PRAGMATICS

L2: SPEECH ACTS AND SPEECH EVENTS

1. Speech acts theory
2. Three dimensions of speech acts
3. IFIDs
4. Felicity conditions
5. Performative Hypothesis
6. Speech act classification
7. Direct and Indirect speech acts
8. Speech events

L3: POLITENESS AND POLITENESS STRATEGIES

I – Notion of politeness
1. Definition
Oxford: Politeness = good manners and respect for the feelings of others.
Leech: some illocutions are inherently impolite, and others are inherently polite
Robin Lakoff, 2020: Politeness was defined as a system of interpersonal relations
designed to facilitate interaction by minimizing any potential conflicts and
confrontations which might be present in all humans.
Yule, 1996: Politeness in an interaction can be defined as…
2. Face (Thể diện)
Oxford: face = a particular aspect of something
Yule: 60
Politeness in an interaction can be defined as the means employed to show
awareness…
Showing awareness for another person’s face when that other seems socially
distance is often described in terms of respect or deference. Showing the equivalent
awareness…
Face wants (Nhu cầu thể diện): or public self-image can be understood as nctd. In
daily, 2 cases, example (Yule 1996: 61). Face-saving, face-threatening
Positive and negative face: two compenents of an individual public self-image,
different levels of face want (61-2)
Levison and Brown 1983: 62 distinguish 2 levels of face based on an individual…
+ Negative independent, freedom of action, not be imposed on by others
+ Positive: to be accepted, liked, treated as a mem of same groups, to know that
her/his wants are shared (61-2)
3. Face-threatening acts (FTAs) (HD de doa the dien)
Jenny Thomas 1995:169: Certain illocutionary acts (hanh vi tai loi) are liable to
damage or threaten another person’s face, such acts are known as face-threatening
acts.  …
Jenny Thomas 1995:169: Reduce FTA: calculate the size of FTA on the basis of
paramenters of power, distance, and rating of imposition  determine the overall
weightiness of the FTA which in turn influences the strategy used.
5 strategies: performing an FTA without any redress (thuc hien hdddtd ma k co su
bu dap nao), performing an FTA with redress (with positive politeness),
performing an FTA with redress (with negative politeness), performing an FTA
using off-record politeness (dung su lich su gian tiep), do not perform FTA.
II – Indirectness
1. Intentional indirectness (cach noi gian tiep co chu dich)
Jenny Thomas 1995:169: not all indirectness is intentional, soe is caused by
linguistic inadequacy. We may have to use indirectness cbc of some performance
error, e.g.: if u temporarily forget a word or through fear, nervous, …
Pragmatically, we focus only intentional indirectness … (KTTH 2006)
2. Cost and risk of indirectness
Costly in the sense that it takes longer for the speaker to produce and longer for the
hearer to process.
It is risky in the sense that the hearer may not understand what seaker is getting at.
(Jenny Thomas 1995:120)
 3. Factors governing indirectness (Nhung yeu to chi phoi cach noi gian
tiep)
Jerry Thomas: Meaning in Interaction 1995:124:
The relative power of the S over H: tend to use a greater degree of indirectness
with ppl who … (125)
Social distance btw the S and H: a composite of psychologically real factor (age,
sex, intimacy, etc) (128). E.g.: 129
Degree to which X is rated an imposition in culture Y: how great the request is you
are making. E.g: 130
Relative rights and obligations btw the S n H: e.g: 131
Nguyen Quang (1998:5) proposes 12 factors that affect the choice of indirectness
in conversations: age, sex/social gender, residence, mood, occupation, personality,
topic, place, communicative setting, social distance, time pressure, position. Other:
religion, S/F language acquisition (Su thu dac ngon ngu thu hai hay nuoc ngoai),
personal relation, education, intellectual abilities.
III – Theories of politeness
1. Grice’s principle
Grice’s sense 1967: Ch.3 cited in “poliness some universals in language usage”.
+ Non-spuriousness (Su khong xac thuc) (Quality): k noi gi minh k chac chan
+ Saying neither more nor less than is cooperatively necessary (Quantity): say not
more or less than what is neccessary
+ Being to the point (Relevance – Do lien quan): go straight to the point
+ Being perspicous (ro rang) (Manner – Cach thuc): give no vagueness or
ambiguosity
E.g.: Brown, P&Levison, SC 1987:164)
2. Lakoff’s rules: 3 rules of politeness based on the rules of conversations
Don’t impose (When formal/impersonal Poliness is required): not interfere in
other’s personal issues. E.g.: Lakoff 1973:298
Give Options: Asking addressee to express his opinions without offending him (L
1973: 300)
Create a sense of equality btw S and H (L 1973:301)
3. Leech’s maxims 1983 caused on the concept of cause and profit
Tact maxim (Phuong cham kheo leo): minimize the expression of beliefs which
imply cost to ojters, maximize the expression of beliefs which imply benefit to
others (Leech, 1983a: ch.6)
Generosity maxim (Phuong cham hao hiep): minize the expression of beliefs that
express or imply benefit to self, maximize the express …
…
IV – Brown and Levinson’s politeness strategies
1. Bald-on record strategies (noi thang thung)
Off-record: noi tranh, noi vong vo, khong noi thang >< On-record: noi thang
Reason: the most direct approach using imperative forms (cau menh lenh) …
whenever S wants to do the FTA with maximum efficiency (Brown and Levinson,
1987:60)
Usage:
+ Cases of non-minimization of the face threat (Su de doa the dien k giam di)
Great urgency or desperation  no face redress is needed (Penelope Brown and
Stephen C. Levinson 1987:96)
Where S speaks as maximum efficiency were very important, he provides
metaphorical (an du) urgency for emphrasizing.
Focus on task-oriented interaction.
Doing the FTA is primarily in H’s interest, S cares about H (H’s positive face
as well)  no redress is required.
+ Cases of FTA-oriented bald-on-record usage
S assumes that H will be preoccupied by this FTA, H may infringe S’s preserve,
S alleviates H’s anxiety.
 3 pre-emptive invitations: Welcoming (Su chao don)  S insists that H may
impose on his negative face; Farewells (Tam biet)  S insists that H may
transgress on his positive face by taking his leave; Offer: S insists that H may
impose on S’s negative face.
2. On-record strategies
Concept: If a person goes on record with redress, it means that he/she expresses an
utterance while trying to counteract…
- Intensifying interest to H (gia tang su quan tam cua nguoi nghe (Brown and
Levinson 1987:106): the way for S to communicate to H…; the use of tag
questions or expressions that draw H as a participant into the conversation,
exagerbation, etc
- Giving (or asking for) reasons: S can ask for reasons to test whether hearer is
cooperative while giving reasons why hearer wants speaker’s wants leads
herar to reasonableness. Moreover, giving reasons is a way of implying “I
can help you” or “you can help me”, and, assuming cooperation, a way of
showing what help…
- Hedges (Loi rao don, loi dan dat): In the literature, a hedge is a particle,
word or phrase that modifies the degree of membership of a predicte or noun
phrase in a set, it says of that membership that… (Brown and Levinson
1987: 145)
- Apologizing (4): admit the impingement (thua nhan su xam pham), indicate
reluctance (bieu lo su mien cuong), give overwhelming reasons (dua ra li
do), beg forgiveness (cau xin su tha thu) (Brown and Levison 1987:188-189)
- Impersonalizing S and H (Phi ca nhan hoa): Replace… (Brown and
Levinson 1987:197)
- Giving deference (The hien su ton trong): deferential markers are used when
s and H are in differenc social status, deence can be given by referent
honorific (kinh ngu).
3. Off-record strategies
Off-record (noi kin, noi tranh): said without the intention of being published or
officially noted (Oxford Learner’s Dictionary)
- Invite conversational implicatures (Ham y hoi thoai): if S wans to do a FTA
and chooses to do it indirectly…
+ Strategy 1: Give hints (dua ra goi y) (Brown, P&Levinson, S.C. 1987:215)
+ S2: Give association clues (dua ra nhung goi y lien quan) (216)
 + S3: Presuppose (Tien gia dinh) (217)
+ S4: Understate (Noi giam) (Brown, P&Levinson, S.C. 1987:218): a point
on a scalar predicate (?)
+ S5: Overstate (Noi qua)
+ S6: Use tautologies (phep lap): encourages to look for an informative
interpretation of the non-informative utterance.
+ S7: Use contradictions (phu dinh): by starting two things that contradict
each other, S makes it appear that he cannot tell the truth
+ S8: Be ironic (mia mai cham biem): by saying the opposite of what he
means again in violation of … (222)
+ S9: Use metaphors (su dung phep an du)
+ S10: Use rhetorical questions (cau hoi tu tu) (223)
Be vague or ambiguos (mo ho hoac gay nham lan): violate the manner maxim (vi
pham ve phuong cham cach thuc)
+ S11: Be ambiguous (gay nham lan) (225)
+ S12: Be vague (mo ho): S may go off record with a face-threatening act by
being vague about who the object of the face-threatening act is or what the offense
is: in criticisms or in some euphemisms (uyen ngu)
+ S13: Over-generalize (viec ap dung quy tac ngu phap trong truong hop
khong ap dung (1987:226)
+ S14: Displace H (thay the nguoi nghe) (226)
+ S15: Be incomplete, use ellipsis (khong noi het y, su dung phep tinh
luoc/noi lap lung/noi bo lung) (227)
4. No FTAs
When the speaker decides to say nothing and genuinely wishes to let the matter
drop…
+ OOC-genuine
+ OOC-stategic
+ Third situation
L4: Politeness and interaction; Deixis and distance
I. Politeness and interaction (lịch sự và tương tác)
1. The concept of face and face wants
- Face=public self-image of a person. It refers to that emotional and social sense of
self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize (Yule 1996:60).
- Face wants=a person’s expectations that their self-image will be respected (Yule)
2. Face-threatening acts & Face- saving acts
- FTAs=if a speaker says smt that represents a threat to another individuals …
(Yule 1996:61)
- FSA=if a speaker says smt that lessen the possible threat (Yule 1996:61)
3. Negative and positive face
- Positive face=the need to be accepted, even liked by others, to be treated as a
member of same group and to know that his/her wants are shared (Y62)
- Negative face=the desire to be independent, …
4. Self and other: say nothing
Many people seem to prefer to have their needs recognised by others without
having to express those needs in language. When those needs are recognized, then
clearly more has been communicated. (Y62)
5. Say something: on and off record (nói thẳng và nói kín)
Off record: not directly addressed to the other (Y63), (Brown &… 213)
Off record payoffs: S can satisfy negative face to a degree greater than that
afforded nu negative politeness strategy. S … (YBrown 117)
On record:
Bald on record (nói thẳng thừng): bald on record uses imperative forms, these
forms may be followed by express… (Y 63). Emergency situations also occasion
the use of direct commands… Expressions are associated with speech … (64)
II. Politeness strategies
1. Positive and negative politeness
Positive politeness: show solidarity, have common goal
Negative politeness: deference, emphasize other’s time or concerns (Y62)
2. Strategies
Positive politeness strategy (64)
Negative politeness strategy (64): contain expressions of apology for imposition or
interuption. More elaborate negative politeness work can smt be heard in extended
talk, often…
- Solidarity Strategy (chiến lược đoàn kết): use positive politeness forms,
emphasizing closeness btw speaker and hearer, including personal info,
nicknames, abusive terms (among males), share dialect or slang expressions.
- Deference Strategy (chiến lược tôn trọng): use negative politeness forms,
emphasizing the hearer’s right to freedom, emphasizes speaker’s ad hearer’s
indepedence.
3. Pre- sequences (Tiền dẫn nhập)
- Pre-se = certain utterances come bf the other utterances (May, 221)
- Pre-request (tiền dẫn nhập yêu cầu): prefigures a request, possibly by ascertaining
the ability of …. (Yule 67).
- Pre-invitation (tiền dẫn nhập mời): …
- Pre-announcement (tiền dẫn nhập thông báo): preliminary to … (Yule 68)
III. Deixis (chỉ xuất) and Distance
1. Introduction
Definition: pointing via language, deictic expression, concerns the way …
Deictic expressions or indexicals or depend on the speaker and the hearer sharing
the same context, commonly used in regular in-person communication when it can
be easily… (Y 9)  point time, place or situation in which a speaker is speaking.
Proximal terms (thuat ngu gan): near the speaker (this, here, now)
Deictic center (diem nhin chi xuat)
Distal terms (thuat ngu xa): away from the speaker
2. Person deixis
Indicate people. Each person in a conversation shifts from being I to you
constantly
3 part: first person, second person, third person.
Honorific (kinh ngu): deictic categories of speakers, addressee are elaborated …
(Yule 10)
T/V (tu-familiar/vous-non-familiar) distinction: another characteristic related to
social contrast encoded in person deixis: The distinction between forms used for a
familiar/non-familiar addressee in some languages. The higher, older and more
powerful speaker will tend to use “tu” version to a lower, younger, and less
powerful affresee, and be addressed …
Third person pronoun: In diectic terms, the third person is an outsider (Yule:11).
The use of we: exclusive and inclusive.
3. Spatial deixis
Indicate location.
2 adverbs here and there for basis distinction. 1 ver of the concept of motion
toward speaker (i.e. becoming visible)
S seem to be able t project themselves into other location prior to actually being in
those locations = deictic projection (phep chieu cua truc chi) (Yule:13)
Psychological distance: physically close objects will tend to be treated by the
speaker as psychologically close. Also something that physically distant with
generally be treated as psychologically distant (for example, “that man over there”)
(Yule:13)
4. Temporal deixis
Indicate time.
Definition: being used to indicate time: proximal terms (hinh thai gan): now, distal
terms (hinh thai xa): then.
Proximal terms: coincidence with the speaker’s utterance and the time of speaker,
…
Distal term: indicates away from the speaker and applies to both Past and Future
time relative to the speaker’s present time.
The non-deictic temporal reference (quy chieu thoi gian khong thuoc truc chi):
includes calendar time and clock time as there is no need need for context to
identify the exact time…
The deictic expressions (bieu thuc chi xuat): however, the forms of temporal
reference… depend for their interpretation on knowing the relevant utterance time.
The psychological basis of temporal deixis (co so tam li cua truc chi thoi gian): we
can treat temporal events as things that move towards … (Yule:13-14)
Verb tenses in temporal deixis (thi cua dong tu trong truc chi thoi gian): 2 basic
verb forms: present tense (proximal form), past tense (distal term): having taken
place in the past, treated as extremely unlikely/impossible. (Yule 14). The past
tense in if-clause: not being close to present reality; neither of the ideas expressed
in the ex are to be treated as having happened in the past. (14)
5. Deixis and Grammar
Direct and Indirect/reported speech

L4: Reference and inference; Presupposition and Entailment

Reference and inference
1. Introduction
- Reference (Quy chiếu):
(Lyons 197:177), (Horn 2006:76)
An act in which a speaker, or writer, users …
(Yule:17)
Linguistic forms = referring expression
+ Proper nouns
+ Definite noun phrases
+ Indefinite noun phrases
+ Pronouns
Tied to the S goals and belef in the use of language
- Inference (Suy luan)
Use of an additional knowledge to make sense of … (Yule: 131)
S use vague expressions or invent names reluing on the listener ability to infer …
(Yule:18)
Not based on objectively correct naming but on locally successful choice of …
2. Attributive use & referential use
- Indefinite noun phrases
Indentify a physically present entity
Describe entity assumed to exist
Describe non-existing entity
(Y:18)
 Attributive use (cach dung gan cho dac diem): Using an expression to
identify someone or something without being committed to the existence of
an actual person or thing (Y:127)
 Referential use: Using an expression to identify someone or something when
the person or thing is assumed to be known (Yule:134)
- Definite noun phrases:
Based on the speaker’s assumption that a referent must exist = Attributive use
Based on the speaker’sknowlefge that a referent does exist = Referential use
Expressions themselves cannot be treated as having referenc but can or can not
have referential function put in …
(Y:19)
3. Names and referents (tiền ngữ chỉ vật hoặc người được đề cập trước đó)
(Y:19-21)
Intetion-to-identity
Recognition of intention
Collaboration at work (su phoi hop)
From a pragmatic view: … (Yule 20) Things the writer produced
The existence of a pragmatic connection between proper names and .. (Y 20)
The nature of reference nterpretation  make sense of newspaper headlines using
names of countries
4. The role of co-text (Vai tro cua van canh)
Co-text: limits the range of possible interpretation, a linguistic material helping us
to depict that the reference is reffering to/linguistic environment in which a
language is used (21)
Range of reference=possible ...
Analysis of reference depends on local context and the know … (22)
5. Anaphoric reference (Hồi chỉ)
Definition: (22)
- Initial reference
- Subsequent reference or sub…
- The use of such linguistic expressions that are reffering back (22)
- No identify exactly the antecedent. It would be interepreted differently in
some cases. (22)
- In some cases, reference can not be identified outside of their context
Cataphora (Hồi chỉ): a reversal of the antecedent anaphor pattern
Zero anaphora /Ellipsis (Tỉnh lược): the reference which presents no anaphor for
the antecedent but still creates reference. (23, 117)
Refential rules: anaphoric expressions are sometimes not linguistically connected
to the antecedents. Anaphora may not always obey strict referential rules of
grammatical theory and sometimes use local reference. The ability to interpret
what’s considered ambiguous show the social dimension of reference that
represents things that are shared within the society, called social closeness (23)
Hồi chỉ - Khứ chỉ - Hư chỉ
Presupposition and Entailment
1. Presupposition (Tiền giả định)
Definition: Smt S assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance… (25)
mqh cua tien gia dinh la mqh giua hai dinh de
P: tien gia dinh noi dung menh de thu 2
Q: menh de thu 2
Background: (Frege, 1892 (1952:69)), (Levinson 1983 – Pragmatics p169-170)
Nd menh de co noi dung ntn no khong anh huong toi gia dinh: Tinh khong bi khu
bo/bao toan cua tien gia dinh
171: Russel writing in 1905, thought that Frege’s views were wrong.
172: Sentences aren’t true or false, only statements are. Strawson claim a special
kind of relationship btw (4) and (7) (Levinson 1983:172)
The phenomena: initial observations: Levinson 177
Presuppositions seem to be tied to particular words or aspects of surface structure
in general.
2. Types of presupposition (Cac loai tien gia dinh)
- Potential presupposition associated with the use of a large num of words, phrases,
and structures (Yule 27)
- 6 types: existential presupposition (indentified by use of a noun phrase, does
exist), Factive presupposition (info stated after certain words is true, e.g. know) –
Tien gia dinh thuc, Lexical presupposition – Tien gia dinh tu vung (in using one
word, S can act as if another meaning will be understood, Y:28), Structural
presuppositions – Tien gia dinh cau truc (part of a structure contains info …)
3. Defeasibility (Tinh co the khu bo) and the projection problem
Levinson: 186: Presuppositions are liable to evaporate in certain contexts, either
immediate linguistic context or the less immediate discourse context …
Levinson 1983:187: When particular facts are mutually known…
Dieu kien gia dinh bi khu bo: …
4. Pragmatic theories of presupposition

5. Entailment (Su keo theo)

Definition: follows from what is asserted in the utterances (33)
A relation btw a pair of sentences such that the truth of the second sentence …
(Crytal)?
Logical concept, not pragmatic concept.
Keo theo boi canh
Keo theo can canh (Kempson 1977:38)
Background entailment: background knowledge vs Ordered entailment: 33
Foreground entailment

16/3/23
LECTURE 6: Cooperation and implicature; Directness and Indirectness
Cooperation
1. Definition of cooperation
Cooperation in pragmatics basically means speakers and listeners involved in the
conversation are generally cooperating with each other
2. Cooperative principles (nguyen tac hop tac) and four maxims
In the example, the woman doesn’t cooperate in the conversation since she does
know abt the man’s intention.
Grice came up with 4 maxims, ppl will give information relating to quantity,
quality, relation, manner
Maxim of Quantity
Maxim of Quality
Maxim of Relation
Maxim of Manner
Flouting the maxims
3. Observance and non-observance of the maxims
Flouts exploiting the maxim of Manner  Interviewer finds motivation behind
interviewee answer
4. Violating the maxims
5. Flouting the maxims
6. Infringing the maxims
7. Opting out the maxims
8. Suspending the maxims

Implicature (Let the listener to understand the utterance by themselves)

1. Grice’s theory of implicature
2. Hedges
3. Conventional implicature
4. Generalized conventional implicatures
5. Scalar implicatures
6. Particularized conversational implicatures
7. Properties of conversational implicatures
8. Conventional implicatures
- Definition: conversational implicature occurs with context while conventional
implicature does not have to occur with context (to be understood).

Directness and Indirectness

1. Notion of directness & indirectness
2. Factors governing directness/indirectness
3. Directness/Indirectness & Culture
4. Directness/Indirectness & Gender
5. Directness/Indirectness & Politeness
6. Measurement and use of indirectness

LECTURE 7: Discourse and Culture; Discourse analysis/DA

Discourse and Culture
1. Discourse and discourse analysis
1.1. Discourse
1.2. Discourse analysis
2. Coherence
3. Background knowledge
4. Cultural schemata (+ Hiroko Nishida’s cultural schemata)
https://en-academic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/
9760916#Types_of_Cultural_Schemas_for_Social_Interactions

Cultural schema theory (Nishida, 1999) explains the familiar and pre-acquainted
knowledge one uses when entering a familiar situation in his/her own culture.
Cultural schemas for social interaction are cognitive structures that contain
knowledge for face-to-face interactions in a person’s cultural environment.
Schemas are generalized collections of knowledge of past experiences that are
organized into related knowledge groups; they guide our behaviors in familiar
situations. Cultural Schema Theory proposes that when we
interact with members of the same culture in certain situations many times, or
talk about certain information with them many times, cultural schemas are
created and stored in our brain (Nishida, 1999).

When one interacts with members of the same culture over and over again, or
talks about certain information with them many times, cultural schemas are
created and stored in one’s brain. Subsequent similar instances cause the
cultural schema to become more organized, abstract, and compact. As this
occurs, communication becomes much easier. Nishida (1999) simply explains
that experience is the force which creates cultural schemas. As people have
more experiences their developing cultural schemas become more tightly
organized. The information not only becomes more complex, but more useful
among members of a culture, alike or different. Beyond the cognitive activity of
cultural schemas is the complex pattern which occurs in the brain.

When humans acquire and retain information from their surrounding

environments, neural circuits are generated. Consequently, information
processing experience is stored in the long-term memory. Memory
representation or neural circuits created in the brain as a result of information
processing are assumed to be schemas[dubious – discuss]. Thus, schemas
provide a foundation in the brain which helps to predict what is to be expected
and looked for in certain situations.
Types of cultural schemas for social interactions
Cultural schemas for social interactions are cognitive structures that contain
knowledge for face-to-face interactions in one’s cultural environment. Nishida
(1999) points out the eight primary types for generating human behavior for
social interactions. These eight schemas are also referred to as Primary Social
Interaction schemas or PSI schemas.

 Fact-and-concept schemas: These are pieces of general information about

facts, such as Washington, D.C. is the capital of the United States, and
concepts, such as bicycles are vehicles that have two wheels, a seat, and
pedals.
 Person schemas: These are knowledge about different types of people,
specifically personality traits; for example, Barb is shy or Dave is
outgoing. Since people have some representation or idea of what being
shy or outgoing is, they tend to classify others, such as Barb and Dave,
into their dominant personality traits.
 Self schemas: These contain people’s knowledge of how they see
themselves and knowledge of how others see them.
 Role schemas: These are knowledge about social roles that denote
expected sets of behaviors of people in particular social positions.
 Context schemas: These contain information about the situations and
appropriate settings of behavioral parameters. Information in context
schemas includes predictions about appropriate actions to take in order to
achieve goals in the respective context. Information also includes
suggestions for reasonable problem-solving strategies. It is important to
note that context schemas are triggered before other schemas[citation
needed].
 Procedure schemas: These are knowledge about the appropriate sequence
of events in common situations. This includes the specific steps to take
and the appropriate behavioral rules for the events. The use of procedure
schemas causes people to take certain actions some way.
 Strategy schemas: These are knowledge about problem-solving strategies.
 Emotion schemas: These contain information about affect and evaluation
stored in long-term memory. This is accessed when other schemas are
activated. Emotion schemas develop through social interactions
throughout a person’s life. This schema is relatively new [clarification needed].
Researchers believed it was an important additive because
emotions play important roles in human social interactions.
5. Cross-cultural pragmatics
Discourse analysis/DA
1. Linguistic forms and functions:
1.1. Functions of language
1.2. Spoken and written language
1.3. Sentence and utterance
2. Discourse
2.1. Cohesion (text, texture, ties, …)
2.2. Reference (endophoric, exophoric, personal, demonstrative,
comparative) – L4
2.3. Substitution (nominal, verbal, clausal) – Phep the
2.4. Ellipsis (nominal, verbal, clausal) – L4
2.5. Conjunction (additive, adversative, causal, temporal)
3. Pronouns in discourse
4. Representing background knowledge: Frames, Scripts, Scenarios, Schemata,
Mental model
Script: trinh tu du kien # Scenario: khung canh tham chieu mo rong
Cutural schemata theory: cognitive theory of how ppl organise info in their cultural
enviroment – cach moi nguoi to chuc xu li phan tich thong tin theo moi truong van
hoa. Ngon ngu the hien tu duy dien dat cua chung ta.
Schemata: mo hinh tu duy? Giup con nguoi hieu the gioi xung quanh – xuat hien tu
thoi Plato, den the ki XIX Emmanuel Corne nguoi Duc da tap hop khai niem, ong
nguoi Phap cung nghien cuu ve luoc do o tre so sinh. Giao tiep xa hoi la giao tiep
bang ngon ngu la cau truc nhan thuc co chua van hoa trong giao tiep truc tiep cua
mot moi truong van hoa
Nguoi ta noi den luoc do van hoa do Nishida nam 1999 phat trien 8 loai giai thich
cho hanh vi ngon ngu cua con nguoi (human behavior in social contextual
situation)
What are your comments concerning what kinds of cultural schemata did affected
to people taking in that conversation? Vetarant, narrator, and vetarant’s friend
“Now the flaw will be given to the next presenter”. (max 1 slide 36 chu)

CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

I - CDA
1.1. History of CDA
1.2. CDA’s functions
- Explores the connections btw the use of language and the social and
ppolitical contexts which it occurs
- Focuses on the discursive strategies of manipulaion, persuation, legislation,
the fabrication of approval and other discursive means of implicitly (Van
Dijk, cited by Phung Thi Tra My)
2. Ideology
2.1. Ideology
- I = MUTUAL knowledge, attitudes and belief
- Cognitive function of organzing the social representations of the group, and
thus indirectly monitor the group-related social practice and hence also the
text and talk of its member (Van Dijk, 1993, p.256, cited in Tran Kieu
Chinh, 2020, p8)
- Characteristics of ideology: cognitive, social, sociocognitive, not true or
false, various degrees of complexity, contextually variable manifestations
- Are figgerentiated by group of schema
- Trong cac bai dien van cua người co quyen luc, chinh tri gia nguoi ta dung y
chinh tri tac dong toi tam li nguoi nghe qua ngon ngu
- Politicians use language…s (Tran Hanh Linh 2019)
- Purpose: make connections btw social and cultural practices and values and
assumptions that underlie the discourse. (Eggins, 199:10, cited in Brian
Paltride, 2012:191)
II – Power in CDA
1. Definition
- Power often analyzes the language use of those in power, who are
responsible for the existence (Wodal, 2008:9)
 - Van Dijk, 1998 cited in Tran Kieu Chinh, 2020:9: rarely any absolute power,
not always belong to a certain group of ppl
- Identities of S shown in the way they use their own language, relies on many
factors, such as the social context, social distance (different social classes)
btw S, status of S, the topic, the formality of the setting and so on (TKC
2020:9)
- D reproduces social domination that is, the power abuse of one group, some
group will discursively resist  how CDA researchers understand power
and what moral standards allow them… (Wodal, 2008:9)
- Power as the chance that an indivdual in a social relationship can achieve his
or her own will even against the resistance of others (Weber, 1980:28)
- 3 approaches of power: result of specific resources of individuals, … (W,
2008)
2. Characteristic of Power in CDA
- Discursive differences are negotiated they are governed by different … 
Texts are often sites of struggle in that they show… (W, 2k8:10)
- Power is about relations of difference, and …. Language is entwined in
social power in a number of ways  Language provides a finely articulated
vehicle for differences in power in hierarchical social structures (W, 2k8:
10)
- Discourse, power and ideology are three terms that are interrelated and
indispensable in CDA (TKC:10)
- CDA facilitates exploring how powerful groups take advantage of language
to maintain power and investigating power relations and social
inequality included in discourse (TKC:10)  ais to investigate social
inequality
- Language s also a medium of domination and social forces. It serves to
legitimize relations of organized power… Language is also ideological
(Habermas, 1967:259, as cited in W, 10)
- Language as determiner and has determined: language is controlled by the
social structure and the social structure is maintained and …
3. Power in discourse and power behind discourse
III – Rhetoric (Phep tu tu)
- Definition: Used to display communication in a persuasive sense, and is also
a tool for one to studey such a communcation, as an analytical methodology
and direct guide (Eyman)
 - 3 pillars of expressions/rhetorical triangle: Logoes (logical argument) –
Ehtos (credibility)– Pathos (emotions) (Aristotle) still relevant
- Roles: increase persuasion within discourse – the speaker can integrate
rhetoric in a specific discursive context either via written or spoken, thus
highlighting the connection between rhetoric and … Studies to investigate
persuasion are increasingly popular…
IV – Metaphor (Phep an du)
- Definition: challenging to define … Metaphor as a type of language…
“Time is money” - Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:7
- Functions

V – Fairclough’s Three-demensional Framework

- 3 approaches: PTM
1. Critical discourse analysis: aims to systematically explore ofen opaque
relationships of causality and determination btw discursive practives, events,
and texts, and wider social and cultural structures, relations and processes.
2. Dimension 1 - Text: a written or spoken language produced in a discursive
even (F, 1995:95). Vocabulary deals with idividual words, grammar deals
with words combied into clauses and sentences, cohesion deals with how
clauses …
3. Dimension 2 – Dicourse Practise (Interpretation): texts are produced in
specific ways in specific… The production or interpretation of a text (tao
dung hoac thu nap van ban, 2 qua trinh nay khong tach roi) is usually
presented as a multilevel process and a bottom-up-top-down process (tren-
xuong: luot, lay y chinh va tong quat; duoi – len: luot lai khi k hieu gi, tim
hieu chi tiet cu the de hieu chi tiet) (F, 1992:80)
VI – Wodak’s Discourse Historical Approach (Cach tiep can dien ngon lich su cua
Wodak)
- Definition: mode of social practice; the intertextual and interdiscursive
relationships between texts, genres, and discourses as well as extralinguistic
social/sociological variables, the history of an organization or institution
(Khi ptich van ban hoac dien ngon, ta chi nhin vao cau chu, ta chi co the
nam bat duoc tu ngu cua no – bp tu tu. Ngoai ra ta cx bt la cach 1 cau noi
 cau theo giong dieu, tu ngu, cu chi chan tay, … nao cx the hien y nghia –
extralinguistic social variables – yeu to phi ngon ngu)
- Intertextually = texts are linked to other texts, in past + present
- Interdiscursivity = signifies that discourses are linked to each other in
various way (W & Resignl cited W & Meyer: 2009:106)
- Decontextualization (tai ngu canh ngon ngu): if an element is taken of a
specific context
- Recontextualization (tai ngu canh hoa ngon ngu)
- Key concepts and terms
+ Critique (Su phe phan)
+ Ideology
- Tools of analysis and principles
+ Tools: concepts/topics, discursive strategies, linguistic means and forms of
realization (Phung Tra My: 14, 15). Predicate nouns (danh tu vi ngu)
+ Salient charateristics: interdiscriplinart, problem-oriented, various theories
and..
+ 4 Levels of discourse: text-internal co-text and co-discourse, intertextual
…
V – Van Dijk’s Socio-cognitive Approach (Cach tiep can xa hoi cua VD)
1. The Discourse-Cognition-Society triangle: avoid the term of CDA  CDS
- Moderating: cognitive…
- A sociocognitive approach claims that such relations are cognitively
mediated (W&M: …)
2. Cognitive components (psychology)
- Cognitive structures: memory (tri nho) (W&M: 66), mental models (mo hinh
tam tri), social cognition (nhan thuc xa hoi)
- Discourse processing (xu li dien ngon): situation models (mo hinh tinh
huong), context models (mo hinh ngu canh)
- Knowledge: the basis of all cognition (thought, perception, understanding,
action, interaction and discourse). The relations btw knowledge and
discourse analysis (W&M: 68)
- Attitudes and ideologies (Thai do va he tu tuong): control personal
experiences
3. Social components (sociology)
 - Micro level of everyday interaction of social mem and macro-level of the
overall strcutures and relations of groups and organizations (W&M 70, 71)
- Power and domination (quyen luc va su thong tri, Van Dijk cited in W & M,
71)
- Discourse components:
+ Polarization (Phan cuc) (73)
+ Pronouns (Dai tu)
VI – Political Discourse (dien ngon chinh tri)
- Definition: is defined by S, especially politicians (Van Dijk, 2016:13)
- Political discourse and ideology.

V – Methods
- Insights for discourse: narrative structure (cau truc van xuoi)
- Style and register (colleen cotter, cited in Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah
Tannen, and Heidi E. Hamilton, 246)
- Relationship btw gender and discourse: gendered speaking styles exist
independently of speaker (B and H 1995:7). Cultural influences provide a
range from which individuals choose strategies…
- Gendered discourse as a resource (Dien ngon gioi tinh nhu la mot nguon tai
nguyen): Hall (1995): women’s language
- Gendered discourse as a constraint (Dien ngon gioi tinh nhu la mot ap luc):
ways of exercising powers and balancing the simultaneous but conflicting
needs for status and connection, Tannen 1994:558. Small talks btw men and
women are different.
L9: CONVERSATION AND PREFERENCE STRUCTURE
I. CONVERSATION
1. Conversation and conversation analysis
Conversation
- Definition: a talk between two or more people
- According to Yule (1996:71): “Conversation is like a dance with the
conversational partners coordinating their movements smoothly”
Conversation analysis: Lấy dữ kiện của một cuộc hội thoại tự nhiên để tiến hành
phân tích lượt lời.
2. Turn taking

3. Pauses, overlaps and backchannels

4. Adjacency pairs (cặp kế cận)

II. PREFERENCE STRUCTURE (CẤU TRÚC ĐƯỢC ƯA DÙNG)

1. Markedness
- Unmarked: hội thoại bình thường, trơn tru, không có ý gì hết không bị ngắc
ngứ, không mất câu chọn từ.
- Marked: hội thoại vòng vo, phải chọn từ hơi khác thường, nhiều lượt lời ở
giữa rồi mới đến ý chính. Là 1 cấu trúc không được ưa dùng – xuất hiện
trong tình huống phải tìm từ, tìm cấu trúc.
2. Structural organization

3. Preferred and dispreferred second turns

- Không phải là khái niệm liên quan tới tâm lí mà là 1 khái niệm dc dùng
trong phân tích hội thoại.
- Là khái niệm thuần túy về mặt ngôn ngữ và cấu trúc
Definition: Yule:79
4. Pre-sequences (Tiền dẫn nhập)
- Không phải hội thoại nào cx vào nội dung, có những thứ như “con trỏ” để
bạn vòng vo, thăm dò.
5. Constraint Systems (Hệ thống kiềm chế)
- Có 2 hệ thống dường như mâu thuẫn vs nhau:
+ Được khen, nhận lời khen vi phạm hệ thống khiêm tốn
+ Được khen, từ chối thì phải đi tìm từ hay lịch sự
- Để hài hòa, dường như người nói chung hòa ở giữa thì vừa tránh được tìm
cấu trúc disprefered và khen mình.
LECTURE 10: CONVERSATION ANALYISIS
Liên quan tới phương pháp luận xã hội học  ptich hội thoại (lượt lời, thứ tự
tham gia hội thoại) hay diễn ngôn (hệ tư tưởng hay quyền lực) để tìm trật tự
xã hội.

1. Discourse analysis versus conversation analysis (Ptich diễn ngôn vs ptich hội
thoại)
- Definition:
+ CA: way of describing human behavior based on the careful observation
of everyday interaction practices. It is an action-oriented approach.
+ DA = analysis of any of these forms of discourse, focused entirely on
participants’ language  focus on the record
Language use in social context
DA and CA different in what is studied and how is studied.
2. Sacks’ investigations of conversation

3. Schegloff’s insights into conversation analysis

Hội thoại có thực trong đời sống hàng ngày dường như có 1 thứ tự nào đó khi
nói. Và người ta có cơ chế sửa lại.
Fix content and knowledge (tense, pronunciation, …)
4. Jefferson’s contributions to conversation analysis

5. Pomerantz: Agreeing and disagreeing with assessments

6. Strategies for preferred and dispreferred seconds: Disagreeing in English

and Vietnamese
Bất đồng hạ ngôn: hạ cấp độ bất đồng, giảm sự không đồng ý
Khi đưa ra 1 assessment, người nói có thể agree và disagree
Phải viết được 6 trang thì mới được điểm khá giỏi. 120p câu nào cũng phải làm.
Chép đủ mọi thứ chỉ được 5 điểm – chép nguyên văn thì phải có nguồn  phải
paraphrase thì mới có điểm.
2 câu mỗi câu 5 điểm, hoàn toàn bằng tiếng anh.