Mechanical Design - I

Mechanical Design – I

MECHANICAL DESIGN - I MME 3102: MECHANICAL DESIGN - I [3 1 0 4]

Introduction: Materials and their properties: Ductile and brittle fracture,

Strain energy, Resilience, Toughness, Hardness, Creep, Hertz contact
stresses, Material specification. Strength concepts: Principal stresses,
Theories of failure, Factor of safety, Strength under combined axial, bending
& torsional loads, Stress concentration. [07]

Curved beams: Comparison with simple beams, Stress equation, Stresses in

different cross sections subjected to combined axial and bending in one plane.
[05]

Fatigue: S-N diagram, Low cycle and high cycle fatigue, Endurance limit,
Variables affecting fatigue strength, Fluctuating stresses, Goodman &
Soderberg equations, Modified Goodman diagram, Stresses due to combined
loading. [06]

Shafts and Keys: ASME code for design of transmission shafts, Mises
Hencky theory for transmission shafting, Stress concentration, Design of
shafts subjected to bending in two planes in addition to axial loads. Keys:
Types of keys, Stress in keys, Design of square, rectangular & taper keys and
splines. [12]

Riveted joints: Types of joints, Modes of failure, Strength and efficiency of

riveted joints, Pitch of the rivets, Design stresses, Structural joints of lap and
butt type. [03]

Welded joints: Types of welds, Strength of welds, Welded joints subjected

to eccentric loading, Welded pressure vessels, practical applications.
[05]

Threaded fasteners: Stresses in bolts, Effect of initial tension, Dynamic and

impact loading on bolts, Bolts subjected to various eccentric loading
conditions. [05]

Power screws: Stresses in power screw, Efficiency of power screw, Force &
torque requirement to lift load in power screw jack. [05]

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MME 3102 Mechanical Design - I [3 1 0 4]

References:

1. Bhandari V. B., Design of Machine Elements, (2e), Tata McGraw-Hill

Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2007.

2. Norton R. L., Machine Design - An Integrated Approach, (2e), Prentice Hall

Inc. New Jersy, 2004.

3. Juvenile R. C. and Marshek K. M., Fundamentals of Machine Component

Design, (3e), John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 2000.

4. Maleev and Hartman, Machine Design, (5e) (Revised and edited by Drop
Grover), CBS Publishers, New Delhi, 1999.

5. Hamrock B. J., Jacobson B.O. and Schmid S. R., Fundamentals of Machine

Elements, Mc Graw Hill Inc., New York, 1999.

6. Shigley J. E. and Mischke C. R., Mechanical Engineering Design, (5e),

McGraw Hill Inc., New York, 2004.

7. Mahadevan K. and Balaveera Reddy K., Machine Design Data Hand Book,
(4e), CBS Publishers and distributors, New Delhi, 1987.

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1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction:
A static load is defined as a force, which is gradually applied to a mechanical
component and which does not change its magnitude or direction with respect to time.
Engineering materials are classified into two groups—ductile and brittle materials. A ductile
material is one which has a relatively large tensile strain before fracture takes place. On the
other hand, a brittle material has a relatively small tensile strain before fracture. A tensile
strain of 5% is considered to be the dividing line between brittle and ductile materials.
Structural steels and aluminum are ductile materials, while cast iron is an example of a
brittle material.
A mechanical component may fail, that is, may be unable to perform its function
satisfactorily, as a result of any one of the following three modes of failure:
 failure by elastic deflection
 failure by general yielding
 failure by fracture.
In applications like transmission shaft supporting gears, the maximum force acting on
the shaft, without affecting its performance, is limited by the permissible elastic deflection.
Lateral or torsional rigidity is considered as the criterion of design in such cases. Sometimes,
the elastic deformations results in unstable conditions, such as buckling of columns or
vibrations. The design of the mechanical component, in all these cases, is based on the
permissible lateral or torsional deflection. The stresses induced in the component arc not
significant and the properties of the material, such as yield strength or ultimate tensile
strength, are not of primary importance. The modules of elasticity and rigidity are the
important properties and the dimensions of the component are determined by the load-
deflection equations.
A mechanical component made of ductile material loses its engineering usefulness due
to a large amount of plastic deformation after the yield point stress is reached. Considerable
portion of the component is subjected to plastic deformation, called general yielding. There
is a basic difference between general yielding and localized yielding. The localized yielding in
the region of stress concentration is restricted to a very small portion of the component and
is not considered significant. The yield strength of a material is an important property when
a component is designed against failure due to general yielding.

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Components made of brittle material cease to function satisfactorily because of the

sudden fracture without any plastic deformation. The failure in this case is sudden and total.
In such cases, ultimate tensile strength of the material is an important property to
determine the dimensions of these components.
Stress-strain relationship:
The stress-strain relationship of any material is obtained by conducting tension test in
the laboratories on standard specimen. Different materials behave differently and their
behavior in tension and compression differ slightly. Stress-strain diagram of mild steel which is a
ductile material is shown in figure below.

Figure 1.1: Stress-strain diagram of mild steel

 Proportional Limit: It is observed from the diagram that stress-strain relationship is
linear from the point O to P. OP is a straight line and after the point P. the curve
begins to deviate from the straight line. Hooke's law states that stress is directly
proportional to strain. Therefore, it is applicable only up to the point P. The term
proportional limit is defined as the stress at which the stress-strain curve begins to
deviate from the straight line. Point P indicates the proportional limit.
 Elastic Limit: Even if the specimen is stressed beyond the point P and up to the point
E, it will regain its initial size and shape when the load is removed. This indicates that
the material is in elastic stage up to the point E. Therefore. E is called the elastic
limit. The elastic limit of the material is defined as the maximum stress without any
permanent deformation. The proportional limit and elastic limit are very close to

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each other, and it is difficult to distinguish between points P and E on the stress-
strain diagram. In practice, many times, these two limits are taken to be equal.
 Yield Strength: When the specimen is stressed beyond the point E, plastic
deformation occurs and the material starts yielding. During this stage, it is not
possible to recover the initial size and shape of the specimen on the removal of the
load. It is seen from the diagram that beyond the point E, the strain increases at a
faster rate up to the point Y1. In other words, there is an appreciable increase in
strain without much increase in stress. In case of mild steel, it is observed that there
is a small reduction in load and the curve drops down to the point Y2 immediately
after yielding starts. The points Y1 and Y2 are called the upper and lower yield points,
respectively. For many materials, the points Y1 and Y2 are very close to each other
and in such cases, the two points are considered as same and denoted by Y. The
stress corresponding to the yield point Y is called the yield strength. The yield
strength is defined as the maximum stress at which a marked increase in elongation
occurs without increase in the load.
 Ultimate Tensile Strength: After the yield point plastic deformation of the specimen
increases. The material becomes stronger due to strain hardening, and higher and
higher load is required to deform the material. Finally, the load and corresponding
stress reach a maximum value, as given by the point U. The stress corresponding to
the point U is called the ultimate strength. The ultimate tensile strength is the
maximum stress that can he reached in the tension test.
 For ductile materials, the diameter of the specimen begins to decrease rapidly
beyond the maximum load point U. There is a localized reduction in the cross-
sectional area, called necking. As the test progresses, the cross-sectional area at the
neck decreases rapidly and fracture takes place at the narrowest cross-section of the
neck. This fracture is shown by the point F on the diagram. The stress at the time of
fracture is called breaking strength. It is observed from the stress-strain diagram that
there is a downward trend after the maximum stress has been reached. The breaking
strength is slightly lower than the ultimate tensile strength.

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Material Properties
Materials are characterized by their properties. They may be hard, ductile or heavy.
Conversely, they may be soft, brittle or light. The mechanical properties of materials are the
properties that describe the behavior of the material under the action of external forces.
They usually relate to elastic and plastic behavior of the material. Mechanical properties are
of significant importance in the selection of material for structural machine components.
Following are the significant material properties used in machine design.
 Strength is defined as the ability of the material to resist, without rupture, external
forces causing various types of stresses.
 Elasticity is defined as the ability of the material to regain its original shape and size
after the deformation, when the external forces are removed.
 Plasticity is defined as the ability of the material to retain the deformation produced
under the load on a permanent basis.
 Stiffness or rigidity is defined as the ability of the material to resist deformation
under the action of an external load.
 Resilience is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy when deformed
elastically and to release this energy when unloaded.
 Toughness is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy before fracture
takes place.
 Malleability is defined as the ability of a material to deform to a greater extent
before the sign of crack, when it is subjected to compressive force.
 Ductility is defined us the ability of a material to deform to a greater extent before
the sign of crack, when it is subjected to tensile force.
 Brittleness is the property of a material which shows negligible plastic deformation
before fracture takes place.
 Hardness is defined as the resistance of the material to penetration or permanent
deformation.

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Creep:
When a material is subjected to a constant load at a very high temperature for a longer
duration of time, it undergoes slow and permanent deformation. This is known as creep.

Eg. IC Engines, Turbine blade, boilers, etc.

Ferrous metals tend to have negligible creep at room temperature. Their creep rates
increase with increasing ambient temperature, usually becoming significant at 30-60 % of
the melting point of the material.

Hertz Contact stress:

When 2 bodies having curved surfaces are pressed against one another, point
(sphere-sphere) contact or line (cylinder-cylinder) contact changes to area contact, and the
stress developed in both the bodies is 3 –dimensional. These stresses are known as Hertz
stresses. Contact stress problems arise in the case of a wheel and a rail, a cam and its
follower, mating teeth, and in the action of rolling element bearings. As shown in the fig. the
contact stress between 2 cylinders has an elliptical distribution.

Figure 1.3: Contact stress.

Factor of safety:
While designing a component, it is necessary to provide sufficient reserve strength in
ease of an accident. This is achieved by taking a suitable factor of safety designated as n.
The factor of safety is defined as ratio of yield stress to working stress or allowable stress for
ductile material.
It is also defined as ratio of ultimate stress to working stress or allowable stress for brittle
material.

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For ductile materials,


 yp

For brittle materials,    u

n

The allowable stress is the stress value, which is used in design to determine the
dimensions of the component. It is considered as a stress, which the designer expects will
not be exceeded under normal operating conditions.
The magnitude of factor of safety depends on the following factors:
 Effect of failure
 Type of load
 Degree of accuracy of force analysis
 Material of component
 Reliability of component
 Cost of component
 Service conditions
 Quality of manufacture
Material Specification:
Cast iron is a generic term, which refers to a family of materials that differ widely in their
mechanical properties. By definition, cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon, containing
more than 2% of carbon. In addition to carbon, cast iron contains other elements like silicon,
manganese, sulphur and phosphorus. There is a basic difference between steels and cast
iron. Steels usually contain less than 1% carbon while cast iron normally contains 2 to 4%
carbon. The table 1.1 gives the sample grades, specification and understanding of the cast
iron.
Table 1.1: Specification of Cast Iron.
Grade Specification Tensile Strength (MPa)
Grey Cast Iron FG 150 150
Whiteheart Malleable Cast Iron WM 400 400

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Blackheart Malleable Cast Iron BM 320 320

Pearlitic Malleable Cast Iron PM 550 550
Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron SG 800/2 800 & elongation of 2%
Steels, which are standardized on the basis of their tensile strength without detailed
chemical composition, are specified by two ways—a symbol Fe followed by the minimum
tensile strength in MPa. The table 1.2 gives the sample grades, specification and
understanding of the steel.
Table 1.2: Specification of Steel.
Specification Meaning
Fe 360 Tensile Strength = 360 MPa
FeE 250 Yield Strength = 250 MPa

Table 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 gives the details of other grades of steels.
Table 1.3: Plain Carbon Steel
Specification Meaning
55C4 55/100 = 0.55% of Carbon 4/10 =0.4% of Manganese
40C8 0.35 to 0.45% of Carbon 0.7 to 0.9% of Manganese

Table 1.4: free cutting steel

Specification Meaning
25C12S14 25/100 = 0.25% of 12/10 =1.2% of 14/100 =0.14% of
Carbon Manganese Sulphur
20C12Pb15 0.2% of Carbon 1.2% of Manganese 0.15% of Lead
S,Pb,Se,Te can be designated depending on the element that is present

Table 1.5: Low & medium alloy steels, containing total elements not exceeding 10%
Elements Factor
Cr, Co, Ni, Mn, Si, W 4
Al, Be, V, Pb, Cu, Nb, Ti, Ta, Zr, Mo 10
P,S, N 100
Specification Meaning

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25Cr4Mo2 25/100 = 0.25% of 4/4 =1% of 2/10 =0.2% of

Carbon Chromium Molybdenum
40Ni8Cr8V2 40/100 = 0.4% of 8/4 = 2% of 8/4 = 2% of 2/10 =
Carbon Nickel Chromium 0.2% 0f
Vanadium

Table 1.7: high alloy steels, containing total elements exceeding 10%
Specification Meaning
X15Cr25Ni12 0.15% of Carbon 25% of Chromium 12% of Nickel

Principal Stresses:
In strength of materials, mechanical components, which are subjected to only one
type of load, are considered. There are many components, which are subjected to several
types of load simultaneously. A transmission shaft is subjected to bending as well as
torsional moment at the same time. In design, it is necessary to determine the state of
stresses under these conditions. An element of a plate subjected to two-dimensional
stresses is shown is Figure 1.3. In this analysis, the stresses are classified into two groups—
normal stresses and shear stresses. The normal stress is perpendicular to the cross section
under consideration, while the shear stress acts parallel to the cross section.

Figure 1.3: Two dimensional state of stresses and stresses in oblique plane.
All the normal stresses in the X direction are vectorially added so as to get one single
normal stress in the X-direction i.e σx. All the normal stresses in the Y direction are vectorially

added so as to get one single normal stress in the Y-direction i.e σy. All the shear stresses are

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vectorially added so as to get one single shear stress τxy in the plane XY. Tensile stresses are

considered to be positive, while compressive stresses as negative. Considering equilibrium

of forces it can be proved that,

  x     x  
    cos 2  xy sin 2 ..Eq.1
y y
 2   2 
   
  x  
    sin 2  xy cos 2 ……Eq.2
y
 2 
 
Differentiating the Eq.1 with respect to  and setting the result to zero, we have
2 xy
tan 2  ………Eq.3
 
x y

The planes on which shear stress is zero are known as principal planes and the
corresponding normal stresses are called as principal stresses. Eq.3 gives the angular
location of maximum principal plane and minimum principal plane. Eq.3 defines two values
of (2ϴ), one giving the maximum value of normal stress and other the minimum value. If

 1 and  2 are the maximum and minimum values of normal stress, then substituting Eq.3
in Eq.1, we get,

  x  y 
2
  x  
 1   2 
 2  
y 2

 xy
   
  x  y 
2
  x  
 2   2 
 2  
y 2

 xy
   
 1
and  2 are called principal stresses.

Similarly differentiating Eq.2 with respect to  and setting the result to zero, we

  x  
have tan 2    .
y
 2 xy 
 
Substituting the above in Eq.2. we get,

  x  y 
2

 max  
 2  
2
xy

 
 max is called the maximum shear stress.

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Theories of failure:
There are number of machine components, which are subjected to several types of
loads simultaneously. For example, a power screw is subjected to torsional moment as well
as axial force. When any component is subjected to several types of loads, combined
stresses are induced. For example, torsional moment induces torsional shear
stress, while bending moment causes bending stresses in the transmission shaft. The
failures of such components are broadly classified into two groups - elastic failure, yielding
and fracture. Elastic failure results in excessive elastic deformation, which makes the
machine component unfit to perform its function satisfactorily. Yielding results in excessive
plastic deformation after the yield point stress is reached, while fracture results in breaking
the component into two or more pieces. Theories of failure are applicable to elastic failure
of machine parts.
Theories of elastic failure provide a relationship between the strength of machine
component subjected to complex state of stresses with the mechanical properties obtained
in tension test.
Prediction of the failure of machine members subjected to combined stresses due to
the combination of applied loads and moments is termed theory of failure.
With the help of these theories, the data obtained in the tension test can be used to
determine the dimensions of the component, irrespective of the nature of stresses induced
in the component due to complex loads.

The following are the theories of failure:

1. Maximum normal (maximum principal) stress theory or Rankine theory:
The theory states that the failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-
axial stresses (complex loading system) occurs when the maximum principal stress reaches
the yield or ultimate strength of the material.

If  1
, ,
2 3 are the three principal stresses at a point and  1 > >
2 3

Then according to the theory, failure occurs when,  yp

=1
.

2. Maximum shear stress theory or Guest theory:

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The theory states that the failure of a mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-
axial stresses (complex loading system) occurs when the maximum shear stress becomes
equal to the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test.

Then according to the theory, failure occurs when,  yp

=  1  2
.

3. Distortion energy theory / Henky-von Mises theory:

The theory states that the failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-
axial stresses (complex loading system) occurs when the strain energy of distortion per unit
volume becomes equal to the strain energy of distortion per unit volume at yield point in a
simple tension test.

According to the theory, failure occurs when,      

2 2
yp
= 1 2 1 2

4. Maximum principal strain theory or St. Venant’s theory:

According to this theory, failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-
axial stresses (complex loading system) occurs when the maximum principal strain becomes
equal to the strain at yield point in a simple tension test.

According to the theory, failure occurs when,  yp

=  1   2

5. Total strain energy theory or Haigh’s theory:

According to this theory, failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-
axial stresses occurs (complex loading system) when the total strain energy per unit volume
of the material becomes equal to the strain energy per unit volume at yield point in a simple
tension test.

    2 
2 2
yp
= 1 2 2
According to the theory, failure occurs when, 1

Numerical on principal stresses and theories of failure:

1) Determine the principal stresses and shear stress for the component shown in figure
Q1.

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Figure Q1.

2) An offset link subjected to a force of 25kN as shown in figure Q2. It is made of grey
cast iron FG300 and factor of safety is 3. Determine the dimensions of the cross
section of the link.

Figure Q2.

3) Compute the principal stresses and maximum shear stress for the component shown
in figure Q3 at the section A-A. Neglect transverse shear.

Figure Q3.

4) A bolt is subjected to a direct axial tensile load of 20kN and a shear load of 15kN.
Material of the bolt is ductile and has a yield strength of 300 MPa and Poisson’s of
0.25. Compute the root diameter of the bolt according to all the theories of failure
and suggest a suitable size of the bolt. Take the factor of safety as 3.

5) A mild steel shaft of 60mm diameter is subjected to abending moment of 25 X 10 5

Nmm. If the yield point strength of the material is 300MPa, find the maximum

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torque that has to be applied to cause failure of the shaft according i) Mises von
henky theory ii) Maximum shear stress theory .

6) The shaft of an overhung crank subjected to a force P of 1kN is shown in figure Q6

below. The shaft is made of plane carbon steel 45C8 and the tensile strength is 380
MPa. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the diameter of the shaft using maximum
shear stress theory.

Figure Q6.

Stress concentration:
In conventional design, the equations of direct stress, bending stress and shear stress
are commonly used. These equations are based on a number of assumptions. One of the
assumptions is that there are no discontinuities in the cross-section of the component.
However, in practice, discontinuities or abrupt changes in cross-section are unavoidable due
to certain features of the component such as oil holes and grooves, keyways and splines,
screw threads and shoulders. Therefore, it cannot be assumed that the cross-section of the
machine component is uniform. Under these circumstances, the 'elementary' equations do
not give correct results.
A plate with a small circular hole, subjected to tensile stress is shown in Figure 1.4. The
distribution of stresses near the hole can be observed by using the Photo-elasticity
technique. In this method, an identical model of the plate is made of epoxy resin. The model
is placed in a circular polariscope and loaded at the edges. It is observed that there is a

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sudden rise in the magnitude of stresses in the vicinity of the hole. The localized stresses in
the neighborhood of the hole are far greater than the stresses obtained by elementary
equations.

Figure 1.4: Stress Concentration.

Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the irregularities
present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross- section.
In order to consider the effect of stress concentration and find out localized stresses, a
factor called stress concentration factor is used. It is denoted by K t
, and defined as the

ratio of maximum normal stress to the nominal normal stress.

Highest value of actual stress near discontunity
K t

Nominal stress obtained by elementary equations for minimim cross-section

K   max
t
 o

K 
 max
t
 o

The causes of stress concentration are as follows:

 Variation in material properties.
 Load application.
 Abrupt change in the section.
 Discontinuities in the component.
 Machining scratches.
Stress concentration factors for different configurations can are obtained from experimental
methods, for numerical solving it can be taken from design data handbook.

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Reduction in stress concentration:

Although it is not possible to completely eliminate the effect of stress concentration,
there are methods to reduce stress concentrations. This is achieved by providing a specific
geometric shape to the component which is illustrated in the figure 1.5.

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Figure 1.5: Various methods to reduce stress concentarion.

Numerical on stresses concentration:

7) Determine the maximum stress in following cases taking stress concentration into
account. I) rectangular plate of 80mm X 50mm with a hole if 10mm dia. in the center
in loaded in axial tension of 10kN. Thickness of plate is 10mm. ii) A circular shaft of
45mm dia. Stepped down to 30mm dia. Having a fillet radius of 6mm subjected to a
twisting moment of 150 Nm.

8) A flat bar shown in figure Q8 is subjected to an axial load of 100N. Assuming that
stress in the bar is limited to 200 MPa. Determine the thickness of the plate.

Figure Q8

9) Find the dia. Of hole in figure Q 9 given if the stress concentration factor at the hole
is to be same as at the fillet.

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Figure Q9.

10) A stepped shaft as shown in figure Q 10 is subjected to transverse load. The shaft is
made of steel with ultimate tensile strength of 400 MPa. Determine the diameter of
the shaft taking a factor of safety of 2.

Figure Q10.

11) A tension member shown in figure Q11 supports an axial load P. It is necessary to
replace this member by the one having a 50mm hole as shown in the figure below.
Determine the thickness t, and radius r at the fillet of the second member, so that
the maximum stress will not exceed that of the first member.

Figure Q11.

12) A section of 50mm diameter shaft has transverse hole of 2.5mm diameter as shown
in figure Q 12. Bending moment at the section is 1.5 kNm compute the following: i)
normal stress in the shaft at this section. ii) stress concentration factor and
maximum stress iii) FOS, if the material is hot rolled carbon steel with 0.5% C. iv)
What would have been the FOS, if the hole was not present.

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Figure Q 12

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