1(a)

Electromagnetics is a branch of physics that deals with the electromagnetic force that occurs
between electrically charged particles³. The electromagnetic force is one of the four
fundamental forces of nature and is the dominant force in the interactions of atoms and
molecules².
Electromagnetic forces occur between any two charged particles, causing an attraction between
particles with opposite charges and repulsion between particles with the same charge². These
forces combine to create electromagnetic fields in the vicinity of charged particles, which can
accelerate other charged particles².
An electromagnet, a key concept in electromagnetics, can be defined as a magnet which
functions on electricity¹. Unlike a permanent magnet, the strength of an electromagnet can be
changed by changing the amount of electric current that flows through it¹. If the current flow is
cut, the property of magnetism ceases to exist¹. Electromagnets are made out of a coil of wire,
and this effect can be strengthened by winding a wire tightly around a powerful core made of
magnetic material, such as iron¹.
Electromagnetism plays a crucial role in modern technology, including electrical energy
production, transformation and distribution; light, heat, and sound production and detection;
fiber optic and wireless communication; sensors; computation; electrolysis; electroplating; and
mechanical motors and actuators.

The four fundamental field quantities in the electromagnetic model and their units are:

1. **Electric Field (E)**: The electric field is a vector field that associates to each point in space
the force per unit of charge experienced by a test charge placed at that point. The SI unit of
electric field strength is **volt per meter (V/m)**¹.

2. **Electric Displacement Field (D)**: The electric displacement field is a vector field that
appears in Maxwell's equations. It accounts for the effects of free and bound charge within
materials. The SI unit of electric displacement field is **coulomb per square meter (C/m²)**¹.

3. **Magnetic Field (H)**: The magnetic field is a vector field that describes the magnetic
influence on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials. The SI unit of
magnetic field strength is **ampere per meter (A/m)**¹.
4. **Magnetic Flux Density (B)**: The magnetic flux density is a vector field described as the
density of magnetic field lines passing through a given surface. The SI unit of magnetic flux
density is **tesla (T)**¹.

2(a)

where,
(\kappa) is the dielectric constant,
(\epsilon) is the permittivity of the substance,
(\epsilon_0) is the permittivity of free space.

3-11.1
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3(a)

3(b)

3-8
4(b)

TABLE 6-1
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Here are the differences between conduction current and convection current:

Conduction Current: Conduction current is the movement of electricity in an electric

conductor1. It is formed by the drift velocity acquired by randomly moving “free”
electrons when voltage is applied2. This current is due to the flow of electrons under an
applied electric potential2. Conduction current consists of charged particles moving in
response to the electric field3.

Convection Current: Convection current is a process that involves the movement of

energy from one place to another4. It is seen only in gases and liquids5. Convection
currents are created as a result of the differences occurring within the densities and
temperature of a specific gas or fluid4. These currents tend to move fluid or gas
particles from one place to another4. A temperature difference leads to an energy
transfer from an area of higher energy to one of lower energy5.

In summary, conduction current is related to the flow of electrons in a conductor due to

an applied electric potential, while convection current is related to the movement of
energy in a fluid due to differences in temperature and density.

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4-3
7(b)

7-2.1
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EXAMPLE 4-2
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8(b)

EXAMPLE 3-5
8(c)
9(a)

9(c)

EXAMPLE 5-1

10(a)

**Uniform Plane Wave:**

In electromagnetics, a uniform plane wave is a type of wave where the electric (E) and magnetic
(H) field vectors have constant magnitude and phase in a specified plane¹². This means that at
any given instant, the values of the electric and magnetic fields are the same at all points on a
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation¹²³. These waves are typically found in an
unbounded, homogeneous medium².
**Traveling Wave:**
In the context of electromagnetics, a traveling wave is a disturbance of the medium that
propagates through it, in a definite direction and with a definite velocity⁷. These waves are
solutions of Maxwell’s equations, which are the fundamental equations of electrodynamics⁶.
The disturbance is typically a displacement of the parts that make up the medium, away from
their rest or equilibrium position⁷. Electromagnetic waves are examples of traveling waves,
where the electric and magnetic fields are oscillating and moving through free space with the
speed of light.

5-4 till equation (5-3 1)

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EXAMPLE 7-3

13(b)

6-4
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In electromagnetics, polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field vector as an
electromagnetic wave propagates through space¹²³. It describes the direction in which the
electric field oscillates relative to the direction of wave propagation¹²³.
There are three primary types of polarization that electromagnetic waves can exhibit¹:
1. **Linear Polarization:** The electric field vector oscillates along a single plane perpendicular
to the direction of propagation¹. This is the simplest form of polarization¹.
2. **Circular Polarization:** The electric field vector rotates in a circular motion while
maintaining a constant magnitude¹. In this case, the electric field vector traces a circle around
the axis of propagation as the wave moves forward¹.
3. **Elliptical Polarization:** The electric field vector traces an ellipse around the axis of
propagation¹. This is the most general form of polarization and includes both linear and circular
polarizations as special cases, depending on the orientation of the electric field and its phase
difference¹.
The polarization of an electromagnetic wave can be mathematically described using complex
notation to represent the electric field vector E in terms of its orthogonal components¹:

**Linear Polarization:**
A wave is said to exhibit linear polarization if the direction of the electric field vector does not
vary with either time or position²⁴⁵. Linear polarization arises when the source of the wave is
linearly polarized². A common example is the wave radiated by a straight wire antenna, such as
a dipole or a monopole². Mathematically, a wave is linearly polarized when the phase angles are
equal⁵. This represents a wave polarized at an angle with respect to the x axis⁵.
**Circular Polarization:**
In electrodynamics, circular polarization of an electromagnetic wave is a polarization state in
which, at each point, the electromagnetic field of the wave has a constant magnitude and is
rotating at a constant rate in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the wave¹. Circular
polarization occurs when the two orthogonal electric field component vectors are of equal
magnitude and are out of phase by exactly 90°, or one-quarter wavelength¹³. A circularly
polarized wave can rotate in one of two possible senses: right-handed circular polarization
(RHCP) in which the electric field vector rotates in a right-hand sense with respect to the
direction of propagation, and left-handed circular polarization (LHCP) in which the vector
rotates in a left-hand sense¹.

The Brewster angle, also known as the polarizing angle, is a specific angle of incidence at which
light with a particular polarization is perfectly transmitted through a transparent dielectric
surface, with no reflection¹. When unpolarized light is incident at this angle, the light that is
reflected from the surface is therefore perfectly polarized¹. This is why it is often referred to as
the "polarizing angle"¹²³.
The reason it is called a polarizing angle is that when light strikes the surface at this specific
angle, the reflected light becomes polarized⁴. This phenomenon is used in various optical
devices, such as polarizing filters and sunglasses, to reduce glare and improve image clarity by
selectively filtering out polarized light⁴. The term “polarizing angle” comes from this fact².
In summary, the Brewster angle is called the polarizing angle because light that reflects from a
surface at this angle is entirely polarized³. This makes the Brewster angle very useful in many
areas of optics.

14(c)

EXAMPLE 7-13
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