish pastries
• Margarine may be obtained white, but is generally
colored.

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 4. Shortenings
• Lard and shortening have a higher fat content (close to
100%) compared to about 80% for butter and margarine.
• Shortening is exclusively hydrogenated vegetable oil.
• Vegetable shortening shares many properties with lard:
both are semi-solid fats with a higher smoke point than
butter and margarine.
• They contain less water and are thus less prone to
splattering, making them safer for frying.
• Shortenings tend to contain a bit higher percentage of
monoglycerides than margarines.
• Such “high-ratio shortenings” (with high monoglycerides)
blend better with hydrophilic (attracts water) ingredients
such as starches and sugar.

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5. Emulsified Vegetable Shortenings

• Emulsified vegetable shortenings increase fat dispersion and give added fineness
to the baked product.
• They are ideal for high ratio cakes, where relatively large amounts of sugar and
liquid are incorporated.
The result is a cake:
❖Fine in texture
❖Light in weight and of excellent volume
❖Superior in moisture retention (good shelf life)
❖Tender to eat
❖This is also the fat of choice for many white cake icings.

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6. Roll-in Pastry Shortenings

• This type of shortening is also called special pastry shortening

(SPS).
❖ They have semi-waxy consistency and offer:
❖ Large plastic range
❖ Excellent extensibility
❖ Excellent lifting ability
• They are primarily used in puff pastry and Danish pastry products
where lamination is required.
• They come in various specialized forms, with varying qualities
and melting points.

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7. Deep-Frying Fats

• Deep-frying fats are special hydrogenated fats that

have the following features:
❖High smoke point of up to 250°C (480°F)
❖High heat stability and resistance to fat
breakdown
❖No undesirable flavor on finished products
❖No greasiness when cold
• These fats contain an anti-foaming agent.

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8. Vegetable Oils
• Vegetable oil is an acceptable common name for an oil that
contains more than one type of vegetable oil.
• When two or more vegetable oils has been modified or
hydrogenated, the common name on the principal display panel and
in the list of ingredients must include the word “modified” or
“hydrogenated,” as appropriate (e.g., modified vegetable oil,
hydrogenated vegetable oil, modified palm kernel oil).
• Vegetable oils are used in:
❖ Chemically leavened batters (e.g., muffin mixes)
❖ Dough additives (to replace the fat)
❖ Short sponges (to replace the butter or fat)

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 9. Coconut Fat

• Coconut fat is often used to stabilize butter creams as it has a very small plastic range.
• It has a quite low melting point when compared to other fats and oil commonly used in the baking industry
(see table below).

• It can be modified to melt at different temperatures, generally between 32°C and 36°C (90°F and 96°F).
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The Importance of Melting Points

• As mentioned previously, all fats become oils and vice versa, depending on
temperature.
• The consistency of fat is very important to the baker. It is very difficult to work
with butter (relatively low melting point) in hot weather.
• Also, fats with a very high melting point are not very palatable, since they tend to
stick to the palate.
• Fat manufacturers have therefore attempted to customize fats to accommodate
the various needs of the baker.

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The Importance of Melting Points
• Fats with a melting range between 40°C and 44°C (104°F and 112°F) are considered to be a
good compromise between convenience in handling and palatability.
• New techniques allow fats with quite high melting points without unpleasant palate-cling.

The table below shows the melting points of some fats.

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General Functional Roles of Fat and Oils
• Tenderizing Agent: Fats tend to “shorten” the gluten strands in flour.
Traditionally, the best example of such fat is lard.
• Creaming Agent: When fat is whisked, it will build up a structure of
air pockets. This aeration, or creaming ability, is especially important
for cake baking; the better the creaming ability, the lighter the cake.
• Lubricating Agent: In dough making, the fat portion makes it easier
for the gluten network to expand, easier to mix, and to handle.
• Moisturizing Agent: Whether in dough or in a cake batter, fat retards
drying out.

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References
• Institute of Food Science and Technology (December 2017). Oils and Fats. Retrieved March 1 2021 from
https://www.ifst.org/resources/information-statements/oils-and-fats
• Rodriguez-Velazquez, S. (August 10, 2020). Chemistry of Cooking-Fat. Retrieved March 1 2021 from
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Chemistry/Book%3A_Chemistry_of_Cooking_(Rodriguez-
Velazquez)/03%3A_Fat/3.04%3A_Functions_of_Fat_in_Baking

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 Next Class

Emulsions
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