Notes 12.12.

2021

Topic 11: Particle physics

11.1 Atoms, nuclei and radiation

Alpha particle scattering experiment

In this experiment a radon tube S in a metal block is used as a source of α-particles. A fine beam of α-
particles is directed towards a thin metal foil A of high nucleon number such as gold. The scattered α-
particles are detected by means of a fluorescent screen B and a microscope M. The metal foil is thin
because α-particles have a low penetrating power. The whole apparatus is enclosed in a vacuum
because α-particles have a range of 4 to 6 centimetres in air.

When the experiment was carried out, it was found that most of the α-particles passed straight through
the foil undeviated or deviated through a small angle. So it was deduced that the atom is mostly empty
space that is the size of the nucleus is very small compared to the size of the atom. It was also found
that a few α-particles were deviated through angles greater than 90 o. For large deviations the α-particles
should be subjected to large repulsive forces. So it was further deduced that the nucleus is very small,
positive and massive.

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Simple model of the nuclear atom

An atom consists of a small positive and massive nucleus. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
The particles in the nucleus are known as nucleons. A proton and a neutron have the same mass. A
proton is positively charged and a neutron is electrically neutral. Electrons which are negatively charged
move in circular orbits around the nucleus. The atom is mostly empty space that is the size of the
nucleus is very small compared to the size of the atom.

particle mass charge notation

proton 1u +e 𝐻
neutron 1u nil 𝑛
electron u -e 𝑒

1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg e = 1.60 x 10-19C

Proton number Z

The proton number (atomic number) of an element is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom of the element.

Nucleon number A

The nucleon number (mass number) of an element is equal to the sum of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom of the element.

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Isotopes

Isotopes of an element are atoms which have the same proton number but different nucleon numbers.
They have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons in the nucleus.

Isotopes of hydrogen are:

Hydrogen, 𝐻 number of protons = 1 number of neutrons = 1 – 1 = 0

Deuterium, 𝐻 number of protons = 1 number of neutrons = 2 – 1 = 1

Tritium, 𝐻 number of protons = 1 number of neutrons = 3 – 1 = 2

Isotopes of chlorine are:

Chlorine-35, 𝐶𝑙 number of protons = 17 number of neutrons = 35 – 17 = 18

Chlorine-37, 𝐶𝑙 number of protons = 17 number of neutrons = 37 – 17 = 20

Isotopes of carbon are:

Carbon-12, 𝐶 number of protons = 6 number of neutrons = 12 – 6 = 6

Carbon-14, 𝐶 number of protons = 6 number of neutrons = 14 – 6 = 8

Nuclide notation

If X represents an element with proton number Z and nucleon number A, then an atom of the element
can be represented by the nuclide notation:

Conservation law

During a nuclear process, nucleon number, proton number, and mass-energy are all conserved.

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Properties of radiation

Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays

Nature Particles: helium nuclei Particles: electron Electromagnetic waves
of very short
wavelength
Mass 4u (1/1840) u Nil
Charge +2e -e Nil
Speed About 0.1 c Up to 0.98 c c = 3.00 x 108 ms-1
Range in air 4 to 6 cm Up to one metre Very large
Penetrating Stopped by a sheet of Stopped by a few mm of Intensity reduced to
power paper aluminium foil about 10% by 4 cm of
lead
Ionization Strongly ionizing. About Moderately ionizing. Weakly ionizing. About
power 105 ion pairs per cm About 103 ion pairs per cm 10 ion pairs per cm
Deflection by Small deflection in large deflection in direction No effect
perpendicular direction of field. opposite to field. Parabolic
electric field Parabolic path. path.
Deflection by Small deflection in large deflection in direction No effect
perpendicular direction perpendicular perpendicular to field but
magnetic field to field. circular path. opposite to deflection of
alpha particles. Circular
path.

α-particles have discrete energies but β-particles have a continuous range of energies because (electron)
antineutrinos are produced during β – decay and (electron) neutrinos are produced during β+decay.

Antiparticle

An antiparticle has the same mass but opposite charge to the corresponding particle. A positron is the
antiparticle of an electron. They have the same mass that is ( ) u. A positron is positive and an
electron is negative. When a positron meets an electron annihilation occurs. Their mass becomes pure
energy in the form of two gamma ray photons which move in opposite directions. Annihilation does not
occur with positrons and electrons only. When a particle meets its equivalent antiparticle they are both
destroyed and their mass is converted into energy. The energy produced can be calculated using the
mass-energy equation.

E = mc2

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Alpha decay

During alpha decay, the nucleon number decreases by 4 and the proton number decreases by 2. The
number of protons decreases by 2 and the number of neutrons also decreases by 2.

𝑋→ 𝑌 + 𝐻𝑒
Parent nuclide → daughter nuclide + α-particle

Uranium-238 decays by the emission of an alpha particle to form thorium-234.

Beta decay

During beta decay, the nucleon number remains constant and the proton number increases by 1. The
number of protons increases by 1 and the number of neutrons decreases by 1. A neutron in the nucleus
changes into a proton and an electron.

𝑋→ 𝑌+ 𝑒
Parent nuclide → daughter nuclide + β-particle

Carbon-14 decays by the emission of a beta particle to form nitrogen