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Note 2 Axial Loading 113
Note 2 Axial Loading 113
cross-section dimensions are much less than the axial length. A slender member is
called a rod if its primary function is to support axial loads, a shaft to transmit torque,
Rod
Shaft
Beam
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Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7
A rod is a slender, uniform structure member used to support axial loads. In this
lecture, we discuss how to characterize the material properties of a rod and how to
analyze the deformation and axial forces of a rod and a structure consisting of rods.
the rod. The sign conventions used are: 𝑃 is positive for tensile and negative for
compressive loads; 𝛿 is positive for elongation and negative for contraction. A natural
question arises: is 𝑘 a good measure of the stiffness of the material of which the rod is
made?
Q 1 Match the three steel rods with the lines in the 𝑃-𝛿 plot.
𝛿
respectively. In the above equation, 𝜀 indicates the deformation per unit length
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Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7
and 𝜎 the average internal axial force per unit cross-sectional area. The axial stress 𝜎 is
positive (negative) if the rod is in tension (compression). The axial strain 𝜀 is positive
(negative) if the rod is elongated (shortened). Note that 𝜀 is dimensionless and 𝜎 has the
dimension of pressure.
Tensile Test
see ptt
Hooke’s Law
With the definitions of stress and strain, the results shown in Fig. 1 can be
expressed as
E = E .
S
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 (2)
Equation (2) is known as Hooke’s law. Young’s modulus measures a material's stiffness,
Within the range of the designated load, the structure obeys Hooke’s law. In this case,
the deformation is proportional to the applied load, and after removing the applied load,
Sol: Substitute Eq. (1) into Hooke’s law and rearrange terms to obtain
𝑃𝑙
𝛿= (3)
𝐸𝐴
Equivalently,
𝐸𝐴
𝑃= 𝛿 (4)
𝑙
Hence, the spring constant of a uniform rod of length 𝑙 and cross-sectional area 𝐴 is
𝑘 = 𝐸𝐴/𝑙
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Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 4+
3 AN 2024/2/7
Sol: Divide the rod into two parts and draw the FBD’s.
𝐹 +𝐹
B
𝐹 +𝐹 𝐹 +𝐹 𝐹
𝐴 ,𝑙 𝐹 𝐹 𝐴 ,𝑙 𝐹
↳ -
The elongation of the rod is the sum of that of the two parts (using Eq. (3)):
𝐹 +𝐹 𝑙 𝐹𝑙 S =
e
𝛿= + (5)
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
DOTE
Principle of Superposition
- F+
/silk
𝐹𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝛿= +𝐹 +
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
The above result indicates that the deformation due to the combined loads 𝐹 and 𝐹 is
the sum of the deformation due to 𝐹 alone and that due to 𝐹 alone. This result implies
a general principle - the principle of superposition. This principle states that the effect
of the various loads separately and combining the results, provided that the following
2. The deformation resulting from any given load is small and does not affect the
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Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7
N(X + 0x)
sidependent
𝑝 Δ𝑥 11
Sol: Consider a small element of length Δ𝑥 at a
𝑁 𝑥 𝑁 𝑥 − 𝑝 Δ𝑥
distance 𝑥 from the fixed end as shown on the left.
𝑥 Δ𝑥 The elongation of this element is
𝑁 𝑥 𝑝 N(XX) While Ox A
𝑁 𝑥 Δ𝑥 :it i
𝑙−𝑥
Δ𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴 X-0
where the axial force 𝑁 𝑥 is
𝑁 𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑙 − 𝑥
𝑝 𝑙 − 𝑥 Δ𝑥
Δ𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴
The total elongation 𝛿 is the sum of all Δ𝛿's = 21x-Es ! =
𝑝 𝑙−𝑥 𝑝 𝑙
𝛿 = lim Δ𝛿 = 𝑑𝑥 =
→ 𝐸𝐴 2𝐸𝐴
Alternatively, we can use the principle of superposition to solve this problem. The
Sol: The rod has a constant axial force, i.e., 𝑁 𝑥 = 𝑃 . The elongation of a small
𝑥 Δ𝑥 𝑁Δ𝑥 𝑃Δ𝑥
Δ𝛿 = =
𝐸𝐴 𝑥 𝐸𝐴 𝑥
The total elongation is
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Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7
𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝛿= (6)
𝐸𝐴 𝑥
The above result is based on the formula 𝛿 = 𝑃𝐿/𝐸𝐴, which in turn is derived using
the assumption that the stress is uniform, i.e., 𝜎 = 𝑃/𝐴 over every cross-section. This
assumption is not valid for a tapered rod. Hence, Eq. (6) gives satisfactory results only
RB + P =
RA
① S, : =
Be Ra
Ex 5 (B&J CA2.3) Determine the stresses in portions 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶 due
D 8, =
&
: =
Sc
to the application of a load 𝑃 at point 𝐶.
Sol: (I) Assume that point 𝐶 moves downward a distance 𝑑 due to the
r
application of 𝑃. The strains of portions 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶 are respectively
𝑑 𝑑
𝜀 = and 𝜀 =− (7)
𝐿 𝐿
Here, we adopt the sign convention that the normal strain is positive for elongation and
negative for compression. The corresponding stress is positive for tensile and negative
for compressive loads. The stresses in the two portions are determined by Hooke’s law,
EA 8 + p =
E Sc
=> Sc (E EN) + = P
6
li 12 =
,
8 ,
- co
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7
𝐸𝑑𝐴 𝐸𝑑𝐴
𝐹 = 𝐸𝜀 𝐴 = and 𝐹 = 𝐸𝜀 𝐴 = − (8)
𝐿 𝐿
𝐹 −𝐹 =𝑃 (9)
Substitute Eq. (8) into Eq. (9) and solve for 𝑑 to obtain
𝑃𝐿 𝐿
𝑑=
𝐸𝐴𝐿
where 𝐿 = 𝐿 + 𝐿 . Carrying this value into Eq. (8), we obtain
𝐹 𝑃𝐿 𝐹 𝑃𝐿
𝜎 = = and 𝜎 = =−
𝐴 𝐴𝐿 𝐴 𝐴𝐿
(II) Let 𝑅 be the reaction at pin 𝐴. Remove the pin joint and apply the equivalent force
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
. Ite ****,
H
compatibility eq
However, point 𝐴 is fixed, i.e., 𝛿 = 0, hence #2 & E
𝑃𝐿
𝑅 =
𝐿
The reaction at point 𝐵 can be determined by the equilibrium equation as
𝑃𝐿
𝑅 =𝑅 −𝑃 =−
𝐿
Dividing the reactions by 𝐴 yields the stress as
𝑅 𝑃𝐿 𝑅 𝑃𝐿
𝜎 = = and 𝜎 = =−
𝐴 𝐴𝐿 𝐴 𝐴𝐿
Ex 6 (SP 2.2 B&J) The rigid castings 𝐴 and 𝐵 are connected by two 18-mm-diameter
sa
<
-
p
pitch of 2.5 mm, and after being snugly fitted,
# 7
· Force equil .
FA =
2 Est
Mechanics of Materials ·
Constitutive law
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7
Ste =
e
quarter of a turn. Knowing that 𝐸 is 200 GPa for steel and 70 GPa for aluminum,
Sit
= se Ast Compatibilitfye
·
two steel rods 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐺𝐻 are subjected to the same internal force 𝐹
and undergo the same deformation. Let 𝐹 be the compressive
𝐹
axial force in the steel rods and 𝐹 the tensile axial force in the
𝐹 − 2𝐹 = 0 (10)
這是一個靜不定的問題,必需考
慮鋁桿和螺栓的變形。因為結構
(a)
的完整性,鋁桿和螺栓的變形滿
足特定的關係式–匹配方程式。
參考左圖:
(a)代表初始不受力
(b)
狀態。最後的平衡狀態(c)可以
𝑝/4
想像是先將鋁桿移除,旋轉右方
𝛿 𝛿
鑄件的螺帽1/4圈,因此右方鑄
(c) 件向左移動𝑝/4(圖(b)
,𝑝代表
螺距);接著將右方鑄件向右移
動𝛿 (這個位移量即是螺栓的伸長量)
,同時將鋁桿壓短𝛿 後,放入兩鑄件間(圖
(c))。
𝛿 + 𝛿 = 𝑝/4 (11)
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Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7
Thermal Effects
𝜀 = 𝛿 /𝐿
Then
𝜀 = 𝛼 Δ𝑇 (13)
expansion.
If the rod is subjected to both axial stress and temperature change, the strain in the
rod is the sum of that due to the axial stress and thermal strain; that is
𝜎
𝜀=+ 𝛼 Δ𝑇 (14)
𝐸
Er ET
Ex 7 Consider a rod of length 𝐿 , Young’s modulus 𝐸 , and coefficient of thermal
expansion 𝛼. Determine the strain and stress induced by a temperature rise Δ𝑇 for
(a) The left end of the rod is fixed while the right end is free.
Sol: (a) The rod can expand freely. There is no stress in the rod. The deformation is due
(b) Because both ends are fixed, the total strain of the rod is zero. By Eq. (14),
𝜎 = −𝐸𝛼Δ𝑇
E + 20T = 0
9 o = -
ExoT
Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7
where the negative sign indicates a compressive stress. This kind of stress due to a
(i) For a structure which can deform freely, a uniform temperature change
throughout the structure will induce thermal strains but no thermal stresses. On
the other hand, for a structure that has supports preventing free deformation,
(ii) The stress in a structure member should not exceed the designated allowable
stress, 𝜎allow , which is usually much less than Young’s modulus. To ensure the
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Mechanics of Materials
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7
or False
Gere M of M, Fig. 2-21
or False
Gere M of M, Fig. 2-22
Ex 8 (B&J 2.4) The rigid bar 𝐶𝐷𝐸 is attached to a pin support at 𝐸 and rests on the 30-
mm-diameter -
brass cylinder 𝐵𝐷. A 22-mm-diameter steel rod 𝐴𝐶 passes through
a hole in the bar and is secured by a nut which is snugly fitted when the temperature
of the entire assembly is 20 °C. The temperature of the brass cylinder is then raised
-
𝛿 = 2.5𝛿 ↓ (16)
The deflection of cylinder 𝐵𝐷 consists of two parts: the thermal expansion due to the
temperature change and the contraction due to the compressive axial force 𝐹 .
· NO
·
Force equil -
= , + &Ac (d ,
+
# 11
·
(
8ac =
Sop : +
LBP e e
↑ Compatibility
·
eq .
Mechanics of Materials
= I
NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2024/2/7
𝐹 𝐿
𝛿 =𝛼 Δ𝑇 𝐿 − (17)
𝐸 𝐴
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