Smart Materials - Module - 3

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SMART MATERIALS
(MEDLO8052)
Subject Incharge
Mr. Rohit Bharat Patil
Assistant Professor
email: rohitpatil@sfit.ac.in
St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

Department of Mechanical Engineering Mr. Rohit Patil 1
The material in this presentation belongs to St. Francis Institute of Technology and is solely for educational purposes. Distribution and modifications of the content is prohibited.
Module 3
Overview of the following materials with focus on synthesis,

constitutive/governing relationships, strengths and weaknesses,
and applications (both sensing and actuation etc)
1. Piezoelectric Materials
2. Magneto strictive Materials
3. Shape Memory Alloys
4. Electroactive Polymers

Piezoelectric Materials
 Introduction:
• Piezoelectric materials are materials that produce a voltage
when force/stress is applied. Since, this effect also applies in
the reverse manner; a voltage across the sample will produce
stress within the sample. The word "piezo" is a Greek word
which means "to press".
• Therefore, piezoelectricity means electricity generated from

pressure a very logical name.
• Suitably designed structures made from these materials can

therefore be made that bend, expand or contract when a
voltage is applied.

• The piezoelectric effect was first discovered in 1880 by

Pierre and Jacques Curie who demonstrated that when
a stress field was applied to certain crystalline
materials, an electrical charge was produced on the
material surface.
• It was subsequently demonstrated that the converse

effect is also true, when an electric field is applied to a
piezoelectric material it changes its shape and size.
• This effect was found to be due to the electrical dipoles

of the material spontaneously aligning in the electrical
field.
• Due to the internal stiffness of the material, piezoelectric
elements were also found to generate relatively large
forces when their natural expansion was constrained.
• This observation ultimately has led to their use as

actuators in many applications.
• Likewise if electrodes were attached to the material then

the charge generated by straining the material could be
collected and measured.
• Thus piezoelectric materials can also be used as sensors

to measure structural motion by directly attaching them
to the structure.
• Most contemporary applications of piezoelectricity use
polycrystalline ceramics instead of naturally occurring
piezoelectric crystals.
• The ceramic materials afford a number of advantages;

they are hard, dense and can be manufactured to almost
any shape or size.
• Piezoelectric transducers have become increasingly

popular in vibration control applications.
• They are used as sensors and as actuators in structural

vibration control systems. They provide excellent
actuation and sensing capabilities.
• These French scientists discovered a class of materials that
when pressured, generate electrical charge, and when
placed inside an electric field, strain mechanically.
• Piezoelectricity, which literally means "electricity generated

from pressure" is found naturally in many monocrystalline
materials, such as quartz, tourmaline, topaz and Rochelle
salt.
• The ability of piezoelectric materials to transform

mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice versa was
discovered over a century ago by Pierre and Jacque Curie.

• However, these materials are generally not suitable as

actuators for vibration control applications.
• Instead, man-made polycrystalline ceramic materials,

such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT) can be processed to
exhibit significant piezoelectric properties.
• PZT ceramics are relatively easy to produce. and exhibit

strong coupling between mechanical and electrical
domains.

• This enables them to produce comparatively large forces

or displacements from relatively small applied voltages,
or vice versa. Consequently, they are the most widely
utilized material in manufacturing of piezoelectric
transducers.
• The high modulus of elasticity of many piezoelectric

materials is comparable to that of many metals and goes
up to 105 N/mm². Even though piezoelectric sensors are
electromechanical systems that react on compression,
the sensing elements show almost zero deflection.

• This is the reason why piezoelectric sensors are so rugged,

have an extremely high natural frequency and an
excellent linearity over a wide amplitude range.
• Additionally, piezoelectric technology is insensitive to

electromagnetic fields and radiation, enabling
measurements under harsh conditions.
• Some materials used (especially gallium- phosphate or

tourmaline) have an extreme stability over temperature
enabling sensors to have a working range of 1000°C.

• The single disadvantage of piezoelectric sensors is that

they cannot be used for true static measurements.
• A static force will result in a fixed amount of charges on
the piezoelectric material.
• Table -1 shows the basic characteristics of sensing
materials.

• Working with conventional electronics, not perfect

insulating materials, and reduction in internal sensor
resistance will result in a constant loss of electrons,
yielding an inaccurate signal.
• Elevated temperatures cause an additional drop in

internal resistance; therefore, at higher temperatures,
only piezoelectric materials can be used that maintain a
high internal resistance.
• Piezoelectric transducers have been extensively used in

structural vibration control applications.

• Their wide utilization in this specific application can be
attributed to their excellent actuation and sensing
abilities which stems from their high electro-mechanical
coupling coefficient, as well as their non-intrusive nature.
• For vibration control purposes, piezoelectric transducers

are bonded to or embedded in a composite structure.
Piezoelectric transducers are used as sensors and
actuators in vibration control systems.
• For this purpose, transducers are bonded to a flexible

structure and utilized as either a sensors to monitor
structural vibrations, or as actuators to add damping to
the structure.
Piezoelectric principle
• Piezoelectric sensors rely on the piezoelectric effect,
which was discovered by the Curie brothers in the late
19th century.
• While investigating a number of naturally occurring

materials such as tourmaline and quartz, Pierre and
Jacques Curie realized that these materials had the
ability to transform energy of a mechanical input into an
electrical output.

• Consider this structure of

silicon dioxide material
popularly as quartz crystal.
Fig: Quatrz Crystal

• When we take a look at this structure from a specific angle
we see it has a hexagonal shape.

• Concept of
electronegativity.
• Here the oxygen and
silicon atoms share
one electron.
• Due to smaller size of
oxygen atoms the shared
electron is closer to the
oxygen’s nucleus so
oxygen so oxygen will
exert more force on the
electron than silicon
• As a result oxygen is
more electronegative
than silicon and will have
a negative charge this
also means silicon atom
will have a slight positive
charge so the silicon and
oxygen atom together
constitute a dipole
• In quartz crystal these dipoles are

arranged such that the center of
charges of negative and positive
atoms coincide.

• Now what will happen to the center of the charge if we apply
a compressive force the molecules the center of charges do
not coincide any more and there will be a charge separation
this is called polarization.
St. Fra ncis Institute of Technology Smart Mate rials

Depar tment of Mechanical Engineering Mr. Rohit Patil 20
• This also means an electric field will be created between the net positive and negative
charges this leads to generation of a small voltage across it.
• The quartz crystal consists of

• The quartz crystal consists of multiple similar hexagons
connected in series which lack a center of symmetry so now if
we apply a compressive force across the entire material the
individual charge separations of these hexagons will add up to
generate a voltage across the material.

• If a voltage is applied across the material the special

characteristics of piezoelectricity is that it is reversible.

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Department of Mechanical Engin eering Mr. Rohit Patil 24
Piezoelectric Materials Synthesis

• Basic Manufacturing of Bulk Piezoelectric Components:
• A bulk piezoelectric component is defined as a product with a
single layer of piezoelectric ceramic with electrically conductive
metal electrodes applied to two opposing sides.
• These electrodes are used during poling of the material
(aligning the electrical dipoles like in magnetic materials) and
also used as electrical contacts for applying electric field during
use.
• Bulk piezoelectric components are manufactured by
compaction of piezoceramic powder by conventional processes
like uni-axial pressing, isostatic pressing and extrusion.

• The basic technology for manufacturing of bulk components

is the pressing of shaped bodies using spraydried granular
material.
• This is achieved using high-capacity presses with up to 1 MN
compacting force.
• The shaped bodies are either manufactured true-to-size,
taking into account the sintering contraction, or with
machining excesses, which are removed after sintering to
achieve the required precision.
• By using high-production inboard sawing equipment, it is
possible to manufacture components (discs, plates, tubes,
etc.) with very low thickness.


Basic Manufacturing of Multilayer Piezoelectric Actuators:
• To reach a useful quasi-static displacement with bulk, a very
high operating voltage, in the range of 500-1000V is
required. In order to overcome this problem the multilayer
technology was developed.
• A multilayer component is composed of several layers of
piezoelectric material, alternating with internal electrodes.
Internal electrodes are successively positioned as positive
and negative.
• All positive electrodes are connected to one external
electrode on one side of the component; negative
electrodes are connected on the other side of the
component.


• Compared to bulk piezoelectric actuators, multilayer piezoelectric
actuators have the advantage of providing displacements
comparable to bulk piezoelectric actuators at applied electric
fields up to 100 times smaller.
• In addition, since the internal electrodes are embedded in the
ceramic, higher electrical fields can be applied, leading to
higher strain levels, and the active material is better protected
against the environmental effects.

Piezoelectric
Materials
Synthesis

• Raw materials – both bulk and multilayer processing
• High purity raw materials are used, mainly lead oxide, titanium
oxide, zirconium oxide and a range of dopants.
• Mixing – both bulk and multilayer processing
• The raw materials are accurately weighed according to a well-
documented prescription and mixed with additives and solvents.
• Calcining – both bulk and multilayer processing
• The mixed materials are calcinated at 900 °C to 1000 °C to
remove organics in the raw material mix and also create a more
homogenous material.
• Milling – both bulk and multilayer processing
• The calcinated materials are milled to achieve a very
homogeneous suspension with the required particle size. The
suspension is measured for viscosity and approved for tape
casting or for bulk production.
• Granulation – only for bulk processing

• The powder is mixed with a binder and spray dried for further
processing.
• Pressing – only for bulk processing
• The piezoceramic material is pressed in a specific pressing tool
adapted to the shape to be produced.
• Mixing – only for multilayer processing
• The powder is mixed with a specific binder. The mixed
materials are milled to form a homogeneous suspension
(slurry).
• Tape casting – only for multilayer processing
• The suspension is tape casted on a carrier foil. The tape
thickness is between 20-40 µm as a standard. The green
ceramic tape contains binder materials, which make the tape
flexible and easy to handle in the following processes.
• Build-up – only for multilayer processing

• Sheet cutting
• The tape is cut into sheets and automatically inspected for
defects
• Printing
• Platinum or silver/palladium electrodes with predetermined
patterns are printed on the piezoceramic sheets using screen-
printing process with a suitable electrode paste.
• Stacking
• Layers of piezoelectric ceramic sheets are automatically
stacked in the right sequence to the final build-up design. All
items are built in 6” x 6” blocks.

• Lamination – only for multilayer processing

• The piezoelectric ceramic blocks are laminated at defined pressure,
temperature and for a specified duration of time. During this
process, individually cut layers are firmly laminated and brought in
appropriate contact with each other.
• Dicing and drilling – only for multilayer processing
• After lamination, the individual components are diced or milled out
of the green piezoelectric ceramic blocks. Dicing needs to follow
accurately the pattern of the internal electrodes. In some cases,
dicing is also performed on sintered ceramic.
• Binder burn out – both bulk and multilayer processing
• The organic compounds in components, binder materials, additives
and remaining solvents are removed by very slowly heating of the
green parts to a temperature of 500-700 ºC, where the organic
compounds decompose and evaporate from the ceramic.
Sintering – both bulk and multilayer processing

In order for grains to grow and diffuse to form a dense piezoelectric
ceramic components need to be sintered at high temperature. Several
parameters have to be optimized with this process, e.g. temperature ramp
rates, holding time and the condition of atmosphere.
Machining – both bulk and multilayer processing
Most products are machined or rectified in some manner before or after
termination depending on the specific product. A lapping process is
commonly employed, with the grain size of the lapping medium is adapted
to the desired surface roughness on the parts.
Termination – both bulk and multilayer processing
For multilayer products, external electrodes are applied to make a
connection to the internal electrodes inside the component. For bulk
products, the termination provides external electrodes.
Termination is performed either by screen-printing and firing of an
electrode paste, typically silver, or by a sputtering process.
Poling – both bulk and multilayer processing

During the poling process, adequate DC electrical field is applied and
this applied electric field orients the domains in the electric field
direction and lead to a remnant polarization of the material. This
alignment is achieved in the poling process, where a high electrical
field, 2-3kV/mm, is applied to the external electrodes at elevated
temperatures for a specific amount of time.
Final inspection – both bulk and multilayer processing
After poling the components and stacks will go through a final
inspection according to customer specifications or internal
procedures, which is a combination of statistical method and 100 %
measurements. Various mechanical and electrical parameters may be
tested – also according to customer specifications.

Stacking – both bulk and multilayer processing

Bulk as well as individual multilayer elements can be stacked. The
elements are bonded together with epoxy adhesive. Packaging –
both bulk and multilayer processing
Components are packed properly in plastic trays, plastic bags, foam
or placed on tape and then placed in a box ready for shipment.
Products intended for vacuum applications undergo a specific
cleaning and packaging process.

Examples of Piezoelectric Materials
The most commonly known piezoelectric material is quartz. But

piezoelectric materials are numerous, the most used are,
1. Quartz (SiO2): Quartz shows a strong piezoelectricity due to its
crystalline structure, meaning that when a pressure is applied
on a quartz crystal an electrical polarization can be observed
along the pressure direction.
2. Berlinite (AIPO4)
3. Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4) : Gallium orthophosphate
has almost the same crystalline structure as quartz, that is why
it has the same characteristics. However, its piezoelectric
effect is almost twice as important as the one for the quartz,
making it a valuable asset for mechanical application. It is not a
natural element; it has to be synthetised.
4. Tourmaline: crystal commonly black but can range from violet
to green and pink.
Examples of Piezoelectric Materials
5. Barium Titanate (BaTiO3): This element is an electrical

ceramic, it is usually replaced by lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
for piezoelectricity. It is used for microphones and transducers.
6. Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT): It is considered today one of
the most economical piezoelectric elements, hence it is usedin
a lot of applications.
7. Zinc oxide (ZnO)
8. Aluminum Nitride (AiN)

Advantages:
1. Piezoelectric materials can operate at any temperature conditions.
2. They have low carbon footprinting making them the best alternative
for fossil fuel.
3. Characteristics of these materials make them the best energy
harvesters.
4. Unused energy lost in the form of vibrations can be tapped to
generate green energy.
5. These materials can be used.
Limitations:
1. While working with vibrations these devices are prone to pick up
unwanted vibrations also.
2. Resistance and durability apply limit to devices when used to tap
energy from pavements.
3. The mismatch between stiffness of piezoelectric material and
pavement materials.
4. Less known details of devices and the amount of research done till
date is not sufficient to exploit full usage of these devices.
Piezoelectric Materials Applications
• Due to its unique characteristics, piezoelectric materials have acquired

an important role in various technological inventions.
1. In Japan's train stations the concept of "crowd farm" was tested where
the footsteps of the pedestrians on the piezoelectric tiles embedded on
the road can generate electricity.
2. In 2008 a nightclub in London builds first eco-friendly floor made up of
piezoelectric material that can generate electricity to power up light
bulbs when people dance on it.
3. Piezoelectric effect finds useful application as mechanical frequency
filters, surface acoustic wave devices, bulk acoustic wave devices, etc.
4. Sound and ultrasound microphones and speakers, ultrasonic imaging,
hydrophones.
5. Piezoelectric pickups for guitars, biosensors to power up pacemaker.
6. Piezoelectric elements are also used in the detection and generation of
sonar waves, single-axis and dual-axis tilt sensing.
Piezoelectric Materials Applications
• Piezoelectric Motors
• Actuators in Industrial Sector
• Sensors in Medical Sector
• Actuators in Consumer Electronics (Printers, Speakers)
• Piezoelectricity Buzzers
• Instrument pick-ups
• Microphones
• Piezoelectric Igniters
• Micro Robotics (Defense)
• Other application of crystals are used in watches, ultrasound
equipment, cigarette lighters, inkjet printers, and a wide variety
of sensors and motors.

Magneto strictive Materials
• The meaning of striction is the state of being constricted.

• When a magnetic field is given to a magnetic material, it
experiences an alteration in shape or size or length or
dimension.
• This property of some magnetic materials is known as
magnetostriction.
• This change of dimension of magnetic materials during
magnetization may continue till the magnetic saturation of
the material is attained.
• The change in length of a ferromagnetic iron rod when
magnetized was first discovered by James Joule in 1842.
This is the Joules effect.


• Internally, ferromagnetic materials have a structure that is divided into
domains, each of which is a region of uniform magnetization.
• When a magnetic field is applied, the boundaries between the domains
shift and the domains rotate; both of these effects cause a change in the
material's dimensions.
• The reason that a change in the magnetic domains of a material results
in a change in the materials dimensions is a consequence of
magnetocrystalline anisotropy; it takes more energy to magnetize a
crystalline material in one direction than in another.
• If a magnetic field is applied to the material at an angle to an easy axis of
magnetization, the material will tend to rearrange its structure so that
an easy axis is aligned with the field to minimize the free energy of the
system
• Since different crystal directions are associated with different lengths,
this effect induces a strain in the material.


• Magnetostriction can be calculated by the magnetostriction
coefficient or Joule’s magnetostriction coefficient.
• It is the fractional variation in length as the magnetization raises
from 0 to saturation value.
• It is denoted by λ. If the length of a ferromagnetic rod is L and after
magnetizing it from zeros to saturation level the change in length is
δL.
• Then the ratio of δL to L is Joule’s magnetostriction
coefficient (λ).
λ = δL / L
• There is a loss in energy due to friction in magnetic
material cores.


• This reorientation can be brought about by applying either

magnetic fields, heat or stresses.
• The linear magnetostriction δL/L that results from applying a
longitudinal magnetic field on a sample of length L, illustrated in
Fig.


Types of Magnetostriction
When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized, changes in physical

dimensions in general occur.
There are three types of magnetostriction,
a) Longitudinal: When change in dimension is in the direction of
applied field
b) Transverse: When change in the dimension is perpendicular to
applied field.
c) Volume: When change in dimension is perpendicular as well as
parallel to applied field.
• It is observed experimentally that Ni and Co crystals contract
when magnetized in either of three directions of crystal and an
iron crystal expands when magnetized in the easy direction of
magnetization and contracts when magnetized in the hard
direction. Ni and Co crystals possess negative magnetostriction.


• Cobalt exhibits the largest room-temperature
magnetostriction of a pure element at 60 microstrains.
• Among alloys, the highest known magnetostriction is
exhibited by Terfenol-D, (Ter for terbium, Fe for iron, NOL
for Naval Ordnance Laboratory, and D for dysprosium).
• Terfenol-D, TbxDy1-xFe2, exhibits about 2,000 microstrains
in a field of 160 kA/m at room temperature and is the most
commonly used engineering magnetostrictive material.
• Galfenol, FexGa1-x, and Alfer, FexAl1-x, are newer alloys that
exhibit 200-400 microstrains at lower applied fields and have
enhanced mechanical properties from the brittle Terfenol-D.
• Both of these alloys have many easy axes for magnetostriction
and demonstrate sufficient ductility for sensors and actuator
applications.


• Another very common magnetostrictive composite is the
amorphous alloy Fe81Si3.5B13.5C2 with its trade name Metglas
2605SC.
• Cobalt ferrite, CoFe2O4, is also mainly used for its magnetostrictive
applications like sensors and actuators, thanks to its high saturation
magnetostriction.
• In the absence of rare earth elements, it is a good substitute for
Terfenol-D.
• In early sonar transducers during World War II, nickel was used as a
magnetostrictive material.
• To alleviate the shortage of nickel, the Japanese navy also used an
iron- aluminium alloy.


Applications
• Magnetostrictive materials are used to convert electromagnetic
energy into mechanical energy and vice versa.
• This effect can be used to create sensors that measure a magnetic
field or detect a force.
• Transformers also use mangnetostrictive materials in conjunction
with Faraday's law to convert magnetic fields into an electromotive
force. During this process, the change in magnetic flux is converted
into an electromotive force (EMF) in the transformer.
• A changing magnetic field can also be used in conjunction with
magnetostrictive materials to produce vibrations.
• Such materials are used in medical devices and industrial vibrators,
ultrasonic cleaning devices, underwater sonar, vibration or noise
control systems, and in many other applications.

Shape Memory Alloys

• Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) belong to smart materials class,
presenting thermomechanical coupling associated with solid
phase transformations.
• SMA undergoes a reversible phase transformation in the solid
state, assuming different crystalline structures at different
temperatures.
• SMA transformation is reversible, with thermoelastic
characteristics. Besides, phase transformation can be induced
either by temperature or by stress.
• Key feature of products that possess this shape memory
property include: high force during shape chang; large
movement with small temperature change; a high permanent
strength; simple application because no special tools are
required; many possible shapes and configurations; and easy
to use- just heat.
• The main phenomena responsible for the cited characteristics are

the typical SMAs thermomechanical behaviors: pseudoelasticity or
superelasticity, shape memory effect (SME) (one-way and two-way),
and phase transformation due to temperature variation.
• Two different phases

are possible: austenite
and martensite.
• The shape memory
effect (SME) occurs
because a
temperature-induced
phase transformation
reverses deformation,
as shown in the
hysteresis curve.
• Considering a stress-free state, As

and Af are the starting and finishing
temperatures for austenite
formation, respectively, while Ms
and Mf are the starting and
finishing temperatures for
martensite formation, respectively.
• Therefore, if a stress-free sample is
subjected to temperature
variations, phase transformations
occur defined by these
temperatures. Figure presents a
typical curve in a strain–
temperature space (ε vs T)

• For low temperatures, below Mf , the sample is at martensitic

state, actually, twinned martensite, composed by several variants.
• By increasing the temperature, martensite to austenite phase
transformation begins to take place at As , point A, finishing at Af ,
point B. By decreasing the temperature, the reverse
transformation takes place, starting at Ms , point C, and finishing
at Mf , point D.
• Since phase transformation temperatures for each phase have
different values, the sample presents a dissipative hysteretic
behavior.

Pseudo - elasticity
• The formation of stress induced (at high temperature)
martensite from austenite phase result in a phenomenon called
pseudo – elasticity.



Stress- Strain Diagram of SMA

One way shape Memory Effect
• When a SMA is in its cold state

(below As), the metal can be bent
or stretched and will hold this
shape until heated above the
transition T.
• Upon heating, the shape changes
to its original.
• When the metal cools again, it will
remain in the hot shape until
deformed again.
• In this case, cooling from high T
does not cause macroscopic
shape change.


Two way shape memory effect
• The material remembers two

shapes: one at high T & the other
at low T.
• Shows shape memory effect
during both cooling and heating.
• The metal can be trained to leave
some reminders of the deformed
low temp condition in the high
temperature phases.
• Above a certain T, the metal loses
the 2 way memory effect. This is
called “amnesia”

• When a SMA undergoes a martensite phase transformation, it

transforms from its high symmetry (cubic) austenitic phase to a
low symmetry martensitic phase (highly twinned monoclinic
sturucture).
• NiTiNOL’ s high
temperature
phase is simply
body centered
cubic and has
the same
symmetry as
hexaghonal-
close packed.

Department of Mechanical Engineeri ng Mr. Rohit Patil 62
Ni – Ti alloy Nitinol
• Nitinol stands for Nical titaninum Naval Ordanance

Laboratory
• Nitinol alloy exhibit two closely related nd unique properties:
Shape memory effect and pseudo elastic effect
• It exhibits enormous elasticity, 10- 30 times that of ordinary
metal.
• It has high melting point (13000 C).
• Transformation temperature range: 200 – 1100 C
• Density of Ni- Ti alloy is 6450 Kg/m3.

Advantages of SMA Disadvantages of SMA

• High strength • Initial investment
• Super elasticity • Sensitive fabrication
• Fatigue resistance • Residual stress
• Wear resistance • Lower max freq of
• Easy fabrication actuators
• High power/weight ratio • Non-linear actuation force
• Light weight
• Bio compatibility
• Shape memory property

Application of SMA

Electroactive Polymers
• Electroactive polymers (EAPs) are a versatile class of electrically
deformable polymers. These polymers have the ability to deform
when excited by electrical potentials due to their inherent electro-
mechanical properties.
• Polymers that respond to external stimuli by changing shape or
size are known as active smart polymer.
• Their ability to transform an electrical stimulus into a mechanical
response has the potential to develop biocompatible artificial
muscles. Furthermore, EAPs have become an attractive material for
wearable sensors and biomimetic.
These are of two categories:
1. Active Polymers that respond to input stimuli such as pH,
magnetic field and light; eg., PAC (Polyanionic cellulose)
2. Electro-active Polymers that respond to the change of electrical
input. Also known as EAP.
• Electroactive polymers could be split between two major

types depending on how they are produced, electronic EAPs
and ionic EAPs.
• Electronic EAPs, such as dielectric elastomers, mechanically
respond to the changes in electrical charge, typically by
expansion.
• Similarly, ionic EAPs can be activated by an electric field that
causes deformation due to ion movement.
• Comparatively, ionic EAPs require a lower voltage than
electronic EAPs for activation.
• On the other hand, electronic EAPs have progressed
significantly, and there are different types of electric EAPs
already present in the market.

Comparison Between EEAPs and IEAPs
Electronic EAPs Ionic EAPs
Needs high activation voltage Requires low driving voltage (1

(> 150 V/µm). to 5 V).
Relatively slow response time

Have high energy density and
but amount of deformation is
rapid response time (in
more. Performs better in wet
milliseconds)
conditions.

Types of Electroactive Polymers
Dielectric Polymers
• Dielectric EAPs are materials in which actuation is caused by
electrostatic forces between two electrodes which squeeze the
polymer.
• Dielectric elastomers are capable of very high strains and are
fundamentally a capacitor that changes its capacitance when a
voltage is applied by allowing the polymer to compress in
thickness and expand in area due to the electric field.
• This type of EAP typically requires a large actuation voltage to
produce high electric fields(hundreds to thousands of volts), but
very low electrical power consumption.
• Dielectric EAPs require no power to keep the actuator at a given
position. Examples are electrostrictive polymers and dielectric
elastomers.
Dielectric Polymers
(1) Ferroelectric polymers

• Ferroelectric polymers are a group of crystalline polar polymers
that are also ferroelectric, meaning that they maintain a
permanent electric polarization that can be reversed, or
switched, in an external electric field.
• Ferroelectric polymers, such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),
are used in acoustic transducers and electromechanical actuators
because of their inherent piezoelectric response, and as heat
sensors because of their inherent pyroelectric response

Dielectric Polymers
(2) Electrostrictive graft polymers
• Electrostrictive graft polymers consist of flexible backbone
chains with branching side chains. The side chains on
neighbouring backbone polymers cross link and form crystal
units.
• The backbone and side chain crystal units can then form
polarized monomers, which contain atoms with partial
charges and generate dipole moments.
• When an electrical field is applied, a force is applied to each
partial charge and causes rotation of the whole polymer unit.
• This rotation causes electrostrictive strain and deformation of
the polymer.

Dielectric Polymers

Ionic Polymers
Ionic Polymers
• Ionic EAPs, in which actuation is caused by the displacement of
ions inside the polymer.
• Only a few volts are needed for actuation, but the ionic flow
implies a higher electrical power needed for actuation, and
energy is needed to keep the actuator at a given position.
• Examples of ionic EAPS are conductive polymers, ionic polymer-
metal composites (IPMCs), and responsive gels.

Ionic Polymers
(1)Electrorheological fluid
• Electrorheological fluids change the viscosity of a solution with the
application of an electric field.
• The fluid is a suspension of polymers in a low dielectric-constant
liquid.
• With the application of a large electric field the viscosity of the
suspension increases.
• Potential applications of these fluids include shock absorbers,
engine mounts and acoustic dampers.

Ionic Polymers
2) Ionic polymer-metal composite

• Ionic polymer-metal composites consist of a thin ionomeric
membrane with noble metal electrodes plated on its surface.
• It also has cations to balance the charge of the anions fixed to the
polymer backbone.
• They are very active actuators that show very high deformation at
low applied voltage and show low impedance.
• Ionic polymer-metal composites work through electrostatic
attraction between the cationic counter ions and the cathode of
the applied electric field.
• These types of polymers show the greatest promise for bio-
mimetic uses as collagen fibers are essentially composed of
natural charged ionic polymers.

Ionic Electro Active Polymer

Working of IPMC
• The polymer consists of a fixed
network with negative charges
balanced by mobile positive ions.
• When subjected to DC voltage -
there will be accumulation of cations
near cathode - water molecules will
move towards this side causing
hydrophilic expansion.
• The polymer matrix will bend
towards the anode side.
• With time, there will be a back
diffusion of water molecules causing
a slow relaxation towards cathode.
• Extent of Actuation depends on
type of polymer, type of counter Actuation mechanism of IPMC (Chen &
ion, presence of moisture, quality Tan, 2008)
of metallization.
Ionic polymer Metal Composites
• Ionic electro active polymer

• Low actuation voltages
• Large deformation
• Fast response

Developing Double Curvature Using IPMC

Ionic Polymers
3) Stimuli-responsive gels
• Stimuli-responsive gels are a special kind of swellable polymer
networks with volume phase transition behaviour.
• These materials change reversibly their volume, optical,
mechanical and other properties by very small alterations of
certain physical (e.g., electric field, light, temperature) or chemical
(concentrations) stimuli.
• The volume change of these materials occurs by swelling or
shrinking and is diffusion-based.
• Gels provide the biggest change in volume of solid-state materials.

Advantages of Electroactive Polymers
(1) Large displacements of strain
(2) High energy density
(3) Fast response (up to 1000Hz )
(4) Can mimic the strength hand energy density of biological muscles.
(5) Cheap
(6) Require low voltage
Limitations of Electroactive Polymers

(1) Weak mechanical properties
(2) Their wetness has to be maintained
(3) The occurrence of electrolysis above a certain voltage
(4) Low electromechanical
(5) Coupling efficiency
(6) Slow response
(7) Low response
(8) High driving voltage
(9) The occurrence of pre-strain and compromise in the actuation force due to
their high displacements
Applications of Electroactive Polymers
• EAP materials can be easily manufactured into various shapes

due to the ease in processing many polymeric materials, making
them very versatile materials.
• One potential application for EAPs is that they can potentially be
integrated into Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) to
produce smart actuators.
Artificial Muscles:
• As the most prospective practical research direction, EAPs have
been used in artificial muscles.
• Their ability to emulate the operation of biological muscles with
high fracture toughness, large actuation strain and inherent
vibration damping draw the attention of scientists in this field.
EAPs have even successfully been used to make a type of hand

Applications of Electroactive Polymers
Tactile displays:
• In recent years, electro active polymers for refreshable Braille
displays has emerged to aid the visually impaired in fast
reading and computer assisted communication.
• This concept is based on using an EAP actuator configured in
an array form.
• Rows of electrodes on one side of an EAP film and columns on
the other activate individual elementsin the array.
• Each element is mounted with a Braille dot and is lowered by
applying a voltage across the thickness of the selected
element, causing local thickness reduction.
• Under computer control, dots would be activated to create
tactile patterns of highs and lows representing the information
to be read.


Inflatable Antenna

Applications
Artificial Muscles. Tactile Displays
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m5sMOUU1uKs

Smart Materials - Module - 3

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St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

Overview of the following materials with focus on synthesis,

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• Therefore, piezoelectricity means electricity generated from

• Suitably designed structures made from these materials can

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• The piezoelectric effect was first discovered in 1880 by

• It was subsequently demonstrated that the converse

• This effect was found to be due to the electrical dipoles

• This observation ultimately has led to their use as

• Likewise if electrodes were attached to the material then

• Thus piezoelectric materials can also be used as sensors

• The ceramic materials afford a number of advantages;

• Piezoelectric transducers have become increasingly

• They are used as sensors and as actuators in structural

• Piezoelectricity, which literally means "electricity generated

• The ability of piezoelectric materials to transform

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• However, these materials are generally not suitable as

• Instead, man-made polycrystalline ceramic materials,

• PZT ceramics are relatively easy to produce. and exhibit

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• This enables them to produce comparatively large forces

• The high modulus of elasticity of many piezoelectric

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• This is the reason why piezoelectric sensors are so rugged,

• Additionally, piezoelectric technology is insensitive to

• Some materials used (especially gallium- phosphate or

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• The single disadvantage of piezoelectric sensors is that

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• Working with conventional electronics, not perfect

• Elevated temperatures cause an additional drop in

• Piezoelectric transducers have been extensively used in

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• For vibration control purposes, piezoelectric transducers

• For this purpose, transducers are bonded to a flexible

• While investigating a number of naturally occurring

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• Consider this structure of

Fig: Quatrz Crystal

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• In quartz crystal these dipoles are

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

St. Fra ncis Institute of Technology Smart Mate rials

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

• If a voltage is applied across the material the special

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

Piezoelectric Materials Synthesis

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

Piezoelectric Materials Synthesis

• The basic technology for manufacturing of bulk components

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

Piezoelectric Materials Synthesis

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials

Piezoelectric Materials Synthesis

St. Francis Institute of Technology Smart Materials