Q1. Describe the Constitutional crisis of 1954-55.

[4]
Muhammad Ali Bogra, the Prime Minister, had little political experience. Governor.
General Gulam Muhammad expected him to support his authority — wanted Bogra to do as
he was told. Bogra wanted to curb power of Governor-General. Gulam Muhammad was out
of the country on an official tour so Bogra introduced an amendment to 1935 Government
of India Act. Bogra was trying to take away some of the powers of the Governor-General
that all the ministers must be members of the Assembly including the Prime Minister and
Assembly had to approve the cabinet and Governor-General had to take the advice of his
ministers. This action caused a political crisis in the country. Gulam Muhammad waited for
Bogra to leave the country and declared a state of emergency in the country and also
dissolved the Constituent Assembly. The Speaker Maulvi Tamizuddin filed an appeal in the
Sindh High Court which gave the decision in his favour. Ghulam Muhammad appealed to
the Federal Court against the judgement and his dissolution of the assembly was accepted
as correct.

Q2. Describe the 1956 constitution. [4]

Q3. Describe the provisions of the 1956 constitution. [4]
The Second Constituent Assembly passed the Constitution Bill on 29 February 1956 and it
was formally adopted on 23 March 1956. This constitution was a compromise between the
two major parties the Muslim League and the United Front. Under the terms of this Act,
Pakistan was declared an Islamic Republic. The president shall be a Muslim over 40 and
shall be elected by the Central and Provincial Legislatures. He shall appoint the prime
minister and the Cabinet. He shall have emergency powers and shall have the right to
dissolve the Assembly on the prime minister's advice. There shall be a Cabinet (advisory
only) and a National and Provincial Assemblies. The National Assembly shall have an equal
number of seats from East. and West Pakistan. The Constitution shall only be amended by
a two-thirds majority in the Assembly. Under this Constitution, Iskander Mirza became
President of Pakistan, The Constitution lasted for only two and half years and scrapped in
1958 when General Ayub Khan declared Martial Law in the country.

Muhammad Ayub Khan (1958-1969)

Q1. Why was Martial Law declared by Ayub Khan in 1958? [7]
Q2. Explain why Ayub Khan came to power in 1958. [7]

By 1958 the government of the President Iskander Mirza was unpopular and the political
situation was chaotic. Between 1955 and 1958 five different prime ministers tried
unsuccessfully to establish a stable government. In 1955, Prime Minister Muhammad Ali
Bogra was dismissed by Governor-General Iskander Mirza and he was replaced by Chaudry
Muhammad Ali but he resigned in 1956. Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy, a politician from
East Pakistan, the new Prime Minister could not work as a puppet. He was replaced by
Ibrahim Ismall Chundrigar having a collection of politicians with different views. Malik
Feroz Khan Noon was the next choice. He only kept his coalition going by the old method
of appointing a very large Cabinet. It had 26 members out of a total of 80 members in the
National Assembly. The inflation rate was also high and economy was overburdened.
President Iskander Mirza had lost the support of many of the leading politicians and was
alarmed at a plan by Suharwardy to unite the political leadership of Bengal and Punjab
against him. According to the Constitution elections were to be held in 1958; politicians
tried to win support by any means. To most Pakistanis and the rest of the world, the
government seemed corrupt and inefficient. People were in despair as Pakistan faced
bankruptcy and chaos. In East Pakistan, severe floods caused food shortage and great
distress. Democratic institutions became weaker and weaker, East Pakistanis felt
deprived. They wanted more say in the government which was not granted. They wanted
Bengali to be the national language along with Urdu and they were not agreed with the
1956 constition as it ein had equal nume of unit Scheme sem is. Mere ou proces sin ration
West Pakistan under One Unit Scheme was disike by peas Sindh and East Pakistan.

From the start, Pakistan had been threatened by it powertul neighbour, India. The dispute
over Kashmir emphasized the danger and a Aron Commaas essential. The army had thus
attained a very important role in the nation. As Army Commander-in-Chief, General Ayub
Khan, had become a well known and powerful figure. He had successfully negotiated with
the USA for economic and military assistance. Therefore, he felt that the army should take
control until stability had been restored and questions would be answered. Therefore, on
7th October 1958, Iskandar Mirza abrogated the constitution, dissolved the Assemblies and
asked General Muhammad Ayub Khan to take charge as a Chief Martial Law Administrator.

Q3. Why were the years 1958 to 1969 called ‘The Decade of Progress’? [7]

Ayub Khan remained in power from 1958-1969, He called these years as Decade of Progres
because many of his domestic policies were successful and had a good effect on the
economy and development of Pakistan. Economic growth rate of Pakistan was highest in
the region.

Ayub Khan's advisors wanted to bring reforms in the field of agriculture and make it more
productive. They said that many small, subsistence holdings could never be efficient. So,
Land Reforms were introduced in 1959. A law was passed saying that no farm could be
smaller than 12.5 acres or larger than 500 acres (irrigated) or 1,000 acres (un-irrigated).
Use of modern farm methods, mechanized farming, good seeds, chemical fertilizers and
pesticides were introduced. The result was that agricultural production was more than
double during 1960s. It was named as 'Green Revolution'. Indus Water Treaty 1960 was
signed which provided more water for irrigation.

Ayub Khan's advisors pressed for more industrial development. This was carried out with
the help of loans from more industrialized western countries, particularly the USA,
Germany and the UK. Many incentives were given to industrialists in the form of tax
concession, import of machinery, raw material and technology, financial and technical
assistance. The GNP showed an impressive growth of 7% which was highest among
neighbouring countries. In 1964 an economic union was formed with Iran and Turkey, the
Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD) in which the three countries agreed to
develop ties in trade, commerce and industry. An Export Bonus Scheme was set up offering
incentives to industrialists who increased export.

Good progress was seen in education sector as well. Ayub Khan's advisors drew up new
curricula for schools and suggested that new textbooks should be published. The
government began an extensive literacy programme and a large number of schools,
colleges, polytechnic institutes and universities were opened. Many schools were
upgraded and syllabuses were revised. New medical colleges and universities were
opened. There was also an attempt to deal with shelter-less people. In Karachi a new
township of Korangi was created where 48,000 houses were built. Laws were passed that
factory owners had to provide accommodation for their workers at a reasonable rent. New
capital of Islamabad was built.

In 1961, the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance helped improve the position of women.
Marriages and divorces had to be registered and approved by a court. The minimum age for
marriage was set at 16 for women and 18 for men. Medical facilities were improved and
attempts were made to control the population through a family planning programme.
On account of these developments the period of 1958 to 1969 was called as ‘Decade of
Progress’

Q4. Explain why there was a constitutional crisis in 1958. [7]

There were a number of Prime Ministers between 1956 and 1958. The government led by
Chaudri Muhammad Ali had to deal with many problems in East Pakistan, both political and
economic, as severe floods in Bengal had led to food shortages. A political crisis within the
ruling party ended with Chaudri Muhammad Ali resigning as prime minister. He was
replaced by Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy. Suharwardy kept his job for only a year. He had
no desire to be a puppet' Prime Minister and pressed hard for Iskander Mirza (President) to
allow him to have a meaningful degree of authority. Iskander Mirza lost the support of
many of the leading politicians and was alarmed at a plan by Prime Minister Hussain
Shaheed Suharwardy to unite the political leadership of Bengal and Punjab against him. He
was dismissed and replaced by Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar. His government was a
collection of politicians with different views which could not even agree on major issues,
such as the One Unit Scheme.

Feroz Khan Noon was Mirza's next choice. Noon's government contained members from a
number of political parties and was even more divided than that of Chundrigar. By 1958 the
government of Iskander Mirza was unpopular and the political situation was chaotic.
According to the Constitution elections were to be held in 1958; politicians tried to win
support by any means. To most Pakistanis and the rest of the world the government
seemed corrupt and inefficient. People were in despair as Pakistan face bankruptcy and
chaos. The political situation was reached a stage where Ayub Khan felt the army should
take control until stability had been restored. Previous governments endured a number of
problems that hampered development such as food shortages and a drought, which led to
demonstrations of discontent. As successive governments found difficulty in dealing with
these matters, there were many personnel changes to try to find a solution. As a result,
little constitutional development could take place.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (1971-1977)

Q1. Why was Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto arrested and subsequently executed in 1979? [7]

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto ruled over Pakistan from 1971 to 1977 as President and later Prime
Minister. His government was dismissed in July 1977 when Army Chief General Zia-ul-Haq
imposed Martial Law in Pakistan. It is not surprising that Bhutto's policies made him many
powerful enemies. Vested interests, such as business owners and landowners, were
completely against his economic policies of nationalization. Bhutto was himself from a
wealthy landowning family increased their bitterness and he was attacked as a hypocrite
for applying his policies, selectively. One of the main weaknesses of his government was
that the focal point of political power lay with the party leadership and Bhutto in particular.
When things went wrong the blame was clearly laid at his feet. The changes in education
led to overcrowding in existing schools whist new ones could be built. The reforms were
not very successful since the building of new schools and the recruitment of new teachers
could not be achieved quickly and was also very expensive. Middle-class opinion criticised
his reforms which undermined academic standards in good schools. Many families
resented the educational reforms since it meant a loss of earnings to them. Religious
groups who wanted pure Islamic laws were opposed to him. He tried, unsuccessfully, to
win them over by stopping anti-islamic activities. In Balochistan, he used the army to crush
the opposition.

Bhutto got a landslide victory in elections of 1977 but opposition blamed that elections
were rigged and it started a campaign against Bhutto. In July 197, Zia imposed Martial Law
in Pakistan. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was arrested, as all other political leaders. After a few
weeks Bhutto was released, but was soon arrested and was charged with the involvement
in the murder of a political opponent by sending the Federal Security Force (FS) to kill him
(but instead father of that opponent was killed in that murder attempt). It was an old
allegation that had been dismissed by the court. But after Zia's takeover, the case was
brought up again.

Bhutto was found guilty and he refused to plead for clemency to the President Zia. Bhutto
was hanged in Rawalpindi on 4 April 1979. His supporters called it judicial murder. Neither
his wife nor his daughter, Benazir, was permitted to attend his funeral. Zia wanted to get
rid of Bhutto to demonstrate his growing power and his lack of weakness to the army in
particular.

General Muhammad Zia-Ul-Haq (1977-1988)

Q1. Why did Zia Ul Haq introduce his Islamisation reforms? [7]

Zia-ul-Haq was an unelected leader and had to ensure political stability in Pakistan after
overthrowing Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in July 1977. He believed that Pakistan needed a strong
government based on Islamic values. He ignored the political process because he felt that
Pakistan was weaker as a result of these. He, therefore, made the Islamic laws very strict
in order to produce a strong government by imposing a strict legal code. The introduction
of a more Islamic-based ideology would have other benefits for Zia too. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
hado attempted to introduce socialist measures into Pakistan. Islam would provide an
excellent counter-ideology to Bhutto's beliefs. The introduction of Islamic measures would
win the support of religious elements within Pakistan's political parties. This applied in
particular to Jamaat-i-Islami which was influential both in the administration and the army.
He highlighted need of the Islamic principles instead of restoring the political process. He
was also infuenced by strong protests by opposition parties towards the end of Zulfikar Al
Bhuto’s period.

Zia decided to fight against the Russian forces which had invaded Afghanistan. Zia tried to
show that his pro-Islamic government is fighting against 'pagan communists'. Thus he
wished to win support of the West as well as of Saudi Arabia and other Muslim countries.
He enforced strict laws against those who showed disrespect to the Holy Quran and Holy
Prophet (PBUH). For this, he promulgated the Blasphemy law. In order to popularize the
Islamic education, he set up several mosque-based schools (Maktabs) so as to raise
Islamic awareness amongst students. He also wanted to distribute some wealth to the
poor and needy by introducing Islamic taxes. For this aim to accomplish, he introduced the
Zakat and Ushr Ordinance, under which payment of charity tax (Zakat) became mandatory
for the rich. A series of local Zakat committees were established to distribute the
proceeds to the poor and needy.