UNIT III CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Controlled rectifiers are line commutated converters which convert fixed voltage fixed
frequency ac input to a variable dc output as indicated in the following figure.

+
AC Line DC Output
Input Commutated V0(dc)
Voltage Converter
-

The input supply given to the controlled rectifier is ac supply at a fixed voltage and
frequency. The output obtained is variable dc. This variable dc output is obtained by employing
phase controlled thyristors, and by varying the firing angle of these thyristors. We output so
obtained is a uni-directional and pulsating load current waveform, with a specific average value.

CLASSIFICATION OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

The phase controlled rectifiers can be classified based upon the input power supply as:

· Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers - Input is single phase AC supply

· Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers – Input is three phase AC supply

Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers can further be subdivided as :

· Half wave controlled rectifier

· Full wave controlled rectifiers
o Full wave centre tapped controlled rectifier
o Full wave bridge controlled rectifiers - they are of following two types:
§ Single phase full wave half controlled or semi-converter
§ Single phase full converter Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers are of
different types
In a similar manner three phase controlled rectifiers are classified as :
 · Three phase half wave controlled rectifiers.
· Three phase full wave controlled rectiriers.
o Semi converter (half controlled bridge converter).
o Full converter (fully controlled bridge converter).

3.1 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier : The circuit diagram of a single phase half
wave controlled rectifier is shown below:

The input ac supply is obtained from main supply through transformer to provide the
desired ac supply voltage to the converter depending on the output dc voltage required. vP is the
primary input ac supply voltage and vS represents the secondary side voltage which is fed to the
thyristor converter.

During the positive half cycle of input supply when the upper end of secondary is
positive with respect to the lower end, the thyristor anode is forward biased as its anode is
positive with respect to the cathode. The thyristor is triggered or fired at an angle α, by applying
a suitable gate trigger pulse to the gate terminal of the thyristor. Thyristor starts conducting at the
same instant and acts like a closed switch and the input supply voltage appears across the load.
For a purely resistive load, the output current iO that flows through T1 when it is on, is given by
the expression

vO
iO = , for a £ w t £ p
RL
During thyristor conduction time from a to p the load voltage and load current waveforms are
in phase as the load is taken resistive. The load current increases as the input supply voltage
p
increases and load current is maximum at w t = .
2

Note that when the thyristor conducts ( T1 is on) during w t = a to p , the thyristor current iT 1 , the
load current iO through RL and the source current iS flowing through the transformer secondary
winding are all one and the same.

Hence we can write

vO Vm sin w t
iS = iT 1 = iO = = ; for a £ w t £ p
R R

I m is the maximum (peak) value of the load current that flows through the transformer secondary
p
winding, through T1 and through the load resistor RL at the instant w t = , when the input
2
supply voltage reaches its maximum value.

When the input supply voltage decreases the load current decreases. When the supply voltage
falls to zero at w t = p , the thyristor and the load current also falls to zero at w t = p . Thus the
thyristor naturally turns off when the current flowing through it falls to zero at w t = p .

During the negative half cycle of input supply when the supply voltage reverses and becomes
negative during w t = p to 2p radians, the anode of thyristor is at a negative potential with
respect to its cathode and as a result the thyristor is reverse biased and hence it remains cut-off
(in the reverse blocking mode). The thyristor cannot conduct during its reverse biased state
between w t = p to 2p . An ideal thyristor under reverse biased condition behaves as an open
switch and hence the load current and load voltage are zero during w t = p to 2p . The maximum
or peak reverse voltage that appears across the thyristor anode and cathode terminals is Vm .

The firing angle a is measured from the beginning of each positive half cycle to the time instant
when the gate trigger pulse is applied. The thyristor conduction angle is from a to p .The
maximum conduction angle is p radians (1800) when the trigger angle a = 0 .
Fig: Quadrant Diagram

The waveforms shows the input ac supply voltage across the secondary winding of the
transformer which is represented as vS , the output voltage across the load, the output (load)
current, and the thyristor voltage waveform that appears across the anode and cathode terminals.
Fig: Waveforms of single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with resistive load

vs = Vm sin w t = transformer secondary voltage.

Vm = peak value of transformer secondary voltage.

 Vm
VS = = RMS value of transformer secondary volatge.
2

vO = vL = the output voltage or voltage across load ; iO = iL = output or load current.

When the thyristor is triggered at w t = a it behaves like a closed switch and hence the supply
voltage appears across load as load voltage .

So, vO = vL = Vm sin w t ; for w t = a to p , when the thyristor is conducting and

vO
iO = iL = = Load current during same period.
R

AVERAGE (DC) OUTPUT VOLTAGE

If Vm is the peak input supply voltage, the average output voltage Vdc can be found from

p
1
vO .d (w t )
2p aò
VO( dc ) = Vdc =

p
1
Vm sin w t.d (w t )
2p aò
VO( dc ) = Vdc =

p
1
Vm sin w t.d (w t )
2p aò
VO( dc ) =

p
Vm
sin w t.d (w t )
2p aò
VO( dc ) =
 V é p
ù
VO( dc ) = m ê - cos w t ú
2p ë aû

Vm
VO( dc ) = [ - cos p + cos a ] ; cos p = -1
2p

Vm
VO( dc ) = [1 + cos a ] ; Vm = 2VS
2p

The maximum average (dc) output voltage is obtained when a = 0 and the maximum dc output
V
voltage Vdc( max ) = Vdm = m .
p

The average dc output voltage can be varied by varying the trigger angle a from 0 to a
maximum of 1800 (p radians ) .

We can plot the control characteristic, which is a plot of dc output voltage versus the trigger
angle a by using the equation for VO( dc ) .
RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The rms output voltage is given by

é 1 2p
ù
VO( RMS ) = ê ò0 vO
2
.d ( w t ) ú
ë 2p û

Output voltage vO = Vm sin w t ; for w t = a to p

1
é 1 p ù2
VO( RMS ) = ê ò Vm2 sin 2 w t.d (w t ) ú
ë 2p a û

Solving this the equation obtained is as follows:

1
V é1 æ sin 2a ö ù 2
VO( RMS ) = m ê ç (p - a ) + ÷
2 ëp è 2 ø úû

1
V æ sin 2a ö 2
VO( RMS ) = m ç (p - a ) + ÷
2 p è 2 ø

SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD

A single phase half wave rectifier feeding an RL load is shown below. In actual practice most of
the loads are of RL type. For example a dc motor fed by an rectifier for speed control is an RL
type of load, where R is the motor winding resistance and L is the motor inductance.
The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle supply voltage. T1 is triggered at

w t = a , by applying a suitable gate pulse to T1 during the positive half cycle of input supply

voltage. The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage when T1 is ON. The

load current iO flows through the thyristor T1 and through the load as marked in the above figure.

This load current flowing through T1 can be considered as the positive direction current. Due to

the presence of inductance in the load, the load current iO flowing through T1 would not reduce

to zero at w t = p , when the input supply voltage becomes zero and after which it starts to
become negative. So due to the presence of inductance a phase difference appears between load
voltage and the load current.

The thyristor T1 will continue to conduct the load current until all the inductive energy stored in

the load inductor L is completely utilized and the load current through T1 falls to zero at w t = b ,

where b is defined as the Extinction angle, which is defined as the instant at which the load
current falls to zero. The extinction angle b is measured from ωt = 0 to the to the instant at
which load current falls to zero.

The thyristor T1 conducts from w t = a to b . The conduction angle of T1 is d = ( b - a ) , which

depends on the delay angle a and the load impedance angle f . The waveforms of supply
voltage, gate triggering pulse , thyristor current, load current and the load voltage waveforms
appear as shown in the figure below.
 i1 = iO = iS

From b to 2p , the thyristor remains off as it is reverse biased by supply voltage and behaves
as an open switch. The thyristor current and the load current are zero and the output voltage are
also zero during this interval between b to 2p . In next positive half cycle the thyristor is
triggered again at an instant of ( 2p + a ) , and the same operation repeats.

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The supply voltage can be written as

vS = Vm sin w t = instantaneous value of the input supply voltage.

Thyristor T1 is triggered by applying a triggering pulse at w t = a . The load current which flows
through the thyristor T1 during w t = a to b can be found from the equation

æ di ö
Lç O ÷ + RiO = Vm sin w t ;
è dt ø

The solution of the above differential equation gives the general expression for the output load
current which is of the form

-t
Vm
iO = sin (w t - f ) + A1e t ;
Z

Where Vm = 2VS = maximum or peak value of input supply voltage.

Z = R 2 + (w L ) = Load impedance.
2

æwL ö
f = tan -1 ç ÷ = Load impedance angle (power factor angle of load).
è R ø

L
t= = Load circuit time constant.
R

Therefore the general expression for the output load current is given by the equation
-R
Vm t
iO = sin (w t - f ) + A1e L ;
Z
The value of the constant A1 can be determined from the initial condition. i.e. initial value of
load current iO = 0 , at w t = a . Hence from the equation for iO equating iO to zero and
substituting w t = a , we get

-R
Vm t
iO = 0 = sin (a - f ) + A1e L
Z

-R
t -Vm
Therefore A1e L = sin (a - f )
Z

1 é -Vm ù
A1 = -Rê Z sin (a - f ) ú
ët û
e L

+R
t é -V ù
A1 = e L ê m sin (a - f ) ú
ë Z û

R (w t )
é -Vm ù
A1 = e ê Z sin (a - f ) ú
wL

ë û

By substituting w t = a , we get the value of constant A1 as

( ) Ra
é -V ù
A1 = e w L ê m sin (a - f ) ú
ë Z û
Substituting the value of constant A1 from the above equation into the expression for iO , we
obtain
-R ( ) Ra
Vm t é -V ù
iO = sin (w t - f ) + e L e w L ê m sin (a - f ) ú ;
Z ë Z û

- R (w t ) R(a )
V é -Vm ù
iO = m sin (w t - f ) + e wL
e wL
ê Z sin (a - f ) ú
Z ë û

-R
Vm (w t -a ) é -Vm ù
iO = sin (w t - f ) + e w L ê sin (a - f ) ú
Z ë Z û

Therefore we obtain the final expression for the inductive load current of a single phase half
wave controlled rectifier with RL load as

Vm é -R
(w t -a ) ù
iO = êsin (w t - f ) - sin (a - f ) e Where a £ w t £ b .
wL
ú ;
Z ë û

The above expression also gives the thyristor current iT 1 , during the conduction time interval of
thyristor T1 from w t = a to b .

The extinction angle b , which is the value of w t at which the load current iO falls to
zero and T1 is turned off can be estimated by using the condition that iO = 0 , at w t = b

By using the above expression , we write

Vm é -R
( b -a ) ù
iO = 0 = ê sin ( b - f ) - sin (a - f ) e wL
ú
Z ë û

Vm
As ¹ 0,
Z
 é -R
( b -a ) ù
ê sin ( b - f ) - sin (a - f ) e wL
ú=0
ë û

Therefore the following expression is obtained

-R
( b -a )
sin ( b - f ) = sin (a - f ) e w L

The extinction angle can be determined using this transcendental equation by iterative method of
solution (trial and error method). Knowing b , we can determine the thyristor conduction angle.

b is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value. Conduction angle
d increases as a is decreased for a specific value of b .

LOAD VOLTAGE:

2p
1
VO( dc ) = VL =
2p ò v .d (w t )
0
O

1 é ù
a b 2p
VO( dc ) = VL = ê ò vO .d (w t ) + ò vO .d (w t ) + ò vO .d (w t ) ú ;
2p ëê 0 a b ûú

vO = 0 for w t = 0 to a & for w t = b to 2p ;

1 é ù
b

\ VO( dc ) = VL = ê ò vO .d (w t ) ú ; vO = Vm sin w t for w t = a to b

2p ë a û
 1 é ù
b

VO( dc ) = VL = ê ò Vm sin w t.d (w t ) ú

2p ëa û

Vm é ù Vm
b
VO( dc ) = VL = ê - cos w t ú= ( cos a - cos b )
2p ë a û 2p

Vm
\ VO( dc ) = VL = ( cos a - cos b )
2p

Load Current :

VO( dc ) Vm
I O( dc ) = I L( Avg ) = = ( cos a - cos b )
RL 2p RL

SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD AND

FREE WHEELING DIODE

T
i0
+
V0
+ R
Vs
-
~ FWD

L
-

Fig. : Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Free Wheeling
Diode (FWD)

With an RL load the average output voltage reduces. This disadvantage can be overcome by
connecting a diode across the load this diode is called a Free Wheeling Diode (FWD) as the
function performed by this diode is the freewheeling action.
 Vs Vm
Supply voltage

0 p 2p 3p wt
a

iG
Gate pulses -V m

0 wt
a

iO Load current
a
wt=b
0 wt
a p b 2p
b 2p+a
VO Load voltage

0 p 2p 3p wt
a

At w t = p , the source voltage vS falls to zero and as supply voltage becomes negative, the free
wheeling diode is forward biased and the stored energy in the inductance causes flow of current
through load , and the freewheeling diode. As soon as the FWD is forward biased, at w t = p , the
SCR becomes reverse biased, the current through it reduces to zero and the SCR gets turnd off.
During the period w t = p to b , the load current flows through FWD (free wheeling load current)
and decreases exponentially towards zero at w t = b .

Also during this free wheeling time period the load is shorted by the conducting FWD and the
load voltage is almost zero, if the forward voltage drop across the conducting FWD is neglected.
Thus there is no negative region in the load voltage wave form. This improves the average output
voltage.

Vm
The average output voltage Vdc = [1 + cos a ] , which is the same as that of a purely resistive
2p
load. The output voltage across the load appears similar to the output voltage of a purely resistive
load.
If the value of the inductance is very large, the load current does not decrease to zero during the
free wheeling time interval and the load current waveform appears as shown in the figure.

i0
t1 t2 t3 t4

SCR FWD SCR FWD

0 wt
a p 2p 2p+a 3p

Following are the observations from above operation:

· The load current becomes continuous and the load current does not fall to zero for
large value of load inductance.
· The ripple in the load current waveform (the amount of variation in the output load
current) decreases.

SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH A GENERALIZED

R L E LOAD

The rectifier with the generalized RLE load is shown below:

iO
R
+
~ vS
L
vO
-
+
- E
When supply voltage is less than the load circuit dc voltage ‘E’ the thyristor remains reverse
biased and hence the thyristor cannot conduct for supply voltage less than the load circuit dc
voltage.

The value of w t at which the supply voltage increases and becomes equal to the load circuit dc
voltage can be calculated by using the equation Vm sin w t = E . If we assume the value of w t is
æ Eö
equal to g then we can write Vm sin g = E . Therefore g is calculated as g = sin -1 ç ÷ .
è Vm ø

For trigger angle a < g , the thyristor conducts only from w t = g to b .

For trigger angle a > g , the thyristor conducts from w t = a to b .

The waveforms of output voltage and output current are shown below:

vO Vm

Load voltage

p 2p wt
0 g a 2p+a

iO
a d
Im
Load current
0 wt
a b 2p+a 2p+b
b

It can be seen that

vS = Vm sin w t = Input supply voltage .

 vO = Vm sin w t = Output load voltage for w t = a to b

vO = E for w t = 0 to a & for w t = b to 2p

The thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of a , the equation for the circuit can be written as

æ di ö
Vm sin w t = iO ´ R + L ç O ÷ +E ; a £ w t £ b
è dt ø

Which gives the general expression for the output load current as :

-t
Vm E
iO = sin (w t - f ) - + Ae t
Z R

Where

Z = R 2 + (w L ) = Load Impedance
2

æwL ö
f = tan -1 ç ÷ = Load impedance angle
è R ø

L
t= = Load circuit time constant
R

The general expression for the output load current can be written as

-R
Vm E t
iO = sin (w t - f ) - + Ae L
Z R
To find the value of the constant ‘A’ applying the initial condition at w t = a , load current
iO = 0 . Equating the general expression for the load current to zero at w t = a , we get

-R a
Vm E ´
iO = 0 = sin (a - f ) - + Ae L w
Z R

From this equation the constant ‘A’ can be written as

R
éE V ù a
A = ê - m sin (a - f ) ú e w L
ëR Z û

Substituting this value of the constant ‘A’ in the expression for the load current, we get the
complete expression of load current as:

-R
Vm E é E Vm ù w L (wt -a )
iO = sin (w t - f ) - + ê - sin (a - f ) ú e
Z R ëR Z û

The Extinction angle b can be calculated from the final condition that the output current iO = 0
at w t = b . By using the above expression we get,

-R
Vm E éE V ù ( b -a )
iO = 0 = sin ( b - f ) - + ê - m sin (a - f ) ú e w L
Z R ëR Z û

LOAD VOLTAGE

2p
1
VO( dc ) =
2p ò v .d (w t )
0
O
 1 éa b 2p ù
VO( dc ) = ê ò vO .d (w t ) + ò vO .d (w t ) + ò vO .d (w t ) ú
2p êë 0 a b úû

vO = Vm sin w t = Output load voltage for w t = a to b

vO = E for w t = 0 to a & for w t = b to 2p

1 éa b 2p ù
VO( dc ) = ê ò E.d (w t ) + ò Vm sin w t + ò E.d (w t ) ú
2p êë 0 a b úû

1 é a b 2p
ù
VO( dc ) = ê E (w t ) + Vm ( - cos w t ) + E (w t ) ú
2p êë 0 a b úû

1
VO( dc ) = é E (a - 0 ) - Vm ( cos b - cos a ) + E ( 2p - b ) ùû
2p ë

Vm E
VO( dc ) = éë( cos a - cos b ) ùû + ( 2p - b + a )
2p 2p

Vm é 2p - ( b - a ) ù
VO( dc ) = ( cos a - cos b ) + ê úE
2p ë 2p û

RMS output voltage can be determined as:

 1 é 2 ù
2p
VO( RMS ) = ê ò vO .d (w t ) ú
2p ë 0 û

Single phase half wave controlled rectifiers are rarely used in practice as they provide low dc
output. They are only of theoretical interest.

Following are the disadvantages of the single phase controlled rectifier:

· Low dc output voltage.

· Low dc output power and lower efficiency.
· Higher ripple voltage & ripple current.
· Higher ripple factor.
· The input supply current waveform has a dc component which can result in dc saturation
of the transformer core.

The above mentioned disadvantages of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier can be over
come by using a full wave controlled rectifier circuit. Most of the practical converter circuits use
full wave controlled rectifiers.

3.2 SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Single phase full wave controlled rectifiers are of two types

· Single phase full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped transformer.
· Single phase full wave bridge controlled rectifier
§ Half controlled bridge converter or semi converter
§ Fully controlled bridge converter or full converter.

SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER USING CENTER TAPPED

TRANSFORMER
 A
iS T1
+
vO
vS
R L
AC O iO
Supply

FWD

B
T2
vS = Supply Voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding

vS = v AO = Vm sin w t

vBO = -v AO = -Vm sin w t = supply voltage across the lower half of the transformer
secondary winding.

This type of converter requires a center tapped transformer and two thyristors T1 and T2 . The
input supply is given with the help of a supply transformer, the primary side of which is
connected to the ac line voltage. The secondary side of the transformer has three lines and the
center point of the transformer is used as the reference point to measure the input and output
voltages.

The upper half of the secondary winding long with the thyristor T1 and load act as a half wave
controlled rectifier and the lower half of the secondary winding and thyristor T2 with the
common load act as the second half wave controlled rectifier so as to produce a full wave load
voltage waveform.

There are two types of operations are possible, they are:

 § Discontinuous load current operation, which occurs for a purely resistive load or
an RL load with low inductance value.
§ Continuous load current operation which occurs for an RL type of load with large
load inductance.

Discontinuous Load Current Operation (for low value of load inductance)

Load current is generally discontinuous when the load is purely resistive or when the RL load
has a low value of inductance.

During the positive half cycle of input supply, when the upper terminal of the secondary winding
is at a positive potential with respect to the center point ‘O’ the thyristor T1 is forward biased and
it is triggered at an instant of ωt = a . The load current flows through the thyristor T1 , load and
upper portion of the secondary winding, during the period when the thyristor T1 is conducting.

During this period the supply voltage appears across load as the load voltage. At w t = b , the
load current through the thyristor T1 reduces and drops to zero.

vO Vm

wt
0
a

iO
a
b
wt
0 pb
a 2p 3p
(p+a) (p+b)

Fig.: Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation without FWD

During the negative half cycle of the input the voltage at the upper terminal of secondary
winding becomes negative whereas the voltage at lower secondary terminal becomes positive
with respect to the center point ‘O’. The thyristor T2 is now forward biased and it is triggered at
a delay angle of (p + a ) . The current flows through thyristor T2 , load and the lower part of the
secondary winding, and the load is connected to the lower half of the secondary winding and
lower secondary voltage appears across the load.

For purely resistive loads when L = 0, the load current becomes zero at ωt = π The load current
and the load voltage waveforms are in phase and there is no phase shift between the load voltage
and the load current waveform in the case of a purely resistive load.

For low values of load inductance the load current would be discontinuous and the extinction
angle b > p but b < (p + a ) .

For large values of load inductance the load current would be continuous and does not fall to
zero. The thyristor T1 conducts from a to (p + a ) , until the next thyristor T2 is triggered. When
T2 is triggered at w t = (p + a ) , the thyristor T1 will be reverse biased and hence T1 turns off.

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The average or dc output voltage of a full-wave controlled rectifier can be calculated by finding
the average value of the output voltage waveform over one output cycle (i.e., p radians) and note
T
that the output pulse repetition time is seconds where T represents the input supply time
2
1
period and T = ; where f = input supply frequency.
f

Assuming the load inductance to be small so that b > p , b < (p + a ) we obtain discontinuous
load current operation. The load current flows through T1 form w t = a to b , where a is the
trigger angle of thyristor T1 and b is the extinction angle where the load current through T1 falls
to zero at w t = b . Therefore the average or dc output voltage can be obtained by using the
expression

b
2
VO( dc ) = Vdc = ò vO .d (w t )
2p w t =a
 b
1
vO .d (w t )
p w tò=a
VO( dc ) = Vdc =

1é ù
b

VO( dc ) = Vdc = ê ò Vm sin w t.d (w t ) ú

p ëa û

V é b
ù
VO( dc ) = Vdc = m ê - cos w t ú
p ë aû

Vm
VO( dc ) = Vdc = ( cos a - cos b )
p

When the load inductance is small and negligible that is L » 0 , the extinction angle
b = p radians . Hence the average or dc output voltage for resistive load is obtained as

Vm
VO( dc ) = ( cos a - cos p ) ; cos p = -1
p

Vm
VO( dc ) =
p
( cos a - ( -1) )

Vm
VO( dc ) = (1 + cos a ) ; for resistive load, when L » 0
p

When the Free wheeling diode (FWD) is connected across the load
When T1 is triggered at w t = a , during the positive half cycle of the input supply the FWD is
reverse biased during the time period w t = a to p . FWD remains reverse biased and cut-off
from w t = a to p . The load current flows through the conducting thyristor T1 , through the RL
load and through upper half of the transformer secondary winding during the time period
a to p .

At w t = p , when the input supply voltage across the upper half of the secondary winding
reverses and becomes negative the FWD turns-on. The load current continues to flow through
the FWD from w t = p to b .

vO Vm

wt
0
a

iO
a
b
wt
0 pb
a 2p 3p
(p+a) (p+b)

Fig.: Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation with FWD

EXPRESSION FOR THE DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE

CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD AND FWD

p
1
vO .d (w t )
p w tò= 0
VO( dc ) = Vdc =
Thyristor T1 is triggered at w t = a . T1 conducts from w t = a to p

Output voltage vO = Vm sin w t ; for w t = a to p

FWD conducts from w t = p to b and vO » 0 during discontinuous load current

p
1
Vm sin w t.d (w t )
p aò
Therefore VO( dc ) = Vdc =

Vm é p
ù
VO( dc ) = Vdc = ê - cos w t ú
p ë aû

Vm
VO( dc ) = Vdc = [ - cos p + cos a ] ; cos p = -1
p

Vm
Therefore VO( dc ) = Vdc = (1 + cos a )
p

The DC output voltage Vdc is same as the DC output voltage of a single phase full wave
controlled rectifier with resistive load. Note that the dc output voltage of a single phase full wave
controlled rectifier is two times the dc output voltage of a half wave controlled rectifier.

CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT OPERATION (WITHOUT FWD) For large values of

load inductance the load current flows continuously without decreasing and falling to zero and
there is always a load current flowing at any point of time. This type of operation is referred to as
continuous current operation.

Generally the load current is continuous for large load inductance and for low trigger angles.

The load current is discontinuous for low values of load inductance and for large values of
trigger angles.
The waveforms for continuous current operation are as shown.

vO Vm

wt
0

iO
a a a a

T2 ON T1 ON
T1 ON wt
0
a p 2p 3p
(p+a) (2p+a)

Fig.: Load voltage and load current waveform of a single phase full wave controlled
rectifier with RL load & without FWD for continuous load current operation

In the case of continuous current operation the thyristor T1 which is triggered at a delay angle of
a , conducts from w t = a to (p + a ) . Output voltage follows the input supply voltage across the
upper half of the transformer secondary winding vO = vAO = Vm sin w t .

The next thyristor T2 is triggered at w t = (p + a ) , during the negative half cycle input supply. As
soon as T2 is triggered at w t = (p + a ) , the thyristor T1 will be reverse biased and T1 turns off
due to natural commutation (ac line commutation). The load current flows through the thyristor
T2 from w t = (p + a ) to ( 2p + a ) . Output voltage across the load follows the input supply
voltage across the lower half of the transformer secondary winding vO = vBO = -Vm sin w t .

Each thyristor conducts for p radians (1800 ) in the case of continuous current operation.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
WITH LARGE LOAD INDUCTANCE ASSUMING CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT
OPERATION.

(p +a )
1
VO( dc ) = Vdc = ò vO .d (w t )
p w t =a

(p +a )
1é ù
VO( dc ) = Vdc = ê ò Vm sin w t.d (w t ) ú
p ëê a ûú

é (p +a ) ù
Vm
VO( dc ) = Vdc = ê - cos w t ú
p ë a û

Vm
VO( dc ) = Vdc = é cos a - cos (p + a ) ùû ; cos (p + a ) = - cos a
p ë

Vm
VO( dc ) = Vdc = [cos a + cos a ]
p

2Vm
\ VO( dc ) = Vdc = cos a
p

SINGLE PHASE SEMICONVERTERS

Consider diode D2 as D1 in the figure and diode D1 as D2

Single phase semi-converter circuit is a full wave half controlled bridge converter which uses
two thyristors and two diodes connected in the form of a full wave bridge configuration.

The two thyristors are controlled power switches which are turned on one after the other by
applying suitable gating signals (gate trigger pulses). The two diodes are uncontrolled power
switches which turn-on and conduct one after the other as and when they are forward biased.

The circuit diagram of a single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter) is shown
in the above figure with highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit. When the load
inductance is large the load current flows continuously and we can consider the continuous load
current operation assuming constant load current, with negligible current ripple (i.e., constant
and ripple free load current operation).

The ac supply to the semiconverter is normally fed through a mains supply transformer having
suitable turns ratio. The transformer is suitably designed to supply the required ac supply voltage
(secondary output voltage) to the converter.

During the positive half cycle of input ac supply voltage, when the transformer secondary output
line ‘A’ is positive with respect to the line ‘B’ the thyristor T1 and the diode D1 are both forward
biased. The thyristor T1 is triggered at w t = a ; ( 0 £ a £ p ) by applying an appropriate gate
trigger signal to the gate of T1 . The current in the circuit flows through the secondary line ‘A’,
through T1 , through the load in the downward direction, through diode D1 back to the secondary
line ‘B’.
T1 and D1 conduct together from w t = a to p and the load is connected to the input ac supply.
The output load voltage follows the input supply voltage (the secondary output voltage of the
transformer) during the period w t = a to p .

At w t = p , the input supply voltage decreases to zero and becomes negative during the period
w t = p to (p + a ) . The free wheeling diode Dm across the load becomes forward biased and
conducts during the period w t = p to (p + a ) .
Fig:. Waveforms of single phase semi-converter for RLE load and constant load current for
a > 900
The load current is transferred from T1 and D1 to the FWD Dm . T1 and D1 are turned off. The
load current continues to flow through the FWD Dm . The load current free wheels (flows
continuously) through the FWD during the free wheeling time period p to (p + a ) .

During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage the secondary line ‘A’ becomes negative
with respect to line ‘B’. The thyristor T2 and the diode D2 are both forward biased. T2 is
triggered at w t = (p + a ) , during the negative half cycle. The FWD is reverse biased and turns-
off as soon as T2 is triggered. The load current continues to flow through T2 and D2 during the
period w t = (p + a ) to 2p

AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The equation of average output voltage can be derived as:

p
2
Vm sin w t.d (w t )
2p aò
Vdc =

2Vm
[ - cos w t ]a
p
Vdc =
2p

Vm
Vdc = [ - cos p + cos a ] ; cos p = -1
p
 Vm
Therefore Vdc = [1 + cos a ]
p

RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The rms output voltage is found from

1
é 2 p
ù 2
VO( RMS ) = ê ò Vm2 sin 2 w t.d (w t ) ú
ë 2p a û

1
é Vm2 p
ù2
VO( RMS ) =ê ò (1 - cos 2w t ) .d ( w t ) ú
ë 2p a û

1
V é1 æ sin 2a ö ù 2
VO( RMS ) = m êp ç p - a + ÷
2 ë è 2 ø úû

SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER (FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE

CONVERTER)

The circuit diagram of the converter is shown below:

Considering a highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit so that the load current is
continuous and ripple free (constant load current operation).

The fully controlled bridge converter consists of four thyristors T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 connected in
the form of full wave bridge configuration as shown in the figure. Each thyristor is controlled
and turned on by its gating signal and naturally turns off when a reverse voltage appears across
it. During the positive half cycle when the upper line of the transformer secondary winding is at a
positive potential with respect to the lower end the thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased
during the time interval w t = 0 to p . The thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered simultaneously
wt = a ; (0 £ a £ p ) , the load is connected to the input supply through the conducting
thyristors T1 and T2 . The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage and
hence output voltage vO = Vm sin w t . Due to the inductive load T1 and T2 will continue to
conduct beyond w t = p , even though the input voltage becomes negative. T1 and T2 conduct
together during the time period a to (p + a ) , for a time duration of p radians (conduction
angle of each thyristor = 180 0 )

During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage for w t = p to 2p the thyristors T3 and
T4 are forward biased. T3 and T4 are triggered at w t = (p + a ) . As soon as the thyristors T3 and
T4 are triggered a reverse voltage appears across the thyristors T1 and T2 and they naturally
turn-off and the load current is transferred from T1 and T2 to the thyristors T3 and T4 . The
output voltage across the load follows the supply voltage and vO = -Vm sin w t during the time
period w t = (p + a ) to ( 2p + a ) . In the next positive half cycle when T1 and T2 are triggered,
T3 and T4 are reverse biased and they turn-off. The figure shows the waveforms of the input
supply voltage, the output load voltage, the constant load current with negligible ripple and the
input supply current.
During the time period w t = a to p , the input supply voltage vS and the input supply current iS
are both positive and the power flows from the supply to the load. The converter operates in the
rectification mode during w t = a to p .
During the time period w t = p to (p + a ) , the input supply voltage vS is negative and the input
supply current iS is positive and there will be reverse power flow from the load circuit to the
input supply. The converter operates in the inversion mode during the time period
w t = p to (p + a ) and the load energy is fed back to the input source.

The single phase full converter is extensively used in industrial applications up to about 15kW of
output power. Depending on the value of trigger angle a , the average output voltage may be
either positive or negative and two quadrant operation is possible.

AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The average (dc) output voltage can be determined by using the expression

1 é ù
2p
VO( dc ) = Vdc = ê ò vO .d (w t ) ú ;
2p ë 0 û

The output voltage waveform consists of two output pulses during the input supply time period
between 0 & 2p radians . In the continuous load current operation of a single phase full
converter (assuming constant load current) each thyristor conduct for p radians (1800) after it is
triggered. When thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered at w t = a T1 and T2 conduct from
a to (p + a ) and the output voltage follows the input supply voltage. Therefore output voltage
vO = Vm sin w t ; for w t = a to (p + a )

Hence the average or dc output voltage can be calculated as

2 é ù
p +a
VO( dc ) = Vdc = ê ò Vm sin w t.d (w t ) ú
2p ë a û

1é ù
p +a
VO( dc ) = Vdc = ê ò Vm sin w t.d (w t ) ú
pëa û
 Vm é ù
p +a
VO( dc ) = Vdc = ê ò sin w t.d (w t ) ú
p ëa û

Vm
[ - cos w t ]a
p +a
VO( dc ) = Vdc =
p

Vm
VO( dc ) = Vdc = é - cos (p + a ) + cos a ùû ; cos (p + a ) = - cos a
p ë

2Vm
Therefore VO( dc ) = Vdc = cos a
p

TWO QUADRANT OPERATION OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER

For trigger angle a > 900 ,cos a becomes negative and as a result the average dc output voltage
Vdc becomes negative, but the load current flows in the same positive direction i.e., I dc is
positive . Hence the output power becomes negative. This means that the power flows from the
load circuit to the input ac source. This is referred to as line commutated inverter operation.
During the inverter mode operation for a > 900 the load energy can be fed back from the load
circuit to the input ac source
The above figure shows the two regions of single phase full converter operation in the Vdc versus
I dc plane. In the first quadrant when the trigger angle a is less than 900, Vdc and I dc are both
positive and the converter operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the ac input power into
dc output power. The power flows from the input source to the load circuit. This is the normal
controlled rectifier operation where Pdc is positive.

When the trigger angle is increased above 900 , Vdc becomes negative but I dc is positive and the
average output power (dc output power) Pdc becomes negative and the power flows from the
load circuit to the input source. The operation occurs in the fourth quadrant where Vdc is negative
and I dc is positive. The converter operates as a line commutated inverter.

RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The rms value of the output voltage is calculated as

1 é 2 ù
2p
VO( RMS ) = ê ò vO .d (w t ) ú
2p ë 0 û

which can be solved as

Vm2 é sin 2a - sin 2a ö ù

VO( RMS ) = ê (p ) - æç ÷ú
2p ë è 2 øû
 Vm2 V2 V
VO( RMS ) = (p ) - 0 = m = m
2p 2 2

Vm
Therefore VO( RMS ) = = VS
2

Hence the rms output voltage is same as the rms input supply voltage

THREE PHASE CONTROLLED CONVERTER

Single phase half controlled bridge converters & fully controlled bridge converters are used
extensively in industrial applications up to about 15kW of output power. The single phase
2V
controlled rectifiers provide a maximum dc output of Vdc( max ) = m .
p

The output ripple frequency is equal to the twice the ac supply frequency. The single phase full
wave controlled rectifiers provide two output pulses during every input supply cycle and hence
are referred to as two pulse converters.

Three phase converters are 3-phase controlled rectifiers which are used to convert ac input power
supply into dc output power across the load.

3.3 3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER

Three single phase half-wave converters are connected together to form a three phase half-wave
converter as shown in the figure.
THEE PHASE SUPPLY VOLTAGE EQUATIONS

We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows

 V CN

0
120
0 V AN
120
0
120

V BN
vRN = van = Vm sin w t ; Vm = Max. Phase Voltage

æ 2p ö
vYN = vbn = Vm sin ç w t - ÷ Vector diagram of 3-phase supply voltages
è 3 ø

vYN = vbn = Vm sin (w t - 1200 )

æ 2p ö
vBN = vcn = Vm sin ç w t + ÷
è 3 ø

vBN = vcn = Vm sin (w t + 1200 )

vBN = vcn = Vm sin (w t - 2400 )

The 3-phase half wave converter combines three single phase half wave controlled rectifiers in
one single circuit feeding a common load. The thyristor T1 in series with one of the supply phase
windings ' a - n ' acts as one half wave controlled rectifier. The second thyristor T2 in series with
the supply phase winding ' b - n ' acts as the second half wave controlled rectifier. The third
thyristor T3 in series with the supply phase winding ' c - n ' acts as the third half wave controlled
rectifier.
The 3-phase input supply is applied through the star connected supply transformer as shown in
the figure. The common neutral point of the supply is connected to one end of the load while the
other end of the load connected to the common cathode point.

æp ö
When the thyristor T1 is triggered at w t = ç + a ÷ = ( 300 + a ) , the phase voltage van appears
è6 ø
across the load when T1 conducts. The load current flows through the supply phase winding
' a - n ' and through thyristor T1 as long as T1 conducts.

æ 5p ö
When thyristor T2 is triggered at w t = ç + a ÷ = (1500 + a ) , T1 becomes reverse biased and
è 6 ø
turns-off. The load current flows through the thyristor T2 and through the supply phase winding
' b - n ' . When T2 conducts the phase voltage vbn appears across the load until the thyristor T3 is
triggered .

æ 3p ö
When the thyristor T3 is triggered at w t = ç + a ÷ = ( 2700 + a ) , T2 is reversed biased and
è 2 ø
hence T2 turns-off. The phase voltage vcn appears across the load when T3 conducts.

When T1 is triggered again at the beginning of the next input cycle the thyristor T3 turns off as it
is reverse biased naturally as soon as T1 is triggered. The figure shows the 3-phase input supply
voltages, the output voltage which appears across the load, and the load current assuming a
constant and ripple free load current for a highly inductive load and the current through the
thyristor T1 .

æp ö
For a purely resistive load where the load inductance ‘L = 0’ and the trigger angle a > ç ÷ , the
è6ø
load current appears as discontinuous load current and each thyristor is naturally commutated
when the polarity of the corresponding phase supply voltage reverses. The frequency of output
ripple frequency for a 3-phase half wave converter is 3 f S , where f S is the input supply
frequency.
The 3-phase half wave converter is not normally used in practical converter systems because of
the disadvantage that the supply current waveforms contain dc components (i.e., the supply
current waveforms have an average or dc value).

AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The reference phase voltage is vRN = van = Vm sin w t . The trigger angle a is measured from the
cross over points of the 3-phase supply voltage waveforms. When the phase supply voltage van
begins its positive half cycle at w t = 0 , the first cross over point appears at
æp ö
w t = ç ÷ radians = 300 .
è6ø

The trigger angle a for the thyristor T1 is measured from the cross over point at w t = 300 . The
thyristor T1 is forward biased during the period w t = 30 0 to 150 0 , when the phase supply voltage
van has a higher amplitude than the other phase supply voltages. Hence T1 can be triggered
between 300 to 1500 . When the thyristor T1 is triggered at a trigger angle a , the average or dc
output voltage for continuous load current is calculated using the equation

é 56p +a ù
3 ê ú
vO .d (w t ) ú
2p ê p ò
Vdc =
êë 6 +a úû

Output voltage vO = van = Vm sin w t for w t = ( 300 + a ) to (1500 + a )

é 56p +a ù
3 ê ú
Vdc = ê ò Vm sin w t.d (w t ) ú
2p p
êë 6 +a úû
As the output load voltage waveform has three output pulses during the input cycle of 2p
radians

é 56p +a ù
3Vm ê ú
Vdc = ê ò sin w t.d (w t ) ú
2p p
êë 6 +a úû

é 5p
6
+a ù
3Vm ê ú
Vdc = ( - cos w t )
2p ê ú
êë p
6
+a úû

3Vm é æ 5p ö æp öù
Vdc =
2p ê - cos ç 6 + a ÷ + cos ç 6 + a ÷ ú
ë è ø è øû

Note from the trigonometric relationship

cos ( A + B ) = ( cos A.cos B - sin A.sin B )

3Vm é æ 5p ö æ 5p ö æp ö æp ö ù
Vdc = ê - cos ç 6 ÷ cos (a ) + sin ç ÷ sin (a ) + cos ç ÷ .cos (a ) - sin ç ÷ sin (a ) ú
2p ë è ø è 6 ø è6ø è6ø û
 3Vm
Vdc = é - cos (1500 ) cos (a ) + sin (1500 ) sin (a ) + cos ( 300 ) .cos (a ) - sin ( 300 ) sin (a ) ù
2p ë û

3Vm
Vdc = é - cos (1800 - 300 ) cos (a ) + sin (1800 - 300 ) sin (a ) + cos ( 300 ) .cos (a ) - sin ( 300 ) sin (a ) ù
2p ë û

Note: cos (1800 - 300 ) = - cos ( 300 )

sin (1800 - 300 ) = sin ( 300 )

Therefore

3Vm
Vdc = é + cos ( 300 ) cos (a ) + sin ( 300 ) sin (a ) + cos ( 300 ) .cos (a ) - sin ( 300 ) sin (a ) ù
2p ë û

3Vm
Vdc = é 2 cos ( 300 ) cos (a ) ù
2p ë û

3Vm é 3 ù
Vdc = ê2 ´ cos (a ) ú
2p ë 2 û
 3Vm 3 3Vm
Vdc = é 3 cos (a ) ù = cos (a )
2p ë û 2p

3VLm
Vdc = cos (a )
2p

RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The rms value of output voltage is found by using the equation

1
é 5p
6
+a ù2
ê 3 ú
VO( RMS ) =ê ò Vm2 sin 2 w t.d (w t ) ú
2p
êë p
6
+a úû

and we obtain

1
é1 3 ù2
VO( RMS ) = 3Vm ê + cos 2a ú
ë 6 8p û
 Van Vbn Vcn

a=0
Vs

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
wt
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420

a Van Vbn Vcn

a=150

V0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
wt
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420

a Van Vbn Vcn

a=300

0
V0
0
30 60
0
90
0 0
120 150
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
180 210 240 270 300 330 360
0 0 0
390 420
wt

a Van Vbn Vcn

a=600

V0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
wt
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420