PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR]
1 POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
Topics for Discussion:
● Nature and Definition of Politics
● The Study of Politics: Political Science
● Importance of Politics and Government
● Meaning of Governance
● Characteristics of Good Governance
A. NATURE AND DEFINITION OF POLITICS
“Politics exists because people disagree about the aims and
objects of human endeavor and, probably even more so, about
the methods to be used in achieving them”
(S. G. Richards, 1978).
● Politics therefore involves conflict. This can result in
violence, as in many of the developing countries, but
in the Western democracies the differences are
usually resolved peacefully.
● “A disagreement in which incompatible policies are
advocated can only be resolved ultimately by one side
obtaining the power to make its viewpoint prevail over
the other.
● The acquisition of power therefore is a prerequisite of
achieving political objectives.”
Thus, is the nature of politics.
DEFINITIONS OF POLITICS
● we understand and order our social affairs, and
acquire greater control over the situation — B.
Pomton and P. Gill
● Amable Tuibeo — strategy for maintaining
cooperation among people
● Harold Lasswell — "politics" as involving questions as
to "who gets what, when, and how."
1. Who in political society receives what benefits,
rewards, and advantages and how much of them they
receive,
2. when they receive the benefits, rewards, and
advantages, and
3. the methods by which they receive them.
B. THE STUDY OF POLITICS: POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political science is a classical discipline that deals with the
study of political phenomena.
● deepen human understanding of the forms and
nature of political action and to develop theoretical
tools for interpreting politically meaningful
phenomena.
● theory and practice of government and politics at the
local, state, national, and international levels.
● systematic study of political structures, political
processes and political behavior.
Sartori, G. (1969) — “Political approaches and research
methods are largely decided by the kind of evidence which is
available for the units, and the kind of problems with which one
deals."
● "approach" — a particular orientation or point of view
in looking at and interpreting the world of politics.
1
1. The Traditional Approach
study of political science is a combination of views on and
orientations to politics
a. Philosophical — values cannot be separated from the
study of politics and political system.
i. to judge what is good or bad in any political
society.
b. Historical — study of history of every political reality
to analyze any situation.
c. Institutional — study of formal structures and
institutions like legislature, executive, judiciary,
political parties, etc.
d. Legal — legal process, legal bodies or institutions,
justice and independence of judiciary.
2. The Behavioral Approach
scientific, objective and value free study of political
phenomenon.
use of empirical as well as scientific methods of study political
behavior.
study of the state and government to the day-today problems,
activities and behavior of individuals and groups.
a. Regularities — uniformities, expressed in
generalizations or theories in order to explain and
predict political phenomena.
b. Verification — testing and verifying everything.
c. Techniques — use of research tools and methods
d. Quantification — measure and quantify data.
e. Values — to do objective research one has to be value
free.
f. Systematization — theory and research should go
together.
g. Pure Science — should be verified by evidence.
h. Integration — not be separated from various other
social sciences like history, sociology and economics,
etc.
C. IMPORTANCE OF POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
● you should know what is going on around you.
● you should have a say in what will happen.
● decisions people make will affect many lives.
As best put in the words of Bertolt Brecht:
“The worst illiterate is the political illiterate, he doesn
’t hear, doesn ’t speak, nor participates in political events. He
doesn ’t know the cost of living, the price of the bean, of the
fish, of the flour, the rent, the shoes, and of the medicine, all
depend on political decisions. The political illiterate is so
stupid that he is proud and swells his chest saying that he
hates politics. The imbecile doesn ’t know that, from his
political ignorance is born the prostitute, the abandoned child,
and the worst thieves of all, the bad politician, corrupted and
flunky of the national and multinational companies.”
D. MEANING OF GOVERNANCE
Etymology of Governance
The word “governance” came from the Latin verb
“gubernare,” or more originally from the Greek word
“kubernaein,” which means “to steer.”
● manner of steering or governing, or of directing and
controlling, a group of people or a state.
PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR]
Definition of Governance
● exercise of power or authority by political leaders for
the well-being of their country’s citizens or subjects.
● some sectors of the society wield power and enact
and promulgate public policies which directly affect
human and institutional interactions and economic
and social development.
E. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE
Eight Indicators of Good Governance [capt rere]
Consensus-Oriented; Accountability.
Participatory; Transparent;
Rule of Law; Effective and Efficient;
Responsive; Equitable and Inclusive;
1. Participation
● active involvement of all affected and interested
parties in the decision-making process.
● pertinent information is effectively disseminated and
people could respond in an unconstrained and
truthful manner.
● gender equality, recognizing the vital roles of both
men and women in decision-making.
● recognition of the limits of a “verticalized system” of
governance.
○ top-down approach, refers to a state or
government monopoly both of powers and
responsibilities.
● “horizontal system” — the government works hand in
hand with other sectors of the society.
● The 1987 Philippine Constitution is replete of
provisions dealing with relational and inter-sectoral
governance.
● The Local Government Act of 1989 was borne out of
the need for decentralization in Philippine
governance.
2. Rule of Law
● Democracy — people express their will and exercise
their sovereignty.
● no one, however rich and powerful, above the law.
● good democratic governance is fundamentally
adherence to the rule of law.
● the people and the civil society render habitual
obedience to the law.
● The absence of rule of law is anarchy — people act in
utter disregard of law and when the government act
whimsically or arbitrarily beyond their powers
● “peace and order,”
● “absence of corruption,”
● “impartial and effective justice system,”
● “observance and protection of human rights,”
● “clear, publicized, and stable laws.”
3. Effectiveness and Efficiency
● meet the necessities of the society in a way that
available resources are utilized well.
● valuable resources are utilized, without wasting or
underutilizing any of them
● “enhancement and standardization of the quality of
public service delivery consistent with international
standards,”
● “professionalization of bureaucracy,”
● “focusing of government efforts on its vital functions,
and elimination of redundancies or overlaps in
functions and operations,”
● “a citizen-centered government,”
2
● “an improved financial management system of the
government.”
● Cumbersome procedures and expensive costs trigger
corruption and red tape — disregard for timeframes in
procedures by government agencies through
procrastination in public service delivery or
under-the-table or unofficial transactions.
● The Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007 (ARTA) — was passed
to require the setting up of Citizen’s Charter for a
simplified procedure and to facilitate governmental
transactions.
4. Transparency
● people are open to information regarding
decision-making process and the implementation of
the same.
● information on matters of public concern is made
available to the citizens or those who will be directly
affected.
● transactions involving public interests must be fully
disclosed and made accessible to the people.
5. Responsiveness
● institutions and processes serve all stakeholders in a
timely and appropriate manner.
● actors and structures of governance easily give
genuine expression to the will or desire of the people.
● the interests of all citizens must be well protected in a
prompt and appropriate manner so that each of them
can appreciate and take part in the process of
governance.
6. Equity and Inclusiveness
● all the members of the society, especially the most
vulnerable ones or the grassroots level, must be taken
into consideration in policy-making.
● Social equity refers to a kind of justice that gives
more opportunity to the less fortunate members of
the society.
● Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law — freeing the
farmer tenants from the bondage of the soil.
● party list system — sectoral representation of the
underprivileged.
● Gender and Development programs
7. Consensus-Oriented
● decisions are made after taking into consideration the
different viewpoints of the actors of the society.
● To meet the consensus, a strong, impartial, and
flexible mediation structure must be established.
○ creation of a wide-based of representation in
the Congress;
○ a two-tiered legislature or bicameralism
which subjects legislation to the evaluation
of national and district legislators; and
○ necessity of public hearings or consultations
of various governmental policies and
actions.
8. Accountability
● answerability or responsibility for one’s action.
● every person or group is responsible for their actions
most especially when their acts affect public interest.
Political accountability — accountability of public officials to
the people they represent.
Hierarchical accountability — ordered accountability of the
various agencies and their respective officers and personnel in
relation to their program objectives.
Managerial accountability — employee accountability based
on organization and individual performance.
PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR]
2 THE STATE
Topics For Discussion:
A. Definition of State
B. Elements of the State
C. Theories on the Origin of the State
D. Difference between State and Nation
E. Inherent Powers of the State
A. DEFINITION OF STATE
The modern term “state” is derived from the word “status”. It
was Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) who first used the term
“state” in his writings. His significant work is titled as “Prince”.
The state is the most universal and most powerful of all
institutions. The state is a natural institution.
A state is a community of persons, more or less numerous,
permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having a
government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants
render habitual obedience, and enjoying freedom from external
control.
● a numerous assemblage of human beings, generally
occupying a certain territory — Alisha Holland
● particular portion of mankind viewed as an organized
unit — John William Burgess
● a people organized for law within a definite territory —
Former US Pres. Woodrow Wilson
● a territorial society divided into government and
subjects — Prof. Harold Joseph Laski
● a union of families and villages having for its end a
perfect and self-sufficing life — Aristotle
● permanently established for a political end,
possesses a defined territory, independent of external
control — Arnold Bennett Hall
● a community of persons more or less numerous,
permanently occupying a definite portion of territory,
independent, or nearly so, of external control
possessing an organized government to which the
great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience —
James Wilford Garner
● acting through law as promulgated by a government
endowed to this end with coercive power, maintains
within a community territorially demarcated the
universal external conditions of social order — Robert
M. Maclver
● an organization which rules by means of a supreme
government over a definite territory — William F.
Ogburn
● an association that claims the monopoly of the
legitimate use of violence — Max Weber
● agency in a society that is authorized to exercise
coercive control within a given territory — Anderson
and Parker
From the foregoing definitions, we can deduce that
the State has four essential elements:
a) People,
b) Government,
c) Territory,
d) Sovereignty. [PeGoTeS]
3
B. ELEMENTS OF THE STATE
1. People/Population
● mass of population living within the state.
● “who governs whom?”
● According to Plato, there is no specific number
requirement; “…the state shall neither be too small nor
yet one that seems great but has no unity.” Aristotle,
on the other hand, says “the number should be neither
too large nor too small; It should be large enough to
be self-sufficing and small enough to be well
governed.”
2. Territory
● demarcated area that rightly belongs to the
population.
● “where?”
● It is a definite portion of the surface of the earth
which is the subject of the jurisdiction and sovereign
rights of a state in accordance with the international
law.
○ terrestrial (land),
○ fluvial/maritime (water),
○ aerial (air-space) domains.
■ Vatican is the smallest with a total
land area of 0.44 km2;
■ Russia is the largest with
17,098,242 km2
3. Government
● the will of the state is formulated, expressed, and
carried out.
● an institution or aggregate of institutions by which an
independent society makes and carries out those
rules of action necessary to enable men to live in a
social state, or that which are imposed upon the
people by those who possess the power or authority
of prescribing them.
4. Sovereignty
● supreme power of the state to command and enforce
obedience its will from the people within its
jurisdiction, and corollarily, to have freedom from
foreign control.
● supreme and final legal authority above and beyond
which no legal power exists:
1) Internal sovereignty which means that the State is
supreme over all its citizens, and associations;
2) External sovereignty which means that the state is
independent and free from foreign or outside control.
C. THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE STATE
1. Divine Right Theory
● state is of divine creation and the ruler is ordained by
God to govern the people
● Moses received at Mount Sinai.
● the oldest theory concerned in the origin of state.
● state is established and governed by God himself by
agent or vice regent or vicar of God. The chief
exponent of this theory in early times were the Jews
and supporters were the early church fathers.
2. Necessity or Force Theory
● state must have been created as a product of the
existence of the strong and the weak in society, and
as a result of their struggle against each other
wherein those who are strong are able to dominate
and impose their will upon the weak.
● result of the superior physical force and subjugation
of the weaker section by the stronger.
PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR] 4

3. Natural or Instinctive Theory c. A state cannot become a state without a nation or

● state is founded out of man’s natural instinct for nations that consists its people. On the other hand, a
association. nation is a nation whether or not a state exists.
● “man is a social being.” d. A single state may consist of one or more nations or
● social group provides the political development to peoples and conversely, a single nation may be made
stay and work together with common goal in the up of different states.
community then later on transforms into a state.
4. Patriarchal Theory E. INHERENT POWERS OF THE STATE
● enlargement of the family which remained under the
authority of the father or mother. 1. Police Power
● family grew into a clan, then developed into a tribe - power of government to enforce obedience from the
which broadened into a nation and the nation became people in the promotion of public health, morals, or
a state safety, and the general well-being of the community.
● “Kinship creates society and society at length creates - inherent power of government to enact and enforce
the states.” — MacIver laws for the promotion of general welfare.
5. Social Contract Theory 2. Power of Eminent Domain
● the early states must have been formed by deliberate - power possessed by the state over all property within
and voluntary compact among the people to form a the state, specifically its power to appropriate
society and organize government for their common property for a public purpose.
good. - the power of the state to take private property for
● the right of the people to revolt against a bad ruler. public use with just compensation.
● the right of the people to have the deliberate and 3. Power of Taxation
voluntary contract on the right to overthrow the kings - inherent power of the sovereign, exercised through
and rulers against corrupt governance to organize a the legislature, to impose burdens upon subjects and
new government with common interest for all the objects within its jurisdiction for the purpose of
people. raising revenues to carry out the legitimate objects of
6. Historical and Evolutionary Theory the government.
● “the state is the product of growth, a slow and steady ● Personal Income Tax – people with jobs with
evolution extending over a long period of time and salaries 22k up
ultimately shaping itself into the complex structure of ● Value Added Tax — tax on what you buy
a modern state.” ● Excise Tax — fuel, cigarettes, alcohol
● an institution of natural growth or historical evolution
says professor Garner.
a. Kinship — the most important and was based upon
blood relationship and kinship was the first strongest
bond of unity
b. Religion — provided the bond of unity in early society.
The worship of a common ancestor and common
goods created a sense of social solidarity.
c. Force — use of physical force that was responsible
for the growth of kingdoms and empires.
d. Property and Defense — nomads and vagabonds and
tribes
the necessity of acquiring property by the members
of society and protecting the property acquired with
reference to the population mentioned above.
e. Political consciousness — fundamental needs of life
for protection and order.
need for regulating things and persons is felt
imminently and this is the essence of political
consciousness.

D. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATE AND NATION

State is a community of persons occupying a definite territory,

have government of their own, and enjoying freedom from
external control
Nation is society of inhabitants of a specific geographic region
united and bound together by a common racial ancestry, the
same language and culture, historical past, laws and a shared
interests and sentiments over the passing of many years.
a. The state is a political concept, while nation is an
ethnic or racial concept.
b. A state is not subject to external control while a
nation may or may not be independent of external
control.
PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR]
3 POLITICAL POWER
Topics For Discussion:
A. Meaning and Nature of Power
B. National Power: Feature, Dimension and Exercise
C. Types of Political Authority
A. MEANING AND NATURE OF POWER
● Some social scientists define it as the use of force
whereas many others explain it as the capacity to
secure the desired goals through the use of force or
threat of use of force or even by exercising influence.
● “Power is the power of man on others” and as a
“man’s control over the minds and actions of other
men.” — Morgenthau
● “the capacity of one to impose his will on others by
reliance on effective sanctions in case of
non-compliance.” — Schwarzenberger
● “the ability to exercise such control as to make others
do what they otherwise would not do by rewarding or
promising to reward them, or by depriving or
threatening to deprive them of something they value.”
— Charles P. Schleicher
Power is the ability to influence or outright control the behavior
of people. It is authority when the power is perceived as
legitimate by the social structure.
B. NATIONAL POWER:
DIMENSIONS, FEATURES AND EXERCISE
National Power is that “combination of power and capability of
a state which the state uses for fulfilling its national interests
and goals” — Paddleford and Lincoln. National Power denotes
the ability of a nation to fulfil national goals, how much
powerful or weak a particular nation in securing them. —
Hartman
National Power is simply the ability or capability of a nation to
secure the goals and objectives of its national interests in
relation with other nations. It involves the capacity to use force
or threat of use of force or influence over others for securing
the goals of national interest.
“the ability to control the behavior of other states in
accordance with one’s own will.”
National Power is the currency of international relations.
NATURE OF NATIONAL POWER
NATIONAL
National means pertaining to the nation making national power
the power of a nation.
In the context of national powers, nation stands for the power
of the group of decision makers and authorities who exercise
power on behalf of the nation. It is the power of the
decision-makers who formulate and implement the foreign
policy of the nation and thereby attempt to secure national
goals.
National Power does not mean the power of the entire
population of the state. It is only a psychological link that
makes the people regard the power of the decision-makers as
their own power.
5
POWER
Power and Force:
Force means physical force, violence in the form of police
action, imprisonment, punishment or war. Power means a
psychological relationship of control which is backed by the use
of force, or threat of use of force. When physical force, war and
other means involving the use of military power or police power
are actually used to secure certain objectives, power stands
replaced by force.
Power and Influence:
Both involve the ability to produce an intended change or effect
in the behavior of others. However, the two are not the same.
Power involves a use of force or threat of use of force. Political
Power or Legal Power is backed by authority or sovereignty of
the state. Influence involves the attempt to change the behavior
of others through persuasion and not by threats or force. The
scope of influence is wider than the scope of power and it is
more democratic than power.
8 MAIN FEATURES OF NATIONAL POWER:
1. National Power Is both a Means as well as an End in
International Relations:
● control the behavior of other states with a view to
accomplish certain ends.
● the currency with which a nation can secure the
desired values—peace, security, progress,
development, status, and more power.
2. National Power is the Ability to Secure Goals of
National Interest:
● influence or change the behavior of other nations with
a view to secure the goals of its national interest.
● a powerful nation is in a position to achieve its
desired goals of national interest in international
relations.
● measured in terms of a nation’s ability to secure its
goals and objectives in international relations.
3. National Power is Dynamic and Relative in Character:
● always relative to time and resources.
● analyzed both through an analysis of the capabilities
and ability of the nation as well as by a comparison of
its national power with other nations.
4. No Two Nations Have Equal Power:
● The power of a nation is always more or less than the
power of every other nation.
5. There Are Several Elements of National Power:
● Geography, Population,
Industrial Capacity, Diplomacy,
Military Preparedness, Quality of Leadership,
Government
6. Actual Power and Potential Power:
● Actual power is the power which is immediately
available, whereas
potential power is the power that can be generated in
situations of crisis and times of need.
7. National Power is the Currency of International
Relations:
● securing its national interests in international
relations.
● the greatest of all the national interests of a nation is
to maintain and increase its national power.
● the means for the fulfillment of the needs and
aspirations of a nation.
PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR] 6

8. National Power is the Basis as Well as a Means of 4. Force or Physical Violence:

Foreign Policy: - resorting to war or acts of reprisals by a powerful
● ability of the statesmen and diplomats to act and state.
react with others is again determined by their
respective national power C. TYPES OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY

DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL POWER:

Max Weber identified and explained three distinct types of authority.
The Major Dimensions of National Power in International
Politics WEBER’S THREE TYPES OF AUTHORITY
1. Military Power:
● security is the most vital element of its national TRADITIONAL CHARISMATIC LEGAL-
interest. It is the primary concern of every nation to RATIONAL
work for her security.
● key means for securing the security and territorial SOURCE OF POWER Legitimized by Based on a Authority
integrity of each nation. long-standing leader’s resided in the
2. Economic Power: customes personal office, not in the
qualities person
● second important dimension of national power.
● ability of a nation to satisfy its own needs and to LEADERSHIP STYLE Historic Dynamic Bureaucratic
control the behavior of other states by affording or personality personality officials
denying access to economic goods and services.
● used by rich and developed nations to influence other EXAMPLE Patriarchy Napoleon, Jesus Pres. Rodrigo
states by granting them economic aid and loans, and [traditional Christ, Mother Duterte
try to secure their interests in international relations. positions of Teresa,
authority] Mahatma
● to induce as well as to coerce a desired change in the
Gandhi
behavior of other states.
3. Psychological Power:
● power of opinion and image of the nation. NATURE AND DEFINITION OF AUTHORITY:
● propaganda and persuasive negotiations Authority is “the right or the capacity or both to have
● a nation always tries to influence the people and proposals or prescriptions or instructions accepted without
leaders of other nations. recourse to persuasion, bargaining or force”.
“the power or right to give orders and enforce
METHODS OF EXERCISING NATIONAL POWER: obedience, the power to influence others based on recognized
knowledge or expertise.”
1. Persuasion: “Authority can most simply be defined as legitimate
- defining and logically explaining a particular problem power. Authority is, therefore, based on an acknowledged duty
or issue or dispute to other nations or any other to obey rather than on any form of coercion or manipulation. In
nation. this sense authority is power cloaked in legitimacy or
- persuade other nations to adopt a particular and rightfulness”.
desired view or perception of the nature of issues
involved in any bilateral or multilateral problem or Weber’s Classification of Authority:
dispute or issue.
- convince others about goodness of the policies of the 1. TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY:
nation. - is rooted in traditional, or long-standing, beliefs and
- uses persuasion to secure support for the foreign practices of a society.
policy that it represents. a. The first is inheritance, as certain individuals are
2. Rewards: granted traditional authority because they are the
- offering of rewards can be material or economic or children or other relatives of people who already
psychological. exercise traditional authority.
- give material help to another nation in times of crisis b. The second reason, individuals enjoy traditional
or in other ways. authority as more religious: their societies believe
- token support or grant of certain honors to the they are anointed by God or the gods, depending on
statesmen, philosophers, artists, scientists and the society’s religious beliefs, to lead their society.
scholars of other nations also serve as psychological - right to rule are passed down, often through heredity.
rewards intended to keep the other states friendly and - “The creation of new law opposite traditional norms is
cooperative deemed impossible in principle.”
3. Punishment: - “the servants are completely and personally
- can inflict punishment on an offending or unhelpful dependent upon the lord” — patrimonalism
state by imposing economic sanctions or norms or - “the servants are not personal servants of the lord but
policies or placing trade restrictions or ensuring a independent men” — feudalism
denial of a possible reward.
- Denial or reduction in foreign aid or loan or refusal to
export certain items or technology can be used by a
powerful nation for inflicting a punishment or
pressure on other nations.
PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR] 7

2. CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY:
- an individual’s extraordinary personal qualities and
from that individual’s hold over followers because of
these qualities.
- Joan of Arc, Adolf Hitler, Mahatma Gandhi, Martin
Luther King Jr., Jesus Christ, Muhammad, and
Buddha.
- whose mission and vision inspire others.
- perceived extraordinary characteristics of an
individual.
3. LEGAL-RATIONAL AUTHORITY
- derives from law and is based on a belief in the
legitimacy of a society’s laws and rules and in the
right of leaders to act under these rules to make
decisions and set policy.
- empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of
the law (legal) or natural law (rationality).
- Weber thought the best example of legal-rational
authority was a bureaucracy (political or economic).
This form of authority is frequently found in the
modern state, city governments, private and public
corporations, and various voluntary associations.
- “development of the modern state is identical indeed
with that of modern officialdom and bureaucratic
organizations just as the development of modern
capitalism is identical with the increasing
bureaucratization of economic enterprise

<ppt>
PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR]
4 THE GOVERNMENT
Topics For Discussion:
A. Classification of Governments
B. Forms of Government
C. Political Ideologies:
1. Conservatism vs Liberalism
2. Capitalism vs Socialism
LESSON V: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE PHILIPPINE
GOVERNMENT
A. The Barangay and the the Sultanate
B. The Spanish and American Colonial Governments
C. From the Commonwealth to the 3rd Republic
A. CLASSIFICATIONS OF GOVERNMENTS
1. As to The Number of Persons Exercising Sovereign
Power
WHO RULES?
NONE ONE FEW ALL
ANARCHY MONARCHY ARISTOCRACY DEMOCRACY
TYRANNY OLIGARCHY DIRECT
DICTATORSHIP REPRESENTATIVE
● Monarchy is a government in which supreme and
final authority is in the hands of a single person.
a. Absolute Monarchy is a government in which the ruler
rules by divine right
b. Limited Monarchy is a government in which the ruler
rules in accordance with the Constitution
○ Tyranny is an autocratic form of rule in
which one individual exercises power
without any legal restraint
○ Dictatorship is an authoritarian type of
government where there is absolute control
by one person.
● Aristocracy is a government in which political power
is exercised by few privileged classes which is known
as aristocracy or oligarchy. In an oligarchy, a small
group of people has all the power in the government.
● Democracy is a government in which political power
is exercised by a majority of the people.
a. Direct or pure democracy is a government in which the
will of the state is formulated or expressed directly
and immediately through the people in a mass
meeting or primary assembly.
b. Indirect, representative or republican democracy is a
government in which the will of the state is
formulated and expressed through a relatively small
and select body of persons chosen by the people to
act as their representatives.
2. As to Extent of Powers Exercised by The Central or
National Government
● Unitary Government is a government in which the
control of national and local affairs is exercised by
the central or national government.
● Federal government is a government in which the
powers of government are divided between the
national and local governments
8
3. As to the Relationship Between the Executive and
Legislative Branches of Government
● Parliamentary government is a government in which
the state confers upon the legislature the power to
terminate the tenure of office of the real executive.
Legislatures called parliaments operate under a
parliamentary system of government in which the
executive is constitutionally answerable to the
parliament. Parliaments usually consist of chambers
or houses, and are usually either bicameral or
unicameral.
● Presidential government is a government in which the
state makes the executive constitutionally
independent of the legislature as regards to tenure to
a large extent. A presidential system is a system of
government where an executive branch is led by a
president who serves as both head of state and head
of government. In such a system, this branch exists
separately from the legislature, to which it is not
responsible and which it cannot, in normal
circumstances, dismiss.
B. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
● Anarchy is the state of having no government.
● Adhocracy is a type of organization that operates in
opposite fashion to a bureaucracy; government in
unstructured fashion
● Androcracy or andrarchy is a form of government in
which the government rulers are male.
● Atheocracy is a government where religion is
forbidden
● Autarchy is a government by an absolute ruler
● Bureaucracy is a government by civil servants
● Confederacy is a union of sovereign states
● Dyarchy is a government by two; dual monarchy
● Ethnocracy is a form of government by a particular
ethnic group
● Geniocracy is a government of intelligent people
● Gynarchy is a government by women; gynocracy
● Heptarchy is a government by seven people
● Judiciocracy is a government by judges
● Kakistocracy is a government by the worst
● Kleptocracy is a government by thieves
● Malarchy is a government by bad leaders
● Matriarchy is a form of government by women or
mothers
● Meritocracy is a government by those with merit
● Minarchy is a government with the smallest possible
size
● Nomocracy is a government through established laws
● Ochlocracy is a government by mobs
● Particracy is a government by political parties
● Patriarchy is a government by fathers
● Plutocracy is a government by the wealthy
● Polyarchy is a government by many people
● Republic is a government by elected officials
● Robocracy is a government by robots
● Stratocracy is a government by armed forces
● Technocracy is a government by technical experts
● Tetrarchy is a government by four people
● Theocracy is a government by a deity through the
clergy or by religious law (ex. Frailocracy)
● Timocracy is a government by the propertied class
● Triumvirate is a government by three people
 PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR] 9

C. POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES: ● Human fallibility - Liberalism overestimates human

beings. Humans are frequently ignorant, prejudiced,
Ideology is a comprehensive set of normative beliefs, and irrational. By ignoring these defects, liberalism
conscious and unconscious ideas, that an individual, group or becomes unrealistic.
society has. ● Unique circumstances - There is no universal answer
● Based form the coined term ideologie by A.L.C. to the problems of society; the circumstances are
Destutt de Tracy unique in each country.
● Political Ideology – set of ideas that provides the
basis for organized political views and/or actions. 2. CAPITALISM VS SOCIALISM

CAPITALISM
The left-wing ideology typically The right-wing ideology
Capitalism is a political and economic ideology which
champions ideals of equality, social primarily champions social
justice, and collective responsibility, conservatism, limited
states that individuals are free. They are free to make money,
advocating for government government, and free market own businesses, sell goods and services and crucially own
intervention to address societal economics, asserting the private property.
inequalities and to provide public importance of personal As Adam Smith, the 18th century philosopher and
services; responsibility and traditional father of modern economics, said: “It is not from the
values; benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we
PROGRESSIVE RELUCTANT TO CHANGE expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest.”

Pillars of Capitalism
1. LIBERALISM VS CONSERVATISM Capitalism is founded on the following pillars:
● private property, which allows people to own tangible
LIBERALISM assets such as land and houses and intangible assets
(also known as classical liberalism). Liberalism emphasizes: such as stocks and bonds;
● Individualism - The individual takes priority over ● self-interest, through which people act in pursuit of
society; their own good, without regard for sociopolitical
● Freedom - Individuals have the right to make choices pressure.
for themselves. ● competition, through firms’ freedom to enter and exit
● Equality - No person is morally or politically superior markets, maximizes social welfare, that is, the joint
to others. Hierarchies are rejected; welfare of both producers and consumers;
● Rationalism - Humans are capable of thinking ● a market mechanism that determines prices in a
logically and rationally. Logic and reason help us decentralized manner through interactions between
solve problems; buyers and sellers—prices, in return, allocate
● Progress - Traditions should not be kept unless they resources, which naturally seek the highest reward,
have value. New ideas are helpful because they can not only for goods and services but for wages as well;
lead to progress in the sciences, the economy, and ● freedom to choose with respect to consumption,
society; production, and investment—dissatisfied customers
● The free market - Liberals like the free market can buy different products, investors can pursue more
because it more easily creates wealth, as opposed to lucrative ventures, workers can leave their jobs for
traditional economies, which often have extensive better pay; and
regulations and limits on which occupations people ● limited role of government, to protect the rights of
can hold. private citizens and maintain an orderly environment
that facilitates proper functioning of markets.
CONSERVATISM
Conservatism (also known as classical conservatism)
began as a reaction against the liberal ideas taking hold of
Europe during the French Revolution in the late eighteenth
century. This type of conservatism differs from American
conservatism. Edmund Burke, a British Member of Parliament,
observed the early stages of the French Revolution with great
distress and predicted the violence and terror that would
ensue. His book, Reflections on the Revolution in France
(1790), is one of the founding texts of classical conservatism.
Conservatism emphasizes:
● Stability - Stability is a precious thing, and change
must be made gradually in order to preserve it.
Undermining stability is very dangerous because
societies can easily fall into chaos and violence.
● Concreteness - Liberalism is too abstract. It focuses
on freedom and equality, not on the concrete way
people live every day, which is the focus of
conservatism.
PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR] 10

Social Democracy COMMUNISM

Social Democracy is a political movement which
emerged in the latter half of the nineteenth century and grew to
mass proportions in a number of European countries.
1. reorganize capitalism in such a way that state
corporations would replace private capitalists.
2. democratize the political systems found in such
countries.
3. improve the position of the working class, both by
raising wage levels and by means of various welfare
schemes to be administered by the state.
4. raise the Social Democratic politicians and the trade
union leaders to the ruling position within society.
SOCIALISM
Socialism is an economic system in which the factors
of production are valued in relationship to their usefulness to
people. Socialists take into account both individual needs and
greater social needs. They allocate resources using central
planning, as in a command economy.
"From each according to his ability, to each according
to his contribution."
Communism is an authoritarian and revolutionary
approach to achieving socialism.
a classless society in which all members jointly share
the means and output of production.
Soviet Union China Vladimir Lenin
Communist systems possessed five common
features which, taken together, distinguished them from other
authoritarian regimes and, still more fundamentally, from
socialism of a social democratic type:
● the monopoly of power (‘leading role’) of the
Communist Party;
● intra-party relations which were highly centralized
and strictly disciplined (‘democratic centralism’);
● state, rather than private, ownership of the means of
production;
● the building of communism as the ultimate,
legitimizing goal; and
● a sense of belonging to an international Communist
movement.

Principal Characteristics of Socialism

● Collectivism - Human beings are social by nature, and
society should respect this. Individualism is
poisonous.
● Public ownership - Society, not individuals, should
own the property
● Central economic planning - The government plans
the economy; there is no free market
● Economic equality - All citizens have roughly the
same level of prosperity.

Differences Between Socialism, Capitalism, Communism, and

Fascism

Class Warfare/Struggle
According to socialists, liberalism fails to live up to its
promises of freedom and equality. Socialists blame the free
market for liberalism’s failings. Under a capitalist system,
money and means of production are the measures of power.
The haves (the bourgeoisie, in Marx’s terms) and the have-nots
(whom Marx calls the proletariat) are locked into a fight that
Marx called class warfare.

Communism and democratic socialism are the two

most prominent evolutions of socialism.
 PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR] 11

5 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE PHILIPPINE SECTION The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable.
GOVERNMENT 6.

SECTION The State shall pursue an independent foreign policy.

PREAMBLE
7. In its relations with other states the paramount
ARTICLE I National Territory
consideration shall be national sovereignty, territorial
ARTICLE II Declaration of Principles and State Policies
integrity, national interest, and the right to
ARTICLE III Bill of Rights
self-determination.
ARTICLE IV Citizenship
ARTICLE V Suffrage
SECTION The Philippines, consistent with the national interest,
ARTICLE VI Legislative Department
8. adopts and pursues a policy of freedom from nuclear
ARTICLE VII Executive Department
weapons in its territory.
ARTICLE VIII Judicial Department
ARTICLE IX Constitutional Commissions
SECTION The State shall promote a just and dynamic social
ARTICLE X Local Government
9. order that will ensure the prosperity and independence
ARTICLE XI Accountability of Public Officers
of the nation and free the people from poverty through
ARTICLE XII National Economy and Patrimony
policies that provide adequate social services, promote
ARTICLE XIII Social Justice and Human Rights
full employment, a rising standard of living, and an
ARTICLE XIV Education, Science and Technology, Arts,
improved quality of life for all.
Culture and Sports
ARTICLE XV The Family
SECTION The State shall promote social justice in all phases of
ARTICLE XVI General Provisions
10. national development.
ARTICLE XVII Amendments or Revisions
ARTICLE XVIII Transitory Provision
SECTION The State values the dignity of every human person
● PREAMBLE 11. and guarantees full respect for human rights.
We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty
God, in order to build a just and humane society and establish SECTION The State recognizes the sanctity of family life and
a Government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, 12. shall protect and strengthen the family as a basic
promote the common good, conserve and develop our autonomous social institution. It shall equally protect
patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from
blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of conception. The natural and primary right and duty of
law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and parents in the rearing of the youth for civic efficiency
peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution. and the development of moral character shall receive
the support of the Government.

SECTION The State recognizes the vital role of the youth in

SECTION The Philippines is a democratic and republican State.
1. Sovereignty resides in the people and all government
authority emanates from them.
SECTION The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of
2. national policy, adopts the generally accepted
principles of international law as part of the law of the
land and adheres to the policy of peace, equality,
justice, freedom, cooperation, and amity with all
nations.
SECTION Civilian authority is, at all times, supreme over the
3. military. The Armed Forces of the Philippines is the
protector of the people and the State. Its goal is to
secure the sovereignty of the State and the integrity of
the national territory.
SECTION The prime duty of the Government is to serve and
4. protect the people. The Government may call upon the
people to defend the State and, in the fulfillment
thereof, all citizens may be required, under conditions
provided by law, to render personal military or civil
service.
SECTION The maintenance of peace and order, the protection of
5. life, liberty, and property, and the promotion of the
general welfare are essential for the enjoyment by all
the people of the blessings of democracy.
13. nation-building and shall promote and protect their
physical, moral, spiritual, intellectual, and social
well-being. It shall inculcate in the youth patriotism and
nationalism, and encourage their involvement in public
and civic affairs.
SECTION The State recognizes the role of women in
14. nation-building, and shall ensure the fundamental
equality before the law of women and men.
SECTION The State shall protect and promote the right to health
15. of the people and instill health consciousness among
them.
SECTION The State shall protect and advance the right of the
16. people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord
with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
SECTION The State shall give priority to education, science and
17. technology, arts, culture, and sports to foster
patriotism and nationalism, accelerate social progress,
and promote total human liberation and development.
SECTION The State affirms labor as a primary social economic
18. force. It shall protect the rights of workers and
promote their welfare.
 PPGC 111 - PRELIMS
Notes ni Noodles [DACDR]
SECTION The State shall develop a self-reliant and independent
19. national economy effectively controlled by Filipinos.
SECTION The State recognizes the indispensable role of the
20. private sector, encourages private enterprise, and
provides incentives to needed investments.
SECTION The State shall promote comprehensive rural
21. development and agrarian reform.
SECTION The State recognizes and promotes the rights of
22. indigenous cultural communities within the framework
of national unity and development.
SECTION The State shall encourage non-governmental,
23. community-based, or sectoral organizations that
promote the welfare of the nation.
SECTION The State recognizes the vital role of communication
24. and information in nation-building.
SECTION The State shall ensure the autonomy of local
25. governments.
SECTION The State shall guarantee equal access to
26. opportunities for public service, and prohibit political
dynasties as may be defined by law.
SECTION The State shall maintain honesty and integrity in the
27. public service and take positive and effective
measures against graft and corruption.
SECTION Subject to reasonable conditions prescribed by law, the
28. State adopts and implements a policy of full public
disclosure of all its transactions involving public
interest.
12
● SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE
Under ART. II, Sec. 6 of the Philippine Constitution, “The
separation of Church and State shall be inviolable.”
Principle of separation of the Church and State. - The principle
simply means that the Church is not to interfere in purely
political matters or temporal aspects of man’s life and the
State, in purely matters of religion and morals, which are the
exclusive concerns of the other.
● The State shall have no official religion; The State
cannot set up a church, whether or not supported with
funds; nor aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer
one religion over another; Every person is free to
profess belief or disbelief in any religion;
● Meaning of “establishment of religion clause. - Every
religious minister is free to practice his calling; and
the State cannot punish a person for entertaining or
professing religious beliefs or disbeliefs. Preamble –
The command that Church and State be separate is
not to be interpreted to mean hostility to religion.
● Respect of religion. - Our Constitution and laws
exempt from taxation, properties devoted exclusively
to religious purposes; No hostility towards religion.
● The use of public money or property is not prohibited
when a priest, preacher, minister, or dignitary as such
is assigned to the armed forces, or to any penal
institution, or government orphanage or leprosarium;
Optional religious instruction in public elementary and
high school is by constitutional mandate allowed;
Thursday and Friday of Holy Week, Christmas Day and
Sundays are made legal holidays because of the idea
that their observance is conducive to beneficial moral
results; and the law punishes polygamy and bigamy,
and certain crimes against worship are considered
crimes against the fundamental laws of the State.
● Reason underlying the principle. It is significant that
the separation of the State and the Church is to
protect Philippine society from using each other for
their self-interest.