Assignment # 01

HAMZA KASANA
F2018067041

 EDIBLE OILS , FATS ,WAXES

 Industrial Chemistry
 Section N
 Chapter 04
 Prof. Hamid Raza
 Edible oils, Fats and waxes
Q#1 Why unsaturated triglyceride melt below at room temperature ?
Because of this kink in the chains, the molecules cannot form a neat, compact lattice and tend to coil, so unsaturated
triglycerides often melt below room temperature and are thus classified as oils.
Q#2 write the importance of fats and oils
Fats and oils are the most concentrated source of energy. They provide approximately 9 kcal of energy per gram,
compared to 4 kcal/g for proteins and carbohydrates. They are carriers of fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty
acids. They also contribute to food flavor and mouth-feel as well as to the sensation of product richness. They are
used as frying fats or cooking oils where their role is to provide a controlled heat exchange medium as well as to
contribute to color and flavor. They are also used in many other commercial applications, including soaps,
detergents, and emulsifiers, printing inks, protective coatings, and feeds for domesticated animals.
Q#3 Define waxes with examples
Waxes are monoesters of long-chain fatty acids, usually containing 24 to 28 carbon atoms, with long-chain fatty
primary alcohols. A fatty alcohol has a primary alcohol group (—CH20H) attached to a 16-to-36 carbon atoms long
chain. Waxes are normally saturated and are solids at room temperature.
Q#4 classification of waxes on the basis of origin
Waxes can be classified according to their origins as naturally occur-
ring or synthetic. The naturally occurring waxes can be classified into animal, vegetable, and mineral waxes.
Beeswax, spermaceti, wool grease, and lanolin are important animal include carnauba, ouricouri, and candelilla.
most prominent mineral waxes. Paraffin sisting mainly of normal alkanes with than 450. Microcrystalline wax is
Q#5; Define saponification with example
Saponification is a process in which each ester group is heated with aqueous alkali to form an alcohol
and sodium salt of acid corresponding to the ester .

Q#6;Write down the difference between fats and oils?

Fats are solid at room temperature while oils are lipid at room temperature. Fats are saturated
compounds while lipid are unsaturated compounds.
What is meant by saponification.
Saponification is a chemical process in which an ester is heated with aqueous alkali (sodium hydroxide)
to form an alcohol and the sodium salt of the acid corresponding to the ester. The sodium salt formed is
called soap .
Q#7;Define methaonlysis with examples
The fats and oil react with methanol to produce fatty methyl esters. Inorganic alkali, quaternary ammonium salts, and enzymes
(lipase) have been used as catalysts for methanolysis in commercially practiced processes for soap manufacture.
CH2OCOR
CH2OH
CHOCOR + 3CH3OH RCOOHCH3 + CH OH
CH2OH
CH2OCOR +NaOH
3RCOONa + CH3OH
Q#8 Explain interesterification with example
Interesterification causes a fatty acid redistribution within and among triglyceride molecules, which can lead to substantial
changes in the physical properties of fats and oils or their mixtures without altering the chemical structure of the fatty acids.
Intermolecular acyl groups exchange triglycerides in the reaction until an equilibrium is reached, which depends on the structure
and composition of the triglyceride molecules. The reaction is very slow even at 200 to 300 0 C, but the rate of reaction can be
accelerated by using sodium methylate.
Q#9 Write down the difference types of interesterification
o Random
o Directed
Q #10 write down the different stages of bleaching?
The bleaching process comprises three stages:
• Initial mixing of oil with bleaching earth.
• Oil heating under a vacuum with sparge steam to ensure complete contact between the oil and the earth.
• Filtration on hermetic leaf filters, followed by polishing filtration. The spent cake is dried by steam blowing and the
recovered oil is recycled.
Q #11; Note down different stages of deodorization?
The different stages in the deodorization process are as follows:
• Deaeration
• Heating
• Deodorization or steam stripping
• Heat recovery or cooling
• Final cooling
Q #12; Enlist different stages of winterization?
The winterizing process is conducted in four steps:
• the oil is precooled in heat exchangers
• the filter aid is added just before the first crystallizer and the oil is cooled slowly, in a minimum of 6 h, a prerequisite
for gentle crystallization
• the crystallized form stays 6 h in the maturator, at final cooling temperature
• the oil is then filtered in horizontal hermetic leaf filters. The oil temperature is often raised just before filtration, to
reduce viscosity and hence facilitate filtration
Q#13; Explain different types of polymerization
In thermal polymerization polyunsaturated fatty acids are first isomerized into conjugated fatty acids, which in turn interact by
Diels-Alder reactions producing cyclohexene derivatives. The cyclohexene ring is readily dehydrogenated to an aromatic ring;
hence compounds related to benzoic acid can be formed.
On the other hand, oxidative polymerization involves formation of C —O —C bonds. Polymers with ether and peroxide linkages
are formed in the presence of oxygen. They may also contain hydroxy, oxo, or epoxy groups. Such compounds are undesirable in
deep-fried oil or fat because they permanently diminish the flavoring characteristics of the oil or fat and also cause a foaming
problem.
Q#14; Describe the isomerization .
The configuration of the double bond in naturally occurring fatty acids, present in oils and fats, is predominantly in the cis form.
Isomerization can occur if oils and fats are heated at temperatures above 100 0 C in the presence of bleaching earths or catalysts
such as nickel, selenium, sulfur, or iodine.
Two types of isomerization spontaneously occur during hydrogenation: geometrical and positional. The extent to which
isomerization occurs can be affected by processing conditions and catalyst selection.
Q#15;What is meant by autoxidation ?
Fats and oils often contain double bonds. Autoxidation of a fat or oil yields a mixture of products that include low molecular
weight carboxylic acids, aldehydes, and methyl ketones.
Drying oils such as linseed oil contain many double bonds. These oils are purposely allowed to undergo air oxidation leading to a
tough polymer film on the painted surface.
Q#16;
2 Why direct interesterification is important
The directed interesterification is of much industrial significance because it can be used to convert oils into more and/or less
saturated fractions of original fat or oil or blend of two oils.

Q #17; Explain hydrogenation with example

The unsaturated double bonds in a fatty-acid chain are converted to saturated bonds by addition of hydrogen. The reaction
between the liquid oil and hydrogen gas is accelerated by using a suitable solid catalyst such as nickel, platinum, copper, or
palladium. Hydrogenation is exothermic, and leads to an increase in melting point and drop in iodine value. Partial
hydrogenation can lead to isomerization of cis double bonds (geometrical isomerization).

Q#18; Explain the hydrogenation of poly unsaturated fatty acid with examples
Polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linolenic acid (C18:3) are hydrogenated more quickly to linoleic (C18:2) or oleic acid (C 18:
1) than linoleic to oleic acid or oleic acid to stearic acid (C 18:0). The conversion steps can be represented as follows:
K1 K2 K3
C18:3 C18:1 C18:1 C18:0
+H2 +H2 +H2

Q#19; Write the important raw material for fat production

The organ fats of domestic animals such as cattle and hogs and milk fat are the important raw materials for fat production.
Edible oils are mostly of plant origin ,olive oil and palm oil are extracted from fruits All other oils are extracted from oilseeds.
 (polyunsaturated) as illustrated

Q#20; Define fatty acid and also its types

The carboxylic acids obtained from the hydrolysis of fat or oil are called fatty acids. They are the building
blocks of the triglycerides and the fats and oils are often named as derivatives of these fatty acids. For
example, the tristearate of glycerol is named tristearin and the tripalmitate of glycerol is named tripalmitin

Normal saturated fatty acids have a long, unbranched hydrocarbon chain having a general
formula where n is usually even and varies from 2 to 24.The unsaturated fatty acids may have
one double bond (monosaturated) or have more than one cis-methylene interrupted double bond

Q#21;Define triglycerides?
They  are a type of fat. They are the most common type of fat in our body. They are present in our foods,
especially butter, oils, and other fats that we eat. They  are also come from extra calories.
Q#22; Define specific heat and explain how it relate with nature of triglycerides
The specific heat of fats is defined as the ratio of the heat capacity of a fat to the heat capacity of water; or the
quantity of heat required for a one-degree temperature change in a unit weight of fats.
specific heat does increase with increasing unsaturation of fatty acids in both the liquid and solid states of a fat.
Liquid fats have almost twice the specific heat values than those of solid fats. Knowledge of the specific heat of fats
and oils is useful in processing operation.
Q#23;Define polymorphism with example
The existence of a substance in two or more forms which are significantly different in physical or
chemical properties, is known as polymorphism .The difference between the forms arises from different modes of
molecular packing in the crystal structure of certain triglycerides.
Q#24;Define hydrolysis and write the different kind of hydrolysis of triglycerides.
The fat or oil can be hydrolyzed into fatty acids and glycerol by treatment with steam under elevated pressure and
temperature. The reaction is reversible and is catalyzed by inorganic catalysts (ZnO, MgO, or CaO) and an acid
catalyst (aromatic sulfonic acid).
o Methanolysis
o interesterification
Q#25; Explain the mechanism of autoxidation

Hydroperoxide

Q#26;Write down the three steps involve in the autoxidation

The autoxidation reactions involve three steps:
o Initiation,
o Propagation
o Termination.
Q#27;What is meant by virgin oil ?
Virgin oils contain the highest levels of polyphenols, antioxidants that have been linked with better health. Acid
value: max 6.6%
Smoke point: 190 –215 °C 
Q #28; Write down the purpose of oil extraction?
The purpose of oil extraction is twofold:
 first, extracting the maximum amount of good quality oils and
 then getting maximum value from the residual press cake or meal.
Q #29; Note down the methods for oil extraction?
The following three methods are used:
(1) Rendering
(2) pressing with mechanical presses,
(3) extracting with a volatile solvent.
Q #30; Explain rendering?
The rendering process is applied on a large scale to the production of animal fats, such as tallow, lard, bone
fat, and whale oil. The fatty tissues are chopped into small pieces and are boiled in steam digesters. The fat is
gradually liberated from the cells and floats to the surface of the water, where it is collected by skimming
Q #31; write down the general sequence of pressing?
The general sequence of modern operations in pressing oilseeds and nuts is as follows:
(4) Preparation of the seed to remove stray bits of metals and removal of hulls
(5) Reduction of particle size of the kernels (meats) by grinding
(6) Cooking and pressing in hydraulic or screw presses.
Q #32; How solvent extraction should be done?
The press cake emerging from a screw press still retains 3 to 15 percent of residual oil. More complete
extraction is done by solvent extraction of the residues obtained from mechanical pressing. The greater
efficiency obtained in the solvent extraction process encouraged the industry for direct application to
oilseeds.
Q #33; Explain degumming?
Degumming mainly reduces the phosphatides and metal content of the crude oil by mixing it with an
acid and water. The phosphatides are present in free hydratable form (HP) or in nonhydratable form
(NHP), mostly in combination with some Ca+ *, Mg+ *, or Fe+ *
Q #34; Define Alkali refining?
In alkali refining, the NHP that remains behind in the oil after acid treatment, and the free fatty acids
formed during the hydrolysis (lipolysis) of the HP, are further removed by neutralization.
Q #31; Name out the types of degumming?
There are two types of degumming;
 Soft degumming
 Enzymatic degumming
Q #35; Define enzymatic degumming?
In the enzymatic degumming process, part of the hydratable phosphatides is enzymatically modified by removing
the fatty acid on the C-2 position of the glycerol, using a phospholipase A2 enzyme as biocatalyst. These modified
phosphatides facilitate the removal of the remaining NHP

Q # 36; Define Soft degumming?

In the soft-degumming process, a chelating agent (EDTA) is added to the oil to remove the cations from the
nonhydratable phosphatides, thereby making them hydratable again
Q #37; Define the term saponification number?
This is the weight of KOH (in mg) needed to hydrolyze a 1-g sample of an oil or fat. The higher the SN, the
lower the average molecular weight of the fatty acid in the triglyceride
Q #38; what is acid value?
This value is important for determination of free fatty acids (FFA) in crude and refined oils and fats. It is the
number of milligrams of KOH needed to neutralize the organic acids present in 1 g of oil or fat. FFA is
calculated as free oleic acid and reported as a percentage. The AV is determined by multiplying percent FFA
with a factor of 1.99.
Q #39; why oils give color reaction?
Some oils give specific color reactions caused by particular ingredients. The Halphen test for detecting
cottonseed oil is one example. This test estimates the presence of cottonseed oil in vegetable or animal fats or
oils as the result of a pink color formed between the reagent (sulfur and carbon disulfide) and cyclopropenoic
fatty acids normally present in cottonseed oil.
Q #40; define shelf stability test?
Shelf life is predicted by the active oxygen method (AOM). The fat or oil is subjected to an accelerated
oxidation test under standardized conditions so that the signs of deterioration are revealed within several hours
or days. The sample is heated at 97.8°C while air is blown through it. The AOM value is reported as the
number of hours to reach a peroxide value of 100 meq/kg