UNIT 4

FATS AND OILS

PRODUCTS
Fats and oil based products
• Edible products • Inedible products
-Shortening -Soap
-Butter -Detergent
-Ghee -Drilling Mud
-Hard Butters -Diesel
-Margarine & Spreads
-Mayonnaise
-Oleo Chemical
 SHORTENING
• is a semisolid fat used in food
preparation, especially baked goods
• it promotes a "short" or crumbly
texture
• Higher smoke point >margarine,
butter
• Contain 100% fat content compared
to 80% fat content in margarine &
butter
shortening
 Types of Shortening
• There are a few types of shortening:
1. Solid
2. Pourable
3. Powder
 Shortening

Solid Pourable Powder

 SOLID SHORTENING
• Many types of formulation; depend
on raw material sources and end
usage requirements
• Classified according to plastic range
• Consistency would change with
change of the temp.
• With narrow plastic range, it would
be hard and brittle at low temp. and
soft at room temp.
• Wide plastic range would be
workable (soft) at low and room
temp.
• Plasticizer (fully H2 fat): addition of
hard fats extends the plastic range
of shortening
• Hard fats must contain a β-prime
crystal structure to get the
consistency of shortening
anticipates
• These crystal structures are
highly stiffening
• Ex: fully H2 lard added to lard
will produce a maximum const.
> 10%
• but too much H2 will reduce the
consist.; only promote the
growth of crystal at low conc.
• Crystal struc. Is very important in
shortening
• β-prime crystal is preferred for
cream able cake & icing
Flowchart of solid shortening processing

Oil H2
nickel
+ catalyst

Hydrogenation Emulsion & preservative

Mixing

Cooling ( 16 – 18ºC )

Agitator

Packing

Tempering

Solid fat
 Fluid shortening
• Opaque due to the presence of
suspended solids (hard
fats/emulsifiers); depend on
requirements, 2-10 %
• Need β crystal structure that provide
ease of movement or fluidity
2 ways the fluid shortening can be
prepared:
Slow method Fast method
• Slow cooling of melted • Grinding the hard
shortening with slow fat/emulsifier to a
agitation until fully powder
crystallized • Then it suspended in
• Requires 3-4 days the base oil without
melting it.
• Homogenized by
passing it through
pressure homogenizer
• Holding in tank after
cooling for 16 hrs.
Flowchart of fluid shortening processing ( fast )
Grind fat

Powder

Add based oil ( must have β’ crystal )

Homogenization

Chilling ( 37 - 54°C )

Holding ( 16 hours )

Add oil ( must have β crystal )

Packing

Tempering

Fluid shortening
 Liquid shortening
• > clear than fluid
• Include regular cooking oils, salad
oils from fractionation fats
• If lose clarity, it classified to fluid
 Powdered shortening
• Are fats encapsulated in a
water-soluble material such as
cheese, whey solids, skim milk.
• Fat content is about 50-82%
• Emulsifiers maybe added
• Also added stabilizer such as
monoglycerides, lecithin,
sorbitan, mono stearate
• Used either spray or rolled
drying
Hard butters (specialty fats)
• Designed to replace or extend cocoa
butter (cocoa butter
alternatives)&/butterfat.
• Primarily use in confectionary & dairy
applications
• 3 categories of cocoa butter
alternative fats are:
-Cocoa butter equivalents
-Cocoa butter substitute
-Cocoa butter replacer
 Cocoa butter Equivalents
• Similar physicochemical characteristics as cocoa
butter.
• Derived from fat illipe/kokum and fractions of Shea,
palm or sal.
• Highly compatible with cocoa butter
Cocoa butter Substitute (Ex:Besshoc)
• -Lauric acid base
• -Involve H2, interesterification, fractionation
• -Limited compatibility with cocoa butter
Cocoa butter Replacer
– From non-lauric fat
– Partial H2 and fractionation
– Can tolerate as much as 25%
 What is a margarine ?
A structured water-in-oil emulsion with properties
like spreadability, stability and mouthfeel

Hans Zevenbergen, Unilever 19

R&D,28/01/09
 Margarine & Spreads
• Blending of fats/oils with other
ingredients such as water/milk
products, suitable edible protein,
salt, flavoring & coloring materials
and vitamin A & D.
• Water in oil emulsion
• Must contain at least 80% fat. For
diet margarine contain 0-80% fat
 Standard of Margarine
• According to Codex Alimentarius Standard,
margarine must contain at least 80% fat, 16%
water & 4% milk solids
• The following substances may be added to
margarine:
 Vitamin A and its esters, Vitamin D, Vitamin E
and its esters
 Sodium chloride
 Sugars
 Suitable edible proteins
 Food additives:
Color, flavor, emulsifier, antioxidants,
preservatives
 Types of margarine
There are 6 types of margarine
• Conventional margarine
• Soft Margarine
• Fluid Margarine
• Whipped Margarine
• Low Fat Margarine
• Industrial Margarine
 Trans Fat Issue
• Margarine contain higher trans fat
than butter
• Research show that correlation
between trans fat & heart disease
• But others argue that margarine
healthier >butter because contain
higher saturated fat
• As a result, government demands for
labeling.
• Trans fat is the common name for a type
of unsaturated fat with trans isomer fatty
acid(s). Trans fats may be
monounsaturated or polyunsaturated.
• Most trans fats consumed today are
industrially created by partially
hydrogenating plant oils
• The goal of partial hydrogenation is to add
hydrogen atoms to unsaturated fats,
making them more saturated.
• These more saturated fats have a higher
melting point making them attractive for
baking, and extending their shelf-life.
Saturated Fat Cis-unsaturated Fat Trans-unsaturated Fat
 Margarine Preparation

• Lipid phase preparation (80%)

• Aqueous phase preparation(17-20%)
• Emulsion preparation
• Chilling & crystallization
• Packaging
• Margarine
 Lipid phase preparation (80%)

• Solid fat + oil

• Oil=soy oil, cotton seed oil,
sunflower, palm olein & rapseed oil
• Solid fat=lard, hydrogenated oil
• Add oil soluble
ingredients=emulsifiers, vitamin,
color & flavor
Aqueous phase preparation (17-20%)
• Contain water, milk, lactic acid &
emulsifier
• Milk is added with culture; subtilis
lactis [20-22oC, pH 5.3-6.3, 18
hours] (matured process).
• Add salt, preservative, flavor & any
water soluble material
 Emulsion preparation
• Lipid & aqueous phase are blended
together to form water in oil
emulsion
Flowchart of margarine processing
CRUDE OIL H2
DEODORISER

HYDROGENATOR
BLENDING
NEUTRALISER
TANK
&

BLEACHER
Color,flavor,
stablliser,
FILTER vit. A & D

SKIMMED PASTEURISER MATURING MIXING

MILK TANK TANK

MARGARINE PACKING VOTATOR

 Mayonnaise
• Defined as an emulsified semisolid
food prepared from edible veg. oil,
acetic/citric acid and egg yolk.+ salt,
sweeteners, spice oil, MSG & crystal
inhibitor (lecithin, oxystearin etc.)
• Oil level must not less than 65%
• Must contain not less than 2.5%
acetic acid
• Seasonings permitted (spice oils)
must not impart a color simulating
that provide by egg yolk
Formulation and Ingredients

• Oil
• Eggs
• Acids
• Mustard
• Paprika
• Seasoning
• Inert gas
 Oils
• Salad oil
• Oils that solidifies at ref. temp is
avoided because emulsion will break
as soon as the oil begins to crystallize
• The emulsion is also break if the
aqueous phase freeze
• Rigidity of emulsion depends partly on
the size of the oil droplets & how
tightly they are packed
• >oil dispersed in the emulsion, >
stiffer
 Eggs
• Emulsion viscosity & strength is depend on
the amount & type of egg solids
• Egg yolks contributes the major emulsifying
compounds to the mayonnaise formula
(lecithoprotein, phospholipids & cholesterol)
• >emulsifier & solid matter that can be
dispersed in the aqueous, > rigid of
mayonnaise
• Egg for mayonnaise may be fresh, frozen
or dried, but dried form is the best. It can
easily disperse in aqueous portion.
 Acids
• Main preservative against microbial
spoilage
• Distilled vinegar (acetic acid) is most
commonly used in mayonnaise
processing & less costly than citric
acid
• Some brand of mayonnaise added
lemon juice.
 Mustard
• Mustard flour can affected the
mayonnaise
• Oil of mustard could be used in place
of mustard flour without affecting the
emulsion strength
 Paprika
• Contribute to odor, color & flavor
 Seasoning
• Salt & sugar are added to
mayonnaise at low level
• Spice, herbs & natural oils obtained
from them also used as seasoning
• Black pepper oleoresin or oil can
replace mustard
 Inert Gas
• For packaging, usually used CO2 but
N2 is preferred
 Process
• Is a difficult emulsion to prepare.
• Oil is the major phase
• Emulsion is in fluid form when first
prepared & after spec. time it should
set up to semi solid gel.
• if the emulsion is disturbed after 1st
gelation, it will become too soft.
• The time required for gelling is
depend on many factors
(formulation, equipment &
procedure)
• Should use equipment from stainless
steel-to avoid corrosion
• Eggs-low egg solid content can cause
the failure of emulsion
• Mayonnaise emulsion is easiest to
prepare when the fluid ingredients
are chilled (10oC – 16oC)
• Emulsion failure will normally result
when temp. is above 24oC.
• To maintain the low temp., jacket for
circulation of coolant is used.
 Packaging
• Usually packed in glass container but
some in polyethylene jars
• Sensitive to oxidation, better store in
refrigerator (low temp)
• Beside rancidity, oxidation also cause
the emulsion to darken on the
surface and break.
• Packaging in polyethylene
jars=become rancid in 2 months
• Overfilling the jar should be avoided
because the lid will force the
mayonnaise emulsion over the
closure threads
 Quality Measurements
• Mayonnaise quality is difficult to
access
• 2 types of measurements are:
-Viscosity=using viscometer
-Simple method=spoonable, firm &
soft body
 Oleo chemical
• Are chemicals derived from biological
fats and oils
• 2 major oleo chemicals are glycerin
& fatty acid both are formed by
hydrolysis of fats & oils.
• Classified as non-hazardous, non
toxic & not susceptible to
spontaneous heating
 Glycerine
• Basic component is glycerol
• Properties:
Highly stable under typical storage
condition
Easy to digest
Environmental safety
Pleasant taste and odor
• Viscous liquid form, non poisonous,
colorless and odorless
• it is a sugar alcohol and fittingly is
sweet-tasting and of low toxicity.
• Glycerol has three hydrophilic
alcoholic hydroxyl groups that are
responsible for its solubility in water
and its hygroscopic nature.
• Purification of crude glycerol
 Application of Glycerol
• In foods and beverages, glycerol serves as
humectant (hygroscopic substances),
solvent and sweetener, and may help
preserve foods.
• It is also used as filler in low-fat food
products (i.e., cookies), and as a
thickening agent in liqueurs.
• As emulsifier (mono & di-glycerides)
• Used in manufacture of polyglycerol esters
going into shortening and margarine
• Glycerol is also used as a sugar
substitute -it has approximately 27
calories per teaspoon and is 60% as
sweet as sucrose
• it does not raise blood sugar levels,
nor does it feed the bacteria that
form plaques and cause dental
cavities.
• As a food additive, glycerol is also
known as E number E422.
 Methyl Ester
• A fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)
are aliphatic organic esters
prepared by the reaction of
carboxylic acid derived from fats
and oils
Esterification
Fatty acids + Methanol Fatty Acid Methyl Ester
Catalyst
(FAME)
• FAME are used extensively in the
manufactured of detergents,
emulsifiers, stabilizers.
• Indirect food application;
dehydration of grapes to produce
raisins, synthetic flavoring agent.
 Soaps
• Soaps are water soluble sodium or
potassium of FA.
• Treating Fat &Oil /Fatty Acid with strong
alkali
• Salt is important raw material for making
soap detergent
• It depends on type of mono or divalent of
ion.
 How soaps are made??
• Saponification process is widely
used; heating fats & oils & react
them with a liquid alkali
• Other process; neutralization of FA
with an alkali (NaOH=hard soap,
KOH=soft soap; liquid hand soap,
shaving cream)
 How soap works??
• Soaps are useful for cleaning because
soap molecules attach readily to both
nonpolar molecules (such as grease or oil)
and polar molecules (such as water).
• Applied to a soiled surface, soapy water
effectively holds particles in suspension so
the whole of it can be rinsed off with clean
water.
• The hydrocarbon ("fatty") portion
dissolves dirt and oils, while the ionic end
makes it soluble in water. Therefore, it
allows water to remove normally-insoluble
matter by emulsification.
 Soap & detergent
manufacturing
• Cleaning products are produced in 3
basic forms; bars, powder & liquid
(too viscous; gel form)
• Raw materials are chosen according
to many criteria; human &
environmental safety, cost,
compatibility with other ingredients
 Bar soap
• Traditional bar soap; made from fats
& oils or FA with inorganic water
soluble bases
• Sources of fats; beef & mutton tallow
 Fat & oil

Pretreated

Saponification

Vacuum spray drying

(produce dry soap pellet)

Mixer

Homogenizer

Refining

Extruded

Cutting

Stamp

Flowchart of bar soap processing

 Powder Detergents
• Produced by spray drying,
agglomeration, dry mixing or
combination of this method
Spray drying; first combination
between dry & liquid ingredient into
slurry/thick suspension in tank
(crutcher).slurry is heated, then
pump under high pressure to
produce small droplets.
• The droplets fall through a current
hot air and form hollow granule as
they dry
• Heat sensitive ingredients (bleach,
enzyme, fragrance) are added after
granules have been cooled.
• New tech. produced higher density
granules=smaller package.
Agglomeration
• Leads to higher density powders &
produce larger particle
Dry mixing
• Is used to blend dry raw materials.
Small quantities of liquids may also
be added.
 Fat & oil

Pretreated

Saponification

Vacuum spray drying

Screen

Cool

Mix heat sensitive ingredient

Powder detergent

Flowchart of powder detergent processing

 Liquid Detergent
• Batch & continuous blending process
are used in manufacture
• Stabilizers are added; uniformity &
stability
• In continuous process, dry & liquid
ingredients are added & blended to a
uniform mixture using in-line or
static mixer
 Fat & oil

Pretreated

Saponification

Mix

Stabilizer are added

Liquid detergent

Flowchart of Liquid detergent processing