AQA Physics - P1

1 . Measurements and their errors

2 . Particles and radiation
3 . Waves
4 . Mechanics and materials
5 . Electricity
6.1 - Periodic motion
6 . Further mechanics and thermal physics (A-level only)
7 . Fields and their consequences (A-level only)
Option
11 . Engineering physics (A-level only)

1 . Measurements and their errors

Converting eV (electron volts) to joules:

1eV x 1.6x10−19 =J
Converting kWh (kilowatt hours) to Joules:
1 kW = 1000 J/s 1 hour= 3600s

Random errors affect precision, differences in measurements, cannot get rid of all random errors.
Reduce random errors:
● Take at least 3 repeats and calculate a mean, this method also allows anomalies to be identified.
● Computers/tech to reduce human error
● Use a higher resolutions

Systematic errors affect accuracy and occur due to the apparatus or faults in the experimental method,
same amount each time.
E.g parallax error
To reduce systematic error:
● Calibrate apparatus by measuring a known value
● In radiation experiments correct for background radiation by measuring it beforehand and excluding it
from final results.
● Read the meniscus (the central curve on the surface of a liquid) at eye level

Precision Consistent, fluctuate around mean

Repeatability Same experimenter repeats study, same equipment

Reproducibility Same results, different person or technique

Resolution Smallest change in reading (1mm)

Accuracy Measurement close to true value

The uncertainty of a measurement is the bounds in which the accurate value can be expected to lie e.g.
20°C ± 2°C
Absolute Uncertainty: uncertainty given as a fixed quantity e.g. 7 ± 2 V
Fractional Uncertainty: uncertainty as a fraction of the measurement e.g. 7 V ± ½
F U = uncertainty/value
Percentage Uncertainty: uncertainty as a percentage of the measurement e.g. 7 ± 0.6% V
%u = uncertainty/value x 100
To reduce uncertainty measure larger quantities

● Adding / subtracting data - ADD ABSOLUTE UNCERTAINTIES

● Multiplying / dividing data - ADD PERCENTAGE UNCERTAINTIES
● Raising to a power - MULTIPLY PERCENTAGE UNCERTAINTY BY POWER

Uncertainty in a reading is ± half the smallest division,

e.g.1°C so the uncertainty is ±0.5°C.
Uncertainty in a measurement is at least ±1 smallest division,
e.g. a ruler, must include both the uncertainty for the start and end value, as each end has ±0.5mm,
they are added so the uncertainty in the measurement is ±1mm.

Digital readings and given values will either have the uncertainty quoted or assumed to be ± the last
significant digit e.g. 3.2 ± 0.1 V, the resolution of an instrument affects its uncertainty.

For repeated data the uncertainty is half the range (largest - smallest value), show as

mean ± range/2

Uncertainties and graphs

Uncertainties are shown as error bars on graphs

% uncertainty = best-worst gradient/best x 100

Or = best and - worst and / best x 100

2 . Particles and radiation
3.2.1.1 Constituents of the atom

Specific Charge = charge / mass

A = nucleon n.o, P+N
Z = proton n.o, P
P n.o = E n.o

Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
E.g Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon dating, calculating the percentage of carbon-14
remaining in the object, and using the known starting value of carbon-14 (which is the same for all living
things).
Atomic mass unit (AMU) = 1/12 mass of a carbon atom

3.2.1.2 Stable and unstable nuclei

Strong nuclear force (SNF) keeps nuclei stable
by counteracting the electrostatic force of
repulsion between protons in the nucleus (as they
have the same charge). It only acts on nucleons,
very short range, where it is attractive up to
separations of 3 fm, but repulsive below
separations of 0.5 fm.

Unstable nuclei have either too many protons, neutrons or both causing the SNF to not be enough to keep
them stable, therefore these nuclei will decay in order to become stable. Depends on the amount of each
nucleon in them.

Alpha decay - large nuclei, with too many protons and neutrons.

● The proton number decreases by 2.

● The nucleon number decreases by 4.

Beta-minus decay - nuclei are neutron-rich (have too many neutrons). A general equation for
beta-minus decay is:
● The proton number increases by 1.
● The nucleon number stays the same.

Neutrinos hypothesised and then added to conserve energy

Wilson cloud chamber works by expanding a fixed volume of wet air. The air cools as it expands, forming a
supersaturated vapour. The vapour will condense into droplets if it is provided with condensation nuclei, such
as ionised air molecules.
3.2.1.3 Particles, antiparticles and photons
For every particle there is an antiparticle with the same rest energy and mass but all other properties are
opposite
Electromagnetic radiation travels in packets
called photons, transfer energy,have no
mass. The energy of photons is directly
proportional to the freq of em radiation.

E - energy of a photon
h - planck's constant - 6.63x10-34
f - frequency of em radiation
c - speed of light - 3x108

Annihilation is where a particle and antiparticle

collide, their masses are converted into energy. This
energy, along with the kinetic energy of the two
particles is released in the form of 2 photons moving
in opposite directions in order to conserve
momentum.

E.g - PET scanner, 3D images of the inside of the body. This is done by introducing a positron-emitting
radioisotope into the patient, as positrons are released they annihilate with electrons already in the patients
system, emitting gamma photons which can easily be detected.

Pair production is where a photon is converted

into an equal amount of matter and antimatter.
This can only occur when the photon has an
energy greater than the total rest energy of both
particles, any excess energy is converted into
kinetic energy of the particles.
E = mc2
If protons are used they have a higher mass than electrons, so energy is greater, short wavelength
3.2.1.4 - Particle interactions
Four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetic, weak nuclear and strong nuclear.

Forces between particles are caused by exchange particles, they carry energy and momentum between the
particles experiencing the force and each fundamental force has its own exchange particles.E.g momentum
transfer of a heavy ball thrown from one person to another

The weak nuclear force is responsible for

beta decay, electron capture, and
electron-proton collisions.

Electron capture - p + e-- -> n + ve Electron proton collision - p + e-- -> n + ve

 _
Beta + decay = p -> n + e-- + ve Beta - decay = n -> p + e+ + ve

3.2.1.5 Classification of particles

● Baryon number of a particle

○ Either : baryon (1), antibaryon (-1), not a baryon (0).
○ Baryon number is always conserved in particle interactions, all have anti particles
○ E.g Protons (p), neutrons (n)
○ proton is the only stable baryon,all baryons will eventually decay into a proton either directly or
indirectly.
● Lepton number
○ Either : lepton (1), antilepton (-1), not a lepton (0).
○ Two types of lepton number you need to know, electron lepton number and muon lepton
number
○ E.g electron, muon
○ Lepton number is always conserved in particle interactions.
● Muon
○ “heavy electron”, muons decay into electrons.
● Strange particles
○ produced by the strong nuclear interaction but decay by the weak interaction.
○ E.g kaons, which decay into pions, through the weak interaction.
● Strangeness conserved in strong interactions. In weak interactions strangeness can change by 0,
+1 or -1.

In order to investigate particle physics, particle accelerators may be built however as these are very
expensive to build and run, and also produce huge amounts of data, scientific investigations rely on
collaboration of scientists internationally.
3.2.1.6 - Quarks and antiquarks

● Quarks
○ Fundamental particles which make up hadrons
○ P - UUD
■ Charge becomes e+
■ Baryon n.o becomes +1
○ N - UDD
■ Charge becomes e-
■ Baryon no becomes 1+

3.2.1.7 - Applications of conservation laws

These properties must always be conserved in interactions

● Energy and momentum

● Charge
● Baryon number
● Electron lepton number
● Muon lepton number

Strangeness must only be conserved during strong interactions.

To show these conservation laws are obeyed in an interaction, you must find the value of each property before and after
the interaction and make sure they are equal. For example, beta-minus decay:

(as this is a weak interaction, strangeness does not need to be conserved) n → p + e− + νe

3.2.2 Electromagnetic radiation and quantum phenomena

The photoelectric effect is where photoelectrons are emitted from the surface of a metal after light above a certain
frequency is incident on it. This certain frequency is different for different metals and is called the threshold
frequency.

The threshold frequency couldn’t be explained by the wave theory,

as it suggests that any frequency of light should be able to cause
photoelectric emission as the energy absorbed by each electron will
gradually increase with each incoming wave. However, it could be
explained by the photon model of light which suggested that:

● EM waves travel in discrete packets called photons, which have an energy which is directly proportional to
frequency.
● Each electron can absorb a single photon, therefore a photoelectron is only emitted if the frequency is
above the threshold frequency.
● If the intensity of the light is increased, if the frequency is above the threshold, more photoelectrons are
emitted per second.
 ● Work function - minimum energy required for electrons to be emitted from the surface of a metal,
and it is denoted by . ϕ
● Stopping potential - the potential difference you would need to apply across the metal to stop the
photoelectrons with the maximum kinetic energy. Measuring stopping potential allows you to find
the maximum kinetic energy of the released photoelectrons, as . Where V is the
stopping potential and e is the charge of an electron.
● energy = × charge voltage .

The photoelectric equation -

3.2.2.2 - Collisions of electrons with atoms

Electrons in atoms can only exist in discrete energy levels. These electrons can gain energy from collisions
with free electrons, can cause them to move up in energy level, this is known as excitation, or they can gain
enough energy to be removed from the atom entirely, this is called ionisation. Ionisation occurs if the
energy of the free electron is greater than the ionisation energy.

If an electron becomes excited, it will quickly return to its original energy level (ground state), therefore
releasing its energy in the form of a photon.

Uses

● Fluorescent tubes - filled with mercury vapour, voltage is applied

○ voltage accelerates free electrons which collide with the mercury atoms to become ionised,
releasing more free electrons
○ Mercury atoms become excited, when they deexcite photons in UV range released
○ Fluorescent coating absorbs photons, becomes excited then excited releasing visible light
photons

Energy levels between levels small so eV’s are used instead of J

Energy = charge x voltage

J = eV x 1.6x10^-19

● Electron volt
○ energy gained by 1 electron passing thought p.d of 1v
3.2.2.3 Energy levels and photon emissions
By passing the light from a fluorescent tube through a diffraction grating or prism you get line spectrum. Each line in the
spectrum represents different wavelengths of light emitted by the tube. As the spectrum is not continuous, it contains only
discrete values of wavelengths, therefore this is evidence to show that electrons in atoms can only transition between
discrete energy levels.

Also pass white light through a cooled gas, get a line absorption spectrum, which looks like a continuous spectrum of
all possible wavelengths of light, with black lines at certain wavelengths. These lines represent the differences in energy
levels as the atoms in the gas can only absorb photons of an energy equal to the exact difference between two energy
levels.

The difference between two energy levels is equal to a specific photon energy emitted by a fluorescent tube, or absorbed
in a line absorption spectrum.E = hf

(Δ E) fh = E1 − E2

3.2.2.4 - Wave-particle duality

Light can be shown as having both wave and particle properties. Examples of light acting as a wave are diffraction and
interference, while an example of light acting as a particle is the photoelectric effect.

Electrons can also be shown as having both wave and particle properties, as the wave nature of electrons can be
observed through electron diffraction, as only waves can experience diffraction.

De Broglie hypothesised that if light was shown to have particle properties, then particle should also have wave-like
properties, and he wrote an equation relating the wavelength (λ) of an object to its momentum (vm) where h is the planck
constant:
λ = h/mv
Using the above equation you can see how the amount of diffraction changes as a particle’s momentum changes. When
the momentum is increased, the wavelength will decrease, and therefore the amount of diffraction decreases, so the
concentric rings of the interference pattern become closer. Whereas, when momentum is decreased, the wavelength
increases, the amount of diffraction increases so the rings move further apart.

Scientists did not always agree that matter had this wave-particle duality, however as time went on and experimental
evidence for this phenomena was gathered (notably electron diffraction and the photoelectric effect), it was eventually
accepted. Knowledge and understanding of any scientific concept changes over time in accordance to the experimental
evidence gathered by the scientific community. However, these pieces of experimental evidence must first be published to
allow them to be peer-reviewed by the community to become validated, and eventually accepted.
3. Waves
3.3.1.1 - Progressive Waves

A progressive wave transfers energy without transferring material and is made up of particles of a medium (or field)
oscillating e.g. water waves are made of water particles moving up and down.

Two points on a wave are in phase if they are both at the same point of the wave cycle, they will have the same
displacement and velocity and their phase difference will be a multiple of 360° (2π radians), they do not need the
same amplitude, only the same frequency and wavelength.

Two points are completely out of phase when they’re an odd integer of half cycles apart e.g. 5 half cycles apart where
one half cycle is 180° (π radians).

The speed of a wave is equal to the wave’s frequency multiplied by its wavelength: c = fλ

The frequency of a wave is equal to 1 over its period: f =1T

3.3.1.2 - Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

● Transverse waves - oscillation of particles (or fields) is at right angles to the direction of energy transfer
● All electromagnetic (EM) waves are transverse and travel at 3 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum.
● Transverse waves can be demonstrated by shaking a slinky vertically or through the waves seen on a string, when
it's attached to a signal generator.

● Longitudinal waves - oscillation of particles is parallel to the direction of energy transfer

● These are made up of compressions and rarefactions and can’t travel in a vacuum.
● Sound is an example of a longitudinal wave, and they can be demonstrated by pushing a slinky
horizontally.

Polaroid sunglasses are an application of polarisation. They reduce glare by blocking partially polarised light
reflected from water and tarmac, as they only allow oscillations in the plane of the filter, making it easier to see.
Another application of polarisation is TV and radio signals, which are usually plane-polarised by the orientation
of the rods on the transmitting aerial, so the receiving aerial must be aligned in the same plane of polarisation to
receive the signal at full strength.
3.3.1.3 - Principle of Superposition of waves and formation of stationary waves

Superposition is where the displacements of two waves are combined as they pass each other, the resultant
displacement is the vector sum of each wave displacement. There are two types of interference that can occur
during superposition:
● Constructive interference occurs when 2 waves have displacement in the same direction
● Destructive interference occurs when one wave has positive displacement and the other has negative
displacement, if the waves have equal but opposite displacements, total destructive interference
occurs
A stationary wave is formed from the superposition of 2 progressive waves, travelling in opposite
directions in the same plane, with the same frequency, wavelength and amplitude.

No energy is transferred by a stationary wave.

● Where the waves meet in phase, constructive interference occurs so antinodes are formed, which
are regions of maximum amplitude.
● Where the waves meet completely out of phase, destructive interference occurs and nodes are
formed, which are regions of no displacement.

A string fixed at one end, and fixed to a driving oscillator at the other gives a good example of the formation of a
stationary wave:
● A wave travelling down the string from the oscillator will be reflected at the fixed end of the string, and travel
back along the string causing superposition of the two
waves, and because the waves have the same wavelength, frequency
and amplitude, a stationary wave is formed.

The lowest frequency at which a stationary wave forms is the first harmonic, which forms a stationary wave with
two nodes and a single antinode. The distance between adjacent nodes (or antinodes) is half a wavelength
(for any harmonic).

Where L is the length of the vibrating string, T is the tension and μ is the mass per unit length.
You can double the first harmonic frequency to find the second harmonic where there are 2 antinodes, you triple the first
harmonic frequency to get the third harmonic where there are 3 antinodes, and so on for the nth harmonic.
There are several examples of stationary waves:
● Stationary microwaves can be formed by reflecting a microwave beam at a metal plate, to find the
nodes and antinodes use a microwave probe.
● Stationary sound waves can be formed by placing a speaker at one end of a closed glass tube,
lay powder across the bottom of the tube, it will be shaken at the antinodes and settle at the
nodes. The distance between each node is half a wavelength, and the frequency of the signal
generator to the speaker is known so by c=fλ the speed of sound in air can be found.

3.3.2.1 - Interference

● Path difference - difference in the distance travelled by two waves.

● Coherent light - same frequency and wavelength and a fixed phase difference
○ E.g - lasers - coherent and monochromatic, meaning they emit a single (or small range of)
wavelength(s) of light. Lasers are usually used as sources of light in diffraction experiments as
they form clear interference patterns.

Young’s double slit experiment demonstrates interference of light from two-sources. In this experiment
you can use two coherent sources of light or you could use one coherent source and a double slit in
order to form an interference pattern. If you do not have a coherent source of light for example a light
bulb, you could place a single slit before the double slit to make the light have a fixed path difference,
and a filter to make the light monochromatic. Below is a brief procedure to describe Young’s double slit
experiment:
● Shine a coherent light source through 2 slits about the same size as the wavelength of the laser
light so the light diffracts
● Each slit acts as a coherent point source making a pattern of light and dark fringes. Light fringes
are formed where the light meets in phase and interferes constructively, this occurs where the
path difference between waves is a whole number of wavelengths (nλ, where n is an integer).
Dark fringes are formed where the light meets completely out of phase and
interferes destructively, this occurs where the path difference is a whole number and a half
wavelengths ((n+½)λ).

The formula associated with the above experiment is:

● λ is the wavelength of light
● D is the distance between the screen and slits
● s is slit separation
● w is the fringe spacing

Using white light instead of monochromatic laser light gives wider maxima and a less intense
diffraction pattern with a central white fringe with alternating bright fringes which are spectra, violet
is closest to the central maximum and red furthest.
Lasers can permanently damage your eyesight therefore, when using lasers there are several
safety precautions, which must be followed:
● Wear laser safety goggles
● Don’t shine the laser at reflective surfaces
● Display a warning sign
● Never shine the laser at a person

Can also be demonstrated in sound waves through a very similar process, however instead of using a
double slit, you could use two speakers connected to the same signal generator. And the intensity of the
wave can be measured using a microphone to find the maxima (equivalent to light fringes), and minima
(equivalent to dark fringes).

Evidence for the wave nature of light was provided by Young's double slit experiment because
diffraction and interference are wave properties, and so proved that EM radiation must act as a
wave (at least some of the time). Knowledge and understanding of any scientific concept changes
over time in accordance to the experimental evidence gathered by the scientific community.

3.3.2.2 - Diffraction

Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they pass through or around a gap. The greatest
diffraction occurs when the gap is the same size as the wavelength. When the gap is smaller than the
wavelength most waves are reflected, whereas when it is larger there is less noticeable diffraction.
When a wave meets an obstacle you get diffraction round the edges, the wider the obstacle
compared to the wavelength, the less diffraction.

Monochromatic light can be diffracted through a single slit onto a screen, which forms an
interference pattern of light and dark fringes. The pattern has a bright central fringe, which is double
the width of all other fringes, with alternating dark and bright fringes on either side, the bright fringes
are caused by constructive interference where the waves meet in phase and the dark fringes are
caused by destructive interference where waves arrive completely out of phase. The intensity of
the fringes decreases from the central fringe as shown below:

In order to vary the width of the central maximum, you can vary
slit width and wavelength:

● Increasing the slit width decreases the amount of

diffraction so the central maximum becomes
narrower and its intensity increases
● Increasing the light wavelength increases the
amount diffraction as the slit is closer in size to the
light’s wavelength, therefore the central maximum
becomes wider and its intensity decreases.

A diffraction grating is a slide containing many equally spaced slits very close together. When
monochromatic light is passed through a diffraction grating the interference pattern is much sharper
and brighter than it would be after being passed through a double slit like in Young’s double slit, this is
because there are many more rays of light reinforcing the pattern. This means measurements of slit
widths are much more accurate as they are easier to take.

● Red = 50 slits
● Green = 20 slits.
The center line is called the zero line order, lines on either side are the first order lines.

d sinθ λ = n
● d - distance between the slits
● θ - angle to the normal made by the maximum
● n - the order
● λ - wavelength
As λ increases, the distance between the orders will increase because θ is larger due to the increase in
diffraction as the slit spacing is closer in size to the wavelength, this means the pattern will spread out.
The maximum value of sin θ is 1 (90), therefore any values of n, which give sin θ as greater than 1 are
impossible.

1. Using first order maximum, where the path difference between two adjacent rays of light is one
wavelength, name the angle between the normal to the grating and the ray of light θ.
2. As you can see a right angle triangle is formed, with side lengths d and λ. And by using the fact that
a right angle is 90°, and angles in a triangle add up to 180°, you can see the upper angle in the
triangle is θ
3. By using trigonometry we can see that for the first maximum sin θ = , (as sin θ = d λ Opp/Hyp) which
rearranges to, (for the first order). dsin θ = λ
4. We know that the other maxima occur when the path difference between the two rays of light is nλ,
where n is an integer, therefore we can generalise the equation by replacing λ with nλ to get: d sinθ λ =
n.

● Can split up light from stars using diffraction grating to get line absorption spectra which can be
used to show which elements are present in the star.
● X-ray crystallography, which is where x-rays are directed at a thin crystal sheet which acts as a
diffraction grating to form a diffraction pattern, this is because the wavelength of x-rays is
similar in size to gaps between atoms. This diffraction pattern can be used to measure atomic
spacing.

3.3.2.3 - Refraction at a plane surface

● Refractive index (n) - measures how much light slows down when passing through a material
● Higher refractive index can also be known as being more optically dense, air is approximately 1.
● Refraction occurs when a wave enters a different medium, causing it to change direction, either towards
or away from the normal depending on the material’s refractive index. Snell’s law is used for
calculations involving the refraction of light:

● n1 is the refractive index of material 1,

● n2 is the refractive index of material 2
● θ1 is the angle of incidence of the ray in material 1
● θ2 is the angle of refraction of the ray in material 2

When n2 is more optically dense the ray of light slows down and bends towards
the normal.
When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° and the light is refracted along the boundary, the angle of incidence
has reached the critical angle (θc ).

Total internal reflection (TIR) can occur when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the
incident refractive index (n1 ) is greater than the refractive index of the material at the boundary (n2 ).

Applications
● Optical fibers
○ Carry information through the use of light signals
○ Optically dense core surrounded by cladding with lower optical density
○ Allows TIR to occur
○ Cladding also prevents damage to core as well as preventing
signal degradation

Signal degradation causes:

● Absorption - signal’s energy is absorbed by fibre, reducing the amplitude of the signal, which could lead to a
loss of information

● Dispersion - this causes pulse broadening, which is where the received signal is broader than the original
transmitted signal. Broadened signals can overlap causing loss of information.

Types of dispersion:
● Modal - caused by light rays entering the fibre at different angles, therefore they take different paths
along the fibre, this leads to the rays taking a different amount of time to travel along the fibre, causing
pulse broadening.
○ This can be reduced by making the core very narrow, therefore making the possible difference in
path lengths smaller.
● Material - caused by using light consisting of different wavelengths, meaning light rays will travel at
different speeds along the fibre, which leads to pulse broadening
○ This can be prevented by using monochromatic light.
Mechanics and materials

3.4.1 Force, energy and momentum

3.4.1.1 - Scalars and vectors

● Scalar - Only magnitude

○ E.g distance, speed, mass, temp
● Vector - Magnitude and direction
○ E.g Displacement, velocity, force/weight, acceleration

3.4.1.2 - Moments
● Moment of a force about a point - force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force
to the point.

Moment = Force x Perpendicular distance to line of action of force from the point
M=FxD

● Couple - pair of coplanar forces (meaning they are forces within the same plane), where the two forces are equal
in magnitude but act in opposite directions.
● moment of a couple - you multiply one of the forces by the
perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces.
M=FxD

● Object in equilibrium - the sum of anticlockwise moments

is equal to the sum of clockwise moments.
● Centre of mass - A point around all the mass of an object acts
Uniform, its centre of mass will exactly at its centre.

3.4.1.3 - Motion along a straight line

● Speed - How quickly an object is travelling Δd/Δt

● Displacement (s) - Overall distance travelled from the starting position (includes a direction)
● Velocity (v) - rate of change of displacement Δs/Δt
● Acceleration (a) - rate of change of velocity Δv/Δt

● Instantaneous velocity - velocity of an object at a specific point in time. It can be found from
a displacement-time graph by drawing a tangent to the graph at the specific time and calculating
the gradient.

● Average velocity is the velocity of an object over a specified time frame.

It can be found by dividing the final displacement by the time taken.

3.4.1.4 - Projectile motion

● Friction - force that opposes the motion of an object
● Air resistance increases as the speed of the object increases
● Terminal speed - frictional forces acting on an object and driving forces are equal, no resultant force and so no
acceleration.
3.4.1.5 - Newton’s laws of motion
● Newton’s 1st law - Object will remain at rest or travelling at a constant velocity, until it experiences a resultant
force.
● Newton’s 2nd law - Acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force experienced by the object
○ F = ma
● Newton’s 3rd law - For each force experienced by an object, the object exerts an equal and opposite force.

3.4.1.6 - Momentum

Momentum = mass x velocity

● Momentum is always conserved in any interaction where no external forces act, the momentum before equals the
momentum after.
● Impulse (change in momentum) = FΔt = (Δ mv)

Collisions:
● Elastic - momentum and kinetic energy are conserved
● Inelastic - where only momentum is conserved, while some of the kinetic
energy is converted into other forms (e.g heat, sound, gravitational potential)
● If objects in collision stick then it is an inelastic collision.

3.4.1.6 - Work, energy and power

● Work done (W) - Force causing a motion multiplied by the distance travelled in the direction of the force
● W = Fd

W = Fs cos θ
● s is the distance travelled
● θ is the angle between the direction of the force and the direction of motion

● Rate of doing work = the rate of energy transfer

● Power (P) is the rate of energy transfer

● Efficiency - how efficiently a system transfers energy

3.4.1.7 - Conservation of energy

● Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one store to
another.
● Total ener

3.4.2 Materials

3.4.2.1 - Bulk properties of solids

● Density - mass per unit volume,
● Hooke’s law - Extension is directly proportional to the force applied, given that the environmental conditions (e.g
temperature) are kept constant.
● Shown by the straight part of the force-extension graph through the origin,
● Force and extension are directly proportional

● K - Spring constant,
● ΔL - Extension
●

● Limit of proportionality (P) - Point after which Hooke’s law is no longer obeyed
● Elastic limit (E) - If you increase the force applied beyond E the material will deform
plastically (be permanently stretched).

● Tensile stress - Force applied per unit cross-sectional area.

● Tensile strain - Caused by tensile stress, extension over original length

 ● When work done on a material to stretch or compress, stored as elastic strain energy
● Can find it by calculating the area under a force-extension graph

● Breaking stress is the value of stress at which the material will break apart, this value will depend on the
conditions of the material e.g its temperature.

two main behaviours for a material on force extension graph :

● Plastic - This is where a material will experience a large amount of extension as
the load is increased, especially beyond the elastic limit
● Brittle - This is where a material will extend very little, and therefore is likely to
fracture(break apart) at a low extension.

● Once a material is stretched beyond its elastic limit it will not return to the origin,
● The area under graph is the work done to permanently deform the material

● When stretch is elastic all work done is stored as elastic strain energy,
● When a stretch is plastic work is done to move atoms apart, so energy dissipated as heat.

● Stress-strain graphs - Describe the behaviour of a material.

● Ultimate tensile stress (UTS) - Highest point on the graph, shows the maximum stress the material
can withstand.
● Their shape can also show whether a material is ductile (can undergo a large amount of plastic deformation
before fracturing), brittle, or plastic

3.4.2.2 - Young modulus

● The Young modulus - Constant of Stress / Strain

● Up to the limit of proportionality, for a material which obeys Hooke’s law, stress is
proportional to strain.
Section 5: Electricity
3.5.1 Current electricity Q = It
3.5.1.1 - Basics of electricity W=Pt
● Electric current (I) - Flow of charge per unit time, or rate of flow of charge.

● Potential difference (V) - The energy transferred per unit charge between two points in a circuit

● Resistance (R) - How difficult it is for charge carriers to pass through a component

3.5.1.2 - Current-voltage characteristics

● Ohm’s law - For an ohmic conductor, current directly proportional to potential difference across it, given that
physical conditions (e.g temperature) are kept constant.
● Ohmic conductor - this component follows Ohm’s law therefore its current-voltage graph will look like a straight
line through the origin. (This is provided physical conditions are kept constant).

● Semiconductor diode - Forward bias of a diode is the direction the current

flow easily past the threshold voltage, smallest voltage needed to allow
current to flow. Reverse bias, the resistance of the diode is extremely high

● Filament lamp - Length of metal wire, heats up as current increases, therefore resistance increases . At low
currents the metal wire will not heat up significantly therefore for very low currents, Ohm’s law is obeyed.

● Ammeters have zero resistance

● Voltmeters have infinite resistance

3.5.1.3 - Resistivity
● Resistivity (ρ) -How easily a material conducts electricity, it is defined as the product of resistance and
cross-sectional area, divided by the length of the material. Resistivity will give the value of resistance through a
material of length 1 m and cross-sectional area 1m2 which is
● Useful when you need to compare materials even though they may not be the same size

A = πr2
● When temp increases resistance increases
● This is because the atoms of the metal gain kinetic energy and move more around a fixed point, which causes the
charge carriers (electrons) to collide with the atoms more frequently causing them to slow down, therefore current
decreases and so resistance increases.

● Thermistor - as the temp of a thermistor increases, its resistance decreases.

● Application
○ Trigger an event at a certain temp e.g thermostat
 ● Superconductor - A material which below a certain temp (critical temp) has zero
resistivity. Critical temp depends on material, most known have extremely low temp
of around 0 k (-273oc)
● Application
○ Power cables - Reduce energy loss through heating
○ Strong magnetic fields - wouldn't require constant power
maglev trains, medical applications

3.5.1.4 - Circuits
● Series - RT= R1+R2+ R3 + …

● Parallel -

● Power (P) - Rate of transfer of energy

● Series circuit - Current is the same

○ Battery p.d shared across all elements

● Parallel circuit - P.d is scame across each branch

○ Sum of currents in each branch = total current

In DC circuits, charge and energy are always conserved.

● Kirchhoff's first law - the total current flowing into a junction is equal to the current flowing out of that junction.
This shows that no charge is lost at any point in the circuit.
● Kirchhoff's second law - the sum of all the voltages in a series circuit is equal to the battery voltage. This shows
that no energy is lost at any point in a circuit.

3.5.1.5 - Potential divider

● A potential divider is a circuit with several resistors in series connected across a voltage source, used to produce a
required fraction of the source potential difference, which remains constant. You can use a variable resistor as one
of the resistors in series, therefore by varying the resistance across it, you can vary the potential difference output.
● E.g If the resistance across R1 increases, the output p.d will decrease as circuit current has decreased and V=IR.

3.5.1.6 - Electromotive force and internal resistance

● Batteries have an internal resistance (r) which is caused by electrons colliding with atoms inside
the battery, therefore some energy is lost before electrons even leave the battery. It is
represented as a small resistor inside the battery.
● Electromotive force (emf / ε ) is the energy transferred by a cell per coulomb of charge thatpasses through it
● RT = R + r

● P.d across R = terminal p.d (V)

● P.d across r = lost volts (v)
○ Energy wasted by the cell per coulomb of charge
Section 6.1: Further mechanics

3.6.1 Periodic motion

3.6.1.1 - Circular motion

● Circular path at constant speed has a constantly changing velocity as velocity has both magnitude and direction,
therefore the object must be accelerating (this is known as centripetal acceleration). We know from Newton’s
first law that to accelerate, an object must experience a resultant force, therefore an object moving in a circle must
experience a force, this is known as the centripetal force, and it always acts towards the centre of the circle.

● Angular speed (ω) - angle an object moves through per unit time.
It can be found by dividing the object's linear speed (v) by the radius
of the circular path it is travelling in (r), or by dividing the angle in a
circle (in radians) by the object’s time period (T).

● One radian - angle in the sector of a circle when the arc length of that sector is
equal to the radius of the circle

● Centripetal acceleration (a) -

● Centripetal force (F) -

3.6.1.2 - Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

● An object is experiencing simple harmonic motion when its acceleration is directly
proportional to displacement and is in the opposite direction.

● Displacement time graph

● Velocity time graph

● Acceleration time graph

3.6.1.3 - Simple harmonic systems

● Simple harmonic systems - Those which oscillate with simple harmonic motion

● Simple pendulum - A small, dense bob of mass m hangs from a string of length l , which is attached to a fixed
point. When the bob is displaced by a small angle (less than 10°), and let go it will oscillate with SHM.
● Must be less than 10° because during the derivation of the above formula as
small angle approximation is used

● Mass-spring system - spring is either vertical or horizontal

○ Vertical system, kinetic energy is converted to both elastic and gravitational potential energy,
○ Horizontal system, kinetic energy is converted only to elastic potential energy.
 ● kinetic energy is transferred to potential energy and back as the system oscillates
○ At the amplitude of its oscillations the system will have the maximum amount of potential energy,
○ As it moves towards the equilibrium position, this potential energy is converted to kinetic energy
○ At the centre of its oscillations the kinetic energy is at a maximum
○ The total energy of the system remains constant

● Damping - energy lost to the environment, leading to reduced amplitude :

○ Light damping - under-damping - amplitude gradually decreases
○ Critical damping - reduces the amplitude to zero in the shortest possible time
○ Heavy damping - over-damping - amplitude reduces slower than with critical damping, but also without
any additional oscillations.

3.6.1.4 - Forced vibrations and resonance

● Free vibrations - no external force is continuously acting on the system, therefore the system will oscillate at its
natural frequency.

● Forced vibrations - system experiences an external driving force which causes it to oscillate, the frequency of
this driving force, known as driving frequency, is significant. If the driving frequency is equal to the natural
frequency of a system (also known as the resonant frequency), then resonance occurs.

● Resonance - amplitude of oscillations of a system increase due to increaswed amounts of energy from the driving
force.
○ Instruments - An instrument such as a flute has a long tube in which air resonates, causing a stationary
sound wave to be formed.
○ Radio - These are tuned so that their electric circuit resonates at the same frequency as the desired
broadcast frequency.
○ Swing - If someone pushes you on a swing they are providing a driving frequency, which can cause
resonance if it’s equal to the resonant frequency and cause you to swing higher.

● Resonance can also have negative consequences, such as causing damage to a structure
○ E.g bridge when people crossing providing a driving frequency close to the natural frequency, begin to
oscillate violently.
○ Therefore damping can be used to decrease the effect of resonance, different types of damping will have
different effects.