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I2.5.1. RESISTOR
Conductor is used to carry current from one point to another. For the conductor, at any
instant time t, the current i(t) passing through it and the voltage v(t) across it satisfies
the relation defined by the curve in the v-i plane as shown in Fig. 2.12(a).
i (t)
Slope = G
i (t) R
1
v (t) R=
G
+ v(t) -
(a) (b)
= G v(t) (2.4)
1
i(t) = v(t)
R
The statement corresponding to the above equation is called as OHM’S LAW. Thus
Ohm’s law can be stated as :
The current through the resistor and the voltage across it are related as
v = Ri (2.6)
i R i R
A B A B
+ v - - v +
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.13 Resistor with current and voltage markings.
Now consider a resistor with polarity markings as shown in Fig. 2.13 (b). A positive
current will result in voltage drop from A to B. Then v A > v B and hence v which is equal
to vB – vA must be negative for any positive current. Thus the terminal relation becomes
v =-Ri (2.7)
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length, inversely proportional
to its area of cross section. It also depends on the material of the conductor. Thus
R=ρ (2.8)
A
where ρ is called the specific resistance of the material by which the conductor is made
of. The unit of the resistance is Ohm and is represented as Ω. The unit of the specific
resistance ρ is Ohm-m. Resistance of a conductor depends on the temperature also. In
dc circuits, the power consumed by the resistor is given by
P=VI (2.9)
where V is the voltage across the resistor and I is the current through the resistor.
When the voltage is in volt and the current is in ampere, power will be in watt. Alternate
expressions for power consumed by the resistors are given below.
P = R I x I = I2 R (2.10)
V V2
P=Vx = (2.11)
R R
Two special conditions of resistors are of particular interest. They are OPEN CIRCUIT
and SHORT CIRCUIT.
In open circuit condition, current i(t) through the resistor will be zero irrespective of
whatever be the voltage v(t) across it. To satisfy this, as seen from equation i(t) = G v(t),
the value of G must be zero and hence the value of R must be infinity. Thus, in open
circuit condition
Note that in the open citcuit condition, there will be open circuit voltage across the
resistor.
In short circuit condition, voltage v(t) across the resistor will be zero irrespective of the
current i(t) flowing through it. To satisfy this, as seen from v(t) = R i(t), value of R
must be zero and hence the value of G must be infinity. Thus, in short circuit condition
Note that when the resistor is short circuited, entire current is diverted through the short-
circuted path.
2.5.2 CAPACITOR
q (t)
Slope = C C
i
v (t)
+ v -
(a) (b)
where C is a constant which is equal to the slope of the characteristic. This constant is
called as the CAPACITANCE. The unit of capacitance is Farad. It is to be noted that
capacitance is charge per unit voltage.
The equation relating the terminal voltage and the element current can now be
obtained. Knowing that the rate of change of charge (with respect to time) is the current,
differentiating both sides of Eq. (2.14), we get
dq(t) dv(t)
i(t) C
dt dt
dv(t)
Therefore i(t) C (2.15)
dt
dv(t)
Therefore i(t) C (2.15)
dt
dv(t) 1
From the above equation i(t)
dt C
A wire of certain length, when twisted into a coil becomes a basic inductor. A two
terminal element will be called an INDUCTOR, if at any instant of time, the flux linkage
in it Ψ(t) and the current passing though it i(t) satisfy a relation defined by the curve in
i - Ψ plane as shown in Fig. 2.15(a). In the circuit diagram, an inductor is shown as in
Fig. 2.15(b). INDUCTANCE is the property of the inductor.
Ψ (t)
Slope = L L
i
i (t)
+ v -
(a) (b)
where L is a constant which is equal to the slope of the characteristic. This constant is
called the INDUCTANCE. The unit of inductance is Henry. It is to be noted that
inductance is flux linkage per unit current.
The equation relating the terminal voltage and the element current can now be
obtained. Knowing that the rate of change of flux linkage is the voltage, differentiating
both sides of Eq. (2.18) we get
dψ(t) di(t)
v(t) L
dt dt
di(t)
Therefore v(t) L (2.19)
dt
di(t) 1
From the above equation v(t)
dt L
t
1
i(t) i(0) v(t) dt (2.20)
L 0
t
i(t) i(0) Γ v(t) dt (2.21)
0
A inductor is completely specified as a circuit element only if the inductance L and the
initial current i(0) are given.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
So far steady state analysis of electric circuits was discussed. Electric circuits will be
subjected to sudden changes which may be in the form of opening and closing of
switches or sudden changes in sources etc. Whenever such a change occurs, the
circuit which was in a particular steady state condition will go to another steady state
condition. Transient analysis is the analysis of the circuits during the time it changes
from one steady state condition to another steady state condition.
Transient analysis will reveal how the currents and voltages are changing during the
transient period. To get such time responses, the mathematical models should
necessarily be a set of differential equations. Setting up the mathematical models for
transient analysis and obtaining the solutions are dealt with in this chapter.
A quick review on various test signals is presented first. Transient response of simple
circuits using classical method of solving differential equations is then discussed.
Laplace Transform is a very useful tool for solving differential equations. After
introducing the Laplace Transform, its application in getting the transient analysis is
also discussed.
7.3 CERTAIN COMMON ASPECTS OF RC AND RL CIRCUITS
While doing transient analysis on simple RC and RL circuits, we need to make use of
the following two facts.
2. With dc excitation, at steady state, capacitor will act as an open circuit and
inductor will act as a short circuit.
Voltage across an inductor is vL = L (di / dt). If the current through the inductor has
discontinuity, then at the time when the discontinuity occurs, di / dt becomes infinity
resulting the voltage vL to become infinity. However, in physical system, we exclude the
possibility of infinite voltage. Then, we state that in an inductor, the current cannot have
discontinuity. Suppose, if the circuit condition is changed at time t = 0, the inductor
current must be continuous at time t = 0 and hence iL(0+) = iL(0-) (7.14)
where time 0+ refers the time just after t = 0 and time 0- refers the time just before t = 0.
Similarly, the current through a capacitor is given by i C = C (dv / dt). If the voltage
across the capacitor has discontinuity, this will result in infinite current through the
capacitance. In physical system, we exclude the possibility of infinite current. Then, we
state that the voltage across the capacitor cannot have discontinuity. Suppose, if the
circuit condition is changed at time t = 0, then
With dc excitation, at steady state condition, all the element currents and voltages are
of dc in nature. Therefore, both di / dt and dv / dt will be zero. Since i C = C (dv / dt) and
vL = L (di / dt), with dc excitation, at steady state condition, the current through the
capacitor as well as the voltage across the inductor will be zero. In other words, with dc
excitation, at steady state condition, the capacitor will act as an open circuit and the
inductor will act as a short circuit.
7.4 TRANSIENT IN RC CIRCUIT
While studying the transient analysis of RC and RL circuits, we shall encounter with two
types of circuits namely, source free circuit and driven circuit.
A circuit that does not contain any source is called a source free circuit. Consider the
circuit shown in Fig. 7.7 (a). Let us assume that the circuit was in steady state condition
with the switch is in position S1 for a long time. Now, the capacitor is charged to
voltage E and will act as open circuit.
S1 R R 1
vC
S2
E
C iC
C
0
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.7 Source free RC circuit.
Suddenly, at time t = 0, the switch is moved to position S 2. The voltage across the
capacitor and the current through the capacitor are designated as vC and iC
respectively. The voltage across the capacitor will be continuous. Hence
We have to solve this first order differential equation (DE) with the initial condition
vC(0+)= E (7.19)
We notice that DE in Eq. (7.18) is a homogeneous equation and hence will have only
complementary solution. Let us try vC(t) = K est (7.20)
1. Time constant τ = RC
0 t
3. When the capacitor is charged from zero initial voltage to final voltage of E
vC(t)
1
t
vC(t) = E ( 1 - e RC
) E
t
4. When the capacitor voltage changes from vC(0) to v C ( )
vC(t)
1
t
RC vC(∞)
vC(t) = vC( ) + [vC(0) - vC( )] e
dv C (t) t
5. Capacitor current iC(t) = C
dt vC(0)
7.5 TRANSIENT IN RL CIRCUIT
Now we shall now consider RL circuit for the transient analysis. As stated earlier,
Now also we shall end up with first order DE whose solution will be exponential in
nature.
A circuit that does not contain any source is called a source free circuit. Consider the
circuit shown in Fig. 7.35 (a). Let us assume that the circuit was in steady state
condition with the switch is in position S1 for a long time. Now the inductor acts as short
E
circuit and it carries a current of .
R
S1 R R 1
vL
S2
E L
L
iL iL
0
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.35 Source free RL circuit.
Suddenly, at time t = 0, the switch is moved to position S 2. The current through the
inductor and the voltage across the inductor are designated as iL and vL respectively.
The current through the inductor will be continuous. Hence
R 1
vL
L
iL
E
iL(0+) = iL(0-) = 0 (7.49)
R
The circuit for time t > 0 is shown in Fig.above. We are interested in finding the current
through the inductor as a function of time. Later, if required, voltage across the inductor
di
can be calculated from vL = L . The mesh equation for the circuit is
dt
diL diL R
R iL L 0 (7.50) i.e. iL 0 (7.51)
dt dt L
E
iL(0+) = (7.52)
R
The structure of the equation 7.51 is the same as Eq. 7.18. In this case, the time
L E
constant, τ is . The inductor current exponentially decays from the initial value of
R R
to the final value of zero. Thus the solution of equation 7.51 yields
R
E Lt
iL(t) = e (7.53)
R
0 -E
t
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.36 Plot of iL(t) and vL(t).
R R
di E R t t
The voltage across the inductor is: vL(t) = L =L (- )e L =-E e L (7.54)
dt R L
The plot of the voltage across the inductor is shown in Fig. 7.36 (b).
Taking the initial inductor current as iL(0) and the final inductor current as iL( ), inductor
R2
t
current can be obtained as iL(t) = iL( ) + [iL(0) - iL( )] e L
(7.63)
2. When the inductor current is decaying from the initial value of iL(0) to zero
R
iL(t)
t
iL(t) = iL(0) e L iL(0)
0 t
3. When the inductor current is exponentially increasing from zero to iL( )
iL(t)
R
t
iL(t) = iL( ) ( 1 - e L
) iL(∞)
t
4. When the inductor current changes from iL(0) to iL ( )
R
iL(t)
t
iL(t) = iL( ) + [iL(0) - iL( )] e L iL(∞)
diL (t) t
5. Inductor voltage vL(t) = L
dt iL(0)