RANI CHANNAMMA UNIVERSITY

BELAGAVI

B.Sc VI Semester

PHYSICS
Paper-I
UNIT-III
Nuclear Physics
 Rani Channamma University
BSc VI Semester Physics Paper –I
UNIT-III NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Alpha –rays: Theory of a decay, Range, Ionization, specific ionization and
Geiger-Nuttal relation.

Beta – decay: Continuous beta spectrum, and Neutrino Hypothesis.

Nuclear Models: Liquid drop model- Explanation of semi empirical mass

formula, Explanation of nuclear fission on the basis of liquid drop model,
Shell model (qualitative) and Magic numbers.

Nuclear Instruments: GM counter, Scintillation counter, Linear accelerator

and Cyclotron.
Problems
Size of the atom and its constituents
 Atom and its constituents
 Rutherford first suggested the
existence of atomic nucleus when he
was postulating atomic model
Nucleus is the central part of the atom
where its diameter is of the order of 10-14 m
Nucleus = Protons + Neutrons
Protons are positively charged and neutrons
are neutral particles
Number of protons = Z = Atomic number
Number of nucleons = A
= (Protons + Neutrons)
= Mass Number
 Number of neutrons = A-Z
Properties of the nucleus
 Mass of the nucleus M =Zmp+(A-Z)mn-ΔM
Mass of the proton, mp = 1.67261×10-17 kg
Mass of the neutron, mn = 1.67492×10-17 kg
ΔM = Mass defect = Sum of all protons and neutrons – actual mass of nucleus

 Charge on the nucleus is given by +Ze where e is the charge on each proton
e = +1.6 × 10-19 C

 Radius of the nucleus R=R0A1/3 where R0=1.4×10-15 m and A=mass number

 Alpha particles are doubly ionized He
atoms

 Beta particles are fast moving electrons

 Gamma rays are photons of wavelength

10-11 m to 10-13 m
α –Decay
Most of the radioactive nuclei with atomic number greater than 82 spontaneously
disintegrate. The process in which an α particle spontaneously ejected from
disintegrating nucleus by loosing two protons and two neutrons is called α-decay.

Reduction in the nuclear mass = Mass of parent nucleus – Mass of daughter nucleus

This reduced mass corresponds to coulomb energy which is carried away by the α
–particle.
Properties of the alpha (α) particles
1. They are positively charged particles. They are represented by 2He4
2. They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
3. Velocity of the alpha particle depend upon the nature of emitting radioactive element.
4. They produce heating effect when stopped
5. They affect photographic plates
6. They produce fluorescence in zinc sulphide, barium platinocyanide, etc.
7. They cause intense ionization when passes through gases. Their ionizing capacity is higher
than beta (β) and gamma (γ) rays.
8. They have lowest penetrating power as compared to beta and gamma rays when they pass
through matter.
Range of an α particle (R)
The range of the α particle is defined as the distance travelled through air at
NTP before it loses its ionizing power.
Range R of an α particle depends on
1. Initial velocity of α particle
2. The nature of radioactive element emitting α particle
3. The pressure of the gas through which they pass
Range, R =a V03 where a = 9.6× 10-24
𝟏
E0 𝟐 𝟑
𝟐 where b= 3.18 ×10−𝟑
But V0= −𝟏𝟒 Therefore R= 𝐛𝑬𝟎
2.08 ×10

If Rs and R are the ranges of α particle in solid and in air respectively then
𝟏
𝟎.𝟑𝟏𝟐𝑹𝑨 𝟐
Rs = where ρ is the density of the solid.
ρ

Specific Ionization at atmospheric pressure is the number of ion pairs per cm of the
path produced by a radioactive element.
Geiger-Nuttal Relation
(Connects Range and Energy with Disintegration Constant)

 The emitted α particles do not carry same energy and hence their ranges are different.

 Geiger and Nuttal observed that nuclides with shorter half-life emit α particles of
higher energy and vice-versa

 The Relation between disintegration constant (λ)

and range (R) is log λ = A log R +B
Where A and B are constants

 The Relation between disintegration constant (λ)

𝟑
and energy(E) is log λ = A log 𝑬𝟎 + B
𝟐
Where A and B are constants
Gamow’s Theory of α Decay
 α particles and the nucleus of the radioactive elements are both
positively charged entities. Hence they repel each other.
 Suppose if they are held at a certain distance then the potential energy
of the α particle is given by
𝟐𝒆 𝒁−𝟐 𝒆
V(r)= For U238, Z=92 then V(r) =26 MeV
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

 Thus according to this classical theory, 26 MeV of energy is required for

α particle to escape from the nucleus.
 But the emitted α particle by the U238 is only 4 MeV. Hence it is
impossible for an α particle to escape the nucleus as per the classical
treatment.
Gamow’s Theory of α Decay
Gamow’s Theory of α Decay

Gamow theory successfully explained the escape of an α particle through the wave
mechanical treatment and this process is known as tunneling effect.

Using WKB approximation the probability of escape of an α particle is obtained in

terms of
𝑣 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 λ = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 P But 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 P = 2.97𝒁 𝟐 𝒓𝟎 𝟐 − 𝟑. 𝟗𝟓𝒁𝑬− 𝟐
2𝑟0

When the 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 is removed we obtain

𝑣 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 λ = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 + 1.29𝒁 𝟐 𝒓𝟎 −𝟐 −
𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝑬 𝟐 (Theoretical form of the Geiger-
2𝑟0
Nuttal relation)

v is velocity of α particle moving inside the potential well

E is the kinetic energy of the α particle.
β Decay - Properties
1. β particles are fast moving electrons
2. They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
3. Their velocity ranges from 1% to 99% of velocity of light
4. They affect photographic plates but the effect is much higher than α particles.
5. They produce fluorescence in barium platinocyanide, calcium tungstate, etc.
6. They produce ionization in air and it is 1/100 times less effective than α particles.
7. They are more penetrating than α particles and can pass through 1 mm of Al sheet.
8. The range of β particles is greater than the α particles.
Continuous Spectrum of β Particles

The kinetic energy of the emitted β particles is calculated

from the observations made from magnetic spectrometer.

 Number of β particles per unit time are counted using the

GM counter.

The above two measurements are plotted against each

other. The graph revealed two observations
1. The β particles have continuous distribution of
energies.
2. Only a small number of electrons have this maximum Conservation of both
kinetic energy, represented as KEmax on the graph; linear momentum and
most of the electrons emitted have kinetic energies angular momentum
lower than that predicted value. are violated
Neutrino Hypothesis
 The existence of additional particle is predicted by Pauli in 1930 to conserve the
momentum and to carry the missing energy.

 Later Enrico Fermi developed theory and called the missing particle as neutrino.
This particle has (a) zero charge (b) intrinsic spin of ½ (c) zero rest mass

 Thus missing neutrino finally balanced the charge and angular momentum.

 With the introduction of the neutrino the correct form of the β decay is shown below.
𝑨 𝑨
𝒁𝑿 𝒁+𝟏𝑿 + 𝒆− + ν

𝑨 𝑨
𝒁𝑿 𝒁−𝟏𝑿 + 𝒆+ + ν

 Since β particles and neutrino simultaneously emitted the kinetic energy is shared
among them.
Nuclear Models
The phenomenon such as stability, spin, magnetic moment etc., are explained on the
basis of nuclear models. Two most successful models are
1. Liquid drop model 2. Shell model
Liquid Drop Model –Assumptions
1. The nuclei of all elements are considered to be behave like a liquid drop of
incompressible liquid of very high density
2. Drop of a liquid is spherical due to surface tension. Similarly in an equilibrium
state the nuclei of atoms remain spherically symmetric under the action of strong
attractive nuclear forces.
3. The density of a nucleus is independent of its size just like the liquid drop.
4. The motion of the nucleons inside the nucleus is similar to the molecules of the
liquid within the spherical drop.
5. The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus is constant just like the latent heat of
vaporization of a liquid.
Weizsacker Semiempirical Mass Formula
Weizsacker derived the formula for mass M and binding energy EB of a nucleus which
is given by M =Zmp+(A-Z)mn-𝑬𝑩
where 𝐸𝐵 is binding energy 𝑬𝑩 = 𝑬𝒗 − 𝑬𝒔 − 𝑬𝒂 − 𝑬𝒄 ± 𝜹(𝑨, 𝒁)

1. Volume Energy 𝐸𝑣 𝛼 𝐴 then 𝑬𝒗 = 𝒂𝒗 𝑨 where 𝑎𝑣 is constant

2 𝟐
2. Surface Energy 𝐸𝑠 𝛼 𝐴 3 then 𝑬𝒔 = −𝒂𝒔 𝑨 𝟑 where 𝑎𝑠 is constant

(𝐴−2𝑍) (𝑨−𝟐𝒁)
3. Asymmetry Energy 𝐸𝑎 𝛼 then 𝑬𝒂 = 𝒂𝒂 where 𝑎𝑎 is constant
𝐴 𝑨

𝑍(𝑍−1) 𝑍(𝑍−1)
4. Coulomb Energy 𝐸𝑐 𝛼 1 then 𝑬𝒄 = −𝒂𝒄 𝟏 where 𝑎𝑐 is constant
𝐴 3 𝑨 𝟑

5. Pairing Energy 𝜹 𝑨, 𝒁 This term 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 of the nucleus 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛/odd in number. If both or even
then nucleus is more stable and vice versa.
Weizsacker Semiempirical Mass Formula

Now substitute all the terms

in the equation of binding
energy 𝐸𝐵 then Weizsacker
mass formula becomes
Explanation of Nuclear Fission on the basis Liquid Drop Model
In 1939 Bohr and Wheeler gave the theoretical treatment of nuclear fission on the basis
of liquid drop model.
 The nucleus of an atom is considered to be a charged liquid drop
 In an equilibrium state the nucleus remains spherically symmetric.
 The nucleons on the surface develop surface tension effects similar to the liquid drop.
 When heavy nucleus (U235)is excited through the capture of a thermal neutron, the shape of the
nucleus distorts from spherical shape to ellipsoidal shape.
 If the excitation energy is high then nucleus may attain dumb-bell shape.
 If the energy given is above threshold energy then nucleus separates into two nearly equal masses
causing nuclear fission.
 If the given energy to the nucleus is low then fission does not occur. In such cases excited nucleus emits
either a 𝛾 ray or a neutron and returns to a stable state.

 Merits of Liquid Drop Model

1. Succeeded in explaining nuclear reactions and nuclear fission
2. Succeeded in the accurate calculation of atomic masses and binding energies.
2. The Shell Model
According to this model two protons with opposite spin and two neutrons with opposite
spin are accommodated in a shell. Such a system is more tightly bound than other shells.
Magic Numbers
 In 1917 Harkins found that nuclei with even number of protons or neutrons are more
stable than those which have odd numbers.
 In 1934 Elasser observed that the nuclei with protons or neutron numbers 2, 8, 20,
50, 82 and 126 are extraordinarily stable than the other nuclei. These numbers are
called magic nuclei.
 If both proton numbers and neutron numbers are magic numbers then the nucleus is
called doubly magic.
 The proton or neutron numbers 14, 28, 40 show less stability than that of the magic
nuclei and are called semi magic nuclei.
2. The Shell Model (Independent Particle Model)
According to this model protons and neutrons are grouped in shells.
Assumptions
1. Nucleons move in a nucleus independently in an average potential.
2. Pair of nucleus have zero spin and zero magnetic moment.
3. The paired nucleons from the inert core do not contribute to the properties of the
nucleus.
4. The nucleon are characterized by the unpaired nucleon.
5. The average potential field determined by all the nucleons except one nucleon which
determines the quantum states of the individual nucleons
Nuclear Instruments
1. Geiger Muller (GM) Counter 2. Scintillation Counter
3. Linear Accelerator 4. Cyclotron

1. Geiger Muller (GM) Counter

Construction
 C is a metal chamber containing air/gas at a
pressure of about 10 cm of Hg.
 W is fine tungsten wire stretched along the axis
of the tube.
 EE is the end points of the tungsten wire made
from ebonite.
 R is the resistance which connects tungsten wire
to a positive terminal of a battery.
Working of GM Counter
 When an ionizing particle (Ex. Α particles) enters the counter, ionization takes
place and few ions are produced.

 Once the applied potential difference is strong an avalanche of electrons moves

towards the central wire.

 The critical potential is lowered causing a sudden discharge through R.

 Vacuum tube circuits amplifies the potential difference developed across R and a
single particle can be registered.

 The sudden pulse of discharge sweeps away the ions from the chamber and the
counter is ready to register the arrival of the next particle.
The voltage characteristics of GM counter
 The zero count rate at the threshold voltage means
GM tube does not work.
 As the applied voltage increases count rate reaches
plateau where counting rate is independent of applied
potential difference.
 Continuous discharge takes place in the GM tube
when the applied voltage is further increased. This
region must be avoided for the experiment.
 The efficiency of the counter is defined as the ratio of
the observed counts/second to the number of
ionizing particles entering the counter per second.
 Counting efficiency is defined as the ability of its counting.
 Counting Efficiency = ε = 1- 𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒑 where s =Specific ionization at 1 atm pressure, l =Path
length of the ionization particle in the counter, p = Pressure in atmospheres.
Scintillation Counter
Principle When a charged particles falls on a fluorescent material flashes of light are
produced and these flashes are converted into electrical signal.
Construction
Construction And Working
 The various parts of the scintillation counter are as shown in the diagram. Phosphors such as inorganic
salts, alkali halides (like sodium iodide activated with thallium), crystalline organic materials, solutions
of organic compounds, etc. are used.

 Photomultiplier tube (PMT) device is one which converts scintillations (flashes of light) into a amplified
electrical pulses.

 Light from the phosphors strikes cathode which is made of Antimony and Cesium and ejects electrons
through photoelectric effect. The PMT consists of several electrodes called dynodes which multiply the
incident photoelectrons due to the increased applied potential to them.

 When a, b and g particles falls on phosphor, the atoms inside it are excited. These excited atoms gives
out photons in blue and ultra violet region during their deexcitation.

 These emitted photons strikes the photocathode inside the photomultiplier tube causing the ejection of
photoelectrons. The number of these photoelectrons gets multiplied each time when they fall on a
dynode. Finally millions of electrons are emitted due to the dynodes in the photomultiplier tube.
However, scintillation counter measures all the charged particles but a particles causes more ionization
than b and g because of their inherent properties. However a particles can be stopped by using 0.01 cm
Al sheet to obtain contributions only from b particles and g rays.
Linear Accelerator
 It consists of a series of co-axial hallow metal cylinders T1, T2, T3, T4, etc,.
 They are arranged linearly in a glass vacuum chamber. The alternate cylinders are connected
together like the odd numbered to one terminal and even numbered cylinders to one terminal of RF
generator.
 Thus in one half cycle if tubes T1 and T3 are negative T2 and T4 will be positive. The ions are
accelerated only in the gap between the tubes where they are acted upon by the electric field present
in the gas.
 The ions travel with constant velocity in the field free space inside the drift tubes. Positive ions enter
along the axis of the accelerator from an ion source through an aperture A.

Figure: Linear
Accelerator
 𝟏 𝟐𝑽𝒆
Then velocity v1 of the ion on reaching the drift tube is given by 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝟏 = 𝑽𝒆 or 𝒗𝟏 =
𝟐 𝒎

Energy of the ion

If n be the number of gaps through the ion travels in the accelerator and vn be the nal velocity acquired
by the ion then
𝟐𝑽𝒆
Velocity through the nth tube= 𝒏
𝒎
𝟏
Kinetic energy acquired by the ion = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝟏 = n 𝑽𝒆
𝟐

The final energy of the ions depends upon (i) the total number of gaps, (ii) the energy gained in each
gap

The Limitations of Accelerators

1. Large accelerator length and difficulty in maintaining its vacuum chamber
2. The ion current available is in the form of short interval pulses.
Cyclotron
The cyclotron consists of two hollow semicircular
metal boxes D1 and D2.
A source of ions is located near the mid point of the
gap between D1 and D2.
D1 and D2 are insulated from each other and are
enclosed in another vacuum chamber.
D1 and D2 are connected to a powerful radio
frequency oscillator.
The whole apparatus is placed between the pole
pieces of a strong electromagnet.

Theory
Under the action of applied magnetic field the ions travel from the center of the chamber in a circular
path of radius r is given by
𝒎𝒗𝟐
Bev= …..(1) where B is flux density of the magnetic field.
𝒓
 𝒎𝒗 𝒗 𝑩𝒆
𝒓= ........ (2) or = = 𝒘 … . . (3) where w is angular velocity of the ion in its circular path.
𝑩𝒆 𝒓 𝒎

Now the time taken by the ion to travel the semicircular path is

𝝅 𝝅 𝝅𝒎
T= = 𝑩𝒆 = ……(4)
𝒘 m 𝑩𝒆

From equation (4) it is clear that the time taken by the ion to describe semicircle is independent of both
the radius of the path (r) and velocity (v) of the ion. This ion thus spirals round in circles of increasing
radius and acquires high energy. The ion will finally come out of the D1 and D2 in the direction indicated
through the window.

Energy of the ion

The equation for the motion of the ion in a magnetic field is

𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑩𝒆𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙
Where 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 is the radius of the outermost orbit and v𝒎𝒂𝒙 is the maximum velocity of the ion in the final
orbit.
𝒆
𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑩 𝒓 ......... (5)
𝒎 𝒎𝒂𝒙

The energy of the ion

𝟏 𝑩 𝒆𝟐
E= 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒓𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 …………… (6)
𝟐 2 𝒎

From the equation (4) the period (T) of the ion to describe the semicircular path is

𝝅𝒎 𝑇 𝟐𝝅𝒎
= T=
𝑩𝒆 2 𝑩𝒆
1 𝑩𝒆
The frequency of the ion is f=𝑇 = …….. (7)
𝟐𝝅𝒎

Therefore energy of the ion is given by

E=2π2 𝒓𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑓 2 𝑚……… (8)

The particles ejected out of the cyclotron not continuously but as pulsed streams.
Limitations of the cyclotron
The energy to which particles can be accelerated in a cyclotron are limited by the relativistic
increase of mass with velocity.
Therefore frequency of the ion is
𝑩𝒆 𝑩𝒆
f= = 𝒎𝟎
𝟐𝝅𝒎 𝟐𝝅
𝟐
𝟏−𝒗
𝒄𝟐

𝟐
𝑩𝒆 𝟏−𝒗
𝑩𝒆 𝒄𝟐
f= =
𝟐𝝅𝒎 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝟎

The frequency of the rotation of the ion decreases with increase in velocity. Then ions lag behind the
applied potential and finally they are not accelerated further. Therefore the energy of the ions produced
by the cyclotron is limited. This limitation can be overcome in the following two ways.
(1) Field Variation Here the frequency of the ion can be kept constant by increasing the magnetic field B.
Suh machines are known as Synchrotron
(2) Frequency modulation The magnetic field is kept constant and frequency of the applied electric
fieldis varied Such a devie is called a synchrocyclotron.
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