Metals: Material and Technique

Aditi Nagar
Conservation Scientist, INTACH
 Materials are synonymous with human civilization

Humans evolved through biological evolution with the survival of

the fittest, materials have also gone through the process of
evolution, inanimate though they are
Archaeological
Revolution At different periods of history one set of material was in prominent
use, and later transformed into a advanced material.

The three-age system is a periodization of the human prehistory

Stone Age

Prehistoric Bronze Age

System

Iron Age

Metal
Metals of Antiquity
Tools, Weapons, construction material
Artistic Sculpture, ornate decorative elements
Jwellery, Ornaments, medals, religious objects
Pigments contains Metal
Modern architecture, transportation, communication,
computer, internet
Any class of chemical element with certain characteristic
properties:
Is a good conductor of heat and electricity
Is often lustrous
Is a ductile solid
Ductile- It can be bent, formed, hammered, drawn, or rolled when
either hot or cold without breaking
Can be cast by being poured into the moulds when liquified
Forms positive ions in solution when it corrodes. In fact, most of
the chemical elements in the periodic table of the elements are
metals.
The term ‘metal’ is also used to describe any material with
metallic properties.
Alloys (which are the mixtures containing one or more of the
metal chemical elements_ are described as metals.
 • Ore are naturally occurring minerals from which the metals can be
extracted.

• Gold , silver and copper can be found relatively pure and unbound to
the other elements.
• Ex- in their native state

• The Other (aluminium, iron, lead, nickel, tin, zinc) doesnot exist
Metal From Ore naturally in their pure elemental state.

Metals of Antiquity • Instead they are found combined with other elements as chemical
compounds (ore)

Metal Mineral
Tools, Weapons, construction material
Artistic Sculpture, ornate decorative elements Aluminum Gibbsite
Copper Chalcocite
Jewelry, Ornaments, medals, religious objects
Gold Native
Pigments contains Metal Iron Hematite
Modern architecture, transportation, Lead Galena
communication, computer, internet Nickel Pentlandite
Silver Argentite
Tin cassiterite
Zinc Smithsonite
Ore to Metal

Metallic Compound/ Ore Metallic Oxide

Extraction of metal Smelting

Metal Metal
 Metal
Copper 7000 BC (Near East) for native copper
5000 BC (Near East) for smelted copper
Lead 6000-5000 BC (Near East/Balkans)
Metal Gold 5000-4000 BC (Balkans)
First widespread use of Metal Tin 4000-3000 BC (Near East)
Silver 4000-3000 BC (Balkans/Near East)
Nickel 2000-1000 BC for copper nickel alloy
Iron 1000- 0 BC
Zinc 100-200 AD (Rome) for copper/zinc
alloy
900-1000 AD (India) for zinc metal
Aluminum 1800-1900 AD (Europe/ United states)
 • Cu

• Light red and salmon pink in color

• Ductile- can be drawn in wire

• Malleable- Can be hammered into sheet

Copper • Non-Magnetic
properties • High thermal and electric conductivity- makes it useful for cooking

pots and electrical wiring

• Soft metal, often alloyed with other metals

Alloys of Copper-

• Brass- Copper and Zinc

• Bronze- Copper and Tin

• German Silver- Copper, nickel and zinc

 Copper is one of the earliest metals to be used by humans- the first
recorded use being about 8500 BC in what is now northern Iraq

Use as Pigment-
Green- malachite, Neutral Verdigris
Blue- Azurite, basic Verdigris
Copper
Use Repousse- copper sheets have been hammered into various shapes

Coins

Sculptures, Utensils, decorative items etc.,.

Roofing

Mirrors- High tin bronze

 • Au
• One of the eight precious metals
• Yellow in colour
• Non-magnetic
• Soft, easy to work
Gold • Does not tarnish

properties • Resistant to corrosion

• To make it harder and more useful, it is commonly alloyed with
copper and silver
• Occurs in pure form
 • Adornment
• Regarded as a symbol of power and wealth
• For money
• Used to gild other metals
• Jewelry
Gold • Gold leaf on pictures or frame

Use • Electroplating of gold on silver or copper

Ancient gold silver alloy were referred to as electrum or white gold-

these alloys were generally pale green or silvery in color4, contained
more than 30 % silver.
Today, the term white gold is used to describe alloys that are based
primarily of gold mixed with copper and silver to which enough nickel
and palladium is added to bleach out the yellow. This is white in color
and developed as a substitute of platinum.
 • Fe
• Pure iron is silvery white
• Relatively soft
• High melting and boiling point
• Magnetic at room temperature

Iron • Non-magnetic if heated above 900

• Metallic iron has strong tendency to rust so rarely found in nature or
Properties
used commercially
• It is alloyed with other elements for use.

Alloys of iron
Wrought Iron <0.1
Steel 0.2-2
Cast iron 2-4
 Wrought Iron
• Tough, malleable iron
• Use to produce nails small arms, agriculture, agriculture implement,
horseshoes, wire, locks, bolts, hooks, hinges, chains, ship anchor,
decorative wrought iron balconies, railings, fence, gates
Iron • Remains strong under tension- used as structural element
Use
Steel
• Carbon increases the hardness and strength of iron
• Steel can be hardened by rapid cooling, an important characteristic
for making tools
• By adjusting the carbon content and the temperatures used for
hardening an tempering- wide range of strength and ductility can be
produced
• Modern steel can be used for ships, hulls, railroad rails, suspension
bridge, cable, reinforcing steel, tools guns etc.
• Stainless steels- Iron carbon alloy with chromium and nickel
 Cast Iron
• Hard, brittle
• 2-4 % carbon
• Also called pig iron- contains various amounts of Sulphur, silicon,
phosphorous, manganese.
Iron • Use to make pots, pans, stove, cannons, cannon balls
Use
Damascus steel blades
• Practiced in southern India and surrounding regions from about 7th
century onwards
• Hard flexible steel with a characteristic wavy pattern.
• Lao known as wootz steel

Pigments- Iron oxide, Iron hydroxide oxides are used as yellow, orange
and red.
 • The metal first be manipulated into the initial shape using
one of the basic approaches: casting or working

• A cast metal object is one that has been created by melting

the metal and then pouring it into a mould.

Construction Technique • Cast bronze- formed by the solidification of the molten

Use
bronze in a mould

• Cast Iron- Carbon must be added for casting

• Wrought iron- can be created by hammering, rolling,

extrusion, forging or drawing the metal while still solid

• Metals are more ductile at higher temperature, they are often

heated, not melted, while being worked.

• Iron could be hammered into useful shapes while red hot.

 Forming: ingots of metals are given their initial shape

Ex- casting, forging, rolling

Shaping: establishing the final details of a piece

Steps in construction Ex- milling, turning, spinning, grinding, stamping, cutting,

gluing
Use

Assembling: putting together premade parts

Ex- Welding, Soldering, brazing, riveting, bolting, crimping,

gluing

Finishing: for decorative purposes or for further protection

Ex- Plating, burnishing, polishing, etching, sand-blasting,

painting, lacquering, engraving, chasing, embossing,
enamelling, patination
Repoussé Making

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

The image is drawn on a lokta Artists work on the sheet
paper 18 gauge copper sheet is cut to hammering to give the sheet
Drawing serves as a model size and an image is drawn on the basic design on a floor-
during the working process it mounted anvil (khalu)

The sheet is then turned over The object is heated slightly The artist then works on further
and beaten from the back. and embedded face up in jhau refinements with the help of
repoussé (French, pushed (resin mixture; brick-powder, various tools and hammering on
again). Thojya (Newari) mustard oil, and sal-dhoop) a firm base (jhau).

Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Lost wax method
 Corrosion
• Corrosion is a process of gradual deterioration of a metal from its surface due to unwanted chemical reactions
and Electrochemical interaction of metal with its environment.
• Electrochemical reaction in which gradual deterioration of metal take place.

High energy
Metal state

Metallurgy Corrosion
(Reduction) (oxidation)

Metallic Low energy

Compound state
 Corrosion Product Formula
Cuprite Cu2O
Tenorite CuO

Corrosion of Copper Malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2

Use Azurite 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2

Brochantite Cu4SO4(OH)6
Nantokite CuCl
When a metal reacts with its environment that
compounds that firm on the surface as a result of
this process are known as corrosion products.
When these products adhere to the surface of the
metal, the resulting appearance is often called
Patina.
Patina can develop naturally or artificially created.
Factors of Deterioration
NATURAL AGRESSORS

SLOW and CUMULATIVE EFFECTS (6 months)

Erosion

IMMEDIATE and DRASTIC EFFECTS (2 days)

Earthquake Inappropriate temperature
Volcanic eruption Dissolved salts
Inappropriate relative humidity
Storm Corrosion agents
Hurricane Pollution
Light
Lightning, hail
Flood
Tidal wave
A B Micro-organisms
Vegetation
Insects
Rodents
Fire
CULTURAL Dust

War
Terrorist attack HERITAGE Abrasion
Fire
Public works
Deep ploughing
Illegal excavation C D Vibration

Ignorance

Urban development Graffiti

Fanaticism
Vandalism
PROFESSIONAL Treasure hunting

LACK OF
Theft
E IMPROPER EXECUTION
Cultural project Excavation Support
Security
Legislative framework Transport Climate
Choice
Administrative framework Building Lighting
Programmes
Respect Distribution Intervention
Internal comm.
Awareness Documentation Conservation Rem.
External comm.
Motivation Handling Conservation Pre.
Control
Training Storage Restoration
Exposition Maintenance
Factors of Deterioration
Slow and Cumulative

• Inappropriate temperature
• Dissolved salts
• Inappropriate Relative Humidity
• Corrosion agents
• Pollution
• Light Natural aggressors
• Microorganisms
• Vegetation
• Insects
• Rodents
• Dust
• Abrasion
• Vibrations
• Ignorance Public
• Graffiti
• Tressure hunting
Visual glossary

Abrasion
Roughening or
wearing away of an
object’s surface due
to repeated friction
or contact with
other surfaces
Photo credit: Aditi Nagar
Visual glossary

Dust/Dirt
A Particulate material
which has settled on
Photo credit- https://aiccm.org.au/visual-glossary the surface of an
object. Contributes to
corrosion, staining and
abrasion of surfaces
Photo credit: Aditi Nagar
Visual glossary

Accretion
A solid piece of foreign
matter attached to the
surface of an object.
Visual glossary

Physical Damage
A Damage to objects caused by
mechanical rather than chemical
means and resulting in cracks,
chips, splits, tears, dents,
punctures, breaks, scratches, scuffs
and abrasions, as well as soiling, wear
and tear, warping, shrinkage,
separation of layers of composite
materials, graffiti and insect attack.
Photo credit: Aditi Nagar
Visual glossary

Scratch
An indentation caused by
physical damage; the term
usually implies that there has
been some loss to the
original material, e.g. to
surface coatings or paints.
Photo credit: Aditi Nagar
Visual glossary

Fracture
A crack or break in a
hard material, such as
stone, ceramic, Metal
or bone . Often used
to describe a much
finer break than a
“crack”.
Photo credit- https://aiccm.org.au/visual-glossary/
Visual glossary

Soot
Fine particulate matter
caused by the combustion of
wood, paper and other
materials; settles on surfaces
after fires causing staining
and disfiguration. Touching
soot-covered surfaces can
drive soot into the surface of
the object and make it
impossible to remove.

Photo credit: Aditi Nagar

Visual glossary

Tarnish
Discoloration of a metal
surface due to the formation
of a thin film of oxide,
sulphide or some other
corrosion product. Used
most often to describe the
black corrosion product that
forms on silver.

Photo credit- National Museum Collection

Visual glossary

Corrosion
Gradual deterioration of a solid
(especially metals) due to
chemical processes such as
oxidation or the action of a
chemical agent. Some corrosion
products, like metal patinas, can
be protective; others, like rust,
can be harmful. Corrosion is
often accelerated by contact with
materials that generate acidic
vapours – e.g. wood, plastics.

Photo credit: Aditi Nagar

Visual glossary

Bronze disease
Corrosion of copper and bronze
objects caused by the production of
copper chlorides, which break down
the normally protective surface
patinas.
Light blue-green blisters form on the
surface. When they are touched, they
crumble and fall away leaving a pitted
surface. The corrosion is cyclic, setting
up reactive and destructive corrosion
cells on the surface of the metal.

Photo credit- Book, Copper and Bronze in Art: Corrosion, Colorants, Conservation