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Chapter 2. Three-Phase Systems

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.32652.87689

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 Chapter

2
Three-Phase Systems
F. Gonzalez-Longatt

2.1 Objective
This chapter presents a general summary of the main aspects of the three-phase system in AC circuit’s analysis in
steady-state.
2.2 Introduction to three-phase systems
Household electrical systems in the UK are nominally based on a European wide standard of 230 V RMS, 50 Hz.
Domestic supplies are single-phase systems, i.e. they have two wires, a live and a neutral, with the live wire being
nominally at a potential of 230 V above the neutral.
Conventional domestic supplies are not generated as single-phase but derived from one phase of a three-phase main
supply system. A three-phase system comprises three voltages of the same waveform, frequency and peak value but
with a relative phase shift between them of 120 degrees.
2.3 Three-phase connections
Three isolated voltage sources are shown in Fig. 2.1 with their voltage waveforms.
va ( t ) vb ( t ) vc ( t )
+Vm
Voltage

−Vm
0.5  1.5 2
(a) Waveforms: time-domain representation.
a1 b c1
1

+ + + + + +
va va1a 2 = va vb vb1b2 = vb vc vc1c 2 = vc
− - − - − -
a2 b2 c2
Fig. 2.1. Three independent voltage sources that are 120 degrees out of phase with each other.

The time domain representation of the voltages in Fig. 2.1 are:

va (t ) = Vm cos (t )
vb (t ) = Vm cos (t − 120 ) (time domain representation) (2.1)
vc (t ) = Vm cos (t − 240 )
The three voltages have the same frequency (f = /2), the same waveform (here assumed to be sinusoidal) and the
same peak value (Vm). They are, however, 120 degrees out of phase with each other, i.e. they are evenly distributed in
time. Each voltage source in Fig 2.1 is a phase element, so the figure illustrates a balanced three-phase system of
voltages.
Note: In this document, v(t) and i(t) have been simplified to v andi respectively to represent sinusoidal steady-state
waveforms, for example, we write, v(t) = Vmcos(t). Vm is the peak voltage,  = 2f is the angular speed (f is
frequency in Hz), and t is time. It can also use phasors to explain three-phase systems but more on that later.
Since the three voltage sources are electrically isolated from one another, they can safely be connected together at one
end, as in Fig. 2.2 where a2, b2 and c2 are joined.
Chapter 2

va ( t ) vab ( t ) = va ( t ) − vb ( t )
a
v ab
b1 b
a1 +
+ vb
b2
a2
−vb ( t )
n
n Neutral
c2

+ c1
c

Fig. 2.2 Three-phase single point interconnection. Time domain representation of va and vb are depicted to show the calculation
of vab.

In Fig 2.2, the notation vab should be read as “the voltage at point a with respect to point b”. vab can be found easily
by applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to the loop containing va ,vb , andvab to give:
vab − va + vb = 0 (2.2)
vab = va − vb (2.3)
The result of this subtraction is given graphically in Fig 2.2. The voltage source connections are shown more
conventionally in Fig. 2.4(a), is called a star (or wye) connection with the point at which the phase elements are
joined called the neutral or star-point.
The star connection allows the three-phase voltages to be transmitted by a system of four wires rather than the six
wires required by separate phase elements. In practice, the neutral line can often be left out to form a three-wire
system. Note, the voltage generators have been replaced by induction coils.
In Fig. 2.3 the three voltage sources are shown connected in series, a2 to b1 and b2 to c1.

va ( t )
a1 + v (t )
a

a2
b2 +
vb ( t ) vb ( t )
+ =0
b1

c1
+
+ vc ( t )
vc ( t )
c2

Fig. 2.3. Three-phase series interconnection to demonstrate va+vb+vc = 0.

The voltage at a1 with respect to c2, that is the total voltage across all three phase elements (vac), can be calculated by
simply adding all three voltages together.
va1c2 = vab + vbc + vca (2.4)
va1c2 = Vm cos t + Vm cos (t − 120 ) + Vm cos (t − 240 )
Using the following trigonometry identity:
cos ( A − B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
va1c2 = Vm cos t + Vm cos t cos120 + Vm sin (t ) sin (120 ) + Vm cos (t ) cos ( 240 ) + Vm sin (t ) sin ( 240 )
re-arranging the previous expression:
va1c2 = Vm cos t (1 + cos120 + cos240 ) + Vm sin ωt ( sin120 + sin 240 ) = 0
1+ ( −0.5 ) + ( −0.5 ) =0 0.866 + ( −0.866 ) =0

vab + vbc + vca =0 (property) (2.5)

Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt Chapter_2_three-phase_systems_v1.docx Page 2 of 7

 Three-Phase Systems

Since there is no voltage difference between a1 and c2, then they can be connected together to form the triangular
arrangement of Fig. 2.4(b), which is called a delta (or mesh) connection. The delta connection allows the three-phase
voltages to be transmitted by a system of three wires rather than the six wires required by separate phases.
In the general star and delta connection diagrams of Fig. 2.4, the following two groups of variables have been labelled.
It is important to make the distinction between the two groups
• The current through and the voltage across each of the phase elements
• The currents in the lines and the voltages between the lines that connect to the rest of the unknown system at
points A, B and C
ia (t )
A
vAB ia (t )
ib (t ) A
vc
B

+
+ vb
va vAB
vCA va
vb ib (t )

-
vBC n - Neutral B vCA

vc vBC
ic (t )
ic (t )
− C
+

(a) C (b)

Fig. 2.4. Three-phase connections: (a) Star (Y)and (b) Delta ().

The arrows (grey colour) indicate their direction in the positive half cycle.
• The voltages designated va, vb and vc are phase element voltages, in Fig. 2.4(a) they are also line-to-
neutral voltages.
• The voltages designated vAB, vBC and vCA are line-to-line voltages. For simplicity, the two voltage groups will
be referred to here as phase and line voltages.

Note: In the descriptions here the phase elements have been designated as a, b and c or A, B and C. There
are other designations in common use such as Red – Yellow – Blue, U – V – W or K – L - M. It is not
unusual for such designations to be used together, for example, phases designated A, B, C are often
shown in diagrams coloured red, yellow and blue.
2.4 Phasors in three-phase systems
All time domain steady-state waveforms can be represented by phasors and in the case of three-phase systems,
phasors can simplify some of the calculations. The starting point is to by converting the balanced time-domain phase
voltages va, vb and vc into phasor-domain voltages.
As stated before:
va (t ) = Vm cos (t )
vb (t ) = Vm cos (t − 120 ) (time-domain representation) (1.1)
vc (t ) = Vm cos (t − 240 )

If, Vp is defined as the RMS magnitude, then:

Vm
Vp = (RMS value)
2
For a balanced three-phase system, the three-phase phase voltages can be written as:
Van = V p 0
Vbn = V p  − 120 (phasor domain representation) (2.6)
Vcn = V p  − 240

Note: When using phasors in three-phase systems, it is convenient to use the double-subscript notation, as in
Van ,Vbn andVcn . In the case of Van , the double-subscript indicates the voltage is at point “a” with respect to “n“
(neutral). Similarly, Vbn is the voltage at “b” with respect to “n”, and so on. These phase voltages arranged in a
star configuration are shown in Fig. 2.5(a).

Page 3 of 7 Chapter_2_three-phase_systems_v1.docx Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt

Chapter 2

Vcn

120
Neutral (n) Neutral (n) Van
Van
Vcn
120
Vbn
Vbn
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.5, Phasor diagram showing (a) the voltage phasors of a three-phase system, (b) the vector addition of the voltage phasors.

In Fig. 2.5(b), it can be seen that if the voltage phasors are added: Van , Vbn and Vcn and follow the resulting vector
path starting at neutral, as a consequence the vector finish at the same point, we started.
Therefore, the vector sum of the voltages of a balanced three-phase system is zero.
Van + Vbn + Vcn = 0 (property) (2.7)
where: Van is the line voltage of line a relative to neutral
Vbn is the line voltage of line b relative to neutral
Vcn is the line voltage of line c relative to neutral

The equation shown above is one of the very important properties of a balanced three-phase system.
It can be demonstrated the same result in the previous section using the time-domain calculation.
In the star connection of Fig. 2.4(a) it is clear that the currents in the three lines iA, iB and iC (the line currents) are
equal to the associated phase currents ia, ib and ic respectively.
However, the line and phase voltages are clearly not equal, using Kirchhoff voltage law (KVL):
vAB = va − vb
vBC = vb − vc (time-domain representation) (2.8)
vCA = vc − va
In order to solve the relationship between phase and line voltages, it is easier to convert the phase and line voltages
to phasors and plot them on a phasor diagram. Rewritten (1.10) for the line voltages using phasors:
VAB = Van − Vbn
VBC = Vbn − Vcn (relationship between phase and line voltages) (2.9)
VCA = Vcn − Van
where: V AB is the line voltage of line A relative to line B
V BC is the line voltage of line B relative to line C
V CA is the line voltage of line C relative to line A
The relationship between line and phase voltages is illustrated in Fig. 2.6(a), it shows a graphic method to calculate
VAB . The vector VAB can be found by the vector subtraction of Vbn from Van , −see (1.10).
Fig 2.6(b) shows how the magnitude of VAB , can be found using the Pythagorean theorem.

VAB = (Van + Vbn sin30)2 + (Vb cos30)2

For a balanced system where the magnitudes of the phase voltages are equal, Van = Vbn = Vcn

2 2
 1  3
VAB = Van (1 + sin30) 2
+ ( cos 30 ) = Van
2
1 + 2  +  2 
   
VAB = Van 3 (magnitude) (2.10)
It follows that the same applies to the other two-line voltage magnitudes
VBC = Vbn 3
(magnitude) (2.11)
VCA = Vcn 3
The previous three equations can be generalised by saying for a star-formation,
Vline = 3  Vphase (magnitude) (2.12)
and
Iline = I phase (magnitude) (2.13)

Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt Chapter_2_three-phase_systems_v1.docx Page 4 of 7

 Three-Phase Systems

Note: You can arrive at the same result by doing the calculation using phasors. Start with VAB = Van − Vbn
and substitute Van = Vp and Vbn = Vp

Vcn -Vbn Van

VCA VAB = Van − Vbn VAB = Van − Vbn
-Vbn
Vbn cos ( 30 )
30
120 30 30
Van n
Van
Vbn 120 Vbn sin ( 30 )
Vbn
VBC

Fig. 2.6. Illustration of the relationship between line and phase voltages: Phasor summation of phase voltages

In the delta connection of Fig. 2.4(b) it is clear that the three line voltages VAB , VBC and VCA are equal to the
associated phase voltages Va , Vb and Vc respectively. However, the line and phase currents are clearly not equal,
with:
IA = Ia − Ic
IB = Ib − Ia (2.14)
IC = Ic − Ib
Following the same development used for the voltages shows that, in a balanced three-phase delta-connected system
Iline = 3  I phase (2.15)
and
Vline = V phase (2.16)
2.5 Four-wire, Three-wire and mixed systems
In Fig. 2.7 three sources of sinusoidal voltage that are 120° out of phase are connected in a star to form a three-phase
supply.
iA

A iB
B
vb + Ra irb
ia + + ira vrb +
ib iN Rb vra
va
n N
vc iC Rc vrc
+ C +
ic
irc
Fig. 2.7. A simple 3-phase, 3- or 4-wire system. (Wye – Wye Circuit).

The supply is connected to three star-connected resistors to form a simple three-phase system. With the neutral points
of the supply and load connected together (with the dotted line) the arrangement is a 4-wire system. If the phase
voltages va ,vb andvc are balanced and the load resistances Ra, Rb and Rc have the same resistor value then the 3
phase currents ia ,ib andic will be balanced. Also, the line currents iA ,iB andiC and the resistor currents ira ,irb andirc
will be balanced and equal to their respective phase current. So, we have ia = iA = ira and so on.

Because the neutrals are connected, each of the phase voltages can be considered as supplying an individual resistor
(you can confirm this by applying the superposition theorem), and if the supply voltages have peak value Vm then:
va (t ) = Vm cos (t )
vb (t ) = Vm cos (t − 120 ) (time-domain representation) (2.17)
vc (t ) = Vm cos (t − 240 )
and

Page 5 of 7 Chapter_2_three-phase_systems_v1.docx Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt

Chapter 2

va V
ira = = m cos t
Ra Ra
vb V
irb = = m cos (t − 120 ) (time-domain representation) (2.18)
Rb Rb
vc V
irc = = m cos (t − 240 )
Rv Rc
The current in the wire connecting the neutral points, the neutral line (shown as a dotted line), can be found by
applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):
iN = ira + irb + irc (2.19)
or by substituting each current:
V V V
iN = m cos t + m cos (t − 120 ) + m cos (t − 240 ) = 0
Ra Rb Rc (2.20)
iN = 0
The current in the neutral line iN will be zero since the phase currents sum to zero in the manner demonstrated for
voltages in Section 2.3.
Clearly, under these conditions, the neutral wire is not needed and a 3-wire system is sufficient. However, if the
resistors have different values then the phase currents will be unbalanced and neutral current will flow (RaRbRc →
in 0, unbalanced system).
Although proof of the zero neutral current is done in sinusoidal terms, calculations of current and voltage in 3-phase
systems are virtually always made in RMS terms, so that in Fig. 2.7.
V
I ra = an
Ra
Vbn
I rb = (2.21)
Rb
Vcn
I rc =
Rc

In Fig. 2.8 three sources of sinusoidal voltage that are 120° out of phase are connected in the delta to form a three-
phase supply. The supply is connected to three delta-connected resistors to form a simple three-phase system. With
no neutral points in the supply or the load, the arrangement must be a 3-wire system.
If the phase voltages va ,vb andvc are balanced and the load resistances Ra, Rb and Rc have the same value, then the
three-phase currents ia ,ib andic will be balanced. Also, the line currents iA ,iB andiC and the resistor currents
ira ,irb andirc will be balanced and equal to their respective phase current. So, we have ia = ira and so on.

iA

ic vc iC irc vrc
A
+
+

C
ira
Rc irb
+ ia Rb +
va vra vrb
vb + i Ra +
b
iB
B
Fig. 2.8. A simple three-phase, 3-wire system. Delta – Delta Circuit.

Because both supply and load are delta connected each of the phase voltages can be considered as supplying an
individual resistor and the currents calculated as in the star-star arrangement.
Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8 are the simplest forms of the three-phase system but real systems are more complex with 4-wire
and 3-wire systems mixed routinely. Such an arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 2.9 where a star-connected supply is
connected to star- and delta- connected loads. Calculations in such systems can be complicated although they are
tractable under balanced conditions.

Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt Chapter_2_three-phase_systems_v1.docx Page 6 of 7

 Three-Phase Systems

iA

iB
A B
vb + Ra irb
ia + + ira vrb +
ib Rb vra
va
n N
iN Rc vrc
vc
+ C iC
ic +
irc

irf vrf

+
Rf ire
Re +
vrf
Rd vef
+
ird

Fig. 2.9. A simple three-phase mixed system.

Page 7 of 7 Chapter_2_three-phase_systems_v1.docx Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt

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