YOUR NOTES

AS Physics CIE 

11. Particle Physics

CONTENTS
11.1 Atoms, Nuclei & Radiation
11.1.1 Atomic Structure
11.1.2 Nucleon & Proton Number
11.1.3 Alpha, Beta & Gamma Particles
11.1.4 Decay Equations
11.2 Fundamental Particles
11.2.1 Fundamental Particles
11.2.2 Quark Composition
11.1 Atoms, Nuclei & Radiation YOUR NOTES

11.1.1 Atomic Structure
Rutherford Scattering
Evidence for the structure of the atom was discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the
beginning of the 20th century from the study of α-particle scattering
The experimental setup consists of alpha particles fired at thin gold foil and a
detector on the other side to detect how many particles deflected at different
angles

α-particle scattering experiment set up

α-particles are the nucleus of a helium atom and are positively charged
When α-particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through but a YOUR NOTES
small number bounce straight back

From this experiment, Rutherford results were:
The majority of α-particles went straight through (A)
This suggested the atom is mainly empty space
Some α-particles deflected through small angles of < 10 o
This suggested there is a positive nucleus at the centre (since two positive
charges would repel)
Only a small number of α-particles deflected straight back at angles of > 90 o
(C)
This suggested the nucleus is extremely small and this is where the mass and
charge of the atom is concentrated
It was therefore concluded that atoms consist of small dense positively
charged nuclei, surrounded by negatively charged electrons

An atom: a small positive nucleus, surrounded by negative electrons

(Note: The atom is around 100,000 times larger than the nucleus!)
 Worked Example YOUR NOTES
 In an α-particle scattering experiment, a student set up the apparatus

below to determine the number n of α-particle incident per unit time on a
detector held at various angles θ.

Which of

the following graphs best represents the variation of n with θ from 0 to 90°?

ANSWER: A

The Rutherford scattering experience directed parallel beams of α-particles at

gold foil
The observations were:
Most of the α-particles went straight through the foil
The largest value of n will therefore be at small angles
Some of the α-particles were deflected through small angles
n drops quickly with increasing angle of deflection θ
These observations fit with graph A
 Atomic Structure YOUR NOTES
The atoms of all elements are made up of three types of particles: protons, 
neutrons and electrons.

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom while electrons orbit the
nucleus

The properties of each particle are shown in the table below:

A stable atom is neutral (it has no charge)

Since protons and electrons have the same charge, but opposite signs, a stable
atom has an equal number of both for the overall charge to remain neutral

 Exam Tip
Remember not to mix up the ‘atom’ and the ‘nucleus’. The ‘atom’ consists of
the nucleus and electrons. The ‘nucleus’ just consists of the protons and
neutrons in the middle of the atom, not the electrons.
 Antimatter YOUR NOTES
We live in a universe made up of matter particles (protons, neutrons, electrons 
etc.)
All matter particles have antimatter counterparts
Antimatter particles are identical to their matter counterpart but with the
opposite charge

This means if a particle is positive, its antimatter particle is negative and vice versa
Common matter-antimatter pairs are shown in the diagram below:

Apart from electrons, the corresponding antiparticle pair has the same name with
the prefix ‘anti-’ and a line above the corresponding matter particle symbol
A neutral particle, such as a neutron or neutrino, is its own antiparticle
 Atomic Mass Unit (u) YOUR NOTES
The unified atomic mass unit (u) is roughly equal to the mass of one proton or 
neutron:
1 u = 1.66 × 10 −27 kg

It is sometimes abbreviated to a.m.u

This value will be given on your data sheet in the exam
The a.m.u is commonly used in nuclear physics to express the mass of subatomic
particles. It is equal to 1/12 of the mass of the carbon-12 atom
Table of common particles with mass in a.m.u

The mass of an atom in a.m.u is roughly equal to the sum of its protons and
neutrons (nucleon number)
For example, the mass of Uranium-235 is roughly 235u

 Worked Example
Estimate the mass of the nucleus of element Copernicium-285 in Kg.Give
your answer to 2 decimal places.
11.1.2 Nucleon & Proton Number YOUR NOTES

Nucleon & Proton Number
The atomic symbol of an element is used to describe the constituents of the nuclei
An example of this notation for Lithium is:

Atomic symbol for Lithium

When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the number of protons, neutrons
and electrons in the atom:
Protons: The atomic number
Electrons: Atoms are neutrals, so the number of negative electrons is equal to
the number of positive protons. Therefore, this is also the atomic number
Neutrons: Subtract the proton number from the mass number

For the lithium atom, these numbers would be:

Protons: 3
Electrons: 3
Neutrons: 7 − 3 = 4
The term nucleon is the used to mean a particle in the nucleus – i.e. a proton or
neutron
The term nuclide is used to refer to a nucleus with a specific combination of
protons and neutrons
 Worked Example YOUR NOTES
 
 Isotopes YOUR NOTES
Although all atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons 
(and hence electrons), the number of neutrons can vary
An isotope is an atom (of the same element) that has an equal number of
protons but different number of neutrons
The isotopes of hydrogen are deuterium and tritium:

The three atoms shown above are all forms of hydrogen, but they each have different
numbers of neutrons

Remember, the neutron number of an atom is found by subtracting the proton

number from the nucleon number
Since nucleon number includes the number of neutrons, an isotope of an element
will also have a different nucleon/mass number
Since isotopes have an imbalance of neutrons and protons, they are unstable. This
means they constantly decay and emit radiation to achieve a more stable form
This can happen from anywhere between a few nanoseconds to 100,000 years
 Worked Example YOUR NOTES
 One of the rows in the table shows a pair of nuclei that are isotopes of one

another.

Which row is correct?

ANSWER: B

Step 1: Properties of isotopes

Isotopes are nuclei with the same number of protons but different number
of neutrons
The nucleon number is the sum of the protons and neutron
Therefore, an isotope has a different nucleon number too
Step 2: Calculate protons in the first nucleus

Nucleon number: 37
Neutrons: 20
Protons = 37 − 20 = 17
Step 3: Calculate protons in the second nucleus

Nucleon number: 35
Neutrons: 18
Protons = 35 − 18 = 17
Step 4: Conclusion

Therefore, they have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons and are isotopes of each other
The correct answer is therefore option B
 AZX Notation YOUR NOTES
Atomic symbols are written in a specific notation called AZX notation 

Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei

The top number A represents the nucleon number or the mass number
Nucleon number (A) = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

The lower number Z represents the proton or atomic number

Proton number (Z) = total number of protons in the nucleus

Note: In Chemistry the nucleon number is referred to as the mass number and the
proton number as the atomic number. The periodic table is ordered by atomic
number
 Conservation of Nucleon Number & Charge YOUR NOTES
Nuclear processes such as fission and fusion are represented using nuclear 
equations (similar to chemical reactions in chemistry)
The number of protons and neutrons in atom is known as its constituents
For example:

Nuclear fission equation

The above equation represents a fission reaction in which a Uranium nucleus is hit
with a neutron and splits into two smaller nuclei – a Strontium nucleus and Xenon
nucleus, releasing two neutrons in the process
In nuclear equations, the nucleon number and charge are always conserved
This means that the sum of the nucleons and charge on the left hand side must
equal the sum of the number of nucleons and charge on the right hand side
In the above equation, the sum of the nucleon (top) numbers on both sides are
equal
235 + 1 = 236 = 90 + 144 + 2 × 1
The same is true for the proton (bottom) numbers
92 + 0 = 92 = 38 + 54 + 2 × 0
By balancing equations in this way, you can determine the nucleon, proton number
or the number of missing elements
For example:
Balancing the number of nucleons shows that 3 neutrons must be released in the YOUR NOTES
reaction


 Worked Example
When a californium atom reacts with an unknown element X, the following
reaction occurs. Determine the
values of Y and Z.
 11.1.3 Alpha, Beta & Gamma Particles YOUR NOTES

Alpha, Beta & Gamma Particles
Some elements have nuclei that are unstable
This tends to be when the number of nucleons does not balance
In order to become more stable, they emit particles and/or electromagnetic
radiation
These nuclei are said to be radioactive
There are three different types of radioactive emission: Alpha, Beta and Gamma
Alpha Particles
Alpha (α) particles are high energy particles made up of 2 protons and 2
neutrons (the same as a helium nucleus)
They are usually emitted from nuclei that are too large

Beta Particles
Beta (β−) particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus
β− particles are emitted by nuclei that have too many neutrons

Beta is a moderately ionising type of radiation

This is due to it having a charge of +1e
This means it is able to do some slight damage to cells (less than alpha but
more than gamma)
Beta is a moderately penetrating type of radiation
Beta particles have a range of around 20 cm - 3 m in air, depending on their
energy
Beta can be stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium foil
 Gamma Rays
Gamma (γ) rays are high energy electromagnetic waves YOUR NOTES
They are emitted by nuclei that need to lose some energy 

If these particles hit other atoms, they can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
This can cause chemical changes in materials and can damage or kill living cells

When radiation passes close to atoms, it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom

The properties of the different types of radiation are summarised in the table
below
 YOUR NOTES


u is the atomic mass unit (see “Atomic Mass Unit (u)”)

e is the charge of the electron: 1.60 × 10-19 C
c is the speed of light: 3 × 108 m s-1

 Worked Example

ANSWER: D
 YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
It is important to be familiar the properties of each type of radiation and
their symbols.
11.1.4 Decay Equations YOUR NOTES

Neutrino Emission
An electron neutrino is a type of subatomic particle with no charge and negligible
mass which is also emitted from the nucleus
The anti-neutrino is the antiparticle of a neutrino
Electron anti-neutrinos are produced during β– decay
Electron neutrinos are produced during β+ decay

 Exam Tip
One way to remember which particle decays into which depends on the type
of beta emission, think of beta ‘plus’ as the ‘proton’ that turns into the
neutron (plus an electron neutrino)
 Energy of Alpha & Beta Decay YOUR NOTES
When the number of α particles is plotted against kinetic energy, there are clear 
spikes that appear on the graph
This demonstrates that α-particles have discrete energies (only certain values)

Alpha particles have discrete energy levels whilst beta particles have a continuous
range of energies

When the number of β particles is plotted against kinetic energy, the graph shows
a curve
This demonstrates that beta particles (electrons or positrons) have a continuous
range of energies
This is because the energy released in beta decay is shared between the beta
particles (electrons or positrons) and neutrinos (or anti-neutrinos)
This was one of the first clues of the neutrino’s existence
The principle of conservation of momentum and energy applies in both alpha and
beta emission
 α & β Decay Equations YOUR NOTES
Alpha Decay 
Alpha decay is common in large, unstable nuclei with too many protons
The decay involves a nucleus emitting an alpha particle and decaying into a
different nucleus
An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (the nucleus of a Helium
atom)

Alpha decay produces a daughter nucleus and an alpha particle (helium nucleus)

When an unstable nucleus (the parent nucleus) emits radiation, the constitution of
its nucleus changes
As a result, the isotope will change into a different element (the daughter nucleus)
Alpha decay can be represented by the following radioactive decay equation:

Alpha decay equation

When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus:

The nucleus loses 2 protons: proton number decreases by 2
The nucleus loses 4 nucleons: nucleon number decreases by 4
 Worked Example YOUR NOTES
 

ANSWER: C
 YOUR NOTES


β- decay
A β- particle is a high energy electron emitted from the nucleus
β- decay is when a neutron turns into a proton emitting an electron and an anti-
electron neutrino
 YOUR NOTES


When a β- is emitted from a nucleus:

The number of protons increases by 1: proton number increases by 1
The total number of nucleons stays the same: nucleon number remains the
same

Equation for beta minus emission

The new nucleus formed from the decay is called the “daughter” nucleus (nitrogen
in the example above)
β+ decay
A β+ particle is a high energy positron emitted from the nucleus
β+ decay is when a proton turns into a neutron emitting a positron (anti-
electron) and an electron neutrino
 YOUR NOTES


When a β+ is emitted from a nucleus:

The number of protons decreases by 1: proton number decreases by 1
The total number of nucleons stays the same: nucleon number remains the
same

Equation for beta plus emission

 Worked Example YOUR NOTES
 A radioactive substance with a nucleon number of 212 and a proton

number of 82 decays by β-plus emission into a daughter product which in
turn decays by further β-plus emission into a granddaughter product.

Which letter in the diagram represents the granddaughter product?

ANSWER: A
 YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Remember to avoid the common mistake of confusing the number of 
neutrons with nucleon number. In alpha decay, the nucleon (protons and
neutrons) number decreases by 4 but the number of neutrons only
decreases by 2.
11.2 Fundamental Particles YOUR NOTES

11.2.1 Fundamental Particles
Fundamental Particles: Quarks
Quarks are fundamental particles that make up other subatomic particles such as
protons and neutrons
Protons and neutrons are in a category of particles called hadrons
Hadrons are defined as any particle made up of quarks
Fundamental means that quarks are not made up of any other particles. Another
example is electrons
Quarks have never been observed on their own, they’re either in pairs or groups of
three
There are six flavours (types) of quarks that exist:

The six flavours of quarks

 Properties of Quarks YOUR NOTES
The charge of a hadron is determined by the sum of the charges of its quarks 
Each flavour of quark has a certain relative charge:

Each flavour of quark has a charge of either +⅔e or -⅓e

For example, a proton is made up of two up quarks and a down quark. Adding up
their charges gives the charge of a proton:
+⅔e + ⅔e - ⅓e = +1e
The equivalent antiparticle of the quark is the anti-quark
These are identical to quarks except with opposite relative charges

Each flavour of anti-quark has a charge of either -⅔e or +⅓e. The quark composition
of anti-protons and anti-neutrons changes to anti-quarks
 Worked Example YOUR NOTES
 Particles are made up of a combination of three quarks or two quarks.

Which quark combination would not give a particle a charge of -1 or 0?
A. up, strange, strange
B. charm, charm, down
C. top, anti-up
D. anti-up, anti-up, anti-strange

 Exam Tip
You will be expected to remember the charge of each quark. However,
instead of memorising the charges of anti-quarks too, just remember they
are identical but with opposite signs.
 Fundamental Particles: Leptons YOUR NOTES
Leptons are a group of fundamental (elementary) particles 
This means they are not made up of any other particles (no quarks)
There are six leptons altogether:

The six leptons are all fundamental particles

The muon and tau particle are very similar to the electron but with slightly larger
mass
Electrons, muon and tau particles all have a charge of -1e and a mass of 0.0005u
There are three flavours (types) of neutrinos (electron, muon, tau)
Neutrinos are the most abundant leptons in the universe
They have no charge and negligible mass (almost 0)
Leptons interact with the weak interaction, electromagnetic and gravitational
forces
However, they do not interact with the strong force
Although quarks are fundamental particles too, they are not classed as leptons
Leptons do not interact with the strong force, whilst quarks do

 Worked Example
Circle all the anti-leptons in the following decay equation.
YOUR NOTES

11.2.2 Quark Composition YOUR NOTES

Quark Composition: Protons & Neutrons
Protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles. They are each made up of
three quarks
Protons are made up of two up quarks and a down quark
Neutrons are made up of two down quarks and an up quark

Protons and neutrons are made up of three quarks

You will be expected to remember these quark combinations for exam questions

 Worked Example

Step 1:Calculate number of protons:

The number of protons is from the proton number = 26 protons
Step 2:Calculate number of neutrons:
The number of neutrons = nucleon number - proton number = 56 - 26 = 30
neutrons
Step 3:Up quarks in a proton:
Protons are made up of uud quarks = 2 up quarks
Step 4:Up quarks in a neutron:
Neutrons are made up of udd quarks = 1 up quark
Step 5:Total number of up quarks:
26 protons x 2 up quarks = 52 up quarks
30 neutrons x 1 up quark = 30 up quarks YOUR NOTES
52 + 30 = 82 up quarks 
 Baryons & Mesons YOUR NOTES
Hadrons are the group of subatomic particles that are made up of quarks 
These may be either a:
Baryon (3 quarks)
Meson (quark and anti-quark pair)

Hadrons may be either a baryon or a meson

Quarks have never been discovered on their own, always in pairs or groups of
three
Anti-hadrons can be either
Anti-baryons (3 anti-quarks)
Anti-meson (quark and anti-quark pair)

Anti-hadrons may be either an anti-baryon or an anti-meson

 Note that all baryons or mesons have integer (whole number) charges eg. +1e, -2e YOUR NOTES
etc. 
This means quarks in a baryon are either all quarks or all anti-quarks.
Combination of quarks and anti-quarks don’t exist in a baryon
e.g.

The anti-particle of a meson is still a quark-antiquark pair. The difference being

the quark becomes the anti-quark and vice versa

 Worked Example
The baryon Δ++ was discovered in a particle accelerator using accelerated
positive pions on hydrogen targets.Which of the following is the quark
combination of this particle?

 Exam Tip
Remembering quark combinations is useful for the exam. However, as
long as you can remember the charges for each quark, it is possible to
figure out the combination by making sure the combination of quarks
add up to the charge of the particle (just like in the worked example)
 Quark Composition: β– & β+ decay YOUR NOTES
Beta decay happens via the weak interaction 
This is one of the four fundamental forces and it’s responsible for radioactive
decays
Quark Composition: β- decay
Recall that β- decay is when a neutron turns into a proton emitting an electron
and anti-electron neutrino
More specifically, a neutron turns into a proton because a down quark turning
into an up quark

Beta minus decay is when a down quark turns into an up quark

Quark Composition: β+ decay

Recall that β+ decay is when a proton turns into a neutron emitting an positron
and an electron neutrino
More specifically, a proton turns into a neutron because an up quark turns into a
down quark
 Beta minus decay is when an up quark turns into a down quark YOUR NOTES

 Worked Example
The equation for β– decay is

Using the quark model of beta decay, prove that the charge is conserved in
this equation.