ABSTRACTION

This time you will learn more and reinforce what you already know. Let us start!

One main concept in Biology is that the function is determined by the structure.
Specialized cells are configured according to their purpose, by size, shape, or function.

Cell Modification

Cell specialization (alteration or differentiation) is a process that occurs after

cell division where the newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they can
efficiently and effectively perform their specific functions.

The following are the modified cells:

Microvilli (structure)

Microvilli are microscopic projections existing in, on, and around the cells. They
appear as tiny folds projecting out like many fingers. They may exist by themselves or
in conjunction with villi (projections of certain mucous membranes). Thousands of
microvilli form a structure called the brush border that is found on some epithelial cells'
apical surface, such as the small intestines. They are microscopic, essentially raising
the surface area of the cell, which in turn becomes useful in functions of absorption
and even secretion.

Fig. 1. Microvilli on surface of intestine

Source: https://microbenotes.com/microvilli-structure-and-functions/

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Stereocilia (Apical Modification)

Stereocilia are made up of polymerized actin filaments. They have a stair-step

arrangement with the shortest row facing the modiolus while the highest row is nearest
to the cochlear lateral wall.

Stereocilia are connected to mechanosensitive ion channels in the human ear.

These mechanosensitive ion channels transduce the signal to the cochlear nerve
when there is a sound that causes stereocilia to move.

Fig. 2. Stereocilia
Source: https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e

Cilia and Flagella

Some prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells contain the so-called cilia and flagella
structures. Cilia are found in species like the Paramecium spp. whereas flagella can
be present in sperm cells and bacteria.

These extensions from the cell

surface help in the movement of cells
as part of their functions. They also help
transfer substances across cells and
direct material flow through tracts. Cilia
and flagella are formed from different
microtubular groupings, called basal
bodies. If the protrusions are numerous
and short, they are called cilia.
However, if they are longer and less
numerous (normally only one or two)
they are termed flagella.
Fig. 3. Structures of cilia and flagellum
Source: https://microbenotes.com/cilia-and-flagella-structure-and-functions/

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Root Hairs

The root has an outer cell layer called the epidermis, surrounding areas of
ground tissue and vascular tissue. The epidermis provides protection and helps in
absorption. Roots have root hairs which are epidermal cell extensions. These root
hairs are specialized cells making the surface area increased which contributes
significantly to the water and mineral absorption. Besides, they also contain lots of
mitochondria which can supply glucose during respiration to provide the energy
required for active transportation.

Fig. 4. Water is absorbed through the root hairs and moves

up the xylem to the leaves.
Source: https://openstax.org/details/books/biology2e?fbclid=
IwAR2MID_ZTDjRKs8VyY97A5kwIc1JKgxWG7QINm9vsLc1PraxO9tTfWz1
PIg

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 INTERCELLULAR JUNCTIONS

Cells are grouped to form tissues. But these cells also work together by
communicating via direct contact with each other or intercellular junctions. Differences
exist in the manner in which plant and animal as well as fungal cells communicate.

Plasmodesmata are junctions between plant cells; whereas tight junctions, gap
junctions, and desmosomes are animal cell's contacts.

Plasmodesmata

Plasmodesmata (singular = plasmodesma) exist as structural modifications

which appear to be various channels that move through the cell walls of neighboring
plant cells and bind their cytoplasm so that materials can be transported from cell to
cell throughout the plant.

Fig. 5. A plasmodesma is a pathway between the cell walls of two adjoining plant cells. Plasmodesmata helps
materials to migrate from cytoplasm of one plant cell to cytoplasm of an adjacent cell.
Source: https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e?fbclid=IwAR2MID_ZTDjRKs8VyY97A5kwIc1JKgxWG7QINm9vsLc1PraxO9tTfWz1PIg

Tight Junctions

A tight junction is a bond between two adjacent animal cells which is watertight.
Tight junctions are usually found in epithelial tissues, which line internal organs and
cavities that make up much of the skin.

Two predominant proteins called claudins and occludins grasp closely against
each other. This strong adhesion prevents the leakage of material between the cells;

The tight junctions of the epithelial cells lining the urinary bladder, for example,
prevent urine from leaking out into the extracellular spot.

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 Fig. 6. Tight junctions form watertight connections between adjacent animal cells. Proteins create
tight junction adherence.
Source: https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e?fbclid=IwAR2MID_ZTDjRKs8VyY97A5kwIc1JKgxWG7QINm9vsLc1PraxO9tTfWz1PIg

Gap Junction

In animal cells, gap junctions are like plasmodesmata in plant cells. They are
channels between adjacent cells that act to carry ions, nutrients, and other substances
which allow cells to communicate with each other. However, structural variations
between gap junctions and plasmodesmata, exist (Fig. 5).

A gap junction is formed when a group of six proteins (connexins) in the plasma
membrane assemble in an elongated donut-like configuration (called a connexon). A
channel between two-cells forms when the connexon's pores (doughnut holes) are
aligned in adjacent animal cells.

Gap junctions are particularly common in the heart muscle. An efficient

electrical signal is allowed by gap junctions for the muscle to contract, enabling the
heart muscle cells to contract in tandem.

Fig 7. A gap junction is a pore lined with proteins that allows the passage of water and
small molecules between adjacent animal cells.
Source: https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e?fbclid=IwAR2MID_ZTDjRKs8VyY97A5kwIc1JKgxWG7QINm9vsLc1PraxO9tTfWz1PIg

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Desmosome

Desmosomes are present exclusively in animal cells. They function as spot

welds between neighboring epithelial cells. Cadherins which are short proteins bind in
the plasma membrane to intermediate filaments to create desmosomes. In stretching
the organs and tissues, including the skin, heart, and muscles, the cadherins bind two
adjacent cells and keep the cells in a sheet-like manner.

Fig. 8. A desmosome forms a very strong spot weld between cells. Linking cadherins and
intermediate filaments create it.
Source: https://openstax.org/details/books/biology-2e?fbclid=IwAR2MID_ZTDjRKs8VyY97A5kwIc1JKgxWG7QINm9vsLc1PraxO9tTfWz1PIg

Nerve Cells

Nerve cells or neurons are very specialized cells of the nervous system. Since
an electrical signal needs to travel relatively long distances to parts of the body, nerve
cells have specialized structures called dendrites, which receive an electrical signal
from another neuron; and axon which transmits an electrical signal to another neuron.

Fig. 9. Nerve cells

Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/education-chart-biology-nerve-cell-diagram-661087429

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Muscle Cells

Muscle cells consist mainly of pairs of special proteins called actin and myosin
that cause the muscle to contract.

Red Blood cells

Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, are specialized cells that circulate across the
body by distributing oxygen to cells. Red blood cells have a biconcave shape (flattened
disk shape) that maximizes their surface area for enhanced oxygen absorption.

The red blood coloring comes from the protein hemoglobin that contains iron.
This protein has the purpose not only of carrying oxygen, but also carbon dioxide. Red
blood cells are filled with hemoglobin at a rate of about 250 million hemoglobin
molecules per cell. Each molecule of hemoglobin binds four oxygen molecules so that
each red blood cell carries one billion oxygen molecules.

Sperm Cells

Sperm cells are specialized because they have a particular body function - to
fertilize the female gamete (egg). Therefore, it has special features that typical body
cells do not have to carry out their work. The nucleus that contains the genetic material
is located at the sperm cell's head. The sperm cells have a swimming tail which
optimizes the fertilization. They are also full of mitochondria to provide the energy for
movement (swimming).

Cell Wall

One external plasma membrane structure is a cell wall. The cell wall of the plant
is a rigid coating that protects the cell. It provides structural support and shapes the
cell. Cellulose, a polysaccharide consisting of many glucose units, is the largest
organic molecule in the plant cell wall. It is the impact of the water against the
collenchyma cell walls that produce the stiffness that gives the crunch.

Have you ever noticed that it crumbles when you bite into a raw vegetable, like
the celery? This is because you tear with your teeth the solid cell walls of the celery
cells.

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 Fig. 10. Cellulose is a long chain of β-glucose molecules linked by a 1-4 bond. The dotted lines show a
sequence of several more units of glucose at each end of the chart. The size of the page makes a whole
molecule of cellulose difficult to represent.

Chloroplasts

The chloroplast contains chlorophyll, the green pigment absorbing the light
energy that activates the reactions to photosynthesis. Similar to plant cells,
photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts. Some bacteria do photosynthesis but
do not relegate their chlorophyll to an organelle.

Fig. 11. The Chloroplast

Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/chloroplast

Central Vacuole

A large central vacuole takes up most of the area of a plant cell. The central
vacuole plays an important role in controlling the concentration of water in the cell
under changing environmental conditions.

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 Have you ever found that a plant wilts if you fail to water it for a few days? This
is because water is moving out of the central vacuoles and cytoplasm as the water
concentration in the soil becomes lower than the water concentration in the plant.

This leaves the cell wall weakened as the central vacuole shrinks. This lack of
support to the cell walls of the plant results in a wilted appearance. The central vacuole
helps in the expansion of the cell. The cell becomes larger as the central vacuole
retains more water, without having to spend significant energy in synthesizing new
cytoplasm.

SUMMARY

The terminologies below are structures associated with cell modifications.

• Microvilli is normally present on certain epithelial cells, such as small intestines,

on the apical surface. They are microscopic, essentially raising the surface area
of the cell, which in turn becomes useful in functions of absorption and even
secretion.

• Stereocilia, another structure in a transformed cell, transmit information from

human ears to the human brain by transmitting signals whenever moved due
to sound.

• Flagellum, and cilia. These are protrusions on the cell itself which aid in the
locomotion of the microorganisms. They differ in number and length. Cilia are
numerous and short, while flagellum (singular), flagella (plural) are few usually
one or two and long structure (see Figure 3 on page 8).

• Tight junction is a seal so tight that it does not allow the passage of water, which
separates two neighboring animal cells.

• Gap junction is similar to plant cell's plasmodesmata, except that it is exclusive

to animal cells which function as channels between adjacent cells. It operates
in holding ions, minerals, and other substances.

• Desmosomes act as spot welds between those two proteins. These are formed
by the linkage of two proteins; cadherins and intermediate filaments.

• Nerve cell or neuron. A differentiated cell that offers specialized structures that
help transmit and receive electrical signals (axon and dendrites) all over the
body.
• Red blood cells also known as erythrocytes are specialized cells that circulate
throughout the body by transporting and supplying oxygen to cells. Its flattened
disk shape allows maximizing the surface area for the absorption of oxygen.
The red blood coloring comes from the protein known as hemoglobin.

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 • Sperm cells have special characteristics (for swimming) because they have a
specific body function-to fertilize the female gamete (egg).

• The root hairs are extensions of epidermal root cells. They are specialized plant
cells adapted to take in water and mineral ions due to increased surface area.

• Plasmodesmata is the channel through which materials are transported

throughout a plant from one cell to another acting on intercellular junctions.

• Cell wall is an outer plasma membrane structure. It houses organelles and

defends from outside plant cells. Cellulose, a polysaccharide consisting of
several glucose units, is the largest organic molecule in the plant cell wall. It
renders the plant stiff.
• Chloroplast contains chlorophyll, the green pigment. The chloroplast is the
organelle that is responsible for plant photosynthesis.

• The central vacuole helps to control the concentration of water within the plant
cell. It also contributes to cell size.

Exercise 1. Construct a Venn Diagram showing the similarities and differences of the
following specialized cells:

1. microvilli 3. Plasmodesmata
2. root hairs 4. Gap function

Plant Animal

1. Root hairs
1. Microvilli
_____________
_________________ Surface ________________
_________________ Area for ________________
________________
__
2. Plasmodesmata 2. Gap Junctions
____________
____________
____________
________
Differ in structure Differ in structure

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