UNIT 1:

CHEMICAL & PHYSICAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF
FATS AND OILS

POLITEKNIK TUN SYED NASIR SYED ISMAIL

PRE / POST TEST
ANSWER TRUE / FALSE
1. ANIMAL AND PLANTS ARE SOURCES OF
FATS AND OILS.
2. TRIGLYCERIDES CONSISTS OF 1
GLYCEROLS AND 3 FATTY ACIDS.
3. UNSATURATED OF FATTY ACIDS IS
SOLUBLE IN WATER.
4. MELTING POINT IS DETERMINED
TEMPERATURE WHEN FAT SOLIDIFIED.
5. FATS IS IN LIQUID FORM IN ROOM
TEMPERATURE.
 1.0 DEFINITION OF FAT & OIL
Chemical units commonly
called ‘TRIGLYCERIDES’
(combination of 1 unit of
glycerol with 3 units of fatty
acids)

Organic substances that are

relatively INSOLUBLE IN
WATER and SOLUBLE IN
ORGANIC SOLVENTS such
as ethyl ether and chloroform

Fats = Solid at RT
Oils = Liquid at RT
 SOURCES OF OIL AND FAT
1. MEATS
2. DAIRY PRODUCTS
3. POULTRY
4. FISH
5. NUTS
6. VEGETABLE FATS
7. OILS
GENERALS USES OF OILS AND FATS
 Cooking oils/fats
 Margarines

 Shortenings

 Dairy fat substitutes

 Animal fat substitutes

 Other food products

IMPORTANCE OF FAT & OIL
 Medium for heat transfer
 Physical properties of food

 Moisture barrier

 Taste and Odour : Serve to make foods more

palatable
 Source of essential fatty acid

 Carrier of Vitamin A, D , E, K

 Bulk supply of energy, 9 kcal/g

1.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FATS

A) MAJOR
COMPONENTS B) MINOR
COMPONENTS
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FATS
A) Major component:
 Triacylglycerol

B) Minor component:
 Mono- and Diglycerides
 Free Fatty Acids (FFA)
 Phosphatides
 Sterols
 Fatty Alcohol
 Tocopherols
 Carotenoids and Chlorophyll
 Vitamins
 A) MAJOR COMPONENTS
 TRIGLYCERIDES are combination between 1 unit of
GLYCEROL and 3 units of FATTY ACIDS

Triglycerides (TG) = 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids

 Simple TG Mix TG

 SimpleTG consist of same type of fatty acid

 Mix TG consist of different type of fatty
acid
 B) MINOR COMPONENTS
1. Mono- and Diglycerides

 Mono- and Diglycerides are common food

additives used to blend together certain
ingredients, such as oil and water, called
‘emulsifier’.
 The commercial source may be either
animal (cow- or hog-derived) or vegetable,
 They may be synthetically made as well.
 They are often found in bakery products,
beverages, ice cream, chewing gum,
shortening, whipped toppings, margarine,
and confections.
CONT..
2. Free Fatty Acids (FFA)

 Fatty acids can be bound or attached

to other molecules, such as in
triglycerides or phospholipids.
 When they are not attached to other
molecules, they are known as “free
fatty acids”.
 The uncombined fatty acids or free
fatty acids may come from the
breakdown of a triglyceride into its
components (fatty acids and glycerol).
CONT…
3. Phosphatides

 Consist of glycerol + FA + phosphoric

acid + Nitrogen-containing compound.
 Common Phosphatides:
 Lecithin

 Cephaline

 For all practical purposes, refining

removes the phosphatides from the
fat and oil
CONT…
4. Sterols

 Sterols, or steroid alcohols are a

subgroup of steroids with a hydroxyl
group in the 3-position of the A-ring.
 Main sterol is CHOLESTEROL found
many in animal fat
 Sterol in Vegetable oil is
PHYTOSTEROL such as sitosterol and
stigmasterol
 The type and amount of vegetable
sterols vary with the source of the oil.
CONT…
5. Fatty Alcohol

 Fatty alcohols are aliphatic alcohols

(long chain) derived from natural fats
and oils.
 They are the counterparts of fatty acids
and fatty aldehydes.
 Present in waxes found in some veg. oil.
 Larger quantity found in marine oils.
CONT…
6. Tocopherols

 Tocopherol, or vitamin E, is a fat-soluble

vitamin in eight forms that is an important
antioxidant (retard rancidity)
 There are 4 types (varying in antioxidant
and vit. E activity)
 α-tocopherols has the highest vit. E and the
lowest antioxidant activity.
 Most naturally found in veg. fats.
 Can be removed by processing
 Maybe added after processing to improve
oxidative stability in finished products.
CONT…
7. Carotenoids and Chlorophyll
 Color materials occur naturally in fats and
oils.
 Color range from yellow to deep red.
 Usually reduced while processing to give
acceptable color, flavor and stability.

8. Vitamins
 Not a good source of vit. except Vit E.
 Vit. E is added back into the product to
prevent rapid degradation of fats & oils
products (because vit E is removed while
processing).
 Usually vit A and D were added to food as a
carriers.
 Eg: vit. A added in margarine and vit. A & D
added in milk.
 1.3 FATTY ACIDS
 is a carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched
aliphatic tail (chain), which is either saturated or
unsaturated.

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-COOH
 Length of
hydrocarbon
tail

Fatty Acids Differ

From Each Other
by:

Positions Degree of
of double unsaturation
(no. of double
bonds bonds)
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY ACID

SATURATED
FATTY ACID UNSATURATED
FATTY ACID
 SATURATED FATTY ACID

Do not contain any double bonds or

other functional groups along the
chain.
Single carbon-carbon bonds.
Least reactive chemical
The melting point of saturated F.A
increases with chain length.
High melting point makes them solid
at room temperature
SATURATED FA VS UNSATURATED FA
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
Systematic Common No. of C Melting Points Fat Source
Name Name atoms °C

Ethanoic Acetic 2 - -
Butanoic Butyric 4 -7.9 Butterfat
Hexanoic Caproic 6 -3.4 Butterfat
Octanoic Capyralic 8 16.7 Coconut Oil
Decanoic Capric 10 31.6 Coconut Oil
Dodecanoic Lauric 12 44.2 Coconut Oil
Tetradecanoic Myristic 14 54.4 Butterfat,
Coconut oil

Hexadecanoic Palmitic 16 62.9 Most Fat & Oils

Octadecanoic Stearic 18 69.6 Most Fat & Oils
Eicosanoic Arachidic 20 75.4 Peanut Oils
Docosanoic Behenic 22 80.0 Peanut Oils
 UNSATURATED FATTY ACID
 Containing one / more carbon-to-carbon
double bonds (reactive chemically)
 Most reactive chemically
 The melting point of unsaturated F.A
decreases with higher number of double
bond
 Usually liquid at room temperature
UNSATURATED FA CAN BE DIVIDED INTO
2 GROUPS:

•Contain only one double

Monounsaturated bond
Fatty Acid •Example: Oleic acid (18:1)
(MUFA)

•Contains more than one

Polyunsaturated double bonds
Fatty Acid (PUFA) •Example: Linoleic acid
(18:2), linolenic acid (18:3)
 Stematic Name Common No.of No. of C Melting Fat Source
Name Double atoms Points
Bond °C
9-Decenoic Caproleic 1 10 - Butterfat
9-Dodecenoic Lauroleic 1 12 - Butterfat
9-Tetradecenoic Myristoleic 1 14 18.5 Butterfat
9-Hexadecenoic Palmitoleic 1 16 - Fish oil, Beef
fat
9-Octadecenoic Oleic 1 18 16.3 Most fat and
oils
9-Octadecenoic* Elaidic 1 18 43.7 Partially
hydrogenated
oils
11-Octadecenoic* Vaccenic 1 18 44 Butterfat

9,12-Octadecadienoic Linoleic 2 18 -6.5 Most

Vegetables
oils
Systematic Name Common No.of No. of C Melting Fat Source
Name Double atoms Points
Bond °C
9,12,15- Linolenic 3 18 -12.8 Soybean oil,
Octadecatrienoic Canola oil
9-Eicosenoic Gadoleic 1 20 - Some fish oils
5,8,11,14- Arachidonic 4 20 -49.5 Lard
Eicosatetraenoic
5,8,11,14,17- - 5 20 - Some fish oils
Eicosatetraenoic
13-Docosenoic Erucic 1 22 33.4 Rapeseed oil
4,7,10,13,16- - 6 22 - Some fish oils
Docosahexaenoic
OLEIC ACID
 In chemical terms, oleic acid is classified as
a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid,
abbreviated with a lipid number of 18:1 cis-9. It
has the
formula CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH.[2]

 The name derives from the Latin word oleum,

which means oil.[3] It is the most common fatty
acid in nature.[4]
ELAIDIC ACID
 elaidic acid is the organic compound with the formula
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH.
 classified as an unsaturated trans fatty acid, it is a
colorless oily solid.
 this compound has attracted attention because it is a
major trans fat found in hydrogenated vegetable oils,
and trans fats are implicated in heart disease.[1]
 it is the trans isomer of oleic acid. the name of
the elaidinization reaction comes from elaidic acid.
VACCENIC ACID
 Vaccenic acid (C18H34O2) was discovered in 1928
in animal fats and butter. It is the
main trans fatty acid isomer present in milk
fat.[4] Mammals convert it into rumenic acid,
a conjugated linoleic acid,[5][6] where it shows
anticarcinogenic properties.[7]
 Its stereoisomer, cis-vaccenic acid, is an
omega-7 fatty acid, is found in Sea Buckthorn
(Hippophae rhamnoides) oil.[8] Its IUPAC name is
(Z)-11-octadecenoic acid, and its lipid shorthand
name is 18:1 cis-11.
 1.5 ISOMERISM OF UNSATURATED FATTY
ACID
 Inchemistry, isomers are molecules
with the same chemical formula and
often with the same kinds of chemical
bonds between atoms, but in which the
atoms are arranged differently.

 Two types of isomers :

 Geometric Isomers
 Positional Isomers
GEOMETRIC ISOMER
 POSITIONAL ISOMER
 Is refer to the position of double
bonds in fatty acid chain
 The position of double bond could be
in conjugated or non-conjugated

Conjugated
Non-Conjugated
1.6 GROUP OF FATTY ACID

•contain oleic and linoleic acid

Linolenic •high susceptible to oxidation
Acid Group •soy bean oil

Oleic – •Cotton seed, olive, palm ,

Linoleic peanut, sunflower and
Acid Group safflower oil

Lauric Acid •Coconut and palm kernel oil

Group
Erucic Acid • Canola Oil
Group

Vegetable • Cocoa butter- obtain from kernel

of cocoa bean, suddenly melting,
Butter chocolate flavour

Milk Fat • Butter Fat ,Ghee

• Lard, tallow and marine oil

Animal Fat (omega-3 dan omega-6)
 1.7 FAT SUBSTITUTES / FAT REPLACERS
 Develop to decrease the risk of
obesity and coronary heart decrease.
 Contain less calories.
 Divided into 3 types:

 Fat-based substitutes
 Protein-based substitutes
 Carbohydrate-based substitutes
 A. FAT-BASED SUBSTITUTES
 Sucrose fatty acid polyesters (SPEs)
 Mixture of compound called esters (sucrose
+ FA) – add no calories to the products
 Ex: Olestra (use for frying and shortening)

 Sucrose fatty acid esters (SFEs)

 Same as SPEs but with smaller molecular
size.
 Use as emulsifiers and stabilizers (coating
to retard spoilage of fruits)
B. PROTEIN-BASED SUBSTITUTES
 Derived from protein sources such as
eggs, milk, whey, soy and wheat
gluten.
 Undergo microparticulation process
(sheared under heat into very small
particles- spray dryer)
 Used in frozen dairy desserts, cheese
baked goods, sauces and salad
dressing.
 Ex: Simplesse
C. CARBOHYDRATE-BASED SUBSTITUTES
 Use as a thickening agent, moisture
and texture stability .
 Ex:

 Maltrin (maltodextrin) (Starch

Hydrolysed)
 N-oil (Tapioca dextrin)
 Paselli SA2 (Potato Starch)
 1.8 FACTORS AFFECTING PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF FATS AND OILS
Degree of
Unsaturated of
FA

Polymorphism Length of Carbon

of Fats Chains in FA

Molecular
Configuration of TG Isomeric Forms
/ Position of of FA
Saturated Fat
 DEGREE OF UNSATURATED OF FATTY
ACIDS
Unsaturated – liquid at RT°
Saturated – Solid at RT°
The more unsaturated, the lower
the melting point
Saturated FA have higher
melting pt. than unsaturated.
LENGTH OF CARBON CHAINS IN FATTY
ACIDS
 Thelonger the chain, the higher the
melting point

 Eg:Coconut oil contain 90% short chain

saturated FA is a clear liquid at 80ºF
compare to lard which contain 37% of
saturates but long chain FA is semi solid
at 80ºF
 ISOMERIC FORMS OF FATTY ACIDS
 Melting pt. of unsaturated affected by
position (conjugated and non-
conjugated) and conformation of the
double bonds. (cis and trans).

 Conjugated cis double bond give higher

melting point than non-conjugated

 Cisconfiguration shows lower melting

point than trans
 MOLECULAR CONFIGURATION OF TG /
POSITION OF SATURATED FAT
 Simple triglyceride have a sharp melting
pt.

A mixture of triglyceride (ex: lard, veg.

shortening) have broad melting pt.
 POLYMORPHISM OF FATS
 Def: The ability to crystallize into
multiple crystal structure, depending on
the angle of orientation & packing
arrangement of the molecules

 Existence of more than 1 crystal form ( α,

β, β’).
 Cause – different patterns of molecular
packing in fat crystals
 Each crystal form gives different melting
point
CONT..
 Inthe production of margarine and
shortening, β’ form is preferred to β

 β’ are relatively small and can incorporate

a large amount of liquid- glossy surface,
smooth texture

β small, grow into needlelike agglomerates

 1.9 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC TEST

 Melting
Point
 Determine temp. when fat liquified

 Consistency

 Consistency of the fat

 Depends on ratio of (α,β, β’) crystal
to the liquid which determine the
hard fat.
CONT…
 Cloud Point
 Measure temp. when crystal / cloud
appear

 ColdTest
 Determine stability of oil (hr) at 0°C
when crystal / cloud appear

 SettingPoint
 Determine max temp. when oil become
hard
CONT…

 Refractive Index
 Measure quality of fat and oil
according to unsaturated state (Iodine
value)
 Low Degree Of Unstaturation,
Suitable For Deep Frying Cooking Oil.
 Smoke Point

 Temp. when oil produce thin continues

smoke
CONT…
 Flash Point
 Temp. at which an oil heated under a
prescribed set of condition will flash
when flame is passed over surface of
the oil.

 Fire Point
 Temp. at which an oil heated under a
prescribed set of condition will fire
and burn for a period at least 5 s.
CONT..
 Color
(Lovibond)
 Measure color (red/yellow) of fat
and oil and refer to a std. quality.

 DOBI (Degree of Bleaching Index)

 Quality index of crude fat.
(Spectrofotometer)
 2.0 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTIC TEST

1. Saponification Value

 Mg KOH for saponification 1 g fat /

oil.
 Related to average molecular weight
of fat.
 Indication the type of FA.
 Long chain FA - Low Saponification
value.
CONT..
2. Iodine Index
 g iodine absorb by 100g fat / oil
 Measure unsaturated fat and oil
(Refractive Index)
 High Iodine value – More Unsaturated
(double bond)

3.0 Acid Value & Free Fatty Acid

 mg KOH used to neutralize FFA in 1 g
fat/oil
 Use to determine hydrolytic rancidity in :
Qc for raw material
Qc for finish product
Refining operation
CONT…

4. Peroxide Value
 meq peroxide / hydroperoxide in 1 kg
sample fat / oil

5. Anisidine Value
 Measure of the extent of oxidative
deterioration.
 Use Spectrophotometer to estimate
aldehydes (secondary oxidation products)
CONT…

6. Fatty Acid content – Chromatography

 Usually use combination of iodine

value, relative density, refractive
index and saponification value.
 Chromatography is the fastest
method to determine FA by looking
on the retention time.
 2.1 FUNCTION OF FATS AND OILS IN FOODS

1. Thermal Conductor
 Heat transfer cooking medium (fying)

2. Textural Contributor
 Aerate batters and dough
 Mouth feel richness
 Tenderness in baking goods
 Create crispness
CONT…

3. Precursor for volatile flavours

4. Nutritionally significant
 Calories
 Essential Fatty Acids
 Carrier for fat – soluble vitamin
 Provide satiety
5. Emulsify
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF FATS AND OILS

a. Appearance – colour
 Liquid (yellow)
 Solid (white-opaque)

b. Odour
 In pure form – odourless
 Non-volatile at ambient
 Odour maybe due to carry over from
source oxidation products and
degradation product.
CONT…

c. Relative viscosity
d. Plasticity (solid Fats)
e. Heat Capacity
f. Surface Tension
g. Vapor Pressure
h. Density and Volume
i. Crystallization Properties
EXERCISE 1
a) State the major component of triglycerides.
Nyatakan komponen utama bagi triglycerida.

(2 marks)

b) Tocopherol is an important minor constituent of

most vegetable fats. Explain the functions of
tocopherol.
Tokoferol adalah sebatian minor yang penting
dalam kebanyakan lemak sayuran. Terangkan
fungsi tokoferol.
(3 marks)
EXERCISE 1
c) Based on table 1(c), answer the questions below:

Fatty acid Number of Number of Melting point

double bond carbon atom (oC)

Lauric acid 0 12 43.2

Stearic acid 0 18 69.6

Elaidic acid 1 18 43.7

Oleic acid 1 18 16.3

Linoleic acid 2 18 -6.5

Table 1(c): Chemical and physical properties of fatty acids

EXERCISE 1

i) Explain why does stearic acid show higher melting

point than lauric acid.
Terangkan mengapa asid stearik menunjukkan takat
lebur yang lebih tinggi berbanding asid laurik.
(3 marks)

ii) Explain why does elaidic acid shows higher melting

point compared to linoleic acid.
Terangkan mengapa asid elaidik menunjukkan takat
lebur yang lebih tinggi berbanding asid linoleik.
(3 marks)
EXERCISE 1
iii) Explain why does oleic acid shows lower melting
point compared to elaidic acid.
Terangkan mengapa asid oleik menunjukkan takat
lebur yang lebih rendah berbanding asid elaidik.
(4 marks)
d) Based on table 1(d), answer the questions below:
Types of oil Iodine value (IV)

Coconut oil 9
Palm oil 51
Corn oil 127

Table 1(d): Iodine value of several types of oil

EXERCISE 1
i) Explain why does corn oil show the highest iodine
value.
Terangkan mengapa minyak jagung menunjukkan
nilai iodin paling tinggi.
(2 marks)

ii) Which type of oil is the most susceptible to oxidation

and rancidification process? Explain your answer.
Jenis minyak yang manakah paling mudah terdedah
kepada proses pengoksidaan dan ketengikan?
Terangkan jawapan anda.
(3 marks)
EXERCISE 2
a) State the difference between fats and oils.
Nyatakan perbezaan di antara lemak dan minyak.

(2 marks)

b) In a diet, fats and oils in the food are needed by the

body for normal growth and metabolism. State
THREE (3) functions of fats and oils in food.
Dalam diet pemakanan, lemak dan minyak dalam
makanan diperlukan oleh badan untuk tumbesaran normal
dan metabolisma. Berikan TIGA (3) fungsi lemak dan
minyak dalam makanan.
(3 marks)
EXERCISE 2
c) Based on Table 1(c), answer the questions below:

Types of oil Major fatty acid

Palm oil Palmitic acid

Olive oil Oleic acid

Soybean oil Linoleic acid

Table 1(c): Chemical Properties of several types of Oil

EXERCISE 2
i) Oils are bought and sold according to a quality specification.
Based on table 1(c), choose type of oil with the lowest
iodine value.
Minyak dibeli dan dijual mengikut spesifikasi kualiti.
Berpandukan jadual 1(c), pilih jenis minyak yang nil
iodin paling rendah.
(1 mark)

ii) Explain your answer in question 1(c)(i).Give TWO (2)

reasons.
Terangkan jawapan anda dalam soalan 1(c)(i). Berikan
DUA (2) sebab.

(4 marks)
EXERCISE 2
iii) Crude palm is stored in temporary tank and the oil
condition need to be checked before undergo the
refining process. Give FIVE (5) physical parameters
to determine the oil quality.
Minyak sawit mentah disimpan di dalam tangka
sementara dan keadaan minyak perlu diperiksa
sebelum melalui proses penapisan. Berikan LIMA
(5) parameter fizikal untuk menentukan kualiti
minyak.
(5 marks)
EXERCISE 2
d)Based on table 1(d), answer the questions below:

Types of fatty
acid Chemical formula
Eicosenoic acid C20H38O2
Nervonic acid C24H46O2
Linoleic acid C18H32O2
Palmitic acid C16H32O2
Arachidic acid C20H40O2
Table 1(d) : Chemical formula of several types of fatty acid

Identify the classification for each type of fatty acid in the table above.
Kenalpasti pengkelasan bagi setiap asid lemak dalam jadual di atas.

(5 marks)
THE END….